[API_EMPTY_RESPONSE] A MANUAL OF BOTANY [API_EMPTY_RESPONSE] A MANUAL OF BOTANY INCLUDING THE STRUCTURE, CLASSIFICATION, PROPERTIES, USES, AND FUNCTIONS OF PLANTS BY ROBERT BENTLEY, F.L.S., M.R.C.S. ENG. ROYAL COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS, LONDON; MEMBER OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY OF GREAT BRITAIN; MEMBER OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF MEDICINE; FELLOW OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF SURGEONS; FELLOW OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES; FELLOW OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF SURGEONS OF HONG KONG; MEMBER OF THE PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY OF HONG KONG; MEMBER OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF VETERINARY SURGEONS. FOURTH EDITION LONDON J. & A. CHURCHILL NEW BURLINGTON STREET 1886 191. R. 238. Stamp with "OTHERS" and "JUN 1982" and "BODELIAMA" written on it. [API_EMPTY_RESPONSE] To MY FORMER PUPILS MANY OF WHOM HAVE ATTAINED A DISTINGUISHED POSITION IN SCIENCE This Work is Dedicated WITH EVERY FEELING OF REGARD AND ESTEEM AND IN GRATEFUL REMEMBRANCE OF MANY HAPPY HOURS AND PLEASANT ASSOCIATIONS BY THEIR SINCERE FRIEND THE AUTHOR -1- PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION. The author much regrets the inconvenience occasioned by the unexpected delay which has taken place in the issue of the present edition. That delay was owing to circumstances over which he could not foresee, and over which he had no control. In the Preface to the First Edition of this work the author fully explained his reasons for adopting that mode of preparation, and the principal sources from whence he has derived the materials necessary for its compilation. That such a work was needed is sufficiently proved by the sale of three very large editions, and by the number of letters written to him on account but express the great gratification he feels at the satisfactory results which have attended his labours; and he also takes this opportunity of acknowledging with gratitude the assistance of kind friends and correspondents for the assistance they have rendered him by the communication of many valuable facts and suggestions. The very great advances made within the last few years in the science of Botany on the Continent of Europe, more especially in Germany, have necessitated many important alterations in the arrangement of some of the earlier chapters, and numerous new woodcuts; so that, while the whole work has been very carefully revised throughout, in some respects—as in the subjects of elementary structure, reproductive organs of Anocto- lyciums, and the like—there has been little change. Almost regarded as a new work. In these portions the author has specially to express his great obligations to Professor Lawren, A page from a book with text about botany. VIII PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION. of Oxford, for valuable assistance rendered in the subject of Histology; to Mr. J. W. Groves, Demonstrator of Phy- siology in King's College, London, for, in a great degree, reviewing the work of the late Professor Huxley; to Mr. J. Mason Vann, of King's College, for nearly writing afresh the section on the reproductive Organs of Thallophytes, and for other assistance in the preparation of this volume; and to all these portions the great work of Sache, 'A Text Book of Botany,' translated by Bennett and Dyer, has been constantly referred to, and should be studied by all who desire to become more fully acquainted with the subject. The author has endeavoured, then, is possible in this volume, consistent with the design of the author. In the part which treats of the properties and uses of plants very many additions and alterations have been also rendered necessary by the progress of science. In this portion constant reference has been made to Flinders' 'Flora Borealis,' 'Flora capitularis,' and 'Bennett's Trinomial Medicinal Plants,' both of which works have been published since the third edition of this Manual. The latter work contains full botanical de- scriptions of all the plants used in medicine, and an account of the characters, pro- perties, and uses of their parts and products of medicinal value; and it contains also a complete botanical and bibliographical guide to the 'British Pharmacopoeia,' the 'Pharmacopoeia of India,' and the 'Pharmacopoeia of the United States of America.' For figures, descriptions, and full particulars of these plants, all of which are now included in the new edition of Flinders' Flora, see the chapter on Systematic Botany, the author begs leave therefore to refer those of his readers who are specially interested in the official and other new important drugs. In this part, although several minor changes have been made in the arrangement and characters of the natural orders, it has not been thought advisable to depart in any essential particulars from the arrangement adopted in previous editions. This arrangement here adopted, except in unimportant particulars, is that used generally in our Flora, and that which is sanctioned by our examination of recent literature. The period during which collections of plants is concerned, may be regarded as a transitional period in this country; and important, therefore, as a knowledge of other arrangements may be to advanced students, they are scarcely • PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION. adapted for such a Manual as the present. Such students should especially refer to this work now in course of publication, Bentham and Hooker's 'Genera Plantarum.' The present work having been thus carefully revised and in part rewritten, and supplemented by very carefully prepared and ingenious illustrations, it is believed that the present edition, even better than the preceding editions, serve as a convenient, intelligible, and faithful as well as comprehensive manual for students ; and also that it will be found useful to those who are engaged in commercial pursuits who, having constantly to make use of substances derived from the Vegetable Kingdom, require accurate and condensed information on the Properties and Uses of Plants. London : February, 1892. **PREFACE** TO **THE FIRST EDITION.** The principal design of the author in the preparation of the present volume was, to furnish a comprehensive, and at the same time, a very concise treatise on the different parts of Plants, a part of Botany which, in the majority of manuals, is but very briefly alluded to. He hopes that in this respect the present manual will be found useful. The works devoted particularly to the Materia Medica and Economic Botany thus form a text-book of especial value to medical and pharmaceutical students; as well as a work of reference generally, for those engaged in agriculture, horticulture, and forestry, to make use of substances derived from the Vegetable Kingdom. Another prominent motive of the author was, to furnish the pupils with a clear and easy means of acquiring knowledge on the subjects treated of should be arranged, as far as possible, in the same order as followed by him in the lectures themselves. It may be noticed that this order differs in several respects from that commonly adopted in other works on Botany. The author has convinced him that it is the most desirable one for the student. Great pains have been taken in all departments to bring the different parts of each genus into their proper sequence; and much care has been exercised in condensing the very numerous details bearing upon each department, and in arranging them for systematic study. The author does not claim for this work to be regarded as a complete treatise on the different departments of Botany; it is only intended as a guide to larger and more comprehensive PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. works ; but he trusts, at the same time, that it will be found to contain everything which the student of Botany really requires, whether he is pursuing it as a branch of professional or general education, or for pleasure and recreation. The first part of this work, and terms necessarily treated of, in the departments of Structural, Morphological, and Systematic Botany, have compelled the author to give but a brief account of the subject of Pharmacology. He believes that even here, all the more important subjects bearing upon the education of the medical practitioner and pharmacist will be found sufficiently explained. In treating of the latter, he has no mere knowledge of this department, he would refer them to the Second Part of Balfour's "Class-Book of Botany," in which valuable work full details upon Physiological Botany will be found. The author had a great desire, also, to include in the present volume an Appendix upon Descriptive Botany, and a Glossary of Botanical Terms. But as he has not been able to extend the limits desired, he is unable to do so. The Index itself will, however, serve as a glossary by referring to the pages in which the different terms are defined and explained ; and with regard to Descriptive Botany, it is hoped that every reader of this work will obtain a small but very valuable work on that subject which has been recently published by Dr. Lindley. In compiling this volume the author has been necessarily compelled to refer to many works and original memoirs on botanical science, and he hopes that in all cases he has given full credit to those who have contributed most towards what has afforded him. If he has omitted to do so in any instance, it has arisen from inadvertence and not from design. To the valuable works of Mr. Hooker, Mr. Hemsley, Mr. Hooker, Mr. A. C. Gray, and Schultze, among foreign botanists; and to those of Lindley, Balfour, Henfrey, Hooker, Berkeley, Pereira, and Boyce, among British botanists, he begs to express his obligations. It has frequently happened that some authors have made some valuable information communicated during the progress of the work. To Lindley's "Vegetable Kingdom," Pereira's "Materia Medica," and Hooker's "Flora Indica," especially the "Dictionary of Plants" in Griffith and Hanfey's "Micrographic Dictionary," by the lamented Hanfey, the author is more especially indebted. The xii PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. Last three works will always bear ample testimony to the great research and abilities of their respective authors. The author has further to express his obligations to his spirited publisher, for the numerous woodcuts which he has liberally contributed to this work, and to the artists who have shown in their execution. A large number of these woodcuts have been taken from Maout's "Atlas elementaire de Botanique," several from Linnæus' "Flora Suecica," and many others have been derived from the works of Schleiden, Mohl, Hofmeister, Lindley, Hefnrey, Balfour, &c.; and many are from original sources. By the judicious use of these woodcuts in the text of this work, the interest and value of the work as a class-book of botanical science has been materially increased. London : May 1, 1861. CONTENTS. | Page | Description | |------|-------------| | 1 | Introductory Remarks | | 1 | Department of Botany | | 1 | Distinctions between Animals, Plants, and Minerals | | 2 | BOOK I. ORGANOGRAFHY, OR STRUCTURAL AND MORPHOLOGICAL BOTANY. | CHAPTER 1. GENERAL MORPHOLOGY OF THE PLANT . 6 Crypsogamous Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Phanerogamous Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1. Organs of Nutrition or Vegetation a. The Stem or Canals b. The Leaf or Blade c. The Flower d. The Fruit and Seed CHAPTER 2. ELEMENTARY STRUCTURE OF PLANTS, OR VEGETABLE HISTOLOGY . 21 SECTION 1. OF THE CELL AS AN INDIVIDUAL 21 1. General Characteristics and Contents of Cells a. The Cell-wall b. The Cytoplasm c. The Nucleus or Cytoplasm d. The Sieve e. Chlorophyll and Chlorophyll Granules a. Chlorophyll b. Chlorophyll Granules 23 25 26 26 xiv CONTENTS. Search 27 Development of Search 28 Composition and Chemical Characteristics of Starch 29 Bacteria 31 Algae: Grains, Crystalloids, and Globoids 33 2. Forms and States of Cells; and General Properties and Struc- tures 35 1. Forms of Cells 35 2. Size of Cells 36 3. General Properties and Structure of the Cell-wall or Cell- membrane 40 Pitted or Dotted Cells 40 Cells with Barbed Fins or Disc-bearing Wood-cells 41 Flattened Cells 42 SECTION 2. OF THE KINDS OF CELLS AND THEIR CONNECTION WITH EACH OTHER 1. Parenchyma a. Round or Elliptical Parenchyma 43 b. Round or Oval Parenchyma 44 c. Regular Parenchyma 45 d. Elongated Parenchyma 45 e. Triangular Parenchyma 45 2. Protoplasts a. Vascular Tissue 46 b. Disc-bearing Woody Tissues 47 c. Wood-like Tissue or Libar or Bast Tissue 47 3. Vessels or Vascular Tissues 48 a. Pitted or Dotted Vessels 48 b. Spiral Vessels 49 c. Annular Vessels 50 d. Reticular Vessels 51 e. Scallopine Vessels 51 f. Circular or Semicircular Vessels 52 g. Leaf-like Vessels 53 h. Unicellular Vessels 53 4. Epidermis a. Epidermis 54 b. Cuticle 54 c. Scutum or Scutellum 57 5. Appendages of Epidermis a. Hairs or Trichomes 60 b. Glands 60 c. External Glands 64 d. Internal Glands 66 6. Intercellular Spaces a. Intercellular Passages or Canals and Intercellular Spaces 67 b. Air Canals 68 c. Bepulps of Sectioned Cells

Intercellular Substance CONTENTS. XV CHAPTER 3. ORGANS OF NUTRITION OR VERTIBRATION. SECTION 1. THE STEM OR CAULUS. 1. Internal Structure of the Stem in general A. Exogenous Monochlamydonous Stem 1. Pith or Medulla 70 2. The Medullary Sheath 74 3. The Wood 77 B. Endogenous Monochlamydonous Stem Darmer and Allomurum 80 Age of the Stem 81 Size of Exogenous Trees 83 C. Exogenous or Cambium 83 5. Medullary Rays 83 6. The Bark or Coriolar System 85 a. The Bark or Coriolar System or Endophloem 86 b. The Cellular Endocarp, Green Layer, or Epiphloem 86 c. Suberose, Corky Layer, or Epiphloem 86 d. Glandular Layer 87 B. Endogenous or Monochlamydonous Stem Anatomical Features of the Stem 90 Origin and Growth of the Vascular Bundles 91 Growth by Terminal Bud 94 Assimilation by the Stem or Monochlamydonous Stems 95 Age of Exogenous or Monochlamydonous Trees 95 C. Exogenous or Acotylodonous Stem Anatomical Features of the Stem or Monochlamydonous Stems 97 Age of Exogenous or Acotylodonous Stems 97 Growth by Terminal Bud 98 2. Buds and Ramification A. Leaf and Fruit Buds B. Ramification by Branching 1. Adventitious Buds 2. Branches 3. Accessory Buds 4. Of the Same Nature of Stems and Branches Herbs, Shrubs, and Trees Spines or Thorns Tendril or Climber Kinds of Stems and Branches 1. Accessory Buds of Stems and Branches a. The Runner b. The Lateral c. The Stubus d. The Suckers e. The Rhizome or Rootstock xvi CONTENTS. 2. Subterranean Modifications of Stems and Branches a. The Creeping Stem b. The Tuber c. The Corm d. The Corm Section 2. THE ROOT OR DESCENDING AXIS 1. Tons or Primary Root Distinctive Features of Stems and Roots Advancement or Secondary Root Aerial Roots Epiphytes or Air Plants Parasites Duration of Roots 1. Annual Roots 2. Biennial Roots 3. Perennial Roots Roots of Monocotyledonous, and Ectocytoidous Plants 1. The Tuber of Dioscoreaceae Plants 2. The Root of Monocotyledonous Plants 3. The Root of Ectocytoidous Plants Forms of the Root Curled Root Tubular Root Fasciculated, Clustered, or Tufted Root Non-branching, and Multifurcated or Noduleshaped Roots Central Root Fusiform or Spindle-shaped Root Napiform or Turnip-shaped Root Curved or Twisted Root Premorse Root Section 3. The Leaf or Phyllole 1. General Description and Parts of the Leaf Innervation and Joints Pores of the Leaf 2. The Internal Structure of Leaves a. Aerial Leaves b. The Vascular System c. A Paradryma or Mesophyll 3. Submerged Leaves 4. Insertion of the Leaf on the Stem or Phyllotaxy Alternate Leaves xvii
Page Number Description
115 a. The Creeping Stem
116 b. The Tuber
117 c. The Corm
118 d. The Corm
120 The Root or Descending Axis
121 Tons or Primary Root
122 Distinctive Features of Stems and Roots
123 Advancement or Secondary Root
124 Aerial Roots
125 Epiphytes or Air Plants
126 Parasites
127 Duration of Roots
128 1. Annual Roots
129 2. Biennial Roots
130 3. Perennial Roots
130 Roots of Monocotyledonous, and Ectocytoidous Plants
131 1. The Tuber of Dioscoreaceae Plants
132 2. The Root of Monocotyledonous Plants
133 3. The Root of Ectocytoidous Plants
134 Forms of the Root
135 Tubular Root
136 Fasciculated, Clustered, or Tufted Root
137 Noduleshaped, Multifurcated, and Multifurcated or Noduleshaped Roots
138 Central Root
139 Fusiform or Spindle-shaped Root
140 Napiform or Turnip-shaped Root
141Curved or Twisted Root
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General Description and Parts of the Leaf
Junction and Joints
Pores of the Leaf
The Internal Structure of Leaves
Aerial Leaves
The Vascular System
A Paradryma or Mesophyll
Submerged Leaves
The Insertion of the Leaf on the Stem or Phyllotaxy
Alternate Leaves
General Description and Parts of the Leaf
Junction and Joints
Pores of the Leaf
The Internal Structure of Leaves
Aerial Leaves
The Vascular System
A Paradryma or Mesophyll
Submerged Leaves
The Insertion of the Leaf on the Stem or Phyllotaxy
Alternate Leaves
General Description and Parts of the Leaf
Junction and Joints
Pores of the Leaf
The Internal Structure of Leaves
Aerial Leaves
The Vascular System
A Paradryma or Mesophyll
Submerged Leaves
The Insertion of the Leaf on the Stem or Phyllotaxy
Alternate Leaves
General Description and Parts of the Leaf
Junction and Joints
Pores of the Leaf
The Internal Structure of Leaves
Aerial Leaves
The Vascular System
A Paradryma or Mesophyll
Submerged Leaves
The Insertion of the Leaf on the Stem or Phyllotaxy
Alternate Leaves
General Description and Parts of the Leaf
Junction and Joints
Pores of the Leaf
The Internal Structure of Leaves
Aerial Leaves
The Vascular System
A Paradryma or Mesophyll
Submerged Leaves
The Insertion of the Leaf on the Stem or Phyllotaxy
Alternate Leaves
General Description and Parts of the Leaf
Junction and Joints
Pores of the Leaf
The Internal Structure of Leaves
Aerial Leaves
The Vascular System
A Paradryma or Mesophyll
Submerged Leaves
The Insertion of the Leaf on the Stem or Phyllotaxy
Alternate Leaves
General Description and Parts of the Leaf
Junction and Joints
Pores of the Leaf
The Internal Structure of Leaves
Aerial Leaves
The Vascular System
A Paradryma or Mesophyll
Submerged Leaves
The Insertion of the Leaf on the Stem or Phyllotaxy
Alternate Leaves
General Description and Parts of the Leaf
Junction and Joints
Pores of the Leaf
The Internal Structure of Leaves
Aerial Leaves
The Vascular System
A Paradryma or Mesophyll
Submerged Leaves
The Insertion of the Leaf on the Stem or Phyllotaxy
Alternate Leaves.
General Description and Parts of the Leaf... CONTENTS. xvii CHAPTER 4. CHAPTER OF REPRODUCTION Section I. INFERIORENSIS OR ANTHOTAXIS
Opposite and Whorled Leaves Page
Phyllotaxis in different Natural Orders, etc. 147
3. Arrangement of the Leaves in the Bud, or, Vegetation. 148
4. Levation of the Leaves. 151
1. Varieties of Reticular or Netted Venation. 151
A. Feather-retinal or Pinnately-venated. 154
B. Elongate-retinal or Palmately-venated. 154
2. Varieties of Parallel Venation. 155
Venation of the Leaves of Acotyledonous Plants 155
Compostive. 166
1. Simple Leaves. 167
2. Compound Leaves. 167
3. Inclusion. 168
4. Apex. 168
5. General Outline. 169
6. Form. 169
2. Compound Leaves. 168
1. Pinnafy-veined Compound Leaves. 170
Petiole or Leaf-stalk. 172
Furrowed Petiole. 173
Spiral. 176
Kinds of Spiral. 176
7. Assimilative Forms of Leaves. 179
Symples of Leaves. 179
Tendril or Tendrils. 180
Phyllodes or Phyllidies. 180
Anchors or Stolons. 183
SECTION II.
INFERIORENSIS OR ANTHOTAXIS INFERIORENSIS OR ANTHOTAXIS INFERIORENSIS OR ANTHOTAXIS INFERIORENSIS OR ANTHOTAXIS INFERIORENSIS OR ANTHOTAXIS INFERIORENSIS OR ANTHOTAXIS INFERIORENSIS OR ANTHOTAXIS INFERIORENSIS OR ANTHOTAXIS INFERIORENSIS OR ANTHOTAXIS INFERIORENSIS OR ANTHOTAXIS INFERIORENSIS OR ANTHOTAXIS INFERIORENSIS OR ANTHOTAXIS INFERIORENSIS OR ANTHOTAXIS INFERIORENSIS OR ANTHOTAXIS INFERIORENSIS OR ANTHOTAXIS INFERIORENSIS OR ANTHOTAXIS INFERIORENSIS OR ANTHOTAXIS INFERIORENSIS OR ANTHOTAXIS INFERIORENSIS OR ANTHOTAXIS INFERIORENSIS OR ANTHOTAXIS INFERIORENSIS OR ANTHOTAXIS INFERIORENSIS OR ANTHOTAXIS INFERIORENSIS OR ANTHOTAXIS INFERIORENSIS OR ANTHOTAXIS INFERIORENSIS OR ANTHOTAXIS INFERIORENSIS OR ANTHOTAXIS INFERIORENSIS OR ANTHOTAXIS INFERIORENSIS OR ANTHOTAXIS INFERIORENSIS OR ANTHOTAXIS INFERIORENSIS OR ANTHOTAXIS INFERIORENSIS OR ANTHOTAXIS INFERIORENSIS OR ANTHOTAXIS INFERIORENSIS OR ANTHOTAXIS INFERIORENSIS OR ANTHOTAXIS INFERIORENSIS OR ANTHOTAXIS INFERIORENSIS OR ANTHOTAXIS INFERIORENSIS OR ANTHOTAXIS INFERIORENSIS OR ANTHOTAXIS INFERIORENSIS OR ANTHOTAXIS INFERIORENSIS OR ANTHOTAXIS INFERIORENSIS OR ANTHOTAXISMETHYLSULFONATE (SOMS) AND THE USE OF ITS ANALOGUES IN THE TREATMENT OF CANCERS AND OTHER DISEASES The methylation of DNA by S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAM) is a key step in the maintenance of genomic stability and cell cycle control. The enzyme responsible for this reaction is DNA methyltransferase (DNMT). DNMTs are classified into three families based on their sequence homology: DNMTs A, B, and C. DNMTs A and B are found in eukaryotes, while DNMT C is found in prokaryotes and archaea. DNMTs A and B have been shown to play a role in maintaining genomic stability and preventing cancer development. In this review, we will discuss the role of DNMTs in cancer development and treatment. We will also discuss the use of DNMT inhibitors as potential therapeutic agents for cancer treatment. DNA methylation is a post-translational modification that occurs at the cytosine base of DNA. This modification can either be methylated or demethylated. Methylation is catalyzed by DNMTs, which are enzymes that transfer a methyl group from SAM to the cytosine base of DNA. The resulting product is a methylated DNA strand. DNMTs are classified into three families based on their sequence homology: DNMTs A, B, and C. DNMTs A and B are found in eukaryotes, while DNMT C is found in prokaryotes and archaea. DNMTs A and B have been shown to play a role in maintaining genomic stability and preventing cancer development. In this review, we will discuss the role of DNMTs in cancer development and treatment. We will also discuss the use of DNMT inhibitors as potential therapeutic agents for cancer treatment. DNA methylation is a post-translational modification that occurs at the cytosine base of DNA. This modification can either be methylated or demethylated. Methylation is catalyzed by DNMTs, which are enzymes that transfer a methyl group from SAM to the cytosine base of DNA. The resulting product is a methylated DNA strand. DNMTs are classified into three families based on their sequence homology: DNMTs A, B, and C. DNMTs A and B are found in eukaryotes, while DNMT C is found in prokaryotes and archaea. DNMTs A and B have been shown to play a role in maintaining genomic stability and preventing cancer development. In this review, we will discuss the role of DNMTs in cancer development and treatment. We will also discuss the use of DNMT inhibitors as potential therapeutic agents for cancer treatment. DNA methylation is a post-translational modification that occurs at the cytosine base of DNA. This modification can either be methylated or demethylated. Methylation is catalyzed by DNMTs, which are enzymes that transfer a methyl group from SAM to the cytosine base of DNA. The resulting product is a methylated DNA strand. DNMTs are classified into three families based on their sequence homology: DNMTs A, B, and C. DNMTs A and B are found in eukaryotes, while DNMT C is found in prokaryotes and archaea. DNMTs A and B have been shown to play a role in maintaining genomic stability and preventing cancer development. In this review, we will discuss the role of DNMTs in cancer development and treatment. We will also discuss the use of DNMT inhibitors as potential therapeutic agents for cancer treatment. DNA methylation is a post-translational modification that occurs at the cytosine base of DNA. This modification can either be methylated or demethylated. Methylation is catalyzed by DNMTs, which are enzymes that transfer a methyl group from SAM to the cytosine base of DNA. The resulting product is a methylated DNA strand. DNMTs are classified into three families based on their sequence homology: DNMTs A, B, and C. DNMTs A and B are found in eukaryotes, while DNMT C is found in prokaryotes and archaea. DNMTs A and B have been shown to play a role in maintaining genomic stability and preventing cancer development. In this review, we will discuss the role of DNMTs in cancer development and treatment. We will also discuss the use of DNMT inhibitors as potential therapeutic agents for cancer treatment. DNA methylation is a post-translational modification that occurs at the cytosine base of DNA. This modification can either be methylated or demethylated. Methylation is catalyzed by DNMTs, which are enzymes that transfer a methyl group from SAM to the cytosine base of DNA. The resulting product is a methylated DNA strand. DNMTs are classified into three families based on their sequence homology: DNMTs A, B, and C. DNMTs A and B are found in eukaryotes, while DNMT C is found in prokaryotes and archaea. DNMTs A and B have been shown to play a role in maintaining genomic stability and preventing cancer development. In this review, we will discuss the role of DNMTs in cancer development and treatment. We will also discuss the use of DNMT inhibitors as potential therapeutic agents for cancer treatment. DNA methylation is a post-translational modification that occurs at the cytosine base of DNA. This modification can either be methylated or demethylated. Methylation is catalyzed by DNMTs, which are enzymes that transfer a methyl group from SAM to the cytosine base of DNA. The resulting product is a methylated DNA strand. DNMTs are classified into three families based on their sequence homology: DNMTs A, B, and C. DNMTs A and B are found in eukaryotes, while DNMT C is found in prokaryotes and archaea. DNMTs A and B have been shown to play a role in maintaining genomic stability and preventing cancer development. In this review, we will discuss the role of DNMTs in cancer development and treatment. We will also discuss the use of DNMT inhibitors as potential therapeutic agents for cancer treatment. DNA methylation is a post-translational modification that occurs at the cytosine base of DNA. This modification can either be methylated or demethylated. Methylation is catalyzed by DNMTs, which are enzymes that transfer a methyl group from SAM to the cytosine base of DNA. The resulting product is a methylated DNA strand. DNMTs are classified into three families based on their sequence homology: DNMTs A, B, and C. DNMTs A and B are found in eukaryotes, while DNMT C is found in prokaryotes and archaea. DNMTs A and B have been shown to play a role in maintaining genomic stability and preventing cancer development. In this review, we will discuss the role of DNMTs in cancer development and treatment. We will also discuss the use of DNMT inhibitors as potential therapeutic agents for cancer treatment. DNA methylation is a post-translational modification that occurs at the cytosine base of DNA. This modification can either be methylated or demethylated. Methylation is catalyzed by DNMTs, which are enzymes that transfer a methyl group from SAM to the cytosine base of DNA. The resulting product is a methylated DNA strand. DNMTs are classified into three families based on their sequence homology: DNMTs A, B, and C. DNMTs A and B are found in eukaryotes, while DNMT C is found in prokaryotes and archaea. DNMTs A and B have been shown to play a role in maintaining genomic stability and preventing cancer development. In this review, we will discuss the role of DNMTs in cancer development and treatment. We will also discuss the use of DNMT inhibitors as potential therapeutic agents for cancer treatment. DNA methylation is a post-translational modification that occurs at the cytosine base of DNA. This modification can either be methylated or demethylated. Methylation is catalyzed by DNMTs, which are enzymes that transfer a methyl group from SAM to the cytosine base of DNA. The resulting product is a methylated DNA strand. DNMTs are classified into three families based on their sequence homology: DNMTs A, B, and C. DNMTs A and B are found in eukaryotes, while DNMT C is found in prokaryotes and archaea. DNMTs A and B have been shown to play a role in maintaining genomic stability and preventing cancer development. In this review, we will discuss the role of DNMTs in cancer development and treatment. We will also discuss the use of DNMT inhibitors as potential therapeutic agents for cancer treatment. DNA methylation is a post-translational modification that occurs at the cytosine base of DNA. This modification can either be methylated or demethylated. Methylation is catalyzed by DNMTs, which are enzymes that transfer a methyl group from SAM to the cytosine base of DNA. The resulting product is a methylated DNA strand. DNNT xviii CONTENTS.
PAGE
1. Kinds of Indulgence or Indeterminate Inflorescence with an Elongated Primary Axis 195
a. The Spike. 195
b. The Panicle or Catkin. 196
c. The Spadix. 196
d. The Locusta or Spikelet. 197
e. The Thyrse. 197
f. The Sphrilla or Sphroila. 198
g. The Thyrse. 198
h. The Corolla. 198
i. The Thyrse. 198
j. The Thyrse or Thyrus. 200
2. Kinds of Indeterminate Inflorescence with a Shortened or Dilated Primary Axis 200
a. The Capitulum, Head, or Anthodium 201
b. The Cyme, or Compound Inflorescence. 202
c. The Cyme. 203
d. The Scaposecoid Cyme. 208
e. The Fascicule or Contracted Cyme. 209
f. The Umbel. 209
g. The Verticillate. 209
3. Mixed Inflorescence 210
SECTION II. OF THE PARTS OF THE FLOWERS; AND THEIR ARRANGEMENT IN THE FLOWER-BUD.
1. Parts of the Flower.211
2. Motivation or Proportionation.211
3. Variations in Motivation.212
4. Variations of Imbricated or Spiral Motivation.213
SECTION III. THE GLOBAL ENVELOPES.
1. The Chelys.215
a. Tepalose or Diptychalous Calyx.216
b. Monopetalous or Gamopetalous Calyx.218
c. Appendages of the Chelys.221
d. Dimerous Calyx.222
e. The Corolla.233
f. A Papilionaceous or Diptychalous Corolla.234
g. Squarre Polypetalous Corollas.235
h. Trilobate Polypetalous Corolla.235
i. Caryophyllaceous Corolla.235
j. Linear Corolla.235
k. Irregular Polypetalous Corolla.235
The Papilionaceous Corolla.236
m. Monopetalous or Gamopetalous Corolla.236
I A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, including spike, panicle, spadix, thyrse, corolla, thyrse, thyrse, capitulum, head, anthodium, cyme, scaposecoid cyme, fascicule, umbel, verticillate, mixed inflorescence, parts of the flower, and global envelopes like chelys, tepalose calyx, monopetalous calyx, appendages of the chelys, dimerous calyx, corolla, papilionaceous corolla, squarre polypetalous corollas, trilobate polypetalous corolla, caryophyllaceous corolla, linear corolla, irregular polypetalous corolla, papilionaceous corolla, monopetalous or gamopetalous corolla. A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, including spike, panicle, spadix, thyrse, corolla, thyrse, thyrse, capitulum, head, anthodium, cyme, scaposecoid cyme, fascicule, umbel, verticillate, mixed inflorescence, parts of the flower, and global envelopes like chelys, tepalose calyx, monopetalous calyx, appendages of the chelys, dimerous calyx, corolla, papilionaceous corolla, squarre polypetalous corollas, trilobate polypetalous corolla, caryophyllaceous corolla, linear corolla, irregular polypetalous corolla, papilionaceous corolla, monopetalous or gamopetalous corolla. A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, including spike, panicle, spadix, thyrse, corolla, thyrse, thyrse, capitulum, head, anthodium, cyme, scaposecoid cyme, fascicule, umbel, verticillate, mixed inflorescence, parts of the flower, and global envelopes like chelys, tepalose calyx, monopetalous calyx, appendages of the chelys, dimerous calyx, corolla, papilionaceous corolla, squarre polypetalous corollas, trilobate polypetalous corolla, caryophyllaceous corolla, linear corolla, irregular polypetalous corolla, papilionaceous corolla, monopetalous or gamopetalous corolla. A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, including spike, panicle, spadix, thyrse, corolla, thyrse, thyrse, capitulum, head, anthodium, cyme, scaposecoid cyme, fascicule, umbel, verticillate, mixed inflorescence, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts, A diagram showing different types of inflorescences and their parts;, CONTENTS. xix A. Regular Monopetalous Corollae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 1. Tubular or Bell-shaped . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 2. Campanulate or Bell-shaped . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 3. Infundibuliform or Fan-shaped 228 4. Hypocymate or Cup-shaped 227 5. Rotate or Wheel-shaped 227 6. Uvulate or Sessile 227 B. Irregular Monopetalous Corollae 227 1. Laxate or Lipped 227 2. Persimmate or Masked 228 3. Legulate or Strip-shaped 228 4. Appressed or Adnate 230 Duration of the Corolla 233 SECTION 4. THE ESSENTIAL ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION 1. The Androecium . a. The Stamens . Form 234 Length, Colour, and Direction 234 b. The Anther . Its Form 237 Its Development and Structure 238 Attaches to the Filament to the Anther 240 Connective 241 Forms of the Anther-lobes and Anther 241 Colour of the Anther-lobes 241 c. Dissemination of the Anther 243 d. Lobe of the Pollen-cellar 244 e. Traverses 244 f. Proximal Apical 244 g. Valvular or Ovoidal 245 The Strigose genus, except the Androecium a. Number 245 b. Insertion or Position 246 c. Union of the Filaments 247 d. Relative Lengths 249 e. The Pollen-cell 250 f. Formation of the Pollen-cell 250 g. Structure of the Pollen-cell 253 1. Wall or Coats of the Pollen-cell 253 a. Contents of the Pollen-cell, or Fortilla 255 b. Form of the Pollen-cell, or Pollen-cell-end 255 c. Dissemination of the Pollen-cell 255 b. The Disk 1. The Gymnecium or Pistil . a. The Pistil . Nature of the Carpel 258 Structure of the Carpel 251                                                               <table> <thead> <tr> <th>A. Valvate Dichotomy.</th> <th>B. Valvate Dichotomy.</th> <th>C. Septifugal Dichotomy.</th> <th>D. Septifugal Dichotomy.</th> <th>E. Septifugal Dichotomy.</th> <th>F. Septifugal Dichotomy.</th> <th>G. Septifugal Dichotomy.</th> <th>H. Septifugal Dichotomy.</th> <th>I. Septifugal Dichotomy.</th> <th>J. Septifugal Dichotomy.</th> <th>K. Septifugal Dichotomy.</th> <th>L. Septifugal Dichotomy.</th> <th>M. Septifugal Dichotomy.</th> <th>N. Septifugal Dichotomy.</th> <th>O. Septifugal Dichotomy.</th> <th>P. Septifugal Dichotomy.</th> <th>Q. Septifugal Dichotomy.</th> <th>R. Septifugal Dichotomy.</th> <th>S. Septifugal Dichotomy.</th> <th>T. Septifugal Dichotomy.</th> <th>U. Septifugal Dichotomy.</th> <th>V. Septifugal Dichotomy.</th> <th>W. Septifugal Dichotomy.</th> <th>X. Septifugal Dichotomy.</th> <th>Y. Septifugal Dichotomy.</th> <th>Z. Septifugal Dichotomy.</th> </tr> </thead> <tbody> <tr style="background-color: #f0f0f0;"> <td style="text-align:center;">A<br/>
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CONTENTS.
The Gymnosperm. 287
1. Aposporous Fruit. 266
2. Synaporous Fruit. 267
3. Ovular Fruit. 268
1. The Ovary. 271
Flowers. 274
1. Kinds of Placentation. 274
2. Origin of the Placentae. 275
The Style. 279
Form and Surface. 281
2. The Stamens. 282
4. The Thallus, receptacle, or Torus. 285
Sectio 3.
THE FRUIT. 287
Nature of the Fruit. 287
Change produced in the Ovary in the Course of its Development. 288
Growth of the Fruit. 290
Percarp.
Description of the Pericarp.
Sutures. 291
Dichotomy. 292
Kinds of Dichotomy.
1. Valvate Dichotomy.
'
' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' CONTENTS. xxi Fruits formed by the Combination of Several Flowers:































































































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Sectio 6.:The ovule and seed:
c. With a Flabby Inhibident Pericarp 309
1. The Hesperidum 309
2. The Trym 310
3. The Citronium 310
a. With a Flabby Inhibident Pericarp 310
1. The Cressonum 310
2. The Tetracanthum 311
3. The Glazan or Nut 311
a. With a Dry Denticulate Pericarp 311
1. The Denticulatum 311
b. With a Flabby Inhibident Pericarp 311
1. The Bitternut or Berry 312
2. The Pepo 312
3. The Tepalatum 312
4. The Balanta 313
THE OVAL AND SEED
The ovule and seed.
The ovule and seed.
The ovule and seed.
The ovule and seed.
The ovule and seed.
The ovule and seed.
The ovule and seed.
The ovule and seed.
The ovule and seed.
The ovule and seed.
The ovule and seed.
The ovule and seed.
The ovule and seed.
The ovule and seed.
The ovule and seed.
The ovule and seed.
The ovule and seed.
The ovule and seed.
The ovule and seed.
The ovule and seed.
The ovule and seed.
The ovule and seed.
The ovule and seed.
The ovule and seed.
The ovule and seed.
The ovule and seed.
The ovule and seed.
The ovule and seed.
The ovule and seed.
The ovule and seed.
The ovule and seed.
The ovule and seed.

                                                        

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Image Description
A close-up view of a plant with green leaves, white flowers, and a yellow center. Description: This image shows a plant with vibrant green leaves arranged in a circular pattern around the base of the stem. At the center of the plant, there is a cluster of white flowers with a bright yellow center, which appears to be the focal point of the image. The overall composition suggests that this is a flowering plant, possibly a type of daisy or similar species, given the arrangement of the leaves and the distinctive flower coloration. Analysis: This image could represent various plants, but the combination of green leaves, white flowers with a yellow center, and the circular arrangement of the leaves is characteristic of many flowering plants, particularly those in the Asteraceae family (daisies). The bright yellow center of the flowers might indicate that this is a species within the genus *Bellis* (daisies) or another similar genus known for their yellow centers. Conclusion: Based on the visual elements observed in this image, it is likely that this is a flowering plant belonging to the Asteraceae family, possibly *Bellis perennis* (common daisy), given its typical features such as green leaves arranged in a circular pattern around the base of the stem, white flowers with a yellow center, and overall appearance. If you have any further questions about this image or need additional information, please feel free to ask! xxii CONTENTS. SECTION 7. GENERAL MORPHOLOGY, OR THE THEORETICAL STRUCTURE OF THE FLOWER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 SECTION 8. SYMMETRY OF THE FLOWER 345 1. The Changes due to Union or Adhesion of Parts 348 A. Adhesion or Adhesion 348 B. Addition or Suppression of Parts 348 A. Augmentation 348 B. Reduction or Disproportion 348 3. Suppression or Abortion 352 A. Suppression or Abortion of one or more Whorls 352 B. Suppression or Abortion of all the Whorls 354 4. Irregularity A. Unusual Growth, and Unusual Degrees of Union of the Members of a Whorl 354 A. Abnormal Development of the Thallus or Axis of the Flower CHAPTER 9. REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF CHORONOMOUS, FLOWERLESS, OR ANTHOCYANOUS PLANTS 355 SECTION 1. REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF COMPOUNDS 356 1. Fillets or Fertes 356 2. Equinules or Horselips 356 3. Marcelliuses or Pepperworts 360 4. Lygodiums or Club-mosses 362 5. Nuts or Nuts 362 6. Hepaticae or Liverworts 366 SECTION 2. REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF THALLIUMS 369 1. Funiculi or Mucrones 369 1. Pyrromyces 370 2. Hypodermis 371 2. Biodermis 371 2. Anocystes 375 2. Lathyrus or Chives 380 2. Alpea or Sassafras 385 2. Spingyra 385 CONTENTS. xxiii Vascularia Fucus Gelidium BOOK II. SYSTEMATIC BOTANY, OR THE CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS. CHAPTER 1. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION 1. Species Varieties Basms 2. Genera 3. Orders of Families 4. Classes Nomenclature 5. Classes 6. Orders 7. Genera 8. Species Abbreviations and Symbols CHAPTER 2. SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION SECTION 1. ANTHROPHIC SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION Linnaean System Classes Orders Tabular View of the Linnaean System SECTION 2. NATURAL SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION Natural Systems Day's Natural System Jenner's Natural System De Candolle's Natural System Endlicher's Natural System Lindley's Natural System Booth's Natural System Natural System adopted in this Manual 300 Species Varieties Basms 101 101 Genera 208 208 Orders of Families 303 303 Classes 304 304 Nomenclature 305 305 Classes 306 306 Orders 308 308 Genera 307 307 Species 307 409 System of Classification SECTION 1. Anthropic Systems of Classification Linnaean System Classes Orders Tabular View of the Linnaean System SECTION 2. Natural Systems of Classification Natural Systems Day's Natural System Jenner's Natural System De Candolle's Natural System Endlicher's Natural System Lindley's Natural System Booth's Natural System Natural System adopted in this Manual xxiv CONTENTS. CHAPTER 3. ARRANGEMENT, CHARACTERS, DISTINCTION, PROPERTIES, AND USES OF NATURAL ORDERS Sub-kingdom 1. Phanerogamia Class 1. Ditylodones Sub-class 1. Liliifolium Sub-class 1. Thaliamifera
Sub-Order Family Genus
1. Bambusales Bambuseae Bambusa
2. Aristolochiaceae Aristolochiaceae Aristolochia
3. Aristolochiaceae Aristolochiaceae Aristolochia
4. Araliaceae Araliaceae Aralia
5. Araliaceae Araliaceae Aralia
6. Araliaceae Araliaceae Aralia
7. Aristolochiaceae Aristolochiaceae Aristolochia
8. Aristolochiaceae Aristolochiaceae Aristolochia
9. Aristolochiaceae Aristolochiaceae Aristolochia
10. Aristolochiaceae Aristolochiaceae Aristolochia
11. Aristolochiaceae Aristolochiaceae Aristolochia
12. Aristolochiaceae Aristolochiaceae Aristolochia
13. Aristolochiaceae Aristolochiaceae Aristolochia
14. Aristolochiaceae Aristolochiaceae Aristolochia
15. Aristolochiaceae Aristolochiaceae Aristolochia
16. Aristolochiaceae Aristolochiaceae Aristolochia
17. Aristolochiaceae Aristolochiaceae Aristolochia
18. Aristolochiaceae Aristolochiaceae Aristolochia
19. Aristolochiaceae Aristolochiaceae Aristolochia
20. Aristolochiaceae Aristolochiaceae Aristolochia
Sub-class II. Calyciflorumia (Calyciflorumia)
Sub-class II. Calyciflorumia (Calyciflorumia)
Sub-class II. Calyciflorumia (Calyciflorumia)
Sub-class II. Calyciflorumia (Calyciflorumia)
Sub-class II. Calyciflorumia (Calyciflorumia)
Sub-class II. Calyciflorumia (Calyciflorumia)
Sub-class II. Calyciflorumia (Calyciflorumia)
Sub-class II. Calyciflorumia (Calyciflorumia)
Sub-class II. Calyciflorumia (Calyciflorumia)
Sub-class II. Calyciflorumia (Calyciflorumia)
Sub-class II. Calyciflorumia (Calyciflorumia)
Sub-class II. Calyciflorumia (Calyciflorumia)
Sub-class II. Calyciflorumia (Calyciflorumia)
Sub-class II. Calyciflorumia (Calyciflorumia)
Sub-class II. Calyciflorumia (Calyciflorumia)
Sub-class II. Calyciflorumia (Calyciflorumia)
Sub-class II. Calyciflorumia (Calyciflorumia)
Sub-class II. Calyciflorumia (Calyciflorumia)
Sub-class II. Calyciflorumia (Calyciflorumia)
Sub-class II. Calyciflorumia (Calyciflorumia)
Sub-class II. Calyciflorumia (Calyciflorumia)
Sub-class II. Calyciflorumia (Calyciflorumia)
Sub-class II. Calyciflorumia (Calyciflorumia)
Sub-class II. Calyciflorumia (Calyciflorumia)
Sub-class II. Calyciflorumia (Calyciflorumia)
Sub-class II. Calyciflorumia (Calyciflorumia)
Sub-class II. Calyciflorumia (Calyciflorumia)
Sub-class II. Calyciflorumia (Calyciflorumia)
Sub-class II. Calyciflorumia (Calyciflorumia)
Sub-class II. Calyciflorumia (Calyciflorumia)
Sub-class II. Calyciflorumia (Calyciflorumia)
Sub-class II. Calyciflorumia (Cal ycificflor um ia) CONTENTS. XXV
85. Monocotyledon or Filicoid 86. Terrestrial 87. Aquatic
86. Panduriferae 87. Terrestrial 88. Aquatic
87. Monocotyledon 88. Aquatic 89. Aquatic
2. Epigynae 643




























































































<
36. Cuculiferae 37. Monocotyledon - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
37. Lomaceae 38. Oreganum 39. Oreganum
38. Lomaceae 39. Oreganum 40. Oreganum
39. Greenaloeae 40. Rhinanthus 41. Rhinanthus
40. Greenaloeae 41. Rhinanthus 42. Rhinanthus
41. Phlomidaceae 42. Cornus 43. Cornus
42. Phlomidaceae 43. Cornus 44. Cornus
43. Leytealae 44. Brunnichia 45. Brunnichia or Aplopusa
44. Leytealae 45. Brunnichia 46. Brunnichia or Aplopusa
45. Arctiaceae 46. Arctium 47. Arctium
46. Arctiaceae
Artificial Analysis of the Natural Orders in the Sub-class Calyciferae Sub-class 3.-Cuculliforme 669                                                              < > < > < > < > < > < > < > < > < > < > < > < > < > < > < > < > < > < > < > < > < > < > < > < > < > < . … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … …
Artificial Analysis of the Natural Orders in the Sub-class Cuculliforme 627 Threes Fourths Fives Sixths Sevens Eights Nines Tens Elevenths Twelves Thirteens Fourteens Fifteens Sixteens Seventeens Eighteens Nineteens Twentys Thirtyones Fortytwo Fiftythree Sixtyfour Seventyfive Eightysix Ninetyseven Onehundredandone Twohundredandtwo Threehundredandthree Fourhundredandfour Fivehundredandfive Sixhundredandsix Sevenhundredandseven Eighthundredandeight Ninehundredandnine Onehundredandten Twohundredandeleven Threehundredandtwelve Fourhundredandthirteen Fivehundredandfourteen Sixhundredandfifteen Sevenhundredandsixteen Eighthundredandseventeen Nineninethousandandtwentyone Onehundredandtwentytwo Twohundredandtwentythree Threehundredandtwentyfour Fourhundredandtwentyfive Fivehundredandtwentysix Sixhundredandtwentyseven Sevenhundredandtwentyeight Eighthousand-andtwentynine xxvi CONTENTS.
CONTENTS. xxvii
Sub-class 4. - Monocladomorpha or Incomplete Page
170. Polypomorpha 635 635
171. Eucystidomorpha 636 636
180. Acanthomorpha 637 637
181. Chondromorpha 638 638
182. Basidiomorpha 639 639
183. Hymenomorpha 640 640
184. Sarcodinomorpha 641 641
185. Turbellomorpha 642 642
186. Ctenophoromorpha 643 643
187. Cephalopodomorpha 644 644
188. Gyrodendromorpha 645 645
189. Chlorodendromorpha 646 646
190. Nematodendromorpha 647 647
191. Turbellodendromorpha 648 648
192. Aglaodendromorpha 649 649
193. Euplasmomorpha 650 650
194. Turbellomorpha - 2nd Type (Euplasmomorpha) 651 651
195. Promonadomorpha - 2nd Type (Euplasmomorpha) 652 652
196. Ctenophoromorpha - 2nd Type (Euplasmomorpha) 653 653
A.
2. Hypogynum Page
535. Sullacum 603
536. Trilium 604
537. Sanguinolentum 604
538. Primrose 605
539. Lilium 605
540. Menthaeae or Mentheaeum 606
541. Lathyrus 607
542. Mucuna 607
543. Magnesia 608
544. Paeonia 608
545. Paeonaceae or Paeonaceum 609
546. Polygonatum or Polygonaceum 610
547. Polygonaceae or Polygonaceum 611
548. Polygonum or Polygonaceum 612
549. Zosteraceae or Zosteraceum 613
Sub-class 2.—Glomaceae or Glomiferae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
550. Cyperaceae
551. Trichophyllum
552. Potamogeton or Lemnaceae
553. Viscum or Viscaceae
578. Zosteraceae
Artificial Analysis of the Natural Orders in the Monocotyledons.
Sub-class I. Petalidium.
Sub-class II. Glomaceae or Glomiferae.
Sub-class III. Arctioides.
Sub-class IV. Aegreanae or Cormophyta.
Sub-class V. Algae.
Artificial Analysis of the Natural Orders in the Dicotyledons.
Sub-class I.—Corynopterae.
Class II.—Acyloides.
Sub-class I.—Aegreanae or Cormophyta.
Sub-class II.—Algae.
Sub-class I.—Thallophora or Thallophytae.
Class II.—Gymnospermae.
Sub-class I.—Arctioides.
Sub-class II.—Aegreanae or Cormophyta.
Sub-class III.—Algae.
Class III.—Liliopsidae.
Sub-class I.—Arctioides.
Sub-class II.—Aegreanae or Cormophyta.
Sub-class III.—Algae.
Class IV.—Liliopsidae.
Sub-class I.—Arctioides.
Sub-class II.—Aegreanae or Cormophyta.
Sub-class III.—Algae.
290. Planti
291. Lactates
292. Planti
292. Lactates
292. Planti
292. Lactates
292. Planti
292. Lactates
292. Planti
292. Lactates
292. Planti
292. Lactates
292. Planti
292. Lactates
292. Planti
292. Lactates
292. Planti
292. Lactates
292. Planti
292. Lactates
292. Planti
292. Lactates
292. Planti
292. Lactates
When a number of flower-buds are produced on an elongated or shortened or dilated lateral axis placed at the extremity of a stem, we have what is called a number of kinds of inflorescence arise. All these depend upon the extent to which the axis branches, the mode in which the branching takes place, and other subordinate circumstances. It will be convenient to de- INDEFINITE INFLORESCENCE.-SPIKE. scribe these various modifications under two heads-1st, those kinds of indefinite Inflorescence with an elongated Primary Axis, and 2ndly, those with a Dilatated Primary Axis. In all kinds of indefinite inflorescence it will be found that the flowers are either arranged in a spiral order round the axis or the axis is elongated (figs. 409 and 417); hence these in- florences have been also called coiled or ascending ; or from the circular arrangement of the flowers they may be called or dilated (fig. 423), therefore such forms are also called coiledental. The accidents which give rise to this kind of Inflorescence arise from the mode of development of such kinds of indefinite Inflorescence : thus, the flower-buds situated at the base of an elongated axis are shown to be more developed than those which are consequently the oldest ; but as the axis elongates itself, so do the flower-buds, and other flower-buds, the ages of which continue to decrease as we approach the growing point, until finally those situated at the top of the axis open first, and that the order of expansion is therefore upwards towards the apex, or accre- tionally. Hence it follows that those at the base will be closed first, and those at the top will be open last; and it is only by this way that flower- buds situated at the extremities of an elongated or dilatated axis are first formed, and then those situated further on or growing point last, and therefore their expansion will proceed from the periphery towards the apex or centrally. A. Kind of Indefinite or In- determinate Inflorescence with an Elongated Primary Axis.-These are as follows: 1. A Spike.-This is a kind of in- florescence in which the flowers are elongated and bear sessile flowers, or flowers in which the pedicels are very short and cannot be distinguished. Examples of it are: Lathyrus (figs. 408), and Vervain (fig. 409). In this kind of inflorescence it will be observed that the flowers at the base are closed before those at the top (fig. 409), while those near the middle are still in full flower, and those at the top are still undeveloped. This is an accretional habit; therefore, in a marked degree, the accepted order of expansion. c 2A diagram showing a spike inflorescence. Fig. 408. Spike of a species of Lathyrus (Lathyrus odoratus).—Po- tato (Solanum tuberosum).—Po- tato (Solanum tuberosum). Fig. 409. Spike of a species of Verbena (Verbena officinalis). 196 **AMENENTUM. - SPADIX. - LOCUSTA.** There are five other kinds of indefinite inflorescence which are simply modifications of the spike. These are the Amoenum (or Catinus), the Locusta, the Spadix, the Anemone, and the Anemonoides. b. The **Amoenum** or Catinus. This is a kind of spike which usually bears but one flower at a time, and is either axillary (fig. 408), or only pedicellate (fig. 411) one. The flowers of an amoenum are usually separated from each other by scale bracts, and the whole inflorescence is often enclosed in a sheath (fig. 408). It commonly falls off in one piece, soon after the process of flowering is over, and leaves behind it several flowers in their axils. All plants with this kind of inflorescence are called amoenaceous or amoenous. Our trees afford numerous examples, as the Oak, Willow, Birch, and Poplar. Fig. 408. Fig. 411. ![Image](image) Fig. 410. amoenum or axin of a species of Willow close to the ground; showing the primary amoenum of a species of Willow, with only branches between the axils. c. The **Spadix** is a spike with a succulent axis, in which the individual flowers are enclosed in a sheath, and are surrounded by florets enclosed in that variety of bract which is called a spathe. This is well seen in the Cuckoo-pint (fig. 398). Sometimes it is called a spathe-plant (fig. 412), in which case it is called compound or branching. The term spadix is also frequently applied to a succulent spike whether enveloped in a spathe or not, as in the Fig (figs. 413, 414). d. The **Locusta** or **Spadix**. This name is applied to the partial inflorescence of Grasses (fig. 409), and of plants of the Budge Order. It is a spike with few flowers, and has the same state of a spathe-plant as above; these plants being occupied by pistil or podes (figs. 600, pp.), and the whole inflorescence surround by a spathe (figs. 601, pp.). These spikes may be either arranged sessile on the floral axis INDEFINITE INFLORESCENCES.—THE CONE. or racia (fig. 413), as in Wheat, or they may be placed on a more or less branched axis, as in the Oak (fig. 414). The spike- lets of plants of the Sedge Order present such peculiarities, but they are essentially of the same nature as those of Grasses. Fig. 412.Fig. 413.Fig. 414. Fig. 412. Branched racia of a Plant (Chamaerops), terminated in a spathula. ---Fig. 413. Inflorescence of Wheat (Triticum vulgare), consisting of numerous spikelets, each with two or three florets, on a branched axis. ---Fig. 414. Branched or pinnate inflorescence of the Oak (Quercus petraea). e. The Cone.—This is a kind of spike, found in plants of the order Coniferous, as the Larch, Pine, and Fir (figs. 288 and 415). It consists of a central axis, bearing at its summit several curved spurs arising from the sides of bracts, and bearing two or more ovules at their bases (fig. 416). The cone is sometimes regarded as the fruit or pericarp of a single flower, and not an inflorescence or collection of flowers but some botanists consider it to be a true inflorescence, though between a cone and a strobile, but put the two inflorescences together under the common name of cone or strobile, which they describe as being formed by the union of several successive scales or bracts, each of which bears a pistillate flower at its base. 1. The Strobilus or Strobile.—This is a kind of spike formed 198 STROBILUS—RACEME—CORYME. of persistent membranous bracts or scales, each of which bears at its base a stipulate flower. It is seen in the Hop (fig. 415). All these plants are of the same order, and have the same general characters, owing their essential characters to the flowers being sessile upon an elongated axis. We now pass to describe others, in which the axis is more or less branched, and the flowers are frequently situated upon stalks. The simplest of these is the Raceme. Fig. 415. Fig. 417. A diagram showing a raceme with several flowers attached to a central axis.A diagram showing a raceme with several flowers attached to a central axis. Fig. 416. Fig. 417. A diagram showing a raceme with several flowers attached to a central axis.A diagram showing a raceme with several flowers attached to a central axis. Fig. 418. Cone of Hemlock Sarsen (Paeas or Alcea meadioida), Fig. 419. Inflorescence of the Hop (Humulus Lupulus), Fig. 417. Raceme of a species of Cuscuta (Cuscuta Epilobium). g. The Raceme.—This name is applied to that form of inflorescence in which the primary axis is elongated, and bears flowers placed on pedicels of nearly equal length (fig. 417). It only differs from the spike in that the latter has one terminal head instead of several or nearly so. Examples occur in the Currant, Mignonette, and other plants belonging to this family. h. The Corymb.—This is a kind of raceme in which the pedicels are of different lengths (fig. 419), viz., those at the base of the head being longer than those towards its apex, so that the whole forms a level or nearly level top. Examples occur in the Cornflower and other plants (fig. 419). When the stalks or secondary axes of a corymb (fig. 419, a') instead of bearing flowers immediately, divide and form tertiary, $n^{'}$ or $n^{''}$ secondary axes, as in some species of *Pyra*. This may also be called a pinnate corymb, to distinguish it from INDEFINITE INFLORESCENCES.—CORYMB. 199 the former or simple corymb, which is then termed a racemous corymb. It sometimes happens that when the flowers are first devo- Fo. 418.Fo. 419. Fig. 418. Simple corymb of a species of *Paeonia* or *Genista*, &c., &c., &c. Fig. 419. Compound or branching corymb of the Wild Service tree (*Sorbus* aucuparia), &c., &c., &c. Botanical name: A. E. A. Bracken. Fig. 420. Panicula. biped they form a corymb, but as the primary axis elongates a raceme is produced; this may be seen in many Cruciferous plants. In several species of *Juncus* and *Luzula*, the pedicel of the 200 **PANICLE—THYRSUS—CAPITULUM.** Lower flowers are so long that they are elevated above the upper ones, in which case the inflorescence is sometimes distinguished by the term *panicle*. I. The Panicle.—This is a sort of compound raceme, that is to say, a raceme in which the branches are themselves pro- ducing flowers directly, branch, and form tertiary axes, &c., the ultimate subdivisions of which bear the flowers (fig. 420). Ex- amples occur in the *Cotoneaster*, where the panicle is a compa- gement of the partial inflorescence of the Oat (fig. 414). II. The Thyrsus.—The Thyrsus is a kind of raceme which is much branched ; the pedicels generally are very short; and the whole arranged so as to form a compact cluster of a pyramidal form (fig. 421). Fig. 421. Fig. 422. A. B. Kinds of Indefinite Inflorescence with a Shortened or Dilated Primary Axis.—Of these we distinguished two principal varia- tions—the *Capitulum* and the *Thyrsus*. a. The Capitulum, Anthodium, or Head.—This inflorescence is formed by a number of flowers attached to a common base, as in a Common Calyx. Its constituent flowers from their small size are commonly termed florets. This inflorescence is usually formed by a number of flowers attached to a common base, as in a calyx, and the whole surrounded by an involucre (fig. 394); but in some cases the flowers are but few in number, and in other capitula the involucre is absent. The receptacle, as we have seen (page 191), Fig. 421. Thysus of Vines (Vitis vinifera).Fig. 422. Capitulum of Cotton Thistle (Cotoneaster microcarpus). INDIFINITE INFLORESCENCE.--THE UMBEL 201 may be either dislated as in the Cotton Thistle (Fig. 422); or slightly convex, as in the Dandelion; or concisal, as in the Chamomile; or even flat, as in the Saffron; or irregularly so, or elliptical, &c., by which a variety of forms is given to the capitulum. This kind of indefinite inflorescence, as well as all other shapes, shows that the order of expansion is not confined to any certain petal order of expansion. This may be well seen in the capitulum of the Thistle (Fig. 423), where the outermost flowers are fully expanded, those within them less so, and those in the centre in an unopened condition. Here therefore the order of expansion is not confined to any definite petal order. The same problem is the universal form of inflorescence in plants of the natural orders Composites and Leguminous; it is also found, more or less, in some orders allied to these. Fig. 423. Fig. 424. Fig. 423. Capitulum of the Thistle (Cirsium). The outermost flowers must be fully expanded, but are not more expanded than those within them, like those of * * species of * *. The arrangement of the flowers of the Fig (Fig. 401) and Doronaea (Fig. 402) also closely resembles that of an ordinary capitulum, but instead of being produced on a single axis, they are produced on the flowers commonly unisexual and developed centrifugally. The arrangement of the flowers of the Fig (Fig. 401) is given from its spot a number of secondary axes or pedicels of nearly equal length, each bearing a flower, and the whole arranged like the branches of a tree. This is seen in the * * and * * and * * and * * and * * and * * and * * and * * and * * and * * and * * and * * and * *. The Frasnes and Cowslip. When the secondary axes themselves develop a second series of axes, then we have an arrangement as indefinite as that of a compound umbel is produced. This is seen in the Carrot (Fig. 503), the Fennel (Fig. 425), the Fool's Fawny, the Hemlock, and other allied plants, which are 202 DEFINITE OR DETERMINATE INFLORESCENCE. hence called **umbeliferous**, and give the name to the natural order Umbelliferae. In the compound umbel (fig. 425), the primary umbel is divided into several umbels, each of which is again divided by the divisions of this, partial umbels or umbellules. When the base of the general umbel is surrounded by a whorl of bracts (fig. 426), these bracts are termed *bracteoles*. If other bracts (*figs.* 427, 428) are arranged in a similar manner around the partial umbel, they are termed *bracteoles* also. These varieties of arrangement have been already alluded to when speaking of bracts (page 187). Fig. 425. Fig. 426. A diagram showing a compound umbel of Fennel, a. general umbel; b, c. Partial umbels or umbellules.Portion of the ray-florets of a species of Cosmos (Cosmos sulphureus) showing the two kinds of flowers. **2. DEFINITE, DETERMINATE, or Terminal Inflorescence.** In all cases of definite inflorescence the primary axis, as we have seen, page 194, is arrested in its growth at an early age by the development of the terminal flower-bud ; and from this bud no other flowers this is called a solitary terminal flower, and is the simplest form of this variety of inflorescence. Examples of this may be seen in figs. 429 and 430, both from *Foeniculum vulgare*, in *Anemone nemorosa*, and in *Centaurea cyanus*. When other flowers are produced on the same axis, as in figs. 431 and 432, these are termed **primary axils** placed below the terminal flower-bud; and if these form secondary axes (*figs.* 437, 438), each axis will in like manner be arrested at an early age by the development of a terminal flower-bud; and if such axes "a" are developed from the secondary ones, these also must be arrested at an early age by the development of a terminal flower-bud; and so on. Hence this mode of inflorescence is definite, deter- minate, or terminal, in contradistinction to the former or indi- 187 DEFINITE INFLORESCENCE.-THE CYME. 203 nise mode of inflorescence already described (page 193), where the primary axis elongates indefinitely unless stopped by some extra- neous cause. Definite inflorescence is found regular in plants with opposite or alternate leaves, but they also occur in those which have alternate leaves, as in the latter case, in the order of Rosaceae (Fig. 427). In de- finitely definite inflorescences the flower- buds commonly follow a differ- ent order of expansion from that of the primary axis, as in the Rosaceae, because in them the termi- nal bud is usually the most expan- sive and consequently the oldest (Fig. 427, f.), and other flower- buds develop successively from the apex to the base, as in the Liliaceae (Fig. 427, g., h., i., j., k., l., m., n., o.). The central one of the short- ened or dilated axis will ordinarily be the first to expand, the lowest one of the former axis being last, as in the Liliaceae, and the latter, last. Such order of expansion is called indeterminate. In some cases, however, such as in the Hydrangea (Fig. 428), the central one of the shortened axis will expand first, while the indefinite kinds of definite inflorescence characterized by an abrupt or constricted order of expansion ; those of definite inflorescences are represented or ordinate. Kindred forms are known under various names. The kinds of definite inflorescence are also termed cymose, as the general name is applied to all such inflorescences. But some are less perfect than others. a. The Cyme.--This term is applied generally to a definite inflorescence whose terminal bud is developed in a corolla or somewhat umbellate manner, so as to assume either a flattened head, as in the Hydrangea (Fig. 428), or more or less spreading, as in the Chickwood (Fig. 426) and Centauria (Fig. 430). In the more perfect and compact A diagram showing a cyme-like inflorescence. Fig. 427. A plant of Rosaceae indica. Primary axis terminated by a fully expanded flower-bud, which is followed by a second one, etc., each one becoming successively smaller until it is developed into a bud. Terminal bud is developed first; see Fig. 428. 203204 DEFINITE INFLORESCENCES.—THE CYME. form of cyme, as found in the Laurustinus and Elder, the flower-buds are all nearly perfect before any of them open, and then the Fig. 429. A diagram showing a cyme of flowers, with each flower-bud at the end of a stalk. Fig. 428. Cyme of Laurustinus (Flower-Tree). Fig. 430. A diagram showing a cyme of flowers, with each flower-bud at the end of a stalk. Fig. 431. Deltoidic cyme or Distichium of Chickwood (Ceratostigma). *Primary axis terminated by a flower.* *Secondary axis, two in number, each terminated by a flower.* *Tertiary axis, four in number, arising from both primary and secondary axes.* *Quaternary axis, one in number.* The flowers are more developed on the lower than on the upper side of the cyme. The leaves are also more developed on the lower than on the upper side of the cyme. The flowers are in fruit, but have developed less than those that are white on the same stem. The flowers are in fruit, but have developed less than those that are white on the same stem. The flowers are in fruit, but have developed less than those that are white on the same stem. The flowers are in fruit, but have developed less than those that are white on the same stem. The flowers are in fruit, but have developed less than those that are white on the same stem. The flowers are in fruit, but have developed less than those that are white on the same stem. The flowers are in fruit, but have developed less than those that are white on the same stem. The flowers are in fruit, but have developed less than those that are white on the same stem. The flowers are in fruit, but have developed less than those that are white on the same stem. The flowers are in fruit, but have developed less than those that are white on the same stem. The flowers are in fruit, but have developed less than those that are white on the same stem. The flowers are in fruit, but have developed less than those that are white on the same stem. The flowers are in fruit, but have developed less than those that are white on the same stem. The flowers are in fruit, but have developed less than those that are white on the same stem. The flowers are in fruit, but have developed less than those that are white on the same stem. The flowers are in fruit, but have developed less than those that are white on the same stem. The flowers are in fruit, but have developed less than those that are white on the same stem. The flowers are in fruit, but have developed less than those that are white on the same stem. The flowers are in fruit, but have developed less than those that are white on the same stem. The flowers are in fruit, but have developed less than those that are white on the same stem. The flowers are in fruit, but have developed less than those that are white on the same stem. The flowers are in fruit, but have developed less than those that are white on the same stem. The flowers are in fruit, but have developed less than those that are white on the same stem. The flowers are in fruit, but have developed less than those that are white on the same stem. The flowers are in fruit, but have developed less than those that are white on the same stem. The flowers are in fruit, but have developed less than those that are white on the same stem. The flowers are in fruit, but have developed less than those that are white on the same stem. The flowers are in fruit, but have developed less than those that are white on the same stem. The flowers are in fruit, but have developed less than those that are white on the same stem. The flowers are in fruit, but have developed less than those that are white on the same stem. The flowers are in fruit, but have developed less than those that are white on the same stem. The flowers are in fruit, but have developed less than those that are white on the same stem. The flowers are in fruit, but have developed less than those that are white on the same stem. The flowers are in fruit, but have developed less than those that are white on the same stem. The flowers are in fruit, but have developed less than those that are white on the same stem. The flowers are in fruit, but have developed less than those that are white on the same stem. The flowers are in fruit, but have developed less than those that are white on the same stem. The flowers are in fruit, but have developed less than those that are white on the same stem. The flowers are in fruit, but have developed less than those that are white on the same stem. The flowers are in fruit, but have developed less than those that are white on the same stem. The flowers are in fruit, but have developed less than those that are white on the same stem. The flowers are in fruit, but have developed less than those that are white on the same stem. The flowers DEFINITE OR CYMOSE INFLORESCENCES. flowering takes place rapidly, commencing in the centre of the cyme, and thus forming a series of its divisions, and therefore producing an outward expansion of the cyme. The apex of each cluster corresponds to the apex of a branch, the expansion of which is accompanied by the formation of new branches. In ex- pansion such cymes may be always distinguished from indefinite kinds of inflorescence, such as the umbel, or corymb, to which of course the cymose inflorescence belongs. In the case of the Chickweed (fig. 429), and many other plants, the formation of the Fig. 431. Fig. 432. Fig. 433. Typical cyme of Sedum. This is an- gulate, but has no definite central stem. It consists of unisexual or unisexual spires (Fig. 434). The flowers are sessile, and are arranged in a circle, which is almost circular. The flowers are sessile, each ending in a flower. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40. cymes are usually characterised according to the number of their branches as dichotomous, &c., thus they are dichotomous when each branch divides into two equal parts, the primary axis $a'$ is terminated by a flower $f'$ at the base of which are two secondary axes $a''$, $a'''$ ending in one flower $f''$, $f'''$; and at the base of each of these flowers there are also two other bracts, from which in turn arise two further branches, which are terminated by flowers $f''', f''''$; and so on, and so the division in this case goes on through out the growing season, and in such cymes, which are usually of a more or less spreading nature, the centrifugal order of expansion is preserved. The above cymes are sometimes characterised according to the number of their branches as dichotomous, &c., thus they are dichotomous when each branch divides into two equal parts, the primary axis $a'$ is terminated by a flower $f'$ at the base of which are two secondary axes $a''$, $a'''$ ending in one flower $f''$, $f'''$; and at the base of each of these flowers there are also two other bracts, from which in turn arise two further branches, which are terminated by flowers $f''', f''''$; and so on, and so the division in this case goes on through out the growing season, and in such cymes, which are usually of a more or less spreading nature, the centrifugal order of expansion is preserved. The cyme of the Chickweed (fig. 429) is also 206 **HELICOID OR SCORPIDIUM CYME** dichotomous. The dichotomous cyme is also called a *bi-ramose* cyme or dichotomous cyme, but is not a dichasious branching (see page 104), but only apparently so, in consequence of the greater development of the lateral branches as compared with that of the central stem. Such cymes are also frequently characterised as corumbose, or umbellate, because they are often umbellate, i.e., umbelliform; or globose, linear, &c., according to their general form. When a definite inflorescence does not assume a more or less corumbose or umbellate form, as in the ordinary cyme just de- scribed, it is called an *indeterminate* cyme, or one which is of indefinite inflorescence to which it bears a resemblance. Thus when a cyme has sessile flowers, or nearly so, as in the Solenum (fig. 431), it is called a sessile cyme; when the pedicels are longer than on pedicels of nearly equal length, as in the Campanula (fig. 432), it is a racemose cyme; when the flowers are arranged in a circle, as in the Privet (fig. 433), as a panicle cyme. These latter terms, however, although in many cases very characteristic, are but little used by botanists. The following forms are distin- guished from the true racemes and other kinds of indefinite inflorescence by their arrangement of the flowers: 1. The *panicle*, in which the flowers are all at the base and others expanding in succession towards the base, or in a centri- fugal manner; while in the true raceme and the other kinds of indi- finitely developed inflorescence, the flowers are all at the apex and last at the apex, or centrifugally. Besides these forms there are its varieties mentioned above, other kinds of cymes inflorescence have also received particular names, as the *Helicoid* or *Scorpidium Cyme*, the *Panicle*, the *Globose* and *Linear* Cymes, which will be readily described. A. **Helicoid or Scorpidium Cyme.** This is a kind of cyme in which the flowers are only developed on one side, and in which the upper extremity is more or less coiled up in a circinate manner; or in which the flowers are developed in a circle. It is called a helicoid cyme because it is circularly develop- ed in contrast to the Boraginaceae, as the Forget-me-not (434), and the Comfrey (fig. 435). In these plants the bracts are alternately disposed on opposite sides of the stem, and the manner in which it is most com- monly developed in this case, is as follows— Thus, in a plant in which the bracts are opposite each other, the uppermost bract terminates the primary axis at its base; while those on the other side terminate it at its apex. This may be represented by a diagram (fig. 436). Here A represents the flower which terminates the primary axis; at the base of B is another flower which terminates it; such which develops a secondary axis b, which is in like manner terminated by a flower, at the base of which are also two tracts, only one HELICOID OR SCORPOID CYME. 207 of which (i.e. that on the same axis with the first) produces a tertiary axis, which again bears by a flower axis two branches at its base, one of which gives origin to another axis, $d$, placed in a Fig. 483. Fig. 484. Fig. 485. Partial cyme of the Pristis (Lipaphyllum majus). Primary Tertiary axis, $a$. The central flower of the secondary Tertiary axis, $b$. The lateral flowers of the secondary Tertiary axis, $c$. The tertiary axes are more numerous than those accompanying the lower three. Fig. 486. Fig. 487. Scorpoideum (Scorpio parvus). Fig. 488. Scorpoideum of Comfrey (Symphytum officinale). 298 DEFINITE INFLORESCENCES. similar manner, and so on. The place of the axis which is un- developed at first, is indicated by a dotted line. In consequence of this one-sided (or as it is called second) manner in which the successive axes are produced, the direction of the indifferent axis is changed, and the angle between it and each axis, and that in proportion to the size of the angle formed Fig. 436. Diagram to illustrate the formation of a helicoid cyme in a plant from an indifferent axis. The upper extremity of the primary axis is shown in dotted line. During the first year's growth, two secondary axes arise from the primary axis, one flower being produced from each. In the second year's growth, some lines represent the position of the unde- veloped axis after the production of the first flower. The following year's growth pro- duces a helicoid cyme in a plant with alternate bracts. The figure represents the respec- tive stages of development of such a cyme. It will be seen that in this case, as in all cases where the cyme is formed by it with its axis from which it springs, and thus when the angle is large, and many flowers are produced in succession, the upper extremity becomes completely coiled up in a spiral manner (fig. 437). In this case, however, the helicoid cyme arises from the primary axis (fig. 437), 1 being terminated by a flower, 2 which also terminates in a flower, and gives off below it in like manner from the same axis another third axis, which again gives off another flower, and so on as seen by the figures. The place of the bracts is indicated by the dotted line. The terms helicoid and scorpionid are thus used by us indiffer- ently to indicate the same form of cymelet, monochlamyde, or unipinnate cymelet, but we have not been able to find any mention of them in previous editions of this manual, and in which we follow De Candolle. We have therefore adopted these other terminations. We are still induced to do so, because their nature is at present by no means well defined, and from the synonymy being both very common and very wide. Helicoid cymes are found in several genera of Compositae. Rotary, at least in this country. But most Continental botanists distinguish two kinds of unipinnate-cymes: helicoid and scorpionid cyme or Fig. 437. Diagram to illustrate the formation of a helicoid cyme in a plant from an indifferent axis. The upper extremity of the primary axis is shown in dotted line. During the first year's growth, two secondary axes arise from the primary axis, one flower being produced from each. In the second year's growth, some lines represent the position of the unde- veloped axis after the production of the first flower. The following year's growth pro- duces a helicoid cyme in a plant with alternate bracts. The figure represents the respec- tive stages of development of such a cyme. It will be seen that in this case, as in all cases where the cyme is formed by it with its axis from which it springs, and thus when the angle is large, and many flowers are produced in succession, the upper extremity becomes completely coiled up in a spiral manner (fig. 437). In this case, however, the helicoid cyme arises from the primary axis (fig. 437), 1 being terminated by a flower, 2 which also terminates in a flower, and gives off below it in like manner from the same axis another third axis, which again gives off another flower, and so on as seen by the figures. The place of the bracts is indicated by the dotted line. The terms helicoid and scorpionid are thus used by us indiffer- ently to indicate the same form of cymelet, monochlamyde, or unipinnate cymelet, but we have not been able to find any mention of them in previous editions of this manual, and in which we follow De Candolle. We have therefore adopted these other terminations. We are still induced to do so, because their nature is at present by no means well defined, and from the synonymy being both very common and very wide. Helicoid cymes are found in several genera of Compositae. Rotary, at least in this country. But most Continental botanists distinguish two kinds of unipinnate-cymes: helicoid and scorpionid cyme or FARICLE. GLOMERULE. VERTICILLATELLUS. 209 cicemos. Thus in what is termed the *heloid* cyme, the suc- cessive lateral branches always arise from the same side, --that is either the upper or lower side of the stem, according to the species (figs. 357, a), as in *Hemerocallis*; while in the scrophoid cyme, the successive lateral axes arise alternately on the right and left of the main stem (see figs. 104, and fig. 307, a). See also *Rock Rose* (*Heliotaurus*), and Sundew (Sundew). Such cymes are often termed *monopodial*, but have been commonly re- garded as sympodial inflorescences; and to consist of a series of single-flowered axils, all of which are developed on one side as in the former case, and on the other as in the latter. The investigations, however, in recent years of Kraus, George Ham- mel, Gustavus Hildebrandt, and others, show that the nor- pod cyme is not a sympodial development, but a monopo- dial or indefinite kind of inflorescence, or, in other words, a monopodial cyme. Practically, the heloid or scrophoid cyme, in the sense as de- fined by Kraus and Hildebrandt, is a cyme with its flowers, at least when the bracts are developed, as follows --thus, in the raceme, the flowers always arise from the axis of the bracts, while in the heloid cyme they arise from the sides of the bracts (fig. 427), or at all events, more or less extra-axillary. But in those cases where the bracts are wanting, or only rudimentary, as in the Bongardiae, its discrimination from the raceme is often difficult, or even impossible, and its nature can only be ascertained by perpetual observation. Other views of the nature of these cymes have been also advanced. In his "Flora of North America," Mr. A. C. Hovey that bracteate scrophoid cymes arise from repeated dichotomy of the apex of an axillary bud. The further discussion of this only requires to be referred to Dr. J. D. Hooker's "Botany" manual, and therefore for more detailed particulars we must refer our readers to that work. For a more complete account, see "The American Journal of Botany" for January 1881, on "The History of the Scrophulariaceae," by W. H. Brown; and "The American Journal of Botany" for January 1882, on "The History of the Scrophulariaceae," by J. D. Hooker. c. The *Fascicule or Contracted Cyme*.--This name is applied to those cymes which consist of a number of flowers of nearly equal length, and arising from about the same point, so that the whole forms a flattened cup, as in the Sweet William and some other plants of the *Primula* order to which it belongs. d. The *Glomerules*.--This is a very richly developed few species of this order; and their flowers are usually very short, collected into a rounded head or short spike. Examples may be seen in the common Labiate plants, in species of Nettle, and in the Box (figs. 369). e. The *Verticillatus*.--This kind of cyme is seen in the White Dead-mistle (fig. 388), and usually in other plants of the **MIXED INFLORESCENCES.** Labiatae to which it belongs. In the flowers appear at first night to be arranged in whorls around the axis, but upon examination it will be seen that, in each apparent whorl, there are two distinct kinds of inflorescence, one of which is the central flowers of which open first, and hence the mode of expan-sion is centrifugal. To these false whors thus formed of two classes of glomerules, we may add those which are very frequently applied. This variety of inflorescence is sometimes regarded as a separate genus. We have now finished our description of the different kinds of regular inflorescence, and from what we have already stated, it may be readily understood that they may be found either at Fig. 438. Fig. 436. Inflorescence of the Box (Laurus amurensis). Fig. 437. Inflorescence of a species of Sassafras. the apex of the stem, or at the extremities of branches, or in the axil of bracts. But besides the above regular kinds of inflorescences, all of which are comprehended under the two divisions of indefinite and definite inflorescence, there exists another con-sists in a combination of these two forms, to which the term mixed inflorescence has been accordingly applied. 3. **MIXED INFLORESCENCE.** The term mixed inflorescence is by no means uncommon. It is formed by the general inflorescence developing one or more definite whorls of glomerules and other inflorescences in another. Thus in plants of the natural order Compo-sites (fig. 439), the terminal capitulum is the first to expand, and the second whorl consists of sessile glomerules in a centri-fugal manner; while the individual capitula open, as we have 210 PARTS OF THE FLOWER.—ESTIVATION. mean (page 201), their small flowers or florets from the circum- ferene to the centre, or centrifugally; hence, here the general influence is centrifugal, and the general arrangement is centrifugal. In Latifoliate Plants we have a directly reverse arrangement, for here the individual varietalities open their flowers centri- fugally (or peripherally) from the centre to the circumference; hence the general influence is indirec'te, while each partial influence is definite. Section 2. Of the Parts of the Flower ; and Their Arrangement in the Flower-bud. In common language, the idea of a flower is restricted to that portion in which we see the petals. Botanically, we understand by the flower, the union of all the organs which com- prise the flower. The term " flower" has been generally stated that the parts of the flower are only leaves in a modified condi- tion, or rather, the analogues of those organs, or homologous remnants of them. This view is not correct. A flower-bud is to be considered as the analogue of a leaf-bud, and the flower-bud differs from a leaf-bud in being more or less slightly developed, so that all its parts are placed in nearly the same plane. The detailed examination of this theoretical notion of a flower-bud will show us that it is merely a modification of its different parts or organs, when we shall be better able to understand how much as well as what matters connected with its sym- metry, and the various modifications to which it is liable. (See General Morphology.) 1. PARTS OF THE FLOWER. The parts of a flower have been already treated in fin general manner. We must now consider them more closely than usual, we must treat of their arrangement in the flower-bud—that is, in estivation. 2. ESTIVATION OR PRE-PROLATION. As the general arrangement of the rudimentary leaves of the leaf-bud is called estivation (the spring state), so the mode in which they are arranged in the flower-bud is called pre-prolata- tion. These two terms are not always used in exactly the same sense as those of estivation, and the two terms are sometimes using them are therefore the same; but the former present some peculiarities which do not exist in the latter. We shall refer to their different arrangements. The terms used in estivation especially refer to the relative positions of the component parts of the calyx and corolla, because these estamens and carpels, from 11 212 VARIETIES OF CIRCULAR ROTATION. their peculiar forms, can give us no such arrangements of their parts as are exhibited by the floral envelope. In describing the varieties of circular rotation, we have, as in the case of inversion, to include : 1st, the disposition of each of the component parts of the floral envelope in relation to one another; 2ndly, the relation of the several members of either of the floral envelopes taken as a whole in respect to each other; and 3rdly, the disposition of each of the component parts of the floral envelopes considered inde- pendently. The first two points will be treated under the head of modifications of rotation (page 149), with this addition of the crumpled or corrugated form, which is not found in the parts of the bud and calyx, but is found in the petals and sepals of the Poppy (Papaver), and Rock-rose (Helianthemum); and it derives its name from the parts being irregularly contracted into wrinkled folds. With respect to the relation of the several members of either of the floral envelopes to one another, we shall consider only those modifications occurring, all of which may be arranged in two divisions: namely, the Circular, and the Imbricated or Spiral Rotation. The former variety is that in which all the parts of any one component Fig. 448. Fig. 441. Fig. 442. Fig. 443. A diagram showing a circular arrangement of floral components. Fig. 447. Diagram to illustrate rotative rotation. --- Fig. 446. Diagram to illustrate rotative rotation. --- Fig. 445. Diagram to illustrate rotative rotation. --- Fig. 444. Diagram to illustrate rotative rotation. parts of the wheel are placed in a circle, and in nearly the same plane; and this variety is distinguished from others by slightly different levels in a more or less spiral manner, and overlap each other. 1. Varieties of Circular Rotation.—We distinguish three well-marked varieties of this, i.e. the rotative, imbricatcde, and roguated forms. In the rotative variety, as in that of the Lime, and in that of Oenothera multiflora; in this variety the parts are flat and nearly so, and in contact by their margins throughout their entire extent on both sides. This variety of rotation may be generally distinguished, even when the flower is not opened out, by observing that all its parts are slightly thickened, or at least all events not thinner than the rest of the organ; whereas in all varieties of imbricated or spiral rotation, the overlapping margins are usually thinner, as may 10 VARIETIES OF IMBRICATED OR SPIRAL RESTATION. 213 be well seen in the sepals of the Geranium. When the com- ponent parts, or petals, instead of being folded, are folded inwards, towards each other, and overlap one another (fig. 41), the restation is induplicate, as in the petals of Gomphrena glau- cosa, and in the sepals of the Potato. When the margins are turned outwards under the same circumstances (fig. 42), the restation is replicate, as in the calyx of the Holly- hock (Alcea rosea) and the sepals of the Potato. When the parts are short and placed at the same height, or apparently so, as in the ordinary forms of circular restation, and in one margin of each part is directed obliquely inwards, and in the other margin covers the corresponding margin of the adjoining part on the other side, so that the whole presents a more or less twisted appearance (fig. 43), this variety is termed spiral restation. When in this variety of restation the component organs be- come completely separated from each other, as in the corolla of the common Bumulaceae and of other Convolvulaceae, in which case the restation is usually termed pinnate or pinnated. Sometimes, however, they may be united by a narrow band, inter- mediate between the Circular and Imbricated forms. It occurs very frequently in the leaves of some plants belonging to the Rutaceae. Ex- amples may be seen in the corollas of the Hoolhock and other Malvaceae plants; in that of the common Fennel (Lemon undecu- lens); in that of the common Saffron (Crocus sativus); in John's Wort (Hypericum); in the Periwinkle (Vinca); and in many other plants belonging to different families. 2. Varieties of Imbricated or Spiral Restation.—We distin- guish five varieties of this kind of restation, i.e., the imbricate, consolidate, spiral, alternate, and pinnate restations. The true imbricate restation, as seen for instance in the calyx of Camellia japonica, is such that all its parts are placed at different levels, and overlapping each other more or less by their margins like the tiles on a house, the whole for- ming a symmetrical figure (fig. 44). In this form also, when the parts, instead of merely overlapping, completely enve- lope each other (fig. 45), as in the corolla of Camellia japonica, the restation is termed consoli- date by some botanists; but this term is now more frequently applied to those cases where only one part of each part overlaps to a considerable degree, as in the Wallflower. When the parts overlap each other only partially, as in those imbricat- ed in such a manner that there are two parts placed on the outside, two inside, and the fifth overlapping one of the internal by one part and one external by another part; or by one of the external parts, the restation is said to be spin- cinate (fig. 46). Familiar examples of this form are afforded by the corolla of the Rose and the calyx of the Buntweed (Colly- **214 VARIETIES OF IMBRICATED OR SPIRAL ESTIVATION.** *stenia sepsim*. In this kind of estivation the spiral arrange- ment of the parts is well seen, and is indicated in the diagrams ( figs. 440, 441) by the dotted lines which show that the perianth is the normal one in pentamerous or sesamoid flowers (those with the parts in two series), but that in the corolla of the *Dau- tyloncium plantae*, corresponds to the *3.* pendatidochus, or *Ame- rindus* arrangement of leaves. When in a quintinum arrange- ment the perianth is external, and the corolla internal, instead of being external, the regularity of the quincunx is inter- rupted, and the corolla is said to be *interstitate*. The *Paeonia caerulea* has been given (fig. 440). Familiar examples of this are afforded by the Stargrass (*Asurfornia majus*), and other allied plants. Fig. 441. Fig. 442. Fig. 443. Fig. 447. ![Diagram to illustrate interstitate estivation. The figure 1, 1, 1, 3, shows that the successive parts are arranged in a spiral manner—fig. 2, interstitate estivation; fig. 3, interstitate estivation; fig. 4, interstitate estivation; and fig. 5, interstitate estivation.] The diagram shows how in the first three figures the perianth is external, and in the fourth internal; but in the fifth figure all the parts are internal. The diagram illustrates the fact that in interstitate estivation there is no interruption of the quincunx, and that each part is surrounded by its own envelope. Diagram to illustrate estivative estivation. A second form of these or of those, I call *estivative estivation*. In this case the superior petal, which is generally the largest, and called the *medium*, is folded over the others which are arranged face to face (fig. 447). This kind of estivation is commonly termed *estivative*. It frequently happens that the calyx and corolla exhibit different forms of estivation. Thus in *Lavatera trimestris* both the calyx is *septate* and the corolla *septate*. In Malvaceous plants the calyx is *solute* or some form of circular estivation; and thus in *Malva sylvestris* we have a remarkable variety of estivation, as exhibited by these two floral envelopes. may be seen in *Cerastium* (fig. 448), where the calyx is *solute*, Le the *medium*. But instances also frequently occur where the calyx and corolla present different modifications, and which belong to both classes of estivation (fig. 449). Thus in *Hesperis*, for example, the species of *St John's Wort* (*Hypericum*) are Gernanium, and in many other plants, the calyx is pentamerous or interstitate ; and the corolla condensed. Fig. 441.Fig. 442.Fig. 443.Fig. 447. **FLORAL ENVELOPE,**—THE CALYX. 215 The kinds of separation above described are always constant in the same individual, and frequently throughout entire genera, and are therefore of great importance in the classification of plants in Systematic Botany. For a similar reason they are also of much value to the botanist in his study of the plant, and are commonly afforded in enabling us to ascertain the relative succession and position of the parts of the flower on the axis. The second object of this chapter is to determine the period at which the flower-bud opens. Besides these two points, we have constant relations which the parts of the floral envelope have to each other in the flower-bud, they have a definite and constant relation in the same plant from one stage to another. In order to understand these positions we use the terms *anterior* or *inferior*, *superior* or *posterior*, and *medial* or *central*. The term *anterior* means that part which is turned towards the axis ; and that next the branch from the axis of which it arises, inferior, or anterior. When there are four lateral sepals, two superior, two lateral, and two inferior, as in the calyx of Cruciferaeous plants (fig. 24, c). If there are five sepals, three superior, two lateral, and one inferior, as in the calyx of the Leguminoseae, two sepals are superior, two lateral, and one inferior ; while in the corolla one petal is superior, two lateral, and one inferior. In all these cases when the petals of the Rose occur (Rosaceae), we have a precisely reverse position; for here there are three petals, two superior, one inferior; thus, here we have two sepals inferior, two lateral, and one superior; while in the corolla there are two petals superior, two lateral, and one inferior. The same definite relation with respect to the axis also holds good in many other groups of plants. In many herbs, for example, shoots which are very short, but which distinct characters are conspicuous at maturity, as will be seen afterwards when treating of Systematic Botany. Section 3. THE FLORAL ENVELOPE. I. THE CALYX. We have already stated that the calyx is the outermost en- velope of the flower, and that it is composed of one or more large organs. These organs may be either green like true leaves, by which character alone as well as by their form and more delicate texture, they may in most cases be distinguished from true leaves ; or they may be greenish white or yellow, especially when the number of petals is much increased, in which there is a gradual transition from the sepals to the petals, that is to say from those which are situated on either side to those where the only ends and the corolla begin. The White Water-lily (Nymphaea alba) has a calyx consisting entirely of sepals. In some plants, again, the green colour disappears, and the calyx A diagram showing different positions of floral envelope parts. 218 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE CALYX. becomes coloured with the same tint as the corolla, or with some other bright hue, which is generally different from that of the petals; and the chief distinctive character between it and the corolla is then afforded by its position on the outside of the latter organ. The Fuchsia (fig. 26), the Hyacinth (fig. 27), and the Tulip, are therefore, may be mentioned as affording familiar examples of a petaloid calyx somewhat similar to that of the Calyx; but this is not common among plants generally, as in the Lily, Iris, Tulip, Crocus, and Squill (fig. 27); as we have seen (p. 107), the two floral envelopes are nearly equalised, although nearly always one is more conspicuous than the other. When there is but one whorl of floral envelopes, as in the Goose- foot (fig. 28), it is customary with some botanists to call this the calyx, whether it is coloured or green ; it is so formed in this Fig. 448. ![Image](image) Fig. 448. Flower of the White Water Lily (Nymphaea alba) reduced in size. After Jussieu. — The leaves are represented in fig. 359. The petals are the right hand ones of the general flower, from the calyx upwards. The sepals are below them, and are represented in fig. 360. The stamens are from 1 to 6 are gradually more distinctive. Volume. Other botanists, however, under such circumstances, call the whorl that is present a perianth. Those, again, who use the term "calyx" only when referring to those organs which apply it, in all cases, to flowers whether of Monocotyledons or Dicotyle- doms whose floral envelopes are all coloured as in the Lily, or in green as in the Dock. In their structure, venation, and characters generally, the sepals resemble those of the Lilies; they are often with epidermis; this is also frequently furnished on the lower or outer surface with a few hairs, scales, or other appendages. From the duration of the sepals being usually more transitory than that of true leaves, the veins which accompany them are often very short and weak, and are arranged like those of the leaves in the two classes GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE CALYX. 217 of plants respectively—that is, reticulated in Dicotyledons, and parallel in Monocotyledons. The sepals may exhibit various characters as regards their outline, margins, apex, &c., although they are by no means so liable to variation as the petals, which are composed of three leaves. The terms used in defining these various modifications are applied in the same sense as with the blades of leaves. Sepals are often termed "petaloid," because they fall off, or, in other words, they are sessile upon the thalamus. They are also generally entire at their margins, although exceptions to this latter character occasionally occur; thus, in the Fawcy and Rose. Fig. 449. Fig. 450. Fig. 451. Fig. 452. Fig. 468. Vertical section of the Base of the Base. r.r., Concave thalamus upon which the sepals rest; s.s., Sessile sepals; m.m., Marginate sepals; b.b., Basal portion of the calyx divided into two portions by a median groove; a.a., Apex of the calyx; a.a.a., Apex of the calyx with a small apical lobe; J.J., Outer divisions of the calyx; J.J.j., Inner divisions of the calyx; J.J.j.j., Innermost division of the calyx; J.J.j.j.j., Innermost division of the calyx on one of the inner divisions. Fig. 461. In many species of Calycula (Figs. 463-465) a perigynium is present, consisting of a whorl of several sepals, which are either completely or involutely appressed. For Fig. 462, Flower of Calycula (Figs. 463-465). For Fig. 463, Sepal of Calycula (Figs. 463-465). For Fig. 464, Sepal of Calycula (Figs. 463-465). For Fig. 465, Sepal of Calycula (Figs. 463-465). (See figs. 449 and 471.), The sepals are incised at their margins ; in many species of Dock they are toothed (figs. 450, e.c.) ; in the Madiastrum plumulosum (figs. 470), they are deeply lobed or parted ; and in *Pentagramma* fortunata the sepals are not pinna-tinctured, and then each segment pinnatifid. In those species in which the sepals are erect or turned upwards—converged or turned inwardly ; divergent or outflown, when they spread outwards ; or reflexed, when their extremities are turned downwards. A diagram showing the structure of a flower with sepals. 218 POLYTHEPALEUS AND MONOPHELAUS CYLICES. The sepals may be either distinct from each other, as in the Poppy, Buttercup, Wallflower, and Strawflower (figs. 453-457); or more or less united into a calyx (figs. 455-460); or they may be the Pimpinella, Camomile, and Henbane. In the former case, the calyx is called polythaleus; but this term is not used in the latter it is commonly called monophealus. But this latter term is incorrect, as it indicates literally one sepal; and hence many botanists have adopted the name of monophealus for a united calyx, as this simply implies that the sepals are united. The terms polythaleus and monophealus, when occurring in general use, will be ordinarily employed in this volume. I. POLYTHEPALEUS OR DIATHERAPALUS CYLICE. A polythaleous calyx may be defined as one which is composed of several parts, indi- cated by the prefix of Greek numerals, as dispalaeos for a calyx composed of two parts, tetrapalaeus for four parts, etc., with three, pentapalaeus if it have four, pentapalaeus if five, hexapalaeus if six, heptapalaeus if seven, and so on. A polythaleous calyx is usually a compound of sepals of equal size and like shape or form arranged in a symmetrical man- ner; as in the Poppy (fig. 453), the Wallflower (fig. 454), and the Strawflower (fig. 455); and it is said to be irregular when these conditions are not complied with, as in the Monkshood (fig. 462). Fig. 453. Fig. 454. Fig. 455. Fig. 456. Particule inferior calyx of the Pimpinella (Camomile). Fig. 457. Chart of dissected calyx of the Camomile (Camomile). Fig. 458. Dissection of a Monophealus Calyx. II. MONOPHELAUS OR MONOPHELAUS CYLICE.—When the sepals are united so as to form a monophealous calyx, various terms are used to indicate their number; viz., two-sepalled, three-sepalled, four-sepalled, etc., according to the number of parts composing it. Thus, the union may only take place near the base; as in the Pimpinella (fig. 463), where the calyx is said to be poritate; or it may take place at almost any point between the base and apex; as in the Camomile (fig. 464), where it is said to be subaperturate; or it may be entirely united at the base; as in the Camomile (fig. 465), where it is said to be basally united; or it may be united at some intermediate point; as in the Camomile (fig. 466), where it is said to be intermediately united; or it may be entirely united at the apex; as in the Camomile (fig. 467), where it is said to be aperturate; or it may be entirely united at some intermediate point; as in the Camomile (fig. 468), where it is said to be intermediately united; or it may be entirely united at the base and apex; as in the Camomile (fig. 469), where it is said to be basally and aperturally united. In all these cases, however, whether they are basally united, intermediately united, or aperturally united, the number of parts composing them is always two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven, twelve, thirteen, fourteen, fifteen, sixteen, seventeen, eighteen, nineteen, twenty-one, twenty-two, twenty-three, twenty-four, twenty-five, twenty-six, twenty-seven, twenty-eight, twenty-nine, thirty-one, thirty-two, thirty-three, thirty-four, thirty-five, thirty-six; and thus we see that there can never be more than twenty-six divisions in the lamina of a leaf; thus a monophealous calyx 1 VARIETIES OF THE MONOSPALOUS CALYX. 219 where the divisions are five, would be described as five-partite or quinque-partite, five-lobed, five-toothed, five-toothed or quinque- lobate; but when the divisions are three, the term tripartite, trilobate, trifid, or tridentate, would indicate that such a calyx is divided into three parts or lobes and so on. The number of divisions in the majority of cases corresponds to that of the component sepals of which the calyx is formed ; and such a division is usually accompanied by a corresponding number of segments in those cases where the divisions are themselves divided into smaller parts. This arrangement is very useful, and generally enable the observer to recognise the primary from the secondary divisions. When a monospalous calyx is only, the number of its divisions is equal to the number of its principal veins from which the others diverge generally correspond to the number of segments of which each sepal is composed. In those in which the union exists in a marked degree, the part where the sepals are united is called the tube, the free portion the limb, and the curved portion the tube (figs. 456-457). Fig. 456. Fig. 457. Fig. 458. Unequal calyx of Hymenae (Spongia). The calyx is divided into two unequal parts (fig. 458). The Dendrothele (Lemna), fig. 459. A bicellular calyx with two separate tubes (fig. 460). The Calyptraeaceae (fig. 461) are symmetrical. communis, etc. Tube of the calyx adherent to the corolla. If the union between the sepals is unequal, or the parts are of different sizes, or if irregular forms occur, the calyx is said to be irregular (fig. 462); if, on the contrary, the parts are alike in figure and size, and form a single tube, or if they form a symmetrical body, it is regular (fig. 460). Some varieties of the irregular and also of the regular calyx have received special names; thus, in fig. 463, we see a calyx with four lips, or calyx, which it is composed are united in such a manner as to form two lips. Of this regular form of the monotopalous calyx a number **220 SUPERIOR AND INFERIOR CALYX.—PAPPOSE CALYX.** are distinguished under the names of *subular*, bell-shaped or *corona*—roundate (Fig. 406), conical, globule, etc. The application of these terms to the calyx is not always uniform, in which similar forms occur, and in which they are usually more evident. The tube of a monospermatous calyx, or of that of a perianth (the parts of which, like the sepals, are frequently united to a varying extent), is said to be *superior* when it is situated above the Iria, Gooseberry, Current, Myrtle (Fig. 408, out), in all the plants of the order of the *Caryophyllaceae* (Fig. 409, 410, 411, 412, 413, 450–461), and in numerous other cases. When this takes place, the calyx is said to be adnate, or because it appears to arise from the base of the corolla, it is also called *inflorose*. In such a case it is then described as *inferior*. When the calyx is free, or sessile, it is called *supinate*. In the Pimpinella (Fig. 453), Wallflower, Poppy, and Buttercup, it is said to be *free*, non-adherent, or *inferior*, and the ovary is thence Fig. 409.Fig. 408.Fig. 461. When the calyx or perianth is attached to the base of the corolla, its limb presents various modi- fications : thus in the Iria, Corydalis (Fig. 417) and *Polemonium* (Fig. 461), and Chamaemelum, it is membranous ; in the Madder (Rumex) it is tubular ; in the form of a circular rim ; while in the *Helleborus* it is a together absciss (Fig. 460). In the two latter cases the calyx is com- pletely separated from the corolla. In many plants of the order Com- positae and their allies, the Dipsaceae and Valerianaceae, the base of the calyx is only attached by a short stalk or a minute petiole. One of the leaves of the *Saxifraga* has a stalk at its base ; another has a petiole ; the adherent calyx is then mem- braneous and the calyx under such circumstances is said to be papoose. The papoose calyx occurs in the Iria, and simple or pilose ; thus it is feathery, as in the Valerian (Fig. 461), when each of its divisions is covered on the sides by little hair-like processes ; but in those cases where the divisions have no marked projections from their sides, as in the Iria and Chamaemelum (Fig. 460), the papoose calyx is also described as such when it arises immediately from the APPENDAGES OF THE CALYX.—SPUR. 221 tube of the adherent calyx, and thus apparently from the top of the ovary, or fruit, as in the Valerian (fig. 402); and *adul* of the calyx, as in the *Saxifrage* (fig. 403). Fig. 402. Fig. 403. **APPENDAGES OF THE CALYX** The spur is, when ther monopetalous genus is considered, subject to various other irregularities besides that of being readily allotted to the expansion of one or more of its appendages, such as the appendages of different species of the Monkshood (fig. 402), the superior spur is prolonged upwards into a sort of hood or helmet-shaped process, in which case it is said to be hooded, helmet-shaped, or palate; but in the case of the *Saxifrage* (fig. 403), on the contrary, the two lateral sepals are expanded on one side at the base into little spurs, and these spurs are so long that the upper calyx has one or more tubular prolongations downwards it is said to be calobate or spurred. Only one spur may be present, as in the Indian Honeysuckle (fig. 404), or there may be three sepals ; or in the Larkspur, where it is formed by one ; or each. Fig. 404. Fig. 405. If the sepals may be spurred. In the Polargamum, the spur instead of being free from the pedicel, as in the above instances, is united to it. On the outside of the calyx of some flowers, as in those of 222 **DURATION OF THE CALYX.** many plants of the Mallow (fig. 465), Pink (fig. 469, b), and Rose orders (figs. 451, 453), there is placed a short of leaf-like organs which in some cases are persistent, and in others deciduous, by which the name of *epipetal* or *calypso* has been accordingly given to them. The calyx of the *Clematis* is so long as the *indusia* already noticed (see page 187), and has been so described by us. **Duration of the Calyx.—The duration of the calyx varies in different flowers. Thus it is caducous or fugacious, when it falls off before the fruit is ripe (fig. 466). It is persistent (fig. 467). In the *Eucalyptus* the calyx, which is caducous, separates from the hollow thalamus to which it is articulated, in the form of a funnel, and thus forms a cup-shaped receptacle for the seeds. The separation of the calyx occurs in the *Eucalyptus*, except that here the part which is left behind after the separation of the upper portion evidently becomes the calyx, instead of the thalamus in the former instance. Such a calyx is said to be **caducous**, but it may also be termed **deciduous**, because at the same time as the corolla, as in the Crowfoot or Buttercup, it is then called decapitate. In other cases the calyx remains after the flower has withered (fig. 468). In *Hawthorn*, *Dogwood*, and *Malus* when it is described as **persistent**, when the calyx is adherent or separated according to circumstances, such as in the case of the fruit, as in the Quince (fig. 469), Apple, Pear, Gooseberry, Melon, and Cucumber. When it is persistent and assumes a shrivelled appearance, as in the case of *Clematis*, *Corydalis*, *Corydalis*, it is termed **acrescent**, or if it is persistent, and continues to grow after withering, as in the case of *Corydalis*, *Corydalis*, round the fruit, as in the Winter Cherry, and other species of *Physalis* (fig. 467), it is termed **acrescent**. Fig. 465.Fig. 467.Fig. 468. **Fig. 466.—Flower of Puggy, showing a caducous only calyx—Fig. 467.—Atropine—Fig. 468.—Flower of Quince, showing a persistent calyx—Fig. 469.—Flower of Apple, showing a caducous calyx. THE COROLLA. 233 2. THE COROLLA. The corolla is the inner envelope of the flower. It consists of one or more whorls of leafy organs, called petals, in a com- position similar to that of the leaves, but differing in the mode of arrangement, and is generally to be distinguished from the former, as being composed of several parts, instead of one, a simple leaf-structure. When there is but one whorl of floral envelopes, as we have already before noticed, this is to be considered as thecaly, and not the corolla proper. The calyx is usually the most showy and conspicuous part of the flower, and is often termed the corolla. In some rare cases, however, it is green like the calyx, as in certain Coleus and some Asclepiadaceous plants. The corolla also, in the majority of flowers, is greenish or yellowish, like the calyx, the seat of those colours. Sometimes, as we have seen, there is a similar transition from the calyx to the petals (fig. 448), and in the same plant this is also a similar transition from these petals to the stamens (fig. 450). In structures where the corolla is composed of several leaves, being composed of parenchyma, supported by veins which are chiefly formed into a tube-like structure, they are said to be tubular. The whole petal is invested by epidermis, which is com- monly destitute of stomata, but these organs may be some- times found on its surface. The petal is usually smooth, although hairs occasionally occur, as in the Bombax; when they exceed a certain degree they are termed hairs. Buckeyes, and on the other hand the perianth of the Iris, Paeonia, etc., sur- poses in position to the corolla. Petals are frequently nar- rowed at their base, and then they are termed filiform; as in the petiole of a leaf, as in the Wallflower and Pink (fig. 470). The normal portion is that which lies free from the petiole; and the expanded portion is termed filiform; and the petiole is said to be neculate or closed. In this particular petal must be considered respectively the normal portion and the expanded portion. Petals are almost without exception sessile, or destitute of claws. The outlines of petals, like those of sepals and leaves, are subject to great variations; but they are generally simple, regular, simple, cordate, etc. The application of these terms having been already shown (p. 169), it will not be necessary to further allude to it. The condition of their margins also, the mode in which they are divided, and their terminations, are indispensable means for distinguishing them from those included under similar heads in our chapter on Leaves. Thus the petals may be termed entire (fig. 471), lobed (figs. 472-475), fringed (figs. 476-478), etc. The petals are not however liable to any further division than that of the original one; thus, although sometimes pen- ciled, or somewhat fringed with a series of short teeth (figs. 479-481), or spinalesigarii. One term is occasionally used in describing A diagram showing different types of petals: entire (left), lobed (middle left), fringed (middle right), penciled (right). 224 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE COROLLA. the condition of the margins which has not been alluded to, when speaking of the corolla, is that of being "fimbriated" or fringed, as in some species of Dianthus (figs. 470 and 470, I), when they present long thread-like processes at their margins. Again, the corolla may be described as being "plicate," "plicate," or conrose, tubular, boat-shaped, &c. These terms sufficiently ex- plain their nature, but it will be necessary to give them more de- scribed hereafter (page 300). In texture the petals are com- monly soft and delicate, but they sometimes differ widely from this, and become hard and fleshy, as in the "dry" or dry and membranaceous, as in Heath's; or stiff and hard, as in Aegopis. Fig. 469. Fig. 470. Fig. 469. The flower of a species of Pink (Streptocarpus). A. Bract, forming a carnation or involucre. B. Outer, p.p. Petal. C. Stamens. D. Fig. 470. One of the species of the former figure. E. Claw or sepals. F. Linch, which is tinged at the margin. In describing their direction, we use the term erect, connexed, erected, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, erectus, The petals like the sepals may be either distinct; or more or less united into one body. In the former case the corolla is said to be polysepalous; in the latter monosepalous or pampealous (figs. 473-480). The same objection applies to the use of the term monosepalous as to that of monospermous; for it is impossible that any plant shall continue to employ it from its being the one commonly used in use; and it will describe the different kinds of corolla under these two heads. I. POLYSEPALOUS OR DALLYSEPALOUS COROLLA.—The number of petals composing a corolla is indicated by the prefix poly- as well as by the suffix -sepalous; thus a corolla with three petals is indi- cated as in the case of the polysepalous calyx; by the prefix of POLYPETALOUS COROLLAS. 223 The Greek numerals. Thus a corolla of two petals is said to be dipteralous; of three, tripteralous; of four, tetrapetalous; of five, pentapetalous; of six, hexapetalous; of seven, heptapetalous; of eight, octapetalous; and so on. When the corollas are of the same size, figure, and form, and arranged in a symmetrical manner, the corolla is termed regu- lar. When they are unequal in size, figure, or form, and arranged in the petal vary in these particulars, as in the Pim and allied plants (441 and 472), it is said to be irregular. Some varieties of plants have both regular and irregular flowers; but we will now proceed to describe under the two divisions of regular and irregular. Fig. 471. Fig. 472. A. Regular Polypetalous Corollas.—Of these we may mention three forms, viz., the cruciform or cruciate ; the carpelipalous; and the corollaceous. 1. Cruciform or Cruciate.—This corolla gives the name to the two- or three-petalled flowers which have their petals in two or four pairs, usually with claws, as in the Wallflower (fig. 24, p.), and Stock; but sometimes without claws, as in the Glanduline, and the like adnate flowers. 2. Carpelipalous.—This consists of five petals, with long and slender claws, as in the Primrose (fig. 408); or of two petals, commonly placed at right angles to the claws, as in the Campania, Single Pink (figs. 409 and 470), Carnation, and Catchfly; or short petals, as in the Wallflower (fig. 24), or with very short claws, and spreading in a regular manner, as in the Snowdrop (fig. 601). 3. Corollaceous.—There are many anomalous forms of irregular polypetalous corollas to which no particular name has been given; but there is one form, however, which is of much importance, namely, q 226 MONGOPETALOUS OR GAMOPETALOUS COROLLAS. The *Papilionaceae.*—This derives its name from the fancied resemblance of the corolla to that of a butterfly (fig. 473), which consists of five petals (fig. 473), one of which is superior or posterior, and commonly larger than the others, and termed the sepalum or standard (fig. 473); two lateral ones, termed the wings or wings, and more or less united and form a somewhat boat-shaped cavity, car, called the keel or corona; and two lateral, a, called the sinus or sinus. 2. MONOPETALOUS OR GAMOPETALOUS COROLLAS.—When the petals united, but not forming a tube, and when the corolla is recurved are used as in the case of the monopetalous only to indicate the degrees of adhesion; thus the corolla may be peritrich, bifid, lobed, or entire (see page 218). The part where union has taken place is termed the tube, and the free part is termed the limb, l, and the orifice of the tube, the throat or fovea (fig. 473). Fig. 473. Fig. 474. Fig. 475. Fig. 473. Flower of *Syzygium cordifolium.* *New.* Tuberous plant. *Cordifolium.* A compound leaf. A. A segment of the stamens and filaments. B. A segment of the pistil. C. A segment of the calyx. D. A segment of the corolla. E. The ovary with three cells (Carpels). F. The ovule (Ovule). G. The style (Stigma). H. The stigma (Stigma). I. The anther (Anther). J. The pollen grain (Pollen grain). The monopetalous corolla, like the gamopetalous corolla, is regular when its parts are of the same size, figure, and form, and united so as to form a symmetrical body (figs. 473-475); or if these conditions are not complied with it is irregular (figs. 470-480). In this case it is necessary to distinguish between monopetalous corollas having received special names, as follows: A. Simple or Monopetalous Corollas.—Of these we may describe the following— 1. Tubular (fig. 473), where the form is nearly cylindrical throughout; as *Corydalis*, *Corydalis*, *Corydalis*, *Bagratoe* (*Heliotrope*) (figs. 461), and *Millefiori* (*Lavandula*). 2. Campanulate or bell-shaped, when the corolla is rounded at REGULAR AND IRREGULAR MONOPETALOUS COROLLAS. 227 the base, and gradually enlarged upwards to the summit, so as to resemble a bell in form, as in the Harebell (fig. 473). 2. The corolla is of the same form as that of an inverted cone, like a funnel, as in the Tobacco (fig. 475). 4. Hypocentrateiform or solen-shaped (fig. 476), when the tube is long and narrow, and the limb placed at right angles to it, as in the Harebell. 5. Rotate or helical-shaped, when the tube is short, and the limbs are right-angled to it, as in Forget-me-not (fig. 474) and Bittersweet (fig. 478). 6. Ucroscate or unrotated, when the corolla is swollen in the middle, and the limbs both bend and fold, as in the Purple Heath (fig. 478), and Hibiscus ("successus Myrtifolius"). Fig. 475. Fig. 477. Fig. 478. Flower of a species of Primula. c. Outer, within which is seen a hypocentrateiform corolla. t. Tube of the corolla. i. Limb of the corolla. 7. The corolla is composed of two petals, which are either completely united, as in the White Dandelion (fig. 480), or divided into two lobes, as in the Rose (fig. 481), and Germander (fig. 480); or three lobes, as in the lower lip of three petals, which are also, either entire as in the Rose (fig. 481), or toothed, as in the White Dandelion (fig. 480); or five lobes, as in Galaxidium (fig. 485). When a labiate corolla has its upper lip much arched, as in the White Dead-nettle (fig. 479), it is frequently termed cupped or cupping. The labiate corolla I. Image Description: A flower with a tubular shape and a broad base. II. Image Description: A flower with a tubular shape and a broad base. III. Image Description: A flower with a tubular shape and a broad base. IV. Image Description: A flower with a tubular shape and a broad base. V. Image Description: A flower with a tubular shape and a broad base. VI. Image Description: A flower with a tubular shape and a broad base. VII. Image Description: A flower with a tubular shape and a broad base. VIII. Image Description: A flower with a tubular shape and a broad base. IX. Image Description: A flower with a tubular shape and a broad base. X. Image Description: A flower with a tubular shape and a broad base. XI. Image Description: A flower with a tubular shape and a broad base. XII. Image Description: A flower with a tubular shape and a broad base. XIII. Image Description: A flower with a tubular shape and a broad base. XIV. Image Description: A flower with a tubular shape and a broad base. XV. Image Description: A flower with a tubular shape and a broad base. XVI. Image Description: A flower with a tubular shape and a broad base. XVII. Image Description: A flower with a tubular shape and a broad base. XVIII. Image Description: A flower with a tubular shape and a broad base. XIX. Image Description: A flower with a tubular shape and a broad base. XX. Image Description: A flower with a tubular shape and a broad base. XXI. Image Description: A flower with a tubular shape and a broad base. XXII. Image Description: A flower with a tubular shape and a broad base. XXIII. Image Description: A flower with a tubular shape and a broad base. XXIV. Image Description: A flower with a tubular shape and a broad base. XXV. Image Description: A flower with a tubular shape and a broad base. XXVI. Image Description: A flower with a tubular shape and a broad base. XXVII. Image Description: A flower with a tubular shape and a broad base. XXVIII. Image Description: A flower with a tubular shape and a broad base. XXIX. Image Description: A flower with a tubular shape and a broad base. XXX. Image Description: A flower with a tubular shape and a broad base. XXXI. Image Description: A flower with a tubular shape and a broad base. XXXII. Image Description: A flower with a tubular shape and a broad base. XXXIII. Image Description: A flower with a tubular shape and a broad base. XXXIV. Image Description: A flower with a tubular shape and a broad base. XXXV. Image Description: A flower with a tubular shape and a broad base. XXXVI. Image Description: A flower with a tubular shape and a broad base. XXXVII. Image Description: A flower with a tubular shape and a broad base. XXXVIII. Image Description: A flower with a tubular shape and a broad base. XXXIX. <水印描述：花的形状和基部。229 or strap-shaped. This kind of corolla frequently occurs in the florets of the Compositae, either in the whole of those constitut- ing the capitulum, as in the Dandelion (Leontodon); or only in Fig. 483. Fig. 484. Fig. 485. Fig. 486. Fig. 487. Fig. 488. Fig. 489. Perennial corolla of Asperula (Asperula). L. Lower lip. 2. Upper lip. A. filiform base. — Fig. 490. Perennial corolla of the Turf (Dactylis glomerata). L. Lower lip. U. upper lip. The lower lip is a composite lower, with five teeth on its apex. — Fig. 491. Ligulate corolla of the Corydalis (Corydalis). L. Lower lip. U. upper lip. — Fig. 492. Peri- pheral corolla of Fougères (Fougère purpurea). — Fig. 493. Irregular rotate corolla of the Salsify (Tragopogon). some of them, as in the outer florets of the Ox-eye (fig. 486). The apex of a ligulate corolla has frequently five teeth indica- ting its component petals (fig. 488). 230 APPENDAGES OF THE COROLLA. Besides the above described forms of regular and irregular monopetalous corollae, others also occur, some of which are but slight modifications of the former, while others are more or less produced in certain parts in the progress of their development. Thus in the Foxglove (fig. 487), the corolla is somewhat bell-shaped, the corolla is somewhat bell-shaped, but it is longer than this form, and slightly irregular, and as it has been supposed to resemble the Sepalae of the Orchis, it is called a Sepaloid corolla or glaze-shaped. In the Speedwell (fig. 488), the corolla is nearly rotate, but the divisions are of unequal size, hence it may be described as a corolla of unequal segments. In the Honeysuckle the corolla is irregularly salver-shaped (fig. 490). Arranged under this head, all corollae, like the calyx, whether polypetalous or monopetalous, is subject to various irregularities. Fig. 489. Fig. 490. Fig. 491. Flower of a species of Valerian (Valeriana). c. The corolla. L. Limbus the calyx. b. The sepals. d. The stamens. e. The pistil. f. The ovary. g. The fruit. h. The seed. Limbus the calyx is sometimes expanded at one side only, and so termed spatulate or spatulae; this term being used in the same sense as that applied to the petals of the same flower, as in the case of the calyx. At other times, one or more of the petals, or the tube of the corolla, becomes dilated on one side, so as to form a single bag or sac; it is then termed saculate or phyllosa; this term being used in the same sense as that applied to the petals of the same flower, as in the case of the calyx. At other times, one or more of the petals, or the tube of the corolla, becomes dilated on both sides, so as to form a spur, in which case the petal or corolla is described as spurred or calytrate. Examples of spurred petals or calytrate may be seen in the following plants: - Red Valerian (figs. 484), and Red Valerian (figs. 490). Only one spur may be present; but in some cases two spurs may be present; thus in the Columbine (figs. 492), which usually only produces one spur, in rare instances it found with two. Such a variety was termed by Linnaeus Polyanthus, gularities arising from the expansion or growing outwards of one or more of the petals, or of parts of the corolla, into processes of different kinds. Thus in the Snapdragon (figs. 485), b) and Valerian (figs. 486), a spur arises from each petal; when such a spur becomes dilated on one side so as to form a single bag or sac; it is then termed saculate or spatulae; this term being used in the same sense as that applied to the petals of the same flower, as in the case of the calyx. At other times, one or more of the petals, or the tube of the corolla, becomes dilated on both sides, so as to form a spur, in which case the petal or corolla is described as spurred or calytrate. Examples of spurred petals or calytrate may be seen in the following plants: - Red Valerian (figs. 484), and Red Valerian (figs. 490). Only one spur may be present; but in some cases two spurs may be present; thus in the Columbine (figs. 492), which usually only produces one spur, in rare instances it found with two. Such a variety was termed by Linnaeus Polyanthus, 231 APPENDAGES OF THE COROLLA. 231 name which is now applied by botanists to all flowers which exhibit this departure from their ordinary origin. In the Monocotyledons, the two petals which are placed under the lunet-shaped sepals already noticed (fig. 452), are each Fig. 491. Fig. 492. Fig. 491. A portion of the flower of the Monocotyledon (Acorus calamus), with an acuminate stamens below, and two stalked horn-shaped petaloids. — Fig. 492. The same, but with the stamens removed, showing the two horn-shaped petaloids. shaped somewhat like a curved horn placed on a long channelled stalk. The corolla is usually composed of but one whorl of petals, and it is then termed simple; but in some flowers there are two. Fig. 493. Fig. 494. Fig. 495. Fig. 496. Petal of Crowfoot with a vestigial spur at its base. — Fig. 497. One of the petals of the White Water-lily (Nymphaea alba) with a short spur at its base. or more whorls, as in the White Water-lily (fig. 468), in which there is no spur at all, or in the case of the Petunia, with two whorls of one whorl, its parts in a regular arrangement alternate with the sepals, although sometimes occur in which they are opposite to them. The cause of these different arrangements will be 223 APPENDAGES OF PETALS AND COROLLAS. explained hereafter, under the head of the General Morphology and Symmetry of the Flower. On the petals of many flowers we may frequently observe appendages of different kinds in the form of scale or hair-like processes, which are commonly situated at the junction of the claw and limb (figs. 493, a); or at the base of the petals (figs. 493 and 495). Such appendages may be seen on the petals of the Oenothera (fig. 495), Lychnis (fig. 496, a), and Grass of Parnassus (fig. 490). Similar scales may also be frequently noticed in monopetalous corollas. Fig. 493. Fig. 495. Fig. 496. A petal of a species of Lychnis, a. Claw. b. Limb. c. Scale (?). (Scrophularia nodosa [L.] Linn.). The cup or bowl-shaped part towards the centre is termed a corona. near the throat, as in many Boraginaceous plants, for instance, the flowers of the Borage (fig. 497) and the Bluebell in the Dodder, and many other plants. Sometimes these scales become more or less united into a cup-shaped process, as in the Daffodil (fig. 497); or this the whole corolla may be cupped, and the corolla is then said to be crowned. By many botanists, however, this crown is considered as an appendage; but such ap- pendages are arranged in the form of a ring on the inside of the corolla, whether united or distinct. The beautiful fringes on the corolla of some flowers are also considered as appendages. The origin of these scales is by no means clearly ascertained; by some botanists they are supposed to arise from within them, by others to be abortive stamens; but they are now more commonly regarded as ligules (see page 176) developed on the petals, and therefore not true appendages. They are de- scribed under the name of sceroles, although but few of them possess the power of eversion; that is, they make no move- ment from which they derived their name; they were therefore im- ESSENTIAL ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION. 228 properly so termed. The nature of the so-called nectoria has been already described under the head of Glands (see page 607). In contrast with the nectoria, the stamens and carpels vary like that of the calyx, but it is almost always more fugitive than it. It is evident if it falls as the flower opens, as in the Grape- vine (Vitis), and in the Cucumber (Cucumis), and in the opening of the flower. In rare instances it is persistent, in which case it is called a perianth, as in the Hyacinth (Hyacinthus) and the species of Campanula (Fig. 435), when it is said to be merocarpous. Section 4. THE ESSENTIAL ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION. The essential organs of reproduction are the androecium and gynaeceum, which together constitute the whole body of the flower. They are called the essential organs because they are necessary for the production of perfect seed. Flowers which possess both these organs are called perfect flowers (Fig. 431); when only one is present, they are imperfect flowers (Fig. 432). Stamens. - Stamens are generally represented by two parts, namely, filaments and anthers. The filaments contain only a stamen or stamens; and carpel, petals, sepals, and calyx may contain only a carpel or carpellae (Fig. 441). When a flower possesses neither androecium nor gynaeceum, it is called a heterostylic flower; its outer florets of the capitula of the Compositae, for example, are such flowers. Flowers are unisexual when both staminate and pistillate flowers may be borne upon the same plant, as in the case of the Male Fern (Pteridium) (Fig. 438), and the species of Correa, in which case the plant is said to be dioecious; or when different plants of the same species, as in the Willows and Hemp, when the plant is said to be hermaphrodite. In some cases, as in the Palm and in the Pallitory (Paracorys), staminate and pistillate flowers may be found on different individuals of the same individual, and then the plant is called polygamous. Like the sepals and petals, the stamens and carpels are considered as accessory organs; but they present much less resemblance to these organs than the component parts of the floral envelope do. This is natural enough, however, by their constant insertion into each other, and by their circum- stances which will be described hereafter when treating of the General Morphology of the Flower. A diagram showing a flower with stamens and carpels.334 THE ANDRECIUM.—PARTS OF A STAMEN. I. THE ANDRECIUM. The androecium, or male system of Flowering plants, is the whorl or whorls of organs which, in a complete flower, is situated between the calyx and corolla, or between the calyx and corolla, and the gynaeum on the inside; or it is placed between the calyx and gynaeum when the corolla is absent (fig. 20), as in monocotyledons. In the former case, the androecium is either outside the gynaeum (fig. 29) when those flowers are bisexual; or it is within the gynaeum when they are uni-sexual and staminate. The organs of which it is composed are termed Stamens. Each stamen consists generally of a thread-like portion, or filament, and a head, or anther, which is analogous to the petiole of the leaf; and of a little bag or case, which contains the pollen grains. The anther may be compound, and contain a powder, or more rarely warty matter, termed the pollen. The only essential part of the stamen is the anther, because the filament alone is a shoot, as the stamen cannot then perform its special function, viz., to carry the pollen (figs. 29, 512, b); in other cases it is termed fertile (fig. 29, 498). It not unfrequently happens that flowers contain sterile stamens (fig. 29). These are usually found there, in which case these structures are termed stamens sterile. They are often distinguished by their appearance, as in the flowers of the species of Canna. When the filament is absent (which is but rarely so), the stamen is termed sterile (fig. 498, 499), the author is described as sterile. I. The filaments of a stamen are called the filaments of a stamen consist of, at least one centrally unbranched bundle of vascular elements terminating at the corolla or calyx (fig. 29). This bundle is surrounded by parenchymatous tissues which surrounds the bundle of spiral vessels, and which are themselves surrounded by epidermis. The epidermis occasionally presents stomata and hairs; those hairs are sometimes coloured, as in the Spiderwort and Dark Muskil. The structure of this bundle corresponds to that of the petiole of a leaf, which presents a similar disposition of parts (fig. 29). The filaments vary in form, length, colour, and other particulars; a few of the more important modifications of which will be now alluded to. **Form.—** As its name implies, the filament is usually found in the form of a little thread-like cylindrical prolongation which generally terminates in a point (fig. 29). It may be attached to the base as the anther, when it is described as filiform, as in the Rose; or it is free from any connection with the anther (figs. 29, 500). **Length.—** The filaments may be long or short (figs. 29, 500). In the latter case the filament, instead MODIFICATIONS OF THE FILAMENT. 235 of supporting the anther in the erect position as it usually does, becomes bent, and the anther is then pendulous (figs. 408 and 409). Sometimes the filament is curved, or the anther is flattened in various ways. Thus in some cases it is dilated gradually towards the base, and then becomes narrow, or club-shaped, as in Thalictrum; or it is slightly enlarged at the base, and tapers upwards to a point like an awl, as in the Flowering-Plants (figs. 410, e, and 517), or it is flattened at the base, the rest of the filament assuming its ordinary form (figs. 411, e, and 518); or it is forked (figs. 412, e, and 519), and sometimes compound (fig. 509); or the whole of the filament is flattened; and then it frequently assumes the appearance of a petal, as in the flowers of the Water-lily (figs. 446, e, and 517), and in Canna and allied plants. ![Fig. 500.] ![Fig. 501.] ![Fig. 502.] ![Fig. 503.] Fig. 500. A portion of Wheat (Triticum) consisting of several flowers, the elements of which have very long ordinary filaments, and anthers pendu- lous below them (figs. 408 and 409). The filaments are somewhat curved at their base, but they are not flattened. Fig. 501. A flower of the Primrose (Primula), showing a long ordinary filament arising from the summit of the corolla. Fig. 502. A flower of the Borage (Borago), showing a long ordinary filament arising from the summit of the corolla. Sometimes the filament is foxtailed as in Allium (fig. 503), or forked as in Crumb (fig. 504); or furnished with various ap- pendages as in the Borage (fig. 506, a), in which case it is said to be appendiculate. Length, Colour, and Direction.—The length of the filament varies much according to different species; but in general, in the order Boraginaceae (fig. 506) the filaments are very short ; in the Primrose, and commonly in the Primulaceae, a single ordinary filament arises from each flower (figs. 409, 509); but in some other genera such as Arctium (fig. 509), &c., the filaments are usually very long. In colour they vary greatly; thus some are white, and at other times they assume vivid tints like the corolla ; thus, in the Spiderwort 226 MODIFICATIONS OF THE FILAMENT. they are blue, in various species of Ranunculus and of *Oenothera* yellow, in some Poppy's red, in Fuchsia red, etc. In diverse species of *Ranunculus*, the stamens are either erect, incurved, recurved, pendulous, &c.; these terms being used to denote the direction in which the filaments are all turned towards one side of the flower, as in *Ranunculus* and *Anemone* nut and Amaryllis, they are said to be decidule. Generally Fig. 504. Fig. 505. Fig. 506. Fig. 507. Fig. 504. Gymnosperm and antherium of *Cymbra*. The longer filaments are bended. Fig. 505. A stamen of the Burage (Burdock) with the antherium bent towards the filament. Fig. 506. A Lathyrus. A Lathyrus of *Asystasia*. The antherium is bent towards the filament. Fig. 507. A Lathyrus of *Asystasia*. The antherium is bent towards the filament. A military or a sickle-shaped antherium is also found, in which it is said to be naked or seminudum. A contractile, indicating the point of attachment of the antherium to the filament, is also found. This is seen in the lower part of a young antherium of *Jussiaea* purpurea. From *Buddleja*, a Contractile antherium is seen in the upper part of the filament of *Lavatera*. In *Lavatera* there is a contractile antherium which is bent towards the filament, and in *Lavatera* there is the opposite condition, in which the antherium is bent away from the filament or side of the anther. Each tube is seen to be divided into two vertically situated parts. Speaking, the direction is nearly the same from one end of the filament to the other, but in some cases the original direction is departed from by bending towards one side or another part of the filament forms an angle more or less obtuse with the lower, in which case it is termed procumbent, as in *Malvastrum*. This appearance is due to a bend at one point on the filament at the point where the angle is produced, as in *Euphorbia* (fig. 508), or it may be a bend, or whatever its termination exists on the opposite filament, this is not to be considered as a true A diagram showing a flower with stamens and filaments.A diagram showing a flower with stamens and filaments.A diagram showing a flower with stamens and filaments. THE ANThER AND ITS PARTS. 237 Glament, but to consist in reality of a flower-stalk supporting a single stamen. The flower here, therefore, is reduced to a single stalk, all the parts being attached to this. This is proved by the occasional production in some allied plants of a flower with two stamens, one of which is sterile where the joint is situated. In the Pulcherrima (Forsythia), the filament assumes a spiral direction. Anther, or pollen-organ, normally falls off from the thalamus after the influence of the pollen has been communicated to the pollen-sac. As soon as the anther is Corroded, the filanent is persistent, and remains attached, though in a withered condition. 2. THE ANThER - Its Parts.-The different parts of which the anther is composed may best be seen by making a transverse section through it. The anther consists of two lobes, two parallel lobe, $a$, separated by a portion, $b$, called the mesotheca, to which the filament is attached. Each lobe is divided into two parts by a partition, $c$, running from the connective to the walls of the anther. The cavities thus formed in the lobes of the anther are called cells or loculi. All anthers in anthesis are four-celled, but occasionally five-celled, and this is considered the normal state. When a fully-developed anther exhibits only three cells, it is said to be trilocular; when it is four-celled or quadrilocular (figs. 508 and 532); or when, as is far more commonly the case, the partitions separating the two cells of each lobe are wanting (fig. 511). In rare cases, the anther is unicellular or bicellular (figs. 508 and 511). In the case of *Lilium* (fig. 508), and *Lady's Mantle* (fig. 511) ; this arises either from the abortion of one lobe of the anther, and the absorption of the septum between the two lobes; or from the failure of any part of the partition wall of the two lobes as well as of the septum between them to develop. In *Corydalis*, *Aquilegia*, and *Primula* (figs. 508), the connective becomes elongated into a kind of stalk, each end of which bears an anther lobe (fig. 512), in which case there are no partitions between the lobes; and in *Primula* there occurs one lobe only; i.e., contains pollen, the other, $b$, is sterile. The outer surface of each lobe is smooth (figs. 508, $a$), and the opposite surface is furrowed (figs. 508, $b$). The latter always presents a more or less grooved ap- pearance on its inner side (figs. 508 and 532). The function of the two lobes. Each lobe also commonly presents a more or less grooved appearance on its inner side (figs. 508 and 532). The function of both these surfaces is to receive and contain pollen; but such a manner another will open to discharge the pollen; this furrow is termed the suture. By those traversing the face of the anther may be grouped together in pairs (figs. 508, $a$), and has moreover the filament attached to it. The lobe is generally turned towards the gynaeceum or centre of the flower, as in the Water-Hyssop (fig. 537). Vina (fig.) 228 DEVELOPMENT OF THE ANThER. 513), and Tulip (fig. 518), in which case the anther is called *inferior*, but in the *Carnation* (fig. 514), the face is directed towards the petals or cori- cumference of the flower, when the anther is said to be *obverse*. Fig. 509. Fig. 510. Fig. 512. A diagram showing the development of the anther. Fig. 513. Fig. 514. A diagram showing the development of the anther. Fig. 515. Quercifolius anther of the Fowering Rush (Rhamnus alaternus). a, Epidermis; b, mesophyll; c, vascular bundle; d, middle layer; e, outer layer; f, inner layer; g, transverse section of the anther at their apex; h, Fig. 516. Anther of the *Sage* (Salvia); i, Filament; j, Vascular bundles; k, Mesophyll; l, Epidermis; m, Transverse section of the anther at their apex; n, Fig. 517. Anther of the *Lilac* (Syringa); o, Filament; p, Vascular bundles; q, Mesophyll; r, Epidermis; s, Transverse section of the anther at their apex; t, Fig. 518. Anther of the *Tulip* (Lilium); u, Filament; v, Vascular bundles; w, Mesophyll; x, Epidermis; y, Transverse section of the anther at their apex. **Its Development and Structure—When first formed the an- ther consists of parenchymatous cells arranged in two masses or form; but ultimately each lobe presents two central masses of cells** 9/22 DEVELOPMENT AND STRUCTURE OF THE ANther. 238 which are sometimes termed parent or mother-cells, from being devoted to the formation of pollen (fig. 515, c), and over which the anther-epidermis is thrown back, so that the layer immediately enclosing each central mass, is called the epidermis of the anther (fig. 516). The cells of this layer appear to contain nitrogenous matter, and supposed to be concerned in the nourishment of the pollen-cells in their early growth. The cells of the epidermis are generally somewhat matured, but it is persistent in those anthers which have porous dehiscence. The layer, $ct$, immediately outside the endothecium, is usually composed of one or more rows of cells, some of which, except in the ![Fig. 515.] **Fig. 515. Vertical section of anther showing structure of a porous anther.** $ct$ Epidermis; $e$ Endothecium; $m$ Mesophyll; $p$ Pollen-cells. Rutabaga anthers have consistantly three layers of mother-cells covering the entire anther. $ci$ Central mass; $c_1$ Cells which are slightly firm with a granular appearance; $c_2$ Cells which are soft and spongy, some of which are placed in such a manner as to form a tube-like cavity within the anther, which would permit pollen to pass through it without injury; $m_1$ Mother-cells. These cells are surrounded by a single layer of cells, or mesophyll. Anther-cells. These cells are surrounded by a single layer of cells, or mesophyll. From these, fig. 516 illustrates the development of the pollen-cells. The wall of the anther is composed of an external epidermal layer, or forming the connective, and an internal epithelial layer, or forming the endothecium. Between these two layers, and which is the mesoderm of the immature anther, case of anthers opening by pores, contains apical, articulated, or annular stoma (fig. 507), and is called the exodermis; or, is of an epidermal nature, and is called the endodermis and upon which stomata are frequently found. The stoma (figs. 508, 509) represents therefore, in nearly all cases, but two cases, as shown in figures 508 and 516, that is, in those anthers which open by pores (fig. 508), or by a notch (fig. 516), or inner ostiole, which surrounds in structure the mesodermic of the immature anther. This connection is a general rule, has a similar structure in all cases where it exists. In other cases, as already noticed, is divided at an early age into two cavities, by the septum (figs. 509), which extends from the connective to the outer stroma. This septum, which forms the posterior half of Chaitin's Fig. 516. **Fig. 516. Vertical section of anther showing structure of a porous anther with three layers of mother-cells covering the entire anther.** $ct$ Epidermis; $e$ Endothecium; $m$ Mesophyll; $p$ Pollen-cells. Rutabaga anthers have consistantly three layers of mother-cells covering the entire anther. $ci$ Central mass; $c_1$ Cells which are slightly firm with a granular appearance; $c_2$ Cells which are soft and spongy, some of which are placed in such a manner as to form a tube-like cavity within the anther, which would permit pollen to pass through it without injury; $m_1$ Mother-cells. These cells are surrounded by a single layer of cells, or mesophyll. Anther-cells. These cells are surrounded by a single layer of cells, or mesophyll. From these, fig. 516 illustrates the development of the pollen-cells. The wall of the anther is composed of an external epidermal layer, or forming the connective, and an internal epithelial layer, or forming the endothecium. Between these two layers, and which is the mesoderm of the immature anther, case of anthers opening by pores, contains apical, articulated, or annular stoma (fig. 507), and is called the exodermis; or, is of an epidermal nature, and is called the endodermis and upon which stomata are frequently found. The stoma (figs. 508, 509) represents therefore, in nearly all cases, but two cases, as shown in figures 508 and 516, that is, in those anthers which open by pores (fig. 508), or by a notch (fig. 516), or inner ostiole, which surrounds in structure the mesodermic of the immature anther. This connection is a general rule, has a similar structure in all cases where it exists. In other cases, as already noticed, is divided at an early age into two cavities, by the septum (figs. 509), which extends from the connective to the outer stroma. This septum, which forms the posterior half of Chaitin's 240 ATTACHMENT OF THE FILAMENT.—CONNECTIVE. usually more or less destroyed when the pollen is matured, but generally remain in the form of two or three distinct portions from the connective, by which each cell of the anther is partly subdivided. To these processes the name of placentaæ is given by M. Chodat, who first observed them, and described in the nourishment of the pollen. We have already seen that the floral envelopes are homo- logous with leaves, representing them as they do in all their essential characters (pages 318 and 323). We have now to ex- amine their structure, and particularly the parts which they have in like manner any resemblance to those of the leaf. We have no reason to doubt that the anther corresponds to the phloem of the petiole, as in its form, position, and structure it is essen- tially the same (page 324). The connective of the anther, again, is closely analogous to the vascular sheath of the petiole. We readily see that the two lobes of the anther correspond to the two halves of the petiole. In order to make this clear, if we take the blade of a leaf and fold it in the above manner, and then make a traverse section, it will present a great resemblance to the section of an anther. This is so evident that we may therefore conclude, that the anther corresponds generally to the lamina of a leaf, and that its two lobes correspond to the epidermis of the upper side, and the septa to the epidermis of the two halves of the upper surface of the lamina united and considered together. The connective of the anther corresponds commonly regarded as corresponding to the margins of the transformate petiole. It is also remarkable that "the sutures of the anther approach to the lines of junction of the two inner thickened portions of the lamina on either side of the midrib, and the outer thickened portion on either side of the affected epidermis of the adjacent anther-cells." The lamella corresponds to the parenchyma between these epidermis of the upper and lower sides of the lamina. The filament is a prolongation Attachment of Filament to Anther.—The mode in which the anther is attached to its stalk is very different from that plant, but it is always constant in the same individual, and frequently throughout entire natural orders, and hence bears characters affording a valuable means for determining their generic history. There are three modes of attachment which are distinguished by special names—namely, 1st, it is sessile when it is attached at one point only; 2nd, it is adnate when its base is attached throughout its whole length to the filament, or to its continuation called the connective, as in the梅lilis; 3rd, it is decurrent when its base is attached at one point only, and then extends downwards along part or all of its length (figs. 480); and 3rd, it is sterile, when the filament is only attached to its base, and does not reach its apex (figs. 481-500), and in the Lily, Evening Primrose, and Meadow Saffron. MODIFICATIONS OF THE CONNECTIVE. 241 Connective.—The relations of the anther to the filament, as well as its lobes to each other, are much influenced by the ap- pearance of the connective. In some species the anthers the connective is large, and the lobes generally more or less Fig. 517. Fig. 518. Fig. 517. A portion of the flower of the White Wax-lily (Euphorbia nits) showing the anther with its filaments and lobes, and the connective below. The petal is excrescent by some means which has not been determined. Fig. 518. Gymnosperm and anastomosis of the Tilia. The stamens are of two kinds. Fig. 519. Fig. 520. Fig. 521. Fig. 522. Fig. 523. Fig. 519. A male stalked flower of a species of Euphorbia, showing the anther with its filaments and lobes, and the connective below. Fig. 520. A section of the Liliaceae (Lilium), showing the inner part of the anther. As inside view of a species of Magnolia, showing the anther with its filaments and lobes, and the connective below. In this case the anthers are prolonged downwards in the form of a spur—fig. 521. In another species (fig. 522) the connective is prolonged upwards in the form of a long slender parallel to each other throughout their whole length (fig. 523). In other cases the connective is very small, or altogether wanting, as in a species of Euphorbia (fig. 524), so that the lobes of the anther are then immediately in contact at their base. 8 242 FORMS OF THE ANTHEE. the Lime the connective completely separates the two lobes of the anther (Fig. 520). In the Sage (Fig. 517) the two species of Solanum, the Solanum nigrum and S. tuberosum, have a leaf-like body placed horizontally on the top of the filament, one end of which bears an anther, while the other end is terminated by a short, por- tated plate or abortive anther lobe, i.e.; it is then said to be *deca- triculat*. Sometimes the connective is prolonged beyond the lobes of the anther, as in the Magnolia (Fig. 521), or as a long feathery process, as in the Paeonia (Fig. 522), or as a long papula. At other times again, it is prolonged downwards and backwards as a kind of spur, as in the Hauertaceae (Fig. 523). Anthers with such appendages are called *papulifera*. Forms of the Anther Lobes and Anther.—The lobes of the anther are usually simple, but sometimes they are compound, (Fig. 520) they are somewhat rounded; very frequently they are more or less oval, as in the Almond and Lime (Fig. 520); in the Dioscorea (Fig. 521) they are elongated and pointed; in the Solanum (Fig. 526) lobe is ensiform; in the Solanum (Fig. 534) four- lobed ; a few species have five-lobed anthers; some are three- lobed; these and other forms which they assume, combined with those of the connective, determine that of the anther, which may be ovoid, oblong, obovate, orbicular, elliptical, ovate, ovate- uliginous (Fig. 528), or quadrufurate (Fig. 529) as in Guaitheria. ![Fig. 521](image) ![Fig. 525](image) ![Fig. 526](image) Fig. 521. A stamen of a species of Ampelis in a young state. f Filament. Figs. 523. Lobe of anther—see Fig. 517. stamen of Arisarum caucasicum. Throughout this work those terms designating anther lobe, if attached to the Stamina, or of the same nature as the latter, are shown above figures are from plants grown in this laboratory. prominent or capitulate (Fig. 523) as in the common Wallflower (Figs. 39 and 40). In the Gresses the anthers are bifurcate at various stages (Fig. 500), as to produce a double anther. The lobes of the anther also, like the connective, frequently present appendages of various kinds. Thus in the Arion cinerea they have a long papula at their base (Fig. 501); at other times the surface of the anther presents projections in Figures showing different forms of anthers. COLOUR AND DEBESCENCE OF THE ANThER. 243 form of pointed bodies (figs. 528, a), as in *Vaccinium uliginosum*, or worse, &c. Such anthers, like those which present appendi- cules to the sides of the anther-walls, are called *appendiculate*. Colour of the Anther.—The anther when young is of a greenish-yellow colour, but becomes brownish-purple with age. There are however many exceptions to this: thus it is dark purple or black in many *Pomaceae*, orange in *Echachlottus*, purple in *Corydalis*, and white in *Lilium*. Fig. 527. Fig. 528. Fig. 529. Fig. 527. Appendiculate anther attached to filaments, f., of the *Fennel*. Hence the flowers are said to be *appendiculate*. The filaments are short and slender, and the anther is very narrow at the base. (fig. 528.) In *Fer- nia* appendiculate anthers occur in the flowers of *Fennel*. Another anther, which is also appendiculate, is found in the flowers of *Lilium*. Quantitative anther of *Ferula persicae*, attached to filaments, f., (Anther of *Ferula*.) Debescence of the Anther.—When the anthers are perfectly ripe they open and discharge the contained pollen (figs. 20 and 30) ; this act is called the debescence of the anther. The debescence com- mences by a slight swelling of the anther-walls (fig. 530), and at the period when the flower is fully expanded, and the pistil enveloped by its perianth, the anther opens, and the pollen is of the polis; at other times, however, the anthers burst before the flower opens and while the pistil is still in an imperfect state. The debescence may be either complete or incom- mon; and in the latter case the debescence may either com- mence with the outer stamens, as is usually the case, or rarely, with the inner ones. Debescence is produced partly by the development and growth of the anther-walls, which become more elastic upon their coat and causing an absorption of their turgor; and partly by the special nature of the pollen-sacs, which form a lining of the anther (figs. 516, c.), and it takes place only when the anther, because of these parts, the endodermis is altogether vanishing; that is to say, when they are very thin; so that they are the weakest points of the anther-walls. 2 324 DEBISENCE OF THE ANThER. The debisence of the anther may take place in four different ways, which are thus called, 1. Longitudinal, 2. Transverse, 3. Porous, 4. Valvular. 1. Longitudinal or Sutural.—This, the usual mode of debisence, consists in the splitting of the anther along the line of suture to the apex in a longitudinal direction along the line of suture, as in the Vine (figs. 513, b), the Wallflower (fig. 26), and Tulip (fig. 518). 2. Transverse.—This kind of debisence mostly occurs in uni- lateral anthers, as in the Mallow (fig. 500) and the Laxmannia. It signifies that the splitting open of the anther occurs in a transverse direction at the base of the anther, necrotive to the side. It sometimes happens that by the enlarge- ment of the connective the lobus of a one-celled anther is placed horizontally instead of vertically, in which case this debisence Fig. 500. Stamen of the Mallow (Malva), the anther of which has an appre- ciably long and narrow base, which is split longitudinally into two parts, separated from the funiculus. 7. Loral opening by pores, p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., p., when it takes place in the line of the suture will be apparently transverse. This kind of debisence is very common among plants of this kind of debisence is afforded by the Mallow (fig. 500), and other plants belonging to the natural order Malacraceae. In particular, it is found in the species of *Laxmannia* and *Laxmannia*. 3. Porous or Apical.—This is a more modification of longi- tudinal debisence. It is formed by the splitting down of the anther lobes being arrested at an early period so as only to pro- duce pores on their surface, through which they are commonly no traces of the sutures to be seen externally. The pores or slits may be either situated at the apex, as in the species of *Mal- low* (figs. 504) and Milkweed (figs. 510); or laterally, as in the THE STAMENS GENERALLY, OR THE ANDROECIUM. 263 Hemathus (fig. 527, r). There may be either two pores, as is usually the case (fig. 501, p.), or four, as in *Furcifera* (fig. 502, S.), *Spergula* (fig. 503), or in the Mistletoe, or only one, as in *Trifolium* *jasmon* (fig. 505). Palmeri or *Oreocarum*.—This name is applied when the whole corolla is united into a tube, with two or more lobes, which are attached at the top and turn back so as to form a hinge. In this order there are three or four lobes (figs. 506, 507); while in plants belonging to the Laurel order there are two or four such lobs (fig. 506, s.), according as the anthers have two or four cells. Fig. 536. Fig. 535. Author of *Bastardia* (Cerbera) *nudicaulis*, by *Linnæus*. Fig. 538. Flowers of *Corydalis* *lutea*. Fig. 539. Anther of *Corydalis*, with two cells. Fig. 540. Lobe of *Lilium* *Lo.* with white margin. Author's signature. THE STAMENS GENERALLY, OR THE ANDROECIUM.—Before de- scribing the pollen which is contained within the anther, it will be better to take a general view of the stamens as regards their relations to each other and to the pistil, and also to the flower. We shall consider this part of our subject under four heads, namely:—1. Number, 2. Insertion or Position, 3. Union, 4. Beckham's classification. 1. Number.—The number of stamens is subject to great variation, and may be either odd or even, with or without modifications. In the first place, certain names are applied to define the number of the stamens when compared in this re- spect with the number of petals and sepals of the same flower. Thus when the stamens are equal in number to the sepals and petals, the flower is said to be monoeous, as in the Pomegranate; if they are unequal, as in the Yew (fig. 541), Lilac (fig. 542), and some others. Or, when greater accuracy is required in the latter case, we speak of them as being unisexual or bisexual; that is, the number, as in Monocarpus; monoeous, if less in number, as in the Lilac; and polyaeous, if more than double, as in the Rose. A diagram showing a flower with five sepals and five petals surrounding a central column of stamens. 246 INSERTION OF THE STAMENS. Secondly, the flower receives different names according to the actual number of stamens it contains, without reference to the number of petals. The following are the names designated by the Greek numerals prefixed to the word *andros*, which means male in reference to the function of the stamen. Thus, a flower having three stamens is called trispermous; three trispermous, four tetraspermous, and so on. We shall have to refer to these names when we come to discuss the system of classification, as many of the classes in that system are deter- mined by the number of stamens contained in the flower. 3. Insertion of the stamens. The stamens arise from the calyx, pistil, and some from the thalamus below the latter organ, as in the Poppy (Papaver) and Crowfoot (Ranunculus). They are said to be hypogynous, which signifies under the female or pistil! Fig. 538. Fig. 539. Fig. 537. Fig. 537. Apocarpous plant of the Crowfoot (Ranunculus), with two stamens arising from the corolla, one from the calyx, and one from the thalamus below the latter organ. Fig. 538. Apocarpous plant of the Primrose (Primula), showing perigynous stamens, one from the corolla, one from the calyx, and one from the thalamus below the latter organ. Fig. 539. Apocarpous plant of the Poppy (Papaver), showing hypogynous stamens, all arising from the pistil. This is in the normal position of the stamen. When the stamen is attached to the corolla, as in the Primrose (figs. 538), they are epigynous; but when it is attached to the pistil, or ovary or base, so that their position becomes somewhat lateral to the pistil instead of before it, as in the Strawberry, Cherry (figs. 539), and Avena (figs. 540), they are perigynous or hypogynous. When the calyx is adherent to the ovary so that it appears as a single unit, as in the Poppy (figs. 538), and Crowfoot (figs. 539), and corolla are also necessarily placed on the summit, and are said to be epigynous, as in the species of Compositae (figs. 540). Carrot, and Ivy (figs. 541), and other plants, have a calyx only ad- hensive to the ovary or lower part of the pistil, as in this epigynous form of Primrose, but the upper part of the stamen is separate and pistil becomes completely enclosed, and thus forms a column. 14 UNION OR COHESION OF THE STAMENS. 247 in the centre of the flower, as in the Orchis (fig. 541), and Borthwort (fig. 543); this column is then termed the pseudostamens, and the flowers are said to be pseudostamens. Fig. 540. Fig. 541. Fig. 542. Fig. 540. Vertical section of the flower of a species of Compositae, with epigynous stamens. Fig. 541. Flower of Scilla maritima. The column in the centre is seen to be united with the ovary, which is then termed the pistil. The pistil and stamens of Borthwort (Arctotis). The ovary is seen below, and the stamens are seen on each side of it. 3. Union or Cohesion.—When the stamens are perfectly free and separate from each other, as in the Vines (fig. 513), they are said to be coenate or separate; but when they are united, as in the Mahoe (figs. 544, 546), they are coherent or connate. Fig. 543. Fig. 544. Fig. 545. Fig. 546. Fig. 543. Syngynous column of a species of Thalictrum (Veratrum). Fig. 544. Syngynous stamens of a species of Malva (Malva). Fig. 545. Syngynous stamens of a species of Euphorbia (Euphorbia). Fig. 546. Male flower of Jacobaea vulgaris. fig. 547. P. Coriaria. fig. 548. Male flower of Viola tricolor, with a tube, or which receives the ovules of the flower, so there is no pistil. When the stamens cohere, the union may take place either by kind surfaces, or by means of a common base, as in the Anemone and Linnæa. When the anthers unite, the stamens are termed 248 **UNION OF THE STAMENS.** syngenesia or synandrous (fig. 543). This union occurs in all the Compositae, and in many other plants. Whereas the anthers unite with the filaments are commonly, though not always, distinct. When union occurs between the stamens, however, it is usually complete, and the anthers are united to each other. This union by the filaments may take place in one or more bundles, or in a single filament. The term "monadelphous" is applied to those plants which are so called. The anthers are said to be monadelphous when they are united together and form one bundle (figs. 543, 544), or when they are united into two bundles (fig. 545). In the Sweet Pea (Lathyrus) and Sweet Sreel (fig. 545), the stamens are said to be monadelphous. When such a union takes place in a complete flower, the connective membrane necessary for forming the anther is wanting, and the plant in their centre, as in the Wood Sorrel (fig. 545); but when the pistil is absent, and the flower therefore incomplete, as in the Wood Sorrel (fig. 546). ![Fig. 547. Monadelphous stamens of the Sweet Pea (Lathyrus), surrounding the pistil. Fig. 548. Flower of the Orange divided by its corolla, to show the polyadelphous stamens.] When the anthers are united by their filaments into three bundles, they are trandelphous, as at most species of St John's Wort (Hypericum) and of the Milkweed (fig. 547). In some cases, however, where there are ten stamens, the filaments of nine of them being united by their filaments into three bundles, while that of the tenth remains free. When the stamens are united by their filaments into three bundles, they are trandelphous, as at most species of St John's Wort (Hypericum) and of the Milkweed (fig. 547). In some cases, however, where there are ten stamens, the filaments of nine of them being united by their filaments into three bundles, while that of the tenth remains free. When the stamens are united by their filaments into three bundles, they are trandelphous, as at most species of St John's Wort (Hypericum) and of the Milkweed (fig. 547). In some cases, however, where there are ten stamens, the filaments of nine of them being united by their filaments into three bundles, while that of the tenth remains free. When the stamens are united by their filaments into three bundles, they are trandelphous, as at most species of St John's Wort (Hypericum) and of the Milkweed (fig. 547). In some cases, however, where there are ten stamens, the filaments of nine of them being united by their filaments into three bundles, while that of the tenth remains free. When the stamens are united by their filaments into three bundles, they are trandelphous, as at most species of St John's Wort (Hypericum) and of the Milkweed (fig. 547). In some cases, however, where there are ten stamens, the filaments of nine of them being united by their filaments into three bundles, while that of the tenth remains free. When the stamens are united by their filaments into three bundles, they are trandelphous, as at most species of St John's Wort (Hypericum) and of the Milkweed (fig. 547). In some cases, however, where there are ten stamens, the filaments of nine of them being united by their filaments into three bundles, while that of the tenth remains free. When the stamens are united by their filaments into three bundles, they are trandelphous, as at most species of St John's Wort (Hypericum) and of the Milkweed (fig. 547). In some cases, however, where there are ten stamens, the filaments of nine of them being united by their filaments into three bundles, while that of the tenth remains free. When the stamens are united by their filaments into three bundles, they are trandelphous, as at most species of St John's Wort (Hypericum) and of the Milkweed (fig. 547). In some cases, however, where there are ten stamens, the filaments of nine of them being united by their filaments into three bundles, while that of the tenth remains free. When the stamens are united by their filaments into three bundles, they are trandelphous, as at most species of St John's Wort (Hypericum) and of the Milkweed (fig. 547). In some cases, however, where there are ten stamens, the filaments of nine of them being united by their filaments into three bundles, while that of the tenth remains free. When the stamens are united by their filaments into three bundles, they are trandelphous, as at most species of St John's Wort (Hypericum) and of the Milkweed (fig. 547). In some cases, however, where there are ten stamens, the filaments of nine of them being united by their filaments into three bundles, while that of the tenth remains free. When the stamens are united by their filaments into three bundles, they are trandelphous, as at most species of St John's Wort (Hypericum) and of the Milkweed (fig. 547). In some cases, however, where there are ten stamens, the filaments of nine of them being united by their filaments into three bundles, while that of the tenth remains free. When the stamens are united by their filaments into three bundles, they are trandelphous, as at most species of St John's Wort (Hypericum) and of the Milkweed (fig. 547). In some cases, however, where there are ten stamens, the filaments of nine of them being united by their filaments into three bundles, while that of the tenth remains free. When the stamens are united by their filaments into three bundles, they are trandelphous, as at most species of St John's Wort (Hypericum) and of the Milkweed (fig. 547). In some cases, however, The union between these two kinds above mentioned may either take place more or less completely; and thus form a tube or vary- RELATIVE LENGTH OF THE STAMENS. 249 ing height, as in the Mallow (fig. 544) and Wood Sorrel (fig. 546), or the union may only take place at the base, as in the Fumitory (fig. 547). In some cases, however, the stamens may be either unbranched, as in the Mallow (fig. 544), or branched, as in the Wood Sorrel (fig. 546), and the length of the former may exceed that of the latter (fig. 540). When the union takes place so as to form a tube or column, the term antherophore has been applied to such a column, as in fig. 548. 4. Relative Length.--There are two separate subjects to be treated of here, namely, 1st, the relative length of the stamens with respect to each other; and 2ndly, their relative length with respect to each other. In the first place, when the stamens are shorter than the tube of the corolla so as to be enclosed within it, as in the Forget-me-not (fig. 506), they are said to be included ; while when they extend beyond it, as in the Valerian (fig. 503), they are termed or prefixed to be exserted. Secondly, the relative length of the stamens with respect to each other presents several peculiarities, some of which are important in botany. Thus, in many of the species of flowers the flower are nearly of the same length; while at other times they are very unequal. This inequality may be altogether irregular, but more commonly it is uniform and regular manner; thus, when the flowers are polysemous, the anthers are usually equal in length; but when they are cir- cumferent, as in Lobelia pinnata (fig. 502); or the reverse may be the case, as in many of the Rosaceae. In the case of diptemous flowers, as with the Willow Herb (Eupatorium), Figs. 548, 550, 551. Fig. 548: The plant of a species of Eupatorium, terminated by a corolla, i.e., what is called a corolla by Linnaeus, i.e., both leaves and petals. One of the truncated tubes of stamens of the Corolla of Plant (fig. 500) is shown in this figure. The tube is seen to be shorter than the tube of the corolla; hence these stamens are said to be included within it. The corolla is glabrous at the base. Fig. 550: The plant of a species of Eupatorium, terminated by a corolla, i.e., what is called a corolla by Linnaeus, i.e., both leaves and petals. One of the truncated tubes of stamens of the Corolla of Plant (fig. 500) is shown in this figure. The tube is seen to be longer than the tube of the corolla; hence these stamens are said to be exserted beyond it. Fig. 551: The plant of a species of Eupatorium, terminated by a corolla, i.e., what is called a corolla by Linnaeus, i.e., both leaves and petals. One of the truncated tubes of stamens of the Corolla of Plant (fig. 500) is shown in this figure. The tube is seen to be equal in length to the tube of the corolla; hence these stamens are said to be included within it. 250 THE POLLEN. the stamens alternating with the petals are almost always longer than those opposite to them, or the stamens of one flower are of greater length in the same flower, or in different flowers of the same species, as in the Primrose, they are said to be *simiparous*, and will be also called *simiparous*. When there is a definite relation existing between the long and short stamens of a flower, this relation is generally expressed to indicate such forms of regularity. Thus in the Wallflower (Ags. 283, 285), and Cruciferous plants generally, there are six stamens to three pistils, and these are alternately arranged in pairs opposite to each other, and alternating with two solitary. Figs. 53E. Fig. 53B. Fig. 53A. Fig. 53. One of the bundles of stamens of Lobelia generally, the inner ele- ment on the right is longer than the others and is therefore termed *longi- stamen*. The outer element on the left is shorter than the others and is therefore termed *shorti-stamen*. (From the Wallflower [Chrysanthemum Chrysanth.] by J. H. Buxton.) Shorter ones than the former we apply the term *tele- dynamous*. When there are more than four stamens of which two are long and short, as in Labiate plants generally (figs. 480 and 481), and in some Cruciferous plants (figs. 476, 477). In those laxarous plants, they are said to be *dodecamous*. THE POLLEN.--We have already seen (page 240), that the pollen contains a certain number of cells, which form the sy- nemus of the upper and lower surfaces of the lamina of the leaf. It has also been shown (page 241) that these cells are developed originally in the centre of the parenthysma of the lobes of the young anther (fig. 52b, co.) so that these cells were enclosed in a sac-like cavity formed by the lobes, and that in the course of growth they pressed upon the costs of the anther, so as to cause their expansion into a globular shape, and finally assisted in promoting the debiscence of the anther (page 243). We have now more particularly to describe the mode of formation of Pollen.--The formation of pollen may be de- 250 FORMATION OF POLLEN. 251 scribed as follows:---The large cells (fig. 518, cm.), which are developed in the parenchyma of the young anther, and which show a tendency to divide, are surrounded by a single layer of cells, and are surrounded in the earlier stages of development by a single stratum of thin-walled cells forming an internal epithelial layer. These cells soon become filled with water, and absorbed. Usually these parent cells remain connected to one another by a narrow neck, but at times they separate. Monocotyledonous plants, they become isolated and float free in a more or less vacuol material occupying the cavity of the anther. As development proceeds the nucleus of each parent cell dis- Fig. 556.Fig. 557.A diagram showing the formation of pollen grains. The left side shows a single cell with two nuclei, while the right side shows two cells with four nuclei. The nuclei are labeled A, B, C, D. Fig. 556. Formation of the pollen in the Rutifoliae (Alismaceae). After the anther has been formed and the pollen sacs have been produced, the pollen grains commence to form. The principal ovules and ad-ovules are connected by a common stalk, which is called the "pollen sac". The pollen sacs are advanced. c. The principal ovules removed from the parent cell, but not yet separated from the ad-ovules. d. The principal ovules separated from the ad-ovules. Fig. 557. Formation of the pollen in the Alismaceae (Alismaceae). After the anther has been formed and the pollen sacs have been produced, the pollen grains commence to form. The principal ovules and ad-ovules are connected by a common stalk, which is called the "pollen sac". The pollen sacs are advanced. c. The principal ovules removed from the parent cell, but not yet separated from the ad-ovules. d. The principal ovules separated from the ad-ovules. appears, and in this place two new nuclei are ultimately formed (fig. 558, a). Then follows an infolding of the primordial membrane into itself, so that each cell thus becomes divided into four parts; or indirectly, by first dividing it into two, and then dividing each half into two again, as shown in fig. 558 b. Thus four cells thus formed become surrounded by a cellulose membrane which is in direct connection with the cellulose coat of the parent cell. This cellulose membrane is known as the "special mother-cell". Finally, each protoplasmic mass of the special mother-cell divides into two equal parts, which invaginate around itself a membrane, so that ultimately we have four perfect cells, d., which constitute the true pollen-cells, formed in each parent cell. Fig. 558. **503 FORMATION OF POLLEN.** As these pollen-cells progress in development, and increase in size, they distend the wall of the parent cell and ultimately cause its absorption by the parent cell. In some cases, however, only partly, the walls of the special mother cells are generally absorbed also, by which the pollen-cells are set free in the cells of the anther. Sometimes, however, the whole wall of the parent cell is com- pletely absorbed, in which case the pollen-cells of the parent cell are more numerous than one would expect from the number manu- ling of four pollen-cells, as in *Pteris cretica* (fig. 507); or if the membranes of two or more united parent cells are also incom- pletely absorbed, then we may have three or even five pollen- cells, as in *Inga anomala* (fig. 506) ; or of some multiple of four. ![Fig. 509.](image) Fig. 509. ![Fig. 510.](image) Fig. 510. ![Fig. 511.](image) Fig. 511. Fig. 509. Pollen-cells of *Cuscuta*, with their medulla, $a$, and the stomata, $b$, at the bottom. Fig. 510. Pollen of a species of *Aeschynanthus* with the pollen, $e$, and the stomata, $f$. Fig. 511. Upper part of the flower of an *Orchis*, showing the pollen adhering to the stigma by the stigmatic hairs. As in many species of *Anemia* (fig. 508). In the Orchidaceae, the pollen-cells are formed by a mass of protoplasmic threads, which seem in this case to be wholly derived from a somewhat like process in the anther-wall itself. In the Orchidaceae, the pollen-cells cohere in a remarkable degree and form pollen-masses which are commonly of a waxy nature, to which likewise they adhere by means of their stigmas (figs. 509, 510). The *Aeschynanthus* somewhat similar masses occur (figs. 506, p. 96), and in *Orchis* (figs. 511) a similar pollen-mass is invested by a special cellular covering. By a careful examination of these pollen-cells we find that they are formed of compound cells, each consisting of several nuclei arranged, each of these masses is found to consist of four pollen-cells. In the pollen of the *Orchis* we also find other characteristics than those are prolonged downwards in the form of a stalk called 503 STRUCTURE OF THE POLLEN. The antheridium (fig. 500, c), which adheres commonly at the period of anthesis to the surface of the anther, is called **antheridium** (figs. 561, a, and 569, r, p), which are placed on the upper surface of a little projection called the **midrib** situated at the base of the anther. Structure of the Pollen.--We must now more particularly describe the structure of the pollen-cell, or pollen grain as it is more frequently called. The pollen-grain is composed of three parts, viz. :--1. Its Wall or Coats; 2. Its Contents; 3. Its Form and Properties. 1. Wall or Coats of the Pollen-cell.--When mature the wall of the pollen-cell generally consists of two membranes; an internal one, and an external one. The former encloses the outer coat, appears to consist of two, or even three layers; while the external coat is usually but one layer thick. In aquatic plants, there is but one membrane, which is of a similar nature to the intine. The intine is the first formed layer, and appears to be of the same nature and appearance in all pollen-cells. It is usually smooth and transparent, and consists chiefly of cellulose and pure cellulose. It is generally applied so as to form a complete lining to the extine, except perigms in those cases where the latter presents a very prominent part in its structure. Many botanists believe that the intine does not extend into them in the mature pollen. Fig. 561. Fig. 568. Fig. 566. Fig. 566. Fig. 561. Pollen of Helichrysum (Asteraceae) --Fig. 563. Elliptical pollen cell with a long axis parallel to the long axis of the ellipse; viewed from above.--Fig. 566. Pollen-cell of *Spiraea*. After *Baker*. The extine is a hard thick resisting layer forming a kind of capsule over the intine. While the intine usually presents a similar appearance in the pollen of different plants, the extine lacks this uniformity; it varies greatly in thickness, at times marked with little granular processes (figs. 70), or spiny membraneous projections (figs. 71). The nature of these markings is always the same for the pollen of any particular species of plant, but varies much in that of different states. They are supposed to be due to secretion or by secretion, which is commonly supposed to be derived from 254 matter remaining from the solution or absorption of the walls of the parent-cells, and the pollen-grains are found in the extreme. In the far majority of cases the pollen-cells are yellow, but various other colours are occasionally found; thus they are black, brown, red, purple, or green. The flowers of Epidendrum, black in the Tulip, rarely green, and occasionally of a white hue. Besides the various markings just described as existing at one time, we find also either pores (figs. 667, 668, 669, f.), and cells (figs. 670, 671), or both together. These pores may be numerous and arranged in different plants. At the spots where these holes are present, the outer membrane is always thin, but some botanists believe that the outer membrane always exists, but that it is much thinner at these points than elsewhere. Sometimes there is only one pore or cell here, but one slit; while three is a common number in Dicorydiuma. Sometimes there are two pores or cells, and in some cases we find twelve or more slits. These slits are generally straight (fig. 663, f.), but in Muscina monostachia they are curved, and other still more complex arrangements occasionally occur. Fig. 585. Fig. 587. Fig. 588. Fig. 585. Pores of the Passion-flower (Passiflora); before leaving a., a., o., o., Liliaceae; pores (fig. 587) of Polen of the Glutin at the period of opening; pores (fig. 588) of the same plant; a., a., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o., o,, etc.; of the leaves. From Joubert.--Fig. 588. Trigonal polyes of the Passion-flower. The pores, like the slits also vary as to their number. Thus we commonly find one in Monocotyledons, as in the Grasses; and three in Biscleocydes. Sometimes again the pores are very numerous, and so crowded that they cannot be distinctly separated or arranged in a more or less regular manner. The pores, also, may be either large or small; and sometimes they are situated in the Passion-flower (fig. 566, c.), and Gourd (fig. 567). These processes (fig. 567, e.) are pushed off by corresponding projections on the stigma (fig. 567, d.). This is done when it falls upon the stigma for the purpose of fertilizing the ovule; hence such polies are called "stigmatic." The pores of all Angiospermous plants is a simple cell as above described, but in Gymnopermous plants the pollen CONTENTS, FORM, AND SIZE OF THE POLLEN. 255 is not a simple cell, but it contains other small cells, which adhere to the inside of its internal membrane close to the point where the pollen-cells are separated from each other (Reproducti- tion of Gymno sperma, in Physiological Botany.) 256 The pollen-cells are usually spherical, but some con- tained within the coat or cells of the pollen-cell is called the forilla. This consists of a dense, coarsely-granular protoplasm, in which are seen numerous vacuoles, and also what ap- pear to be oil globules. As the pollen-cell approaches to maternity, the forilla becomes more concentrated, and contains less water. The size of the pollen-cells varies much; some are not more than about $\frac{1}{30}$ of an inch in diameter, while the largest attain nearly an inch in diameter. They may be ob- long, some being spherical, others oblong, and others mere or less cylindrical with somewhat tapering extremities. When viewed under a high magnifying power, the starch granules are seen to be very large and distinct. The contents of the pollen exhibit a very active tremulous motion, moving to and fro in various directions and appearing as if repelled by each other. It has been observed that when suspended in a liquid, all other very minute particles when suspended in a liquid, but the office it performs will be explained hereafter. 2. Form and Size of the Pollen-Cel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The pollen-cells are found in various forms. In general, they are spherical (figs. 70 and 56), and oval (fig. 56); in other cases they are oblong or elongated (figs. 71 and 72). They may be triangular with the angles rounded and enlarged (figural), as in the Stamens of Primroses and plants generally of the order Lignum-vitae; or they may be irregularly angular or angular as in Trachelospermum spinosum, while in Zosteris they are three- toed or four-toed (figs. 73 and 74). The form of the pollen- also occurs. It should also be noticed that the form of the pollen is materially influenced according as it is dry or moist. Thus the stamens of Primroses have a more or less triangular shape taking place between the thickened forilla and the water, while some of them are oblong or elongated, and the pollen-cells consequently become more or less angular or angular. When exposed to the air for some time they frequently assume a more or less triangular shape (figs. 75 and 76). The forilla is $\frac{1}{30}$ of an inch in diameter; their size, however, like their form, is liable to vary according as they are examined in a dry state or wet. 4. Disinfection of the Pollen.-We have already stated that when the pollen-cells are placed in water they become disintegrated in consequence of osmic action taking place between their 236 DEHISCENCE OF THE POLLEN. thickened contents and the surrounding fluid. If this action be continued by allowing the pollen-cells to remain in the liquid, they soon become so much swollen that they burst and their contents to escape. Under these circumstances, as the intine is ruptured, the pollen-tube will be forced out, and it will be found that the former will form little projections through the pores or slit of the latter, so as to produce little blister-like swellings on its surface (Fig. 568). This process of absorption of fluid by endosperm still goes on, the intine will itself burst and the pollen-tube will continue to grow until it meets the power of a jet (Fig. 569). These changes will take place more rapidly if a little subphoric or nitric acid be first added to the water. Fig. 568.Fig. 570.Fig. 571. Fig. 568. Pollen of the Cherry discharging the pollen-tube through an opening in the Pollen-cells after being immersed in water. Fig. 571. Vertical section of the stigma and part of the style of Asteriscus spinosus, showing the pollen-tube emerging from the pollen-cells, which is provided with a pollen-tube, $p$, which pierces the tissue of the stigma. When the pollen is thrown upon the stigma in the process of pollination (Fig. 571, $stg$), the above described action becomes materially modified. In this case the pollen-cell does not burst but remains intact, and a portion of the pores or slit of the extine in the form of a delicate tube (Fig. 571, $pt$) is formed around each pollen-grain. This tube-like structure penetrates, as will be afterwards described, through the tissue of the stigma and style (Fig. 571, $sty$) when, since this is prevented from bursting by its integumentary covering, its formation is frequently some inches in length, and its formation is not due, as was formerly supposed, to a growth of tissue, but a true growth, caused by the nourishment it derives from the liquid and conducting tissue of the style in its passage downwards to the intine of the pollen-cells. Professor Duncan has proved that the pollen-tube is not GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE DISK. 237 (On all cases at least), as formerly supposed, a continuous tube, that is, has no distinct orifice, but is continued throughout its length (often and all other Monocotyledons which he has examined with long styles, *transverse* incisions of the tubular cell-wall of the periphery of the disk appear to be wanting). Hence the pollen-tube is really a tube formed by elongated cells. In Dicoty- lems, on the contrary, the pollen-tube is always in all cases uni- cellular, and, therefore, to have one continuous cavity. 2. THE DISK. The application of the term disk is variously understood by botanists; thus, by some it is used as synonymous with thalamus, receptacle, or receptaculum; by others it is applied to all abnormal or irregular bodies of whatever form or character they may be; by some it is confined to the calyx and corolla; and gynoeicum; by others, again, it is defined as that part of the thalamus which is situated between the calyx and the gyno- eicum; while others, again, define the disk as the portion of the thala- mus which lies between the calyx and corolla. The first part assumes an enlarged or irregular appearance; and lastly, the term disk is understood to include all bodies whatsoever form they may assume, whether they be situated between the calyx and gynoeicum, or upon or in connection with either of these organs, whether they be normal or abnormal referred to them. It is applied in the latter sense in this volume. Although the disk is not an essential organ of the flower, it is very frequently found in a variety of forms; thus, in the Oranges (Figs. 570, 571), it forms a sturdy covering over the base of the pistil; in the Tree Pea (Fig. 574), it occurs as a cup-like structure overlying the base of the ovary; in both of the plants just mentioned, it is prolonged into a style; in the Rose and Cherry (Fig. 589), it forms a sort of way-lining to the tube of the calyx; and in some other plants it is a thickening on the top of the ovaries adhering to the styles (Fig. 572, d); this **MODIFICATIONS OF THE DISK.** latter form of disk has been termed the *phylodium*. In other cases the disk is situated under the ovary, as in Cruciferous Plants (fig. 50, pl.); or to scale, as in the Brome-crop (fig. 575), and Vine (fig. 613) ; or to various petaloid ex- pansions, as in the Columbine. Fig. 572. A diagram showing a flower with a modified disk. Fig. 573. A diagram showing a flower with a modified disk. When the disk is situated under the ovary, as in the Orange and Rue (fig. 573), it is termed *hypogynous*; when it is attached to the calyx, as in the Rose and Cherry (fig. 583), it is *perigynous*; Fig. 574. A diagram showing a flower with a perigynous disk. Fig. 575. A diagram showing a flower with a hypogynous disk. Fig. 576. Portion of the Female (Pistilus). The ovary is surrounded by a disk, d. - For fig. 573. Flower of the Rose (from fig. 583). On the side of which the stamens are inserted. The pistil is composed of three organs, namely, the Ovary, the style, and the stigma. The Ovary consists of five disc-like portions, on the centre of which is the summit of each of which a stamen may easily be inserted. The style is composed and sporeproof. or when on the summit of the ovary, as in Umbelliferous plants (fig. 572, d.), epipetalous meaning being used in the sense already given, or treating of the insertion of the stamens under the head of the Androcium. **3. THE GYNECUM OR PISTIL.** We now arrive at the consideration of the last organ of the flower, namely, the gynecum or female system. The gynecum, 288 GYNECUM.--THE CARPEL. or pistil as it is frequently called, occupies the centre of the flower, the androecium and floral organs being arranged around it. When the flowers are perfect (fig. 25), the floral envelopes alone form the ordinary pistillate flower, but when they are female (fig. 30) the pistillate is modified and naked (fig. 34). The gynoecium consists of one or more modified leaves called carpels which are either distinct from each other, as in the Silene (fig. 67), or united into a compound body, as in the Primrose (figs. 578) and Tobacco (fig. 579); or it may consist of one carpel as in the Pea (fig. 581) and Broom (fig. 577), the pistil is said to be simple, but in the case of the Broom it is compound, as will be seen in the Botany book (fig. 572). Tobacco (fig. 578). Before proceeding to examine the gynoecium or pistil generally, it is necessary to consider first of all the structure of the carpel, of one or more of which organs it is composed. THE CARPEL.--This name is derived from a Greek word signifying the fruit, because it is just this that is meant by the words explained, the essential part of that fruit which is formed by the organ thus designated (page 19), consists, let us call it, of a hol low inferior part arising from the stamens, and containing within itself a solid upper part forming in its interior one or more little rounded bodies called ovules, which are surrounded by a layer of tissue called the placenta, and which are attached to a projection on the walls termed the placenta. p. 2nd. The ovule is a minute embryo composed of lax cellular tissue without epidermis, and with no trace whatever of any other structure than that which can be said to be its seed, as in the Barberry (fig. 579. et al.) or it may be a true seed as in the Poppy (fig. 580.), or in the Carrot (fig. 581.). The Carrot has two ovaries, called the spurs, as in the Broom (fig. 577., et al.). The only essential parts of the carpel, therefore, are those which contain the ovules; these are very numerous in quantity to be compared with their size; and they are so closely packed together that they cannot be separated from each other except by means of a compound plaiting in which the parts are completely united (figs. 31, 320., and 578.), as with the simple carpel. The simple ovary (page 271.) has two sutures, one of which corresponds to 2A diagram showing a simple carpel with two sutures.2260 PARTS AND NATURE OF THE CARPEL. union of the margins of the laminae of the carpellary leaf coat of which it is formed, and which is turned towards the axis of the **Fig. 573.** **Fig. 580.** **Fig. 573.** Vertical section of the ovary of the Buxus (Buxus sempervirens), on the left, and of the Carpinus (Carpinus betulus), on the right, situated at a projection upon the placenta, p., at female stigma. *Fig. 580.* Vertical section of the ovary, of the Carpinus (Carpinus betulus). Female stamens. *Fig. 581.* Vertical section of the ovary, of the Carpinus (Carpinus betulus). Female stamens. plant ; and another, which corresponds to the midrib of the lamina, and is situated in the middle line between the two circumferences of the flower; the former is called the central adaxial (*fig. 580*); and the latter, the lateral adaxial (*fig. 581*). Nature of the Carpel.—That the carpel is analogous to the leaf is proved in various ways, some of which will be more particularly noticed hereafter. The following are its general Morphology of the Flower; we shall here only allude to the mode of development of its parts, and to their arrangement as sometimes presents in double or cultivated flowers; and by tra- cing its development. Thus, in a double flower of the Cherry the exserted portion of the carpel is represented by a petal, as is the normal condition of the solitary carpel in the single flower (*fig. 582*). In this case, however, each petal is composed of two leaves, one of which resembles a blade of a leaf (*fig. 583*), or into organs intermediate in their nature between carpell and leaves (*fig. 584*), and these are united together by a common lower portion (*fig. 585*, f.), representing the blade of the leaf, is clearly apparent in *figs*. 586 and 587, where it is seen that the prolonging portion, c., to the style and stigma. The carpel of the single-flowering Cherry being thus convertible into a leaf, affords us a complete explanation of its structure. A somewhat similar nature of the carpel is afforded by tracing their development. Thus when first examined they ap- pear on the thallus as little slightly concave bodies of a green colour (*figs*. 588 and 589), but gradually become more conve and ultimately the two NATURE OF THE CARPEL. 261 margins of the concavity in each unite (fig. 587), and thus form a hollow portion or ovary, in which the ovules soon make their appearance. The first indication of transition of little body organs into carpels may be well seen in the Flowering Rush. Fig. 581. Fig. 582. Fig. 583. Fig. 584. Opposite leaves from the double flowers of the Cherry-tree. A. Linnæus. A. trifolius. A prolonged portion corresponding to the style, stigma, and ovary, is seen in the lower leaf from the single flower of the Cherry. A. oxyrius. A. stylos. A. stigmosa. We have thus in the first place shown that carpels become modified changed into leaves in the flowers of cultivated plants; and secondly, that though their first appearance is Fig. 585. Fig. 586. Fig. 587. Fig. 584. Young flower-bud of the Flowering Rush (Ranunculus acrisifolius). The perianth is still composed of two inside and exterior small leaves. Fig. 586. The perianth is in a more advanced state, but the folded nar- row leaf-like appendages are still visible on the outside. the form of little organs resembling leaves; and in both ways, therefore, we have proofs afforded us of their leaf-like nature. Structure of the Carpel.--The ovary being the homologue of the blade of the leaf, it presents, as might have been expected, 282 STRUCTURE OF THE CARPEL—THE STYLE. an analogous structure. Thus it consists of parenchyma, which is often much developed, and through which the vascular bundle lies compressed between two layers of epidermis, one of which approaches towards the base of the style, or terminates at the upper part of the style, while the other is continuous with the epidermis of the whole. The whole is covered externally by a layer of epidermis (fig. 588, ep). The parenchyma is very delicate, and its nature as we proceed towards the inner margin of the ovary corresponds to that of the lower surface of the lamina, and like it is frequently traversed by a few bundles of vascular tissue. The parenchyma, etc., between the inner lining of the ovary and epidermis, constitutes a kind of sheath round the style, which is similarly placed. Where the margins of the lamina of the carpelary leaf meet and unite at the ventral section (fig. 580, st), a layer of parenchyma is found between them, which forms a more or less projecting line in the cavity of the ovary, called the plane (fig. 579, p.), to which the ovules or ovaries are attached (fig. 580, st.). This plane is formed by a fold, which divides the two halves being developed from the two contiguous margins of the lamina into two distinct parts. The style has been considered by some botanists as a prolongation of the lamina (fig. 580, st.), but from the arrangement of its tissues it is better regarded as a continuation of its apex, the margins of which have been rolled towards each other. The style is composed of a mass of parenchyma, traversed by distinct bundles of vascular tissue, which are arranged so as to form a sort of sheath at its circumference (fig. 580, st.), and which are separated from those of the ovary, and proceed upwards without branching towards their termination on the style-plate (fig. 580, st.), where they end point. The style is invested by epidermis continuous with that of the ovary, and furnished occasionally, like it, with stomata and hairs. Upon making a transverse (fig. 580), vertical section (fig. 580), or at any other point it is seen that both body as well angle have supposed, but that it is traversed by a very narrow canal Fig. 588. Fig. 588. Vertical section through an ovary showing its structure. ep. External epidermis. st. Style. st. Style-plate. st. Style. st. Style-plate. st. Style. st. Style-plate. st. Style. st. Style-plate. st. Style. st. Style-plate. st. Style. st. Style-plate. st. Style. st. Style-plate. st. Style. st. Style-plate. st. Style. st. Style-plate. st. Style. st. Style-plate. st. Style. st. Style-plate. st. Style. st. Style-plate. st. Style. st. Style-plate. st. Style. st. Style-plate. st. Style. st. Style-plate. st. Style. st. Style-plate. st. Style. st. Style-plate. st. Style. st. Style-plate. st. Style. st. Style-plate. st. Style. st. Style-plate. st. Style. st. Style-plate. st. Style. st. Style-plate. st. Style. st. Style-plate. st. Style. st. Style-plate. st. Style. st. Style-plate. st. Style. st. Style-plate. st. Style. st. Style-plate. st. Style. st. Style-plate. st. Style. st. Style-plate. st. Style. st. Style-plate. st. Style. st. Style-plate. st. Style. st. Style-plate. st. Style. st. Style-plate. st. Style. st. Style-plate. st. Style. st. Style-plate. st. Style. st. Style-plate. st. Style. st. Style-plate. st.Style Fig.588Fig.588Fig.588Fig.588Fig.588Fig.588Fig.588Fig.588Fig.588Fig.588Fig.588Fig.588Fig.588Fig.588Fig.588Fig.588Fig.588Fig.588Fig.588265 which renders the surface more or less sticky, and thus admirably adapted to retain the pollen, which is thrown upon it in various forms. The GYNECIIUM.--Having now described the parts, nature, and structure of the carpel, we are in a position to examine in a connected manner the whole pistil and pistillate flower, which is made up of one or more such carpels. When the pistil is composed of two carpels, as in the Broom (fig. 577) and Faa (fig. 588), it is called simple, and the terms gynecium or pistil and carpel are synonymous ; when there are three carpels, the pistil or gynecium is called compound (figs. 578 and 579). In a compound pistil or gynecium the carpels may be either Fig. 597.Fig. 598. Fig. 597. Pistil of Dioscorea Corpuliferae, a plant with two carpels, one of which is persistent, below which is persistent. On the face of each of which is inserted a nectary. A nectary is a glandular organ on the surface of a plant, often for the purpose of attracting insects. The term "nectary" signifies a glandular organ on the surface of a plant, often for the purpose of attracting insects. The term "nectary" signifies a glandular organ on the surface of a plant, often for the purpose of attracting insects. separate from each other, as in the Stonerop (fig. 573), and Pimnarcha-ure (fig. 580); or they may be united into one body, as in the Pimnarcha-ure (fig. 580); and Tobacco (fig. 578); in the former case, the pistil is said to be syncarpous or diclypous, When the pistil is syncarpous, the number of carpels of which it is composed is indicated by the prefix "syncarpo-" prefixed to the name of the flower, which means mono- or female, in reference to the function it performs in the process of fertilization ; thus, Syncarpo-ure (fig. 580), meaning that there are two carpels. In a syncarpous pistil, the number of the styles, or of the stigma if they are absent, is also defined in a similar way. Thus, a diclypous pistil has two carpels ; a triclypous has three carpels ; a tetraplypous, with four carpels ; and so on. These terms will be more particularly referred to when we treat of the Linnæan Illustration showing a pistil with two separate carpels.Illustration showing a pistil with two separate carpels.266 **APOCARNOES FERTIL** System of Classification, as most of the Orders of that arrangement are determined by the number of carpels, styles, or stigmas. 1. **Apoecary Fertil.—An apocary plant may consist of two or more carpels, and they are variously arranged accordingly. When, however, the carpels are always placed opposite to each other; when there are more than two, and the number coincides with the number of petals, then they are homomorphous with them; it is rare, however, to find the carpels corresponding in number to the sepals or petals, they are generally fewer, or more numerous than the sepals or petals; thus, in the Cane-Whortleberry (Fig. 599), there are three carpels whorl, as in the Stonecrop (Fig. 670); or in several whorls Fig. 599. Fig. 600. Fig. 599. Central part of the flower of the Tulp plant (Lyciumdendron tulpifolius). The thalamus is composed of three rows of carpels, the thalamus, Fig. 600. central part of the flower of the Strawberry. The thalamus is mostly bimodal (Fig. 598), but sometimes trimeral (Fig. 599) or quadrimal (Fig. 601). Section of the ripe stalk of the Raspberry, showing the central thalamus alternating with each other, and then either at about the same level, or as more generally the case, at different heights upon the thalamus so as to form a more or less spiral arrangement (Fig. 602). Fig. 602. The thalamus is composed of several rows of carpels, the thalamus, Fig. 603., which is usually the case when the number of carpels is small, frequently assumes other shapes; thus, in (Fig. 598) it is bimodal (Fig. 599); in the Raspberry (Fig. 601.), it is trimeral (Fig. 600); while in the Rose (Fig. 649., r., r.), it becomes hollowed out like a cup, and contains a single seed within its inner surface. These modifications of the thalamus, together with some others, will be more particularly referred to hereafter under the head of Thalamus. **Figs. 603.-Am.** 267 STYREACOUS FISTIL. These varying conditions of the thalamus necessarily lead to corresponding alterations in the mutual relation of the differ- ent shoots of the flower, which may be either distinct, united, or modified very materially the appearance of different flowers. 2. *Sporousus Fustil.*—We have already seen in speaking of the form of the pistil that the ovary is composed of several parts, of which these whole are respectively composed may be distinct or united together. The degree of union between the parts of the carpels with respect to each other, and from their nature, they are more frequently united than any other part of the flower. In some cases they are completely united, and it may commence at the summit, or at the base of the carpels. Thus in the former case, as in *Anthocoryon fruticose* (fig. 603), ![Fig. 603. Fig. 604. Fig. 605. Fig. 606.] The varying conditions of the thalamus necessarily lead to corresponding alterations in the mutual relation of the differ- ent shoots of the flower, which may be either distinct, united, or modified very materially the appearance of different flowers. 2. *Sporousus Fustil.*—We have already seen in speaking of the form of the pistil that the ovary is composed of several parts, of which these whole are respectively composed may be distinct or united together. The degree of union between the parts of the carpels with respect to each other, and from their nature, they are more frequently united than any other part of the flower. In some cases they are completely united, and it may commence at the summit, or at the base of the carpels. Thus in the former case, as in *Anthocoryon fruticose* (fig. 603), Fig. 603.Fig. 604.Fig. 605.Fig. 606. The ovary is composed of several parts, of which these whole are respectively composed may be distinct or united together. The degree of union between the parts of the carpels with respect to each other, and from their nature, they are more frequently united than any other part of the flower. In some cases they are completely united, and it may commence at the summit, or at the base of the carpels. Thus in the former case, as in *Anthocoryon fruticose* (fig. 603), It is far more common to find the carpels united by their lower portions than by their upper portions; but this is only taken place to various extents. Thus, in the Rose (fig. 606, etc.), on the union only taking place at its base; while in *Dactylis glomerata* (fig. 607), in which case the ovary is commonly described as lobed. In *Dactylis* (fig. 607) the ovary are completely united, the It is far more common to find the carpels united by their lower portions than by their upper portions; but this is only taken place to various extents.Thus, in the Rose (fig. 606, etc.), on the union only taking place at its base; while in *Dactylis glomerata* (fig. 607), in which case the ovary is commonly described as lobed.In *Dactylis* (fig. 607) the ovary are completely united, the It is far more common to find the carpels united by their lower portions than by their upper portions; but this is only taken place to various extents. Thus, in the Rose (fig. 606, etc.), on the union only taking place at its base; while in *Dactylis glomerata* (fig. 607), in which case the ovary is commonly described as lobed. In *Dactylis* (fig. 607) the ovary are completely united, the It is far more common to find the carpels united by their lower portions than by their upper portions; but this is only taken place to various extents. Thus, in the Rose (fig. 606, etc.), on the union only taking place at its base; while in *Dactylis glomerata* (fig. 607), in which case the ovary is commonly described as lobed. In *Dactylis* (fig. 607) the ovary are completely united, the It is far more common to find the carpels united by their lower portions than by their upper portions; but this is only taken place to various extents. Thus, in the Rose (fig. 606, etc.), on the union only taking place at its base; while in *Dactylis glomerata* (fig. 607), in which case the ovary is commonly described as lobed. In *Dactylis* (fig. 607) the ovary are completely united, the It is far more common to find the carpels united by their lower portions than by their upper portions; but this is only taken place to various extents. Thus, in the Rose (fig. 606, etc.), on the union only taking place at its base; while in *Dactylis glomerata* (fig. 607), in which case the ovary is commonly described as lobed. In *Dactylis* (fig. 607) the ovary are completely united, the It is far more common to find the carpels united by their lower portions than by their upper portions; but this is only taken place to various extents. Thus, in the Rose (fig. 606, etc.), on the union only taking place at its base; while in *Dactylis glomerata* (fig. 607), in which case the ovary is commonly described as lobed. In *Dactylis* (fig. 607) the ovary are completely united, the It is far more common to find the carpels united by their lower portions than by their upper portions; but this is only taken place to various extents. Thus, in the Rose (fig. 606, etc.), on the union only taking place at its base; while in *Dactylis glomerata* (fig. 607), in which case the ovary is commonly described as lobed. In *Dactylis* (fig. 607) the ovary are completely united, the It is far more common to find the carpels united by their lower portions than by their upper portions; but this is only taken place to various extents. Thus, in the Rose (fig. 606, etc.), on the union only taking place at its base; while in *Dactylis glomerata* (fig. 607), in which case the ovary is commonly described as lobed. In *Dactylis* (fig. 607) the ovary are completely united, the It is far more common to find the carpels united by their lower portions than by their upper portions; but this is only taken place to various extents. Thus, in the Rose (fig. 606, etc.), on the union only taking place at its base; while in *Dactylis glomerata* (fig. 607), in which case the ovary is commonly described as lobed. In *Dactylis* (fig. 607) the ovary are completely united, the It is far more common to find [END OF DOCUMENT] 268 SYNCARPOUS FISTIL--COMPOUND Ovary. ovarium, stylos, and stigmae are all united. When two or more ovaries are thus completely united so as to form one body, the organ is called a compound ovary, or compound ovariery. Compound Ovary.--The compound ovary formed as just stated may either have as many cavities separated by partitions as there are component ovaries; or it may only have one cavity, These differences in the structure of the compound ovary are distinctment of the ovule, as will be afterwards seen when speaking of plantations. The cavity of the compound ovary is usually within at once the causes which lead to these differences. Thus if we have three ovaries placed side by side (fig. 607, a), each of these possesses a single cavity containing an ovule; but if we make a transverse section of the ovary (fig. 608), we shall see that it has three cavities, each of which is separated from those adjoining by two walls, one wall being formed by the blade of its own ovary, and the other by the blade of the next to it. But if these three ovaries are united by being distinct as are united by being connected (fig. 609, b), so as to form a compound ovary, the latter must necessarily also have at least three cavities, each of them com- ponent ovaries, i. e., each cavity being surrounded by those adjoining by a wall which is called a diaphragm or partition. Each of these diaphragms is composed of the united sides of the blades of the component ovaries; and consequently double, one half being formed by one of the sides of its own ovary, and the other half by that of the adjoining ovary. Fig. 607. A diagram of three ovaries joined side by side but not united. A transverse section through the center of the same.--Fig. 608. A transverse section through the center of the same. A diagram showing how the stylos and stigmae being united with the sides of the same sections of the ovaries. In this arrangement of the parts of the ovary, it must necessarily happen that the styles, (when they are distinct,) must alternate with the diaphragms, for otherwise there would be no connection between any part of the laminae of the carpellary leaves, while the latter are formed by the union of their edges. In order that this may be done in the same relation to the stylos as are the sides of a leaf have to its apex ; that is, they must be placed right and left of them, on both sides. The cavities of the compound ovary are called cells or keels, and such an ovary as that just described would be therefore termed three-keeled or triletear, as it is formed of three uniall Fig. 607. Fig. 608. 268 COMPOUND OVARY.—LOCULLI ovaries ; or if formed of the united ovaries of two, four, five, or many carpsels, it would be described respectively as fou- fowered, four- or five- or many-carpedal, or as a quin- quedocaral, and mono-celled or multilocular. As all dissepiments are usually connected with each other by their outer walls of adjoining ovaries, it must necessarily follow that a simple carpel can have no true dissepiment, and is hence, under ordi- nary circumstances, a monoeccaryon. From the preceding observations it must also follow that when ovaries are placed side by side, and form a compound ovary, the dissepiments will be vertical in equal number to the ovaries out of which that compound ovary is formed. Fig. 609. Fig. 610. Fig. 611. Fig. 612. Fig. 609. Vertical section of a portion of the mature ovary of *Cuscuta Pentandra*, showing a number of transverse sections of the ovaries. Fig. 610. Vertical section of the ovary of the *Waldsteinia*, or *Oenone*. The ovary is composed of three ovaries, and very numerous dissepiments occupy the ovarian chamber. Fig. 611. Vertical section of the ovary of *Cuscuta* (fig. 612). The ovaries are represented by three separate portions, and show that the earl is here five-celled. Fig. 612. Vertical section of the ovary of *Cuscuta* (fig. 613). The ovaries are represented by three separate portions, and show that the earl is here two-celled. It is thus seen that in the *Cuscuta* the ovaries are formed in two different ways : either by the union of one whorl uniting to the base of another whorl below it, or by corresponding growths from some other part of the wall of the ovarian chamber, which are vertical, and are called phragmata, as in the *Cuscuta Falcata* (fig. 609), where the 270 SPURIOUS DISSEMINENTS. ovary, after fertilization, is divided by a number of transverse dissepiments, which separate the ovules from each other. Others are vertical, as in Cruciferae plants, where the dissepiment, called a replum (fig. 615, c), is formed from the placenta. Also in *Indigo* (fig. 615, d), the ovary is divided into two parts by a vertical dissepiment, and is hence normally two-celled; but instead of thus being bilocular, it is often found to be unilocular, owing to the formation of a spurious vertical dissepiment, but towards the apex it is two-celled (fig. 615, e). The dissepiment not being formed throughout the whole true nature of the ovary cannot be indicated. In the Gourd tribe, also, spurious dissepiments appear to occur in the ovary, as in *Cucurbita*, where pro- jections from the placenta are in the placenta; again (fig. 615, b), Fig. 615. Fig. 615. Transverse section of the ovary of the Flax (*Linum*); showing five separate ovaries united by a common placenta. Fig. 615. Fig. 614. Transverse section of the mature ovary of *Amaranthus*. Fig. 614. Fig. 613. Transverse section of the ripe ovary of *Phaseolus*. spurious incomplete vertical dissepiments are formed in the ovary by means of a foldings towards the central sulcus. In the *Astragalus* (fig. 614), a spurious dissepiment is also formed by a folding inwards of the dorsal sutures; while in *Osteopha- sia* (fig. 613) a similar structure is produced by a foldin produced in the ovary of each by a folding inwards of the central sulcus. The spurions described above may be omitted; but spurious dissepiments might be quoted, but the above will be sufficient for our purpose. It should be noticed that in our description of spurions we have confined ourselves to those of compound ovaries alone, but have also referred to those of simple ovaries, as in *Cucurbita*, *Astragalus*, *Phaseolus*, and *Osteophasia*, are examples of such formations in simple ovaries. We have already mentioned that in *Cucurbita* and *Osteophasia* ovary which produces but one cavity, either of two or more, as in that just alluded to. Such an ovary is formed either by the union of two or more numerous carpels or by the union of the carpel of which it is composed, as in the *Mignonette* Fig. 615. Fig. 614. Fig. 613. SIMPLE AND COMPOUND Ovary. (See 616) and Cactus (see 620); or by the union of carpels the ovary of which are only partially folded towards, so that all their surfaces are exposed to the sex organs; or the com- pound ovary is really unilocular, as in the Orchis (see 617), and Poppy (see 618). Fig. 616. Fig. 617. Fig. 618. A simple ovary with three carpels. Fig. 618. Transverse section of the unilocular ovary of *Mignonette* (Bennet). † The lower horizontal portion of ovary or one of the three carpels of which it is composed, is called the pistil, or pistillate part of the ovary. † Three sections of the unilocular ovary of an Orchis. † The lower portion of the ovary is called the pistil, or pistillate part of the ovary. † The upper portion is called the gynophore, or gyno- part of the ovary. † A section of a species of Poppy, or Crucian, plant showing Placentation in its young stage. † The lower portion of the ovary is called the pistil, or pistillate part of the ovary. † The upper portion is called the gynophore, or gyno- part of the ovary. † The two parts together constitute the whole ovary. Having now described the parts, nature, and structure of the carpel, and of the gymno- or pistill- genus, we proceed in the next place to divide separately into constituent parts of the ovary, style, stigma, and stamens. The term *ovary*, as already mentioned (page 308) is called compounded when it is composed of two or more ovar- ies combined together ; or, on the contrary, it is simple when it consists of but one single ovary. In this latter case either one or of one of the carpels of an apocarpous pistil (see 505). It should be noted, however, that in many cases where it is said that ovaries are not in all cases synonymous terms ; thus, a pistil or gym- noma is only said to be simple (see 575 and 580), when it is composed of but one single carpel ; whereas in other cases an ovary being then mutually convertible; but an ovary is simple as just called, when it consists of but one single carpel (see 577), as in the Broom (see 577), or one of the three carpels composing an Orchis (see 572). In general, therefore, the ovary is scale under the thalamus, the carpellary leaves out of which it is formed having no stalks. In rare cases, however, the ovary is more or less elevated above the surface upon which it stands; as in *Dactylis glomerata*, as in the *Dicentra* (see 619), and *Dianthus* (see 697); y) this state being due to a modification in which each small leaf turns to the gynophore again under the head of Thalamus. 271 272 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE OVARY. The ovary, whether simple or compound, may be either ad- herent to the calyx, or free from it. In some flowers, as in the Myrtus (fig. 408), it is adherent to the calyx; and the calyx is superior, in the latter, as in the Barberry (fig. 679), and Potentilla (fig. 680). In some flowers the ovary is but partially adherent to the calyx, as in the Rose (fig. 681); and in others, because it is sometimes termed half-adherent or half-inferior, the calyx is inferior. In some cases, however, the calyx is said to be half-superior or half-inferior; for these are, how- ever, but rare exceptions. The common state of things is that of inferior, whether its adhesion to the calyx be complete, or only partially so, and vice versa. Fig. 618. Fig. 620. Fig. 621. Fig. 618. Part of Sambucus Perforata. The ovary is supported on a syn- drome, a short pedicel with a small disc at its summit, showing the leaves of a thallus, showing the ovary partially adherent to the calyx.—Fig. 621. Complete view of the same flower. The student must be careful not to confound the inferior ovary, as now described, with the apparently inferior ovaries of such flowers as the Rose (fig. 440), where the thallus, r, r, is convexly curved over the ovary, and has a number of lobes, or a number of carpels, o, o, on its inner wall. A transverse sec- tion will at once show that this is not an inferior ovary; in the Rose, we should therefore find a single cavity open at its summit, and its wall covered with distinct carpels ; whereas, on the contrary, a true adherent ovary would have several cavities united by one or more cells containing ovaries. The ovaries of the Rose are there- fore strictly superior or free. Schulze has shown that the ovary is not always formed of carpels, but sometimes also of the stem, and at other times of the two connate sepals and petals; and this mode of formation is observed by botanists; and we need not therefore further allude to them. It is probable, however, that the thallus by becoming hollowed FORM AND APPEARANCE OF THE OVARY. 273 out may, in some cases, form part of the ovary, in the same manner as the stigmata, under similar circumstances, forms a part of the calyx, as also stated by Mr. Hutton (see page 225). The ovary varies in form and appearance: when simple, it is generally more or less irregular in form; but when compound, it is composed of several ovaries, which may be of different kinds of compound ovaries may be seen in the Asteraceae (see fig. 618), and other instances. In form, the compound ovary is generally more or less phragmocarpous, that is to say, its surface is either perfectly even or uniform, thus showing no trace of its internal division; or it may be marked by furrows extending from its base to its summit, which furrows divide the ovary into several parts of union of its constituent ovaries. When these furrows are distinct, they are usually three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven, twelve, thirteen, fourteen, fifteen, sixteen, seventeen, eighteen, nineteen, twenty-one or more lobed, according to the number of its lobes. Sometimes we find, in addition to the furrows which Fig. 627. Fig. 628. Fig. 629. Phyllotaxis flower of a species of Euphorbia with three forked stigmas. PLANT ANATOMY PLACENTA of one of the leaves arising from the ventral stigmas. correspond to the points of union of the ovaries, others of a more superficial character which correspond to the dorsal sur- face of the leaf. These superficial characters are often so fine as to find eight projections, which give a somewhat angular appear- ance to the ovary. The surface covering the surface of the ovary may be either perfectly smooth, or furnished in various ways with different kinds of furrows or other superficial characters of different appear- ance. In these cases such terms are used as in describing similar conditions of the surface of the leaves, or of the other organs. When the ovary is compound, the number of ovarics of which it is composed corresponds to the number of lobes on its outer way. Thus, when the style (fig. 459), or stigma (fig. 31), remain distinct, the number of them generally corresponds to the number of lobes on the surface of the ovary; but when they are as in Euphorbia (fig. 622), that the styles are themselves divided, 2 274 PLACENTATION. which case they would, of course indicate a greater number of carpels than are actually present, but then resort to other modes of ascertaining this point, such, for instance, as the furrows, or lobes on the external surface of the ovary; or the number of seeds in the fruit; or the number of stamens which commonly correspond in number to the carpels of which that ovary is composed. The presence of a placenta is often very useful also as a guide in the determination; while in others the manner in which the ovules are attached must be taken into consideration. **Placentation.**—The term placenta is commonly applied to the masses of tissue which connect the ovules with the outer wall (figs. 579, p. 623, and 625), to which the ovule or ovules are attached. The placentae are variously distributed in different plants; but they are usually found either in one or two distinct special areas, and frequently throughout entire genera, or even natural families. In some cases they have great practical importance (see page 278). The term **placentation** is used to indicate the manner in which the placentae are distributed. 1. **Kind of Placentation.**—In the simple ovary the placentae are always situated at the base of the ovary (fig. 579), which corresponds to the union of the two margins of the lamina of the carpelial half (figs. 579, 580, and 625) out of which it is formed. This kind of placentation is termed axile, or sometimes axile from its being turned towards the axis of the plant. The latter term is better reserved for the placentation of compound ovaries, as described below. Figs. 611, 612, 613. Fig. 611. Transverse section of the compound ovary of the Lily. The ovary is trilocular; each locule contains a single ovule. Fig. 612. Transverse section of the ovary of a species of Compositae. The ovary is free-lobed, and each lobe contains a single ovule. Fig. 613. Transverse section of the ovary of a species of Corus. The ovary is unilocular, and contains two ovules. In compound ovaries we have three kinds of placentation: namely, axile, partial, and free central. The axile occurs in all compound many-seeded ovaries, because in those each of the KINDS OF PLACENTATION. 275 either of the component corpora is placed in a similar position to that of the other, so that the two axes are parallel below the placenta situated at their ventral sutures will be arranged in the centre or axis, as in the Lely (fig. 804) and Companius (fig. 805) types. This arrangement of the two corpora is called central, and the term *axis* is restricted to the form of placenta which has this arrangement, and is also used for the prolongation of the axis. This will be afterwards alluded to. In a compound one-celled ovary there are two forms of pla- centation, viz., parietal and free central. The pla- centation is termed *parietal*, when the ovaries are attached to placentae either plane or convex, and are separated by the ovary, as in the Magnogynites (figs. 616, p.), and Chacma (fig. 621), or upon Fig. 627. Fig. 628. Fig. 629. Fig. 631. Transverse section of the young ovary of Camptosperma (Lepidium), show- ing five partitions proceeding from the walls of the ovary to the placenta. The number of these partitions varies with different species, but in this case they are five. They are called *septa*. The placenta is a thin membrane, which is attached to the wall of the ovary by means of a short stalk, and is surrounded by a thickened part of the wall of the ovary, which is called *the placental stratum* (Graaf's fig.). A *septum* is a partition between two parts of an organ; thus, in this figure, we have five partitions separating the cavity of the ovary into five parts, each containing a single ovule. The *septum* is formed by the union of two parts of the wall of the ovary, and is therefore called a *septate* partition. In this figure we see a septate partition formed by two parts of the wall of the ovary united together, as in the *septate* type (fig. 617). In this figure we see a septate partition formed by two parts of the wall of the ovary united together, as in the *septate* type (fig. 617). In incomplete dissepiments formed, as already noticed, by the par- tially infolded ovaries, as in the species of Oryza (fig. 617, p.) and Poppy (fig. 618, p.), in parellal placentation, the number of partitions is equal to that of the ovaries, and each such ovary is formed. When the placenta are not attached to the inner surface of the wall of the ovary, but lie within its cavity and perfectly unconnected with the wall, they form what is called a *free central placenta*, as in the Carpothyrium (figs. 619-20). Besides the regular kinds of placentation just described, it sometimes happens that one or more partitions are less irregularly in the cavity of the ovary. Thus, in the Flowering Rush (fig. 631), they cover the whole inner surface of the ovaries; w2 226 **ORIGIN OF THE PLACENTAL.** in the Nympheae, they are attached all over the dissepiments; in *Cobaea*, they arise from the dorsal sutures ; and in *Broom-rape* (*Orchisidae*), from placenta placed within the margin of the ventral suture. Fig. 630. Fig. 631. Fig. 630. Vertical section of the plant of *Oenothera* (Primulaceae). At. 1870, at. 1875, at. 1879. --Fig. 631. Vertical section of the plant of *Broom-rape* (*Orchidaceae*), showing the inner surface of the crests covered all over with ovules. 2. Origin of the Placenta.--It is generally believed that the placenta is, in its simplest form, a mass of cells developed from the confluent margins of the carpels, and more strictly speaking, from the confluence of the laminae of the carpel-laminae, which are united to each other by their outer surfaces. In some cases the placenta extends along the whole line of union of the carpels (fig. 632, p.), but may be confined to its base only. Each carpel, therefore, consists of one sided or two-sided ovary, one half being formed by each margin of the carpel-laminae, while in others a single ovary is developed by a single carpel; in compound many-celled ovaries the placenta arises in like manner as in those from the contiguous margins of two carpels, or in those of which no such union exists; while in compound one-celled ovaries presenting partial placentation, each placenta arises from the confluence of two carpels, and is hence produced by two adjoining carpels. That the placenta is really developed in the above forms of placenta, is evident from facts which cannot be proved in various ways. Thus, in the first place, the placenta always appears to arise from the confluence of two carpels, and hence would normally be considered as formed from them; and secondly, we frequently find, that in monodiscus or almost monodiscus ovaries, when they are very or less flattened condition, a placenta bearing ovules is formed upon each side of the median line; and thirdly, that these cases may be considered as analogous to the formation of buds on the margins of leaves, as in *Bryophyllum calycinum*. A diagram showing a vertical section through a flower with a single ovary and two carpels. The left side shows a cross-section through one carpel, with an arrow indicating where the placenta might arise from both sides of the carpel-laminae. The right side shows a cross-section through both carpels, with an arrow indicating where the placenta might arise from both sides of both carpels. ORIGIN OF THE PLACENTA. 277 (See 309), and Malacis pulchellus (see 309), already referred to. The formation of the placenta from the margins of the carpels in axile, parietal and placentation may be considered, therefore, as a development of the marginal theory of the placenta, from analogy to what occurs in certain ordinary leaves. We have seen that the placenta is a marginal placenta. The theory formerly entertained was, that this also was a develop- ment from the margins of the carpels. It was thought that the pericarp of the ovary was formed by the walls which originally met in the centre and developed placenta from their margins in such a manner that they would be separated from each other, so that subsequently the walls of the ovary grew more rapidly than the dissepiments, so that the connection between them was soon destroyed. This theory has been abandoned on account of the great subsequent development of the placenta, the septa ultimately becoming almost entirely separated from each other, and left in the cavity of the ovary. This theory is strengthened by the fact, that in several of the Carpyophyllaceae we often find dissepiments which are still united at their base, and those of these at the lower part of the mature ovary ; hence it may be supposed that some of these dissepiments were placenta which have been resumed upon account of the unusual devel- opment of the parts of the ovary. In the Primulaceae, how- ever, no such case is known. We have seen (page 268) that no trace of dissepiments can be found at any period of the growth of the ovary. Daintree, and others also, who have observed this point, state that the placenta is free in its centre from its earliest appear- ance until it is completely developed. They say that it is "the thalamus," and that the walls of the future ovary grow up per- fectly free, and ultimately unite itself. The formation of such a free placenta is very difficult to explain. According to the marginal theory, as the carpels have never had any connection with each other, it must be supposed that every placenta has been supposed by many botanists not to be formed from the carpels at all, but to be a prolongation of the axis, which grows down into the ovary and becomes united with branches. This theory explains very readily the formation of a free placenta. But it does not explain why such a placenta has been demonstrated aside by some botanists ; but this name, as already noticed (page 274), has been already applied to a number of plants which are not examples of such a term cannot but lead to much confusion. The free sepalate placenta is not a new one. It is only an extension of the marginal or carpellary theory of the formation of placenta, by supposing, either that the placenta are only produced at the base of each carpel, or that they are produced by a process similar to that which occurs in ordinary leaves; or that they are formed by a wheel of placenta developed sepa- rately from the carpels by a process of chorion (see Chorion). 2/8 ORIGIN OF THE PLACENTA. and that those afterwards become united in the centre of the ovary. Schleiden, indeed, and some other botanists regard the pla- centa in all cases as a development from the axis of the plant. The axis and free central placentaion are readily to be ex- plained by the marginal theory, but the free central placentaion is means so clear. It is supposed in the latter case that the axes continue to grow upwards, and that the placentaion curves directly from their origin towards the side, and become blended with the margins of the two adjoining carpels on their inner surface, and thus form a placentaion between them. This buds. Schleiden thinks that the formation of the ovule in the Vau, which he considers as a product of the marginal theory. He also believes that the formation of the ovule generally in the Conifer, supports his views of placentation. In this case, however, the placentaion is situated between them, he maintains are open carpellary leaves. Schleiden also thinks that the formation can be given by the advocates of development of the ovule and placentaion by the formation of the ovule and placentaion in Amenta, in which the ovary con- sists of two carpels, one of which is closed, while the other is open, and which opens at its apex, and thus suspends the ovule freely in the centre of the ovary. The marginal theory, therefore, concludes, that the ovule and placentaion are developments from the axis. Many of the advocates of this theory have been favourable in favour of the univer- sal applicability of the axial theory. But it has been shown that many plants have been brought forward by Schleiden and other botanists, but their further de- velopment has not been successful. From all that has now been stated, we may draw the following conclusions respecting the mode of production of the placentaion for the production of the placentaion in all cases : but that the axis and some forms of free central placentaion may be explained by considering them as products of marginal theory ; and that the formation of free central placentaion in Amenta, Seta- laxon, and some other plants, can only be satisfactorily explained by considering the placentaion as a production of the axis. In a practical point of view, the mode of production of THE STYLE. 279 placenta is of little importance. The accurate discrimination of the different kinds is, however, of much value in Descriptive Botany, and is often employed by botanists as a criterion for distinguishing plants. Some natural orders exhibit more than one variety of placentaion, and cannot be therefore distin- guished by this means alone. In the following table, the placentation can only be applied to obtaining good characteristics of the plant, and not to its classification. Thus, the one kind of placentaion occurring throughout all the plants of a particular natural order. Thus, the Scrophularaceae, Ericaceae, and the Rosaceae have axile placentaion; the Lamiaceae, Bau- versae, Violaceae, and Cruciferae with parietal; and the Caryo- phyllaceae, Santalaceae, and Primulaceae, with free central pla- centation. Fig. 635. Fig. 633. Fig. 634. Fig. 635. One of the corolla of the Strawberry with a lateral style. Fig. 634. Corolla of Dioscorea with a lateral style. The stigma is imparipinna. Fig. 633. Corolla of the Primrose with a median style. See also p. 80. Two types of style – We have already described (page 262) the general nature and structure of the style in speaking of the corolla. There are, however, certain other matters connected with it which deserve notice. The style usually arises from the geometrical summit of the ovary, but in some cases it may arise from any portion of it as in the Primrose (fig. 570); it is then termed apical or apical. In other cases, the apex of the ovary becomes inflected towards the side or back of it, and then forms a lateral style as in the Cruciferae (figs. 633-635), where it is formed being folded like ordinary leaves in reductive variation, the style becoming lateral as in Dioscorea (fig. 634). In the two latter cases, therefore, the geometrical and organic apex of the ovary do not correspond, at least in point of view that always determines the latter. 80 280 MODIFICATIONS OF THE STYLE. The style is generally directly continuous with the ovary, which gradually tapers upwards to it, as in Digitula, in which case it is said to be a simple style. In other cases, however, the most evident part of the fruit; at other times, however, there is a kind of stalk between the ovary and the style, as in Scirpus, where the style springs from the ovary, as in Scirpus, and then the style always falls off after the process of fertilisation is com- pleted; in this case the style is said to be a compound style, con- nection with the fruit. When the style is similar or lateral, and the ovary to which it is attached more or less imbedded in the thalamus, it fre- quently appears springing from the latter part; such an arrange- ment is seen in many plants belonging to the genus *Spiraea*. Thus in the Labiatae (fig. 604), and Boraginaceae (fig. 605), the four ovaries are free, but the styles become connected and form Fig. 604. Fig. 605. Fig. 604. Female flower of one of the *Euphorbiaceae*, *r. Sars*, p.p. Pinnate. 1. Monopodial expansion round the ovary, a. Ovary with three stamens, b. Monopodial expansion round the stamens. 2. Monopodial expansion round the stamens (divergent movement), belonging to the Euphorbiaceae. The style is in this case not prolonged. a central column, which appears therefore to be a prolongation of the thalamus. Such an arrangement must not be confounded with that of the ovaries of *Caltha* (fig. 606), *Primula* (fig. 607), and some other plants, where the axis is prolonged in the form of a beak-like projection, and the ovaries have no style united, and from which they separate when the fruit is ripe. This prolongation of the thalamus is termed a carpophore. (See Thalama.) We have already stated (page 273), that when the styli of a symmetrical plant are distinct, they usually correspond to the number of sepals of which that pistil is composed. It some- MODIFICATIONS OF THE STYLE. 281 times happens, however, that the style of each carpet bifurcates or becomes forked, as in some Euphorbiaceae, either one (Aga. 625 and 626) or both branches being of the same kind. The apparent number of the styles above is then double or quadruple that of the carpet. When two or more styles are united into one body, this is termed a compound style. This adhesion may take place either entirely on one side of the stem (as in Aga. 627), or improperly termed simple (undivided or entire would be a better term); or the union is more or less incomplete as we proceed towards its apex, so that the style appears to be divided into several parts. These terms are similar to those previously mentioned in describing the development of the leaves of the plant; but they differ from the style as it is called to be bifid, when the union between the component styles extends to at least midway between their base and apex; and the style is said to be trifid, trifold, quadrifid, quintifid, or Fig. 628. Fig. 628. Fig. 630. Fig. 630. Fig. 631. Fig. 631. Fig. 632. Fig. 632. Part of a species of Iris. A. Crass. B. Pericladal style. Cg. Compound style with three divisions. D. Simple style with three divisions. Figs. 629 and 630. A. Simple style with three divisions. B. Compound style with four divisions. Figs. 631 and 632. A. Simple style with three divisions. B. Compound style with four divisions. The style is said to be simple or monofid if the union between the component styles does not extend to midway between their base and apex, the style is simple, and is de- scribed as simple, simple, simple, etc., according to the number of partitions. Figs. 633 and 634. A. Forked from below; the branch more or less cylindrical; and either tapering below the base or becoming broad, as is more frequently the case, or becoming enlarged as it pro- ceeds upwards. At other times the style is filiform, or more or Fig. 633. Fig. 633. Fig. 634. Fig. 634. Fig. 635. Fig. 635. Fig. 636. Fig. 636. Fig. 637. Fig. 637. Fig. 638. Fig. 638. Fig. 639. Fig. 639. Fig. 640. Fig. 640. Fig. 641. Fig. 641. Fig. 642. Fig. 642. Fig. 643. Fig. 643. Fig. 644. Fig. 644. Fig. 645. Fig. 645. Fig. 646. Fig. 646. Fig. 647. Fig. 647. Fig. 648. Fig. 648. Fig. 649. Fig. 649. Fig. 650. Fig. 650. Fig. 651. Fig. 651. Fig. 652. Fig. 652. Fig. 653. Fig. 653. Fig. 654. Fig. 654. Fig. 655. Fig. 655. Fig. 657. Fig. 657. Fig. 658. Fig. 658. Fig. 659. Fig. 659. Fig. 659a. Fig. 659a. Fig. 659b. Fig. 659b. Fig. 659c. Fig. 659c. Fig. 659d. Fig. 659d. Fig. 659e. Fig. 659e. Fig. 659f. Fig. 659f. Fig. 659g. Fig. 659g. Fig. 659h. Fig. 659h. Fig. 700a. Fig.-700a, 700b. 700c. 700d. 700e. 700f. 700g. 700h. 700i. 700j. 700k. 700l. 700m. 700n. 700o. 700p. 700q. 700r. 700s. 700t. 700u. 700v. 700w. 700x. 701y. 282 **MODIFICATIONS OF THE STIGMA.** less thickened, or angular; and rarely thin, coloured, and flat- tened like a petal, as in the species of Clematis and Ixia (fig. 630), when it is erect, or in the species of the genus *Ceratostigma* (fig. 631). The surface of the style may be either smooth, or covered in various ways with hairs. The surface of the stigma, as modified on the style frequently serves the purpose of collecting the pollen as it is discharged from the anther, and are hence termed coro- lating Anthers (fig. 632). In the species of *Campanula* (figs. 154 and 155) are retractile; they have been already described under the head of hairs; but in these the surface of the style is also covered with stiff-hairs or stiff- locting hairs (fig. 640, p. 70), and as the style is developed later than the anther, it is not always visible to the eye; but as growth proceeds, it breaks through the adhering anthers, and thus the hairs on the style become united with the pollen and become connected with it. In the allied order of the Liliaceae, namely, the Genistaecae and the Lobeliaceae, the hairs form a little ring round the stigma (fig. 633), to which the term of indurace has been given. **The Stigma.—The stigma has been already described (page 264) as a structure formed by a certain number of cells of the conducting tissue of the style; hence it may be considered as a portion of that tissue, and consequently as being sufficient from its not being bearing ovules. If this be the proper view of the structure of the stigma, it must be regarded, like the pistil, as a part of the flower; but if we consider it as a carpelary leaf, and hence each simple pistil or carpel has neces- sarily two stigmas, then it becomes a part of the pistil itself. In many reasons, as in the Rose, the stigma is notched on the side corresponding to that from which the placentae arise, which is another argument against its being a part of a pistil. The stigmae of a symmorphic pistil are generally opposite to each other (fig. 634); but in some cases one stigma happens, as in the Poppy (fig. 31), that half the stigma of one carpel unites with a similar half of that of the adjoining car- pel, and thus forms a double stigma; this is called a sympodium or the dissemination, which are here, however imperfect (fig. 618). The stigmata are often divided into three parts by means of the style which is destitute of epidermis, and which secretes the stigmatic fluid; but it is often improperly given to more divi- sions of a single stigma. In *Lathyrus* (fig. 635), *Lathyrus*, etc., three petaloid portions of the style are by some botanists termed petaloid stigmas; but in reality they are only transverse to a little transverse space near the apex of each division. In many plants of the natural order Leguminosae, such as *Lathyrus* (fig. 636), the stigmas are divided into two branches; but they have been termed a stigma, but the latter is confined to the apex of that organ. In *Laburnum* (fig. 637) both are very frequently divided almost into two branches (fig. 638), and these have been called MODIFICATIONS OF THE STIGMA. 283 stigma, but the latter, as in the instances just alluded to, are combined to the apices of the divided portions of the style. We have already seen (p. 576) that the stigma may be formed from the corry by the style (figs. 576 to 578); or the latter organ may be changed into a stigma (fig. 579), as in the Barberry (fig. 579 and Poppy (fig. 31). In Orchids the stigma is sessile on the gynostemium (fig. 580, z), and appears in this form in many other genera, as in the Lily (fig. 641), most of the pollen-masses. In a symmetrical pistil the stigma may be either united togeth- er as in the Primroses (fig. 570), or distinct as in the Campanu- sia (fig. 582); in the latter case, instead of looking upon these organs as separate parts of one pistil, we must consider them as if they were portions of but one; thus we speak of a stigma as having three divisions, when it is really only two, ac- cording to the number and character of its divisions. Thus the term lobe is usually applied when the divisions are thick, as in fig. 641. Fig. 641. Fig. 642. Fig. 643. Fig. 641. Pistil of Lily, with one style and a trifoliate stigma (fig. 641, left). Lower stigmas are sessile on the gynostemium, with one style and a lobed stigma; upper division with lobes at base ex- tension. the Lily (fig. 641) and Melon (fig. 648); or when these are distinguished from each other, as in the Poppy (figs. 643), the stigmas is floccular or cleft; or when flattened into plates or bands they are termed lamellae, as in the Figiopsisia (fig. 644) and other genera; or when they are divided into lobes, the majority of instances corresponds to the number of carpels of which the pistil is composed; and if the latter organ is monosym- ebral, the stigmas will correspond with their number also to the divisions of the stigma. Thus the five-cleft stigma of some Campanulaceae has been mistaken for a five-carpelled pistil, and that the pistil is formed of five carpels. In the Graminaceae (fig. 9/22) 284 MODIFICATIONS OF THE STIGMA. 596) and Compositae (figs. 640 and 643), however, we have a bulb stigma, and but one cell in the ovary ; but this arises from the nature of the flower, which is a composite, and consists of which the pistil in the plants of these orders is formed. The latter are of different appearance, some may be smooth, or thick and hairy, as in the Melon (fig. 642), or fas- Fig. 644. Fig. 645. Fig. 644. Stigma, a terminal style, of Rhamnus serrata. In the other figure the leaves are expanded, in the other stigmas closely to each other. Fig. 645. Flower of a species of Buxus, showing fringed stig- ma, etc. thery, as in many Gramace (fig. 596), or fringed or laminated, as in the Rumex (fig. 645, pi.). When the stamens are united, the number of parts in the compound stigma is usually indicated by radiating furrows, or grooves. When the stamens unite and form a compound body Fig. 646. Fig. 647. Fig. 648. Fig. 646. Palmate or shield-shaped stigma resembling the style, i. e., of species of Arachis (fig. 597), or of Cucurbita (fig. 647). At fig. 648, stigma, fig. 649, Palms of Paeonia (Paeonia lactiflora) with the same shape. only : s. stylo, ornamented by a frangible hood stigma. upon the top of the style, which is larger than it, this compound stigma is called a palmate stigma; when it is smaller than it, may be either globular, as in Daphne (fig. 647), or hemispherical, as in the Primrose (fig. 576), or polygonal, or club-shaped, or pinnate or shield-shaped, as in the Arbutus (fig. 648), and Poppy (fig. A diagram showing a stylar structure with a bulb-like stigma at its base. A diagram showing a stylar structure with a bulb-like stigma at its base. A diagram showing a stylar structure with a bulb-like stigma at its base. A diagram showing a stylar structure with a bulb-like stigma at its base. THALAMUS, RECEPTACLE, OR TORUS. 285 31. In the Violet (fig. 648), the stigma presents an irregular hooded appearance. The extremity of the peduncle or pedicel, or the part of the axis upon which the different whorls of the flower are arranged, has been variously distinguished by botanists as the thalamus, receptacle, or torus. This term is applied to the upper part of the receptacle is employed in a special manner, as already mentioned (fig. 647). The term torus is used by some botanists as synonymous with disk (page 207). To prevent confusion, there- fore, we shall use the term thalamus for that portion of the plant to their special applications; and to confine the term thalamus to indicate only that portion of the plant on which the different whorls of a solitary flower are arranged. In this sense it is used in this volume. In the case of a flower which has a flattened surface or point, and accordingly presents nothing remarkable; but in other plants in which many are merged, and then assume a varied form, such as those which have no semblance exent the form of the flower. Most of these forms of the thalamus are very similar to each other, and among the asexualous plants, but it will be more convenient for referen- ence, etc., if we now speak again of these and all other essential modifications of the thalamus. In the case of the plants, and plants of the order Magnoliaceae generally, the thalamus is cylindrical or conical; but in many other cases it occurs, it usually acquire a somewhat similar form; in the Raspberry (fig. 601), and species of Rhododendron (fig. 607) it is conical; in the Sambucus (fig. 649), and in many other cases (fig. 649, dail.), it is a large tubular expansion, in which there are a number of small branches or arms arising from its summit; this forms a concavity upon which the carpels are placed (fig. 649, r., r.). In the Primulaceae, Santalaceae, and in all cases where the ples- sence is flat or convex, as in most of our native flowers; this appear- ance, the thalamus becomes prolonged into the cavity of the ovary and forms a cup-like structure; in some cases also, when the thalamus becomes prolonged beyond the ovary, as in the Geraniaceae and Umbellifera; this prolongation is termed a carpellary. In the案件 of some flowers which have a long stalk like process to which the carpels are attached, and from which they depend; as in our Rutaceae and in some Liliaceae cultivated flowers, as in the Rose, the thalamus will frequently acquire a monstrous 286 MODIFICATIONS OF THE TRALAMUS. development, and become extended beyond the flower into a branch bearing true leaves (fig. 600). To the vegetative parts of the axis belong the leaves, which are called `proleptica' is usually applied. In some plants the thalamus becomes prolonged beyond the calyx, and forms a stalk to the ovary, upon which the term gyno- Fig. 600. Fig. 600. Fig. 601. Fig. 601. Thalamus of Heloniam. --See Carpel.--Fig. 603. Mem- brane of the calyx of the same plant, with the stamens extending beyond the flower and bearing true leaves.--Fig. 604. Flower of a species of Opuntia, with the thalamus prolonged into a stalk to the Co- rule. See. Prolonged thalamus or gyneocarp, supporting the stamens, et et alii. phore has been applied ; and upon this stalk the stamens are also commonly placed, and in some cases the petals as well. Examples of this mode of arrangement are found in the Rose (fig. 651, left), in the Passion-flower, the Pink (fig. 597, p.), Dicentra (fig. 619, p.), and in the Cuckoo-pipe (fig. 602, p.). In some plants or shoots of the ovary is by some considered to be formed by the union of the petioles of the carpellary leaves of which that ovary is composed. Fig. 602. **NATURE OF THE FRUIT.** Section 5. **THE FRUIT.** We have already seen that the ovary has in its interior one or more little oval or roundish bodies called ovules, which ulti- mately become seeds (see page 18); but these are not always (page 19) their description, therefore, in a regular arrangement, should follow that of the ovary. It is, however, far more conve- nient to consider the ovary as a whole, and to study the general characters of the fruit, so that this may be composed essentially of the same parts as the ovary itself. The fruit is formed by the ovary, and naturally at the present time, when the details connected with the ovary are fresh in our memories. Such an arrangement will show us how the fruit is formed, and will also explain why the seed immediately after the ovule, as these two organs are, in the manner described. Nature of the Fruit.--After the process of fertilisation has been effected, important changes take place in the pistil and surrounding parts of the flower, the most conspicuous of which is the formation of the fruit. The fruit is formed by the ovary, either as a true ovary or ovarion, containing the fur- flled ovule or ovules, which are then termed seeds. In some cases this was mostly disappear, but the remains of the style remain as a stalk or pedicel. A little point on the fruit, which is then com- monly described as spicule. Some traces of a calyx are often found attached to it, by which we are enabled to distinguish true fruits from false ones. Thus in the species of Rosaceae, those of Labate, plante, the Boraginaceae, Umbelliferae, and others, are true fruits; while those from seeds. Generally speaking, however, the style is not found in all fruits. In some fruit, the greater part of it, together with the stigma, dying away soon after the pro- cess of fertilisation (fig. 602). In some cases the style is only persis- tent but continues to grow and it then forms a stalk or pedicel attached to the fruit, as in the Traveller's joy (fig. 603), and in some other plants. In other cases style in these two cases is also hairy, and hence the fruit is called glandular or glandular. Although it is generally considered as consisting essen- tially of the mature ovary or ovarion, other parts of the flower are also frequently present in fruit. Thus in some cases where the calyx is adherent to the ovary, as in the 287 Fig. 602. Fruit of the Tra- veller's Joy (Ruta graveolens). Note.--The fruit is a true fruit; the style is not visible. Fig. 603. Fruit of the Trave- ller's Joy (Ruta graveolens). Note.--The fruit is a true fruit; the style is not visible. 288 NATURE OF THE FRUIT. Apple, Quince (fig. 463), Pear, Melon, and Gooseberry, is succulent fruit, from which the ovary is separated by a thin layer of tissue, the thak- num (fig. 464, r., r.), which bears the carpels on its inner surface, and the adjacent alveolus, of c., becomes a portion of the fruit ; in the Straw-berry (fig. 465) the same thing occurs, but the con- tinent hemispheric thaknum, bearing the carpels on its convex surface ; in the fig (fig. 466), the same thing happens (fig. 300), Filbert, etc., is a fruit of pasty calyx, and bracteoles, which cover the flower while in the Pineapple (fig. 307), it is composed of the ovaries, fil- bral ovules, and their covering calyx. In the Cucumber (fig. 467), etc. ( fig. 461 ) we have a fruit formed of a number of separate flowers enclosed in a common calyx, and bracteoles ; but this number, other things might be allowed to, will show, that although the fruit consists entirely of the mature ovary or ovaries, enclosing the fertilized ovules, yet it is not always so ; for when any part what- ever is combined with the ovary, so as to form a covering or a covering of the seed or seeds. Change occurred in the Ovary in the course of its Develop- ment.—The fruit being essentially the ovary in a mature state, it should consequently be considered as such until it has been modified; and we find the fruit therefore consisting of the same parts as the ovary, only in a modified condition : thus, the walls of the every coverings are not continuous with each other, but are mem- braneous, coriaceous, woody, etc.; or, on the contrary, more or less pulpy. At other times important changes take place during the ripening of the ovary, which disqualify the real structure of the fruit. These changes may consist in an increase in size, thickening, or alteration of parts. Thus, let. The addition of parts is com- monly produced by an increase in size of those parts which are already allied to it. In Dioscorea Streptocarpa, for instance, we have a two-celled ovary converted into a imperfectly four-celled fruit by means of an additional projection from one side (figs. 611 and 612); this displacement appears to be formed by the pro- jection of one cell over another; and this projection would be united to corresponding projections from the dorsal sutures. In Cassia Fufida (fig. 609), and some other fruits of a similar nature (figs. 613-615), we find that these fruits are made up of many-celled fruits by the formation of a number of transverse dimensions (figs. 613-615). In Dioscorea Streptocarpa (fig. 612) the ovary is converted into a six-celled fruit (fig. 663), by an extension and doubleing inward of the placenta. In Tridens terricolor the ovary is converted into a three-celled fruit (fig. 664); in this case each cell (figs. 665 and 665) becomes divided into as many divisions as there are cells composing it; and this division is caused by a corresponding number of projections from its walls. Other examples of the formation of apertures diminishing producing changes in the structure of fruits are mentioned under speak- ing of these processes (see pages 269 and 270). A diagram showing different stages in the development of a fruit. DEVELOPMENT OF THE FRUIT FROM THE OVARY. 289 2nd. Other alterations are produced by the abortion or obliterations of parts, as the ovary ripens. Thus the ovary of the Orange, for instance, contains two ovaries, but the fruit has only one cell and one seed, so that in the course of development five ovaries and one cell have become obliterated. In the Tomato, there are two ovaries, containing one ovule each, but the fruit is one-celled and contains only one seed, the other ovules having been obliterated. In the Aah, Gooseberrynut, Elm, and many other plants, similar changes are produced in the ovary by the abortion or obliteration of certain parts. Figs. 658. Fig. 654. Fig. 650. Fig. 653. Transverse section of this fruit of the Pomegranate. From Lindley's *Flora*, vol. 604, p. 704, vertical section through the middle of a fruit of the Orange (fig. 600). 1. Protoplast from the wall which originally surrounded the ovule; 2. The protoplasts of two cells which are separated by a wall of mesophyll tissue; 3. A third cell, which is a mesophyll cell, completely separate from the seeds; fig. 604. Fruit of the Strawberry. 3rd. Other changes are produced in the ovary as it proceeds to maturity, in consequence of the alteration of parts, as, for instance, a great development of anellous parenchyma. Thus at first the ovary is covered with a thin epidermis (fig. 600) becomes enlaged and succulent, and forms what is commonly called a pericarp; and then there appear on its surface day carpels which are scattered over its surface (fig. 606). The pulp of the Guava, Gooseberry, Tomato, and some other fruits, in which this process takes place, is called mesocarp; and that of the Orange is of a similar nature. From these facts it appears that the fruit is formed; although the fruit consists essentially of the mature ovary or ovaries, yet that in the progress of the latter towards maturity it becomes frequently much altered from its original structure, so that its 200 GENERAL CHARACTERS OF THE FRUIT.—THE PERICARP. orderto have a clear idea of the nature of the fruit, it is important to examine that of the ovary, and trace its development up to the fruit. GENERAL CHARACTERS OF THE FRUIT.—The structure of the fruit remains constant throughout its development, but there are modifications which it presents, as to composition, position, &c., are described by similar terms. Thus we may have simple and compound fruits, and perfect and imperfect fruits. Simple fruits, like simple ovaries, are normally unilocular; while a compound fruit is usually multilocular. In some cases the dissepiments are absent or present, and the number of cells is indicated by similar terms to those used when speaking of the compound ovary. The fruit, like the ovary, necessarily possesses a placenta, to which it is attached. The term placenta is therefore often used in describing the different kinds of placentation, as with those of the ovary; these kinds are usually more evident in the fruit. The fruit, again, is described as superior or inferior, in the same sense as the ovary is described as superior or inferior. Thus a fruit is inferior, when it is formed from an inferior ovary, in which case the calyx necessarily enters into its composition, as in the case of the apple (Fig. 30). A fruit is also said to be superior, as in the Poppy (Fig. 31) and Figs (Fig. 605), when the ovary is superior to the calyx merely by its attachment. PERFECT FRUITS.—The fruit when perfectly formed consists of two parts; namely, the shell or pericarp, and the seed or seeds con- tained within it. In the majority of cases the pericarp withers, and the seed remains in the shell until it ripens. But there are many exceptions to this; thus, many Oranges and Grapes possess a pericarp which remains green until fully developed; and in the Banana, Plantain, and Bread-fruit, the pericarp develops most extensively, and become best adapted for food. In all these cases we must say that they are imperfect; however, even in the development of the seeds and pericarp proceed together so closely that no perfect fruit can be formed till then only perfect fruit can be formed; for although in com- mon language we apply the term fruit to those instances where no seeds are produced at all (as in the case of a fully formed fruit), but only enlarged and swollen pericarp. Having now attended to the mode of composition part of the perfect fruit, we must leave their particular examination till COMPOSITION OF THE PERICARP. we have become acquainted with the structure of the ovule, and now proceed, therefore, to the description of the pericarp. Composition. - The pericarp is that part of the fruit which is the pericarp consists simply of the walls of the ovary in a modified state; but, when the anatomy is studied, it becomes apparent that it exhibits three layers or regions (fig. 600), an external, called the epidermis or scopolar, a middle layer, frequently being fibrous or succulent nature, is also termed the scopolar ; while the inner layer, frequently being cartilaginous or fleshy, is termed the endocarp or peduncle. When the pericarp consist simply of the matured ovary, it is termed a simple pericarp; but when it has two parenchymatous layers of the laminae of the carpelary leaf : thus, the epipariy represents the epidermis of the under surface, or what is commonly termed the scopolar; and this corresponds to the general parenchyma of the lamina, or that of the first of the two layers composing the lamina of a leaf; or to the inner lining of the ovary. When the calyx is completely united to the ovary, the relation of parts must necessarily differ from that described above. Thus, in the Apple, which we may take as an illustration of an ordinary simple pericarp, we find that the epidermis of the under surface of the calyx; the mesocarp to the rest of the calyx, and the whole of the ovary except the inner lining, which is formed by a single layer of cells. In all cases of fruit, like that of the ovary and lamina of a leaf, is traversed by fibro-vascular tissue. Fig. 607. Fig. 607. Folaceous bladder: segments of the Bladder Senna (Colus saponaria). In some cases the pericarp clearly indicates its analogy to the lamina of a leaf. Thus, in some fruits such as that of a leaf folded inwardly and united by its margins, as in the Bladder Senna (fig. 607); such a fruit is described as folia- ceous. In other cases, as in that of a fig (fig. 608), one or more layers of the pericarp become more developed, by which its resemblance to a leaf is more evident. The epipariy usually retains an epidermal appearance, becoming but little changed, except in becoming slightly thickened. The endocarp usually assumes a succulent appearance from its much in appearance from the corresponding part of the lamina vii 392 MODIFICATIONS OF THE PERICARP.——SUTURES. of a leaf or ovary; thus, its cells sometimes become hardened by thickening layers in its interior to form a stony shell surrounding the seed, as in the pomegranate; the pericarp is however the layer which commonly presents the greatest development of this kind, and whose structure and texture forms the general parenchyma of the lemma of a leaf. The above remarks will be rendered more intelligible by giving illustrative examples of the modifications of the pericarp in fruits. Thus in the Peach, Apricot, Cherry, Plum, and most other drupaceous fruits, the outermost layer of the fruit is the epicarp; the pulpy part, which is eaten, the mesocarp or sarcarp; and the stone enclosing the seed, the endocarp or puke- ment. In the Apple, Pear, and Plum, the epicarp is a woody shell, constituting the endocarp, which is itself sur- rounded by a thin pulp-like layer called mesocarp or sarcarp. In the Apple and Pear, the skin is the epicarp; the flesh part, which is eaten, the mesocarp or sarcarp; and the stone enclosing the seed, the endocarp. A similar disposition of parts occurs in the Medlar, except that here the mesocarp is not a separate layer but is included under brownish skins is the epicarp; the thin pulp-like layer en- closing the seed is the endocarp; and the intermediate pulp- part is the sarcarp. In some fruits, such as figs and pears, a new shell enveloping the seed, which is commonly termed the nut, is the endocarp; while in others it is formed by two layers, one, consisting of the mesocarp and epicarp combined; and the other separate rind composed of the mesocarp and epicarp; and these two layers may be separated into separate portions forming the endocarp; the edible pulp itself is a development of both these layers. The inner lining of the ovary, or probably from the placenta only. In the above fruits, and numerous others might be quoted, the different layers are often so closely united together, but in some fruits, as in the Nut, these layers become so blended, that it is impossible to distinguish them from each other. The examples of fruits now mentioned, together with those pre- viously alluded to, will show in a striking manner the very varying nature of this organ in different plants. Sutures.—In describing the structure of the carpel, we found that the ovary presented two sutures (page 209); one of which, called the ventral suture was situated at right angles to that me- ginus of the lamina of the carpellary leaf, and was consequently turned towards that side of it on which it was situated; another, termed the dorsal suture, corresponding to the midrib of the lamina, which was directed towards its circumference. The simple fruit has no sutures whatever; but in compound ovaries, also presents two sutures, which are distinguished by similar names. These sutures are usually distinct externally, either by a more or less projecting line, A diagram showing two sutures on an ovary. DEHISCENCE OF FRUITS. 295 or by a slight furrow; thus in the Peach (fig. 688), Cherry, Plum, and Apeut, the ventral sutures is very evident, although the dorsal sutures are wanting; in the Apple (fig. 689), the Dandelion (fig. 690), the Senna (fig. 697), Pen, and other fruits of the Leguminoseae, both dorsal and ventral sutures are clearly visible externally. As a general rule, when the fruit is dehiscent, such as the placentation axile, it must be evident, of course, that the dorsal sutures are wanting; but this is not always so. Thus in the compound ovaries are turned towards, and meet in the axis of the flower, and are hence removed from view; it follows also that the number of component ovaries is equal to the number of component ovaries of which such an ovary is formed. In some cases, however, the component ovaries are in similar disposition of the sutures. When an ovary, on the con- trary, is formed of the blades of two or more carpelary leaves, it is supposed that each carpel is a separate ovary, and therefore one-celled, and the placentation parietal or free central, but such an arrangement is not always found; for external alternation with each other. The fruit, which is developed in a similar manner, necessarily presents a similar alternation of the component ovaries. Dehiscence.--The pericarp at varying periods, but commonly when the fruit is ripe, is either opened by means of seeds or seeds only; when closed, it is usually closed by seeds only or seeds and by its decay. In the former case the fruit is said to be indehiscent; in the latter case it is said to be dehiscent. As the Nut, Cherry, Apeut, Plum, and Date, which have very hard or leathery pericarps, are usually indehiscent. Indehiscence.--The pericarp remains closed until after ripening is well as at the dorsal sutures. In all the above cases the peas into which the fruit separates are called sutured, and those into which they do not separate are called dehiscent. When equal in number to the cells, or component ovaries, or they are equal in number to the cells or component ovaries; if they are unequal in number to the cells or component ovaries; if only open by the ventral or dorsal sutures; there will be only one valve (fig. 691), corresponding to one oveary; or if there are two valves (fig. 692), there will be two valves. In fruits formed of compound ovaries (figs. 693-695), if there are three components in number to the cells, or component ovaries, if the dehiscence only takes place by the dorsal suture (figs. 667-669); or in the case of four components (figs. 670-672); if there are five they will be double the number; if the dehiscence takes place by both dorsal and ventral sutures (figs. 673-675); if there will be equal in number to the component ovaries; if the dehiscence occurs only by the ventral (fig. 676) or dorsal sutures (figs. 677; or double the number; if by both sutures. When there 294 VALVULAR DISBIBERCENCE OF FRUITS. is a distinct axis left after the separation of the valves, this (as called the columella (Fig. 670, a, and 671, a). According to the number of valves, fruits may be termed univalved, bi-valved, tri-valved, bidentate or two-lobed, trilobed or three-lobed, or multifoliate. 2nd. Dehiscence, instead of taking place longitudinally, or in a valvular manner, sometimes occurs in a transversal direction, by which means the valves are separated like the lid from a jar or box. And 3rd. It may take place in an irregular manner, by which means the valves are divided into classes of dehiscence, which are called respectively ---1. Fafewar; 2. Transverse or Circumscissile; and 3. Forous. Fig. 658. Fig. 659. Fig. 660. Fig. 661. Fig. 662. Fig. 663. Fig. 488. Fruit of Larkspur --- Fig. 489. Fruit of Rhoeo --- Fig. 490. Fruit of Magnocera (Sowth.) --- Fig. 491. Pollen of Columbina (Zamphora), showing the pollen grains with their two apertures, one on each side, existing by their form extensive. The same are separated from the frond by two glabrous membranes, which are situated at the base of the frond, are open by both dorsal and ventral sutures; hence it is two-valved, c.Cultus ex Aspera (Linn.) ex Willd., and C. ex Aspera (Linn.) ex Willd., and C. ex Aspera (Linn.) ex Willd., and C. ex Aspera (Linn.) ex Willd., and C. ex Aspera (Linn.) ex Willd., and C. ex Aspera (Linn.) ex Willd., and C. ex Aspera (Linn.) ex Willd., and C. ex Aspera (Linn.) ex Willd., and C. ex Aspera (Linn.) ex Willd., and C. ex Aspera (Linn.) ex Willd., and C. ex Aspera (Linn.) ex Willd., and C. ex Aspera (Linn.) ex Willd., and C. ex Aspera (Linn.) ex Willd., and C. ex Aspera (Linn.) ex Willd., and C. ex Aspera (Linn.) ex Willd., and C. ex Aspera (Linn.) ex Willd., and C. ex Aspera (Linn.) ex Willd., and C. ex Aspera (Linn.) ex Willd., and C. ex Aspera (Linn.) ex Willd., and C. ex Aspera (Linn.) ex Willd., and C. ex Aspera (Linn.) ex Willd., and C. ex Aspera (Linn.) ex Willd., and C. ex Aspera (Linn.) ex Willd., and C. ex Aspera (Linn.) ex Willd., and C. ex Aspera (Linn.) ex Willd., and C. ex Aspera (Linn.) ex Willd., and C. ex Aspera (Linn.) ex Willd., and C. ex Aspera (Linn.) ex Willd., and C. ex Aspera (Linn.) ex Willd., and C. ex Aspera (Linn.) ex Willd., and C. ex Aspera (Linn.) ex Willd., and C. ex Aspera (Linn.) ex Willd., and C. ex Aspera (Linn.) ex Willd., and C. ex Aspera (Linn.) ex Willd., and C. ex Aspera (Linn.) ex Willd., and C. ex Aspera (Linn.) ex Willd., and C. ex Aspera (Linn.) ex Willd., and C. ex Aspera (Linn.) ex Willd., and C. ex Aspera (Linn.) ex Willd., and C. ex Aspera (Linn.) ex Willd., and C. ex Aspera (Linn.) ex Willd., and C. ex Aspera (Linn.)exWilld.,andC.exAspera(Linn)exWilld.andC.exAspe VALVULAR DEHISCENCE.—SEPTICIDAL and many other Caryophyllaceous plants, the dehiscence only takes place at the upper part of the fruit, which then appears to be divided into two halves by a longitudinal suture, or valves in complete dehiscence. A somewhat similar mode of partial dehiscence is exhibited by the fruits of several Leguminosae (Fig. 660); in the latter plant one large orifice may be observed at the summit of the fruit at an early stage of its growth, and this is soon closed up by a thickening of the integument; the exuvium of the fruit into valves is more or less complete, so that the valves are either united by a single suture, or by various modifications of these complete forms of valvular dehiscence. Thus, in fruits which are formed of but one carpel or ovary, the dehiscence is septicidal, as in the Capsule (Fig. 661) in the Hellebores, Cucumbus (Fig. 661), and Aconitum (Fig. 663); or of the two carpels, as in the Pod (Fig. 662), or by both dorsal and ventral sutures, as in the Poo (Fig. 663), Bean, and many other Leguminosae. This form of dehiscence occurs sometimes in compound fruits. In compound fruits having two or more cells, and therefore usually consisting of two or more carpels, there is valvular dehiscence, which are called respectively, septicidal, socioidal, and apertural. Septicidal Dehiscence.—In this the fruit is separated into its component ovaries or carpels, by a division taking place ![Fig. 664. Capsule of the Meadow Buttercup (Caltha palustris), showing septicidal dehiscence. The two halves are held together by a strong membrane between them, which is torn away with the placentae. (After Hooker.)](image) ![Fig. 665. Capsule of the Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris).](image) ![Fig. 666. Pod of the Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris).](image) between the two halves of each dissection (Figs. 664-665). Examples may be seen in the Cucumbus and Rhododendron. In these plants, when the fruit ripens, the valves are said to have their margins turned inwards. In this dehiscence NOT FOR SALE 298 VALVULAR DEHISCENCE.—LOCULICIDAL. the placentas with the seeds attached are either carried away with the valves, or they break away from the placenta, which remain united and form a central column (fig. 665). B. Loculicidal Dehiscence. This is said to occur when each carpel or ovary opens by its dorsal suture, or through the back of the cells, or both (figs. 666, 667). In fig. 666, each valve is composed of the halves of two adjoining ovaries or carpellae, and the valves are said to bear the disimplications on their inner surfaces, and to open by their dorsal sutures (fig. 705) and Hübner (fig. 667). As in septallic dehiscence. ![Fig. 665.](image) **Fig. 665.** Capsule of a species of *Hibiscus*, deliquingens, *n. s. n.* (fig. 665). The valves are united at the back of the ovules, but break away from the placenta, which remains united into a central column (fig. 665). The placenta is composed of two ovaries or carpellae, one being derived from the other (fig. 665), and each valve is said to bear the disimplications on its inner surface, and to open by its dorsal suture (fig. 705). **Fig. 666.** Capsule of a species of *Hibiscus*, deliquingens, *n. s. n.* (fig. 666). The valves are united at the back of the ovules, but break away from the placenta, which remains united into a central column (fig. 665). The placenta is composed of two ovaries or carpellae, one being derived from the other (fig. 665), and each valve is said to bear the disimplications on its inner surface, and to open by its dorsal suture (fig. 705). **Fig. 667.** Capsule of *Hibiscus* (fig. 667). The valves are united at the back of the ovules, but break away from the placenta, which remains united into a central column (fig. 665). The placenta is composed of two ovaries or carpellae, one being derived from the other (fig. 665), and each valve is said to bear the disimplications on its inner surface, and to open by its dorsal suture (fig. 705). In some forms of septallic dehiscence the ovaries or carpellae separate soon after fertilization, and the Disimplications remain attached to the placenta. Fig. 671. VALVULAR DEHISCENCE—SEPTIFRAGAL 297 manner. In other cases the axis is prolonged in the form of a cymbule or carpophore, as in the Mallow and Castor Oil Plant (Fig. 670), or in the form of a cup, as in the Salsify (Fig. (68, 70), and the carpels which are united to it also separate without their ovarian coverings. The ovaries of some species are divided into two or more parts by their dorsal sutures (Fig. 670, c, d). When each carpel separate with a certain amount of elasticity and without breaking through its own wall, they have been called coars (Fig. 670, b, c). By some botanists all carpels which thus separate from the axis in a septifragal manner are termed coars, and those which are closed as dioecous, tricoccous, &c., according to their number. In certain forms of the genus *Caryophyllus* (Fig. 671) the carpels open first by their dorsal suture, and then separate from each other in a septidal manner. In some plants all fruits, the carpels of which separate from one another without opening—solitocarpes—and term their ovary diacarpeous if there are more than two, or if only two in number—merocarpous. Fig. 672. Fig. 674. Fig. 673. Fig. 673. Ovaries of *Calycula amplexicaulis*, showing septifragal dehiscence. e, c, d, e, f, g, h showing beating of the ovary; b, c, d, e, f, g, h showing separation of the carpels; a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h showing the carpels separating from each other; i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z, Capitula of *Seserum brachystachyum*, showing septifragal dehiscence. C. Septifragal Dehiscence.—In this form of dehiscence the carpels are opened up by their dorsal sutures, as in localisual dehiscentia, and at the same time the dissepiments separate from the walls and remain united to each other and to the axis (Fig. 672). Fig. 675. Fig. 676. Fig. 677. Fig. 678. Fig. 679. Fig. 680. Fig. 681. Fig. 682. Fig. 683. Fig. 684. Fig. 685. Fig. 686. Fig. 687. Fig. 688. Fig. 689. Fig. 690. Fig. 691. Fig. 692. Fig. 693. Fig. 694. Fig. 695. Fig. 696. Fig. 697. Fig. 698. Fig. 699. Fig. 700. Fig. 701. Fig. 702. Fig. 703. Fig. 704. Fig. 705. Fig. 706. Fig. 707. Fig. 708. Fig. 709. Fig. 710. Fig. 711. Fig. 712. Fig. 713. Fig. 714. Fig. 715. Fig. 716. Fig. 717. Fig. 718. Fig. 719. Fig. 720. Fig. 721. Fig. 722. Fig. 723. Fig. 724. Fig. 725. Fig. 726. Fig. 727. Fig. 728. Fig. 729. Fig. 730. 298 VITALULAR DEHISCENCE OF FRUITS. and 673), which in this case is generally more or less prolonged. Here each valve is composed of the two halves of adjoining crests. The pomegranate (Fig. 674), the fig (Fig. 675), the apple (Fig. 676), and the redwood (Fig. 672). The placenta bearing the seeds are here attached to the central part of the fruit. In compound fruits with one cell having parietal and free cen- tral placentation, we have two forms of dehiscence; these are analogous to those described in the preceding pages, but they are just described. Thus, in compound fruits with parietal placentation, the dehiscence may take place either at the lateral margins of the cells, or at the lateral margins of the valves or carpels, so that each placenta is divided into its two lamellae, as in the Genista (Fig. 675), in which case the dehiscence is analogous to the Figs. 675, 676, 677, 674. Figs. 675. Fruit of a Genista: dehiscing in a septi- cidual manner. (Fig. 674) Dehiscence, dehiscing in a loculicidal manner. --- Fig. 675. Fruit of a fig: dehiscing by means showing the separation of two valves from the re- maining part of the fruit. --- Fig. 676. Fruit of an apple: dehiscing in a septicidal manner, with the valves separating from the placenta. septidical form, and each valve, therefore, represents one of the components or carpellae of the fruit; or the dehiscence may take place at any point on the lateral margin of each valve (Fig. 670), in which case it is analogous to the loculicidal form of dehiscence, and each valve is composed of the adjoining halves of two crests. In this case also, each placenta is divided into two lamellae by the varying attachment of the placenta and seeds in the two cases; in one case (Fig. 670) they are attached to both sides of the placenta and seeds on its two margins (Fig. 675), and the valves are said to be placentafrons of their borders; in the latter, the placenta and seeds are attached only to one side of each valve (Fig. 670); and the valves are thus said to be placentafrons in their mode of attachment, and are analogous to the loculicidal form (Fig. 670), and Wallflower (Fig. 671), that the placenta bearing **TRANSVERSE DEHISCENCE OF FRUITS.** The seeds remain undivided, and the valves break away from them, so that they are left attached to a frame or sepals (page 570). In some fruits, the valves are united with the same forms of dehiscence as occur in those with parietal placentation, but in others they are separated by transverse dehiscence, owing to the nature of the dehiscence from the absence of seeds or dis- sepiments upon the valves. The means usually adopted in such cases is to separate the valves by a longitudinal line, either at their position with the sepals or divisions of the calyx. Thus, as the figs (Ficus) and the mulberries (Morus), which dehisce with each other, the compound carpels or ovary of the fruit should alternate with the divisions or sepals of the calyx. It is also observed that in many fruits where the valves are separate or sepals to the calyx, and if these valves were then placed placed together they represent the compound carpels or ovaries, and the dehiscence is analogous to that of the septal form (p. 687); on the contrary, the valves are equal and opposite to each other, and represent two carpels or ovaries com- posed of the adjoining halves of two ovaries or carpels, and the dehiscence is analogous to the loculicidal form. Sometimes the number of valves is equal to that of the carpels or ovaries or sepalas, in which case each valve is formed of half an ovary or sepal, and this is true of all fruits having taken place both by its dorsal and ventral sutures. In all the above varieties of valvular dehiscence, the separa- tion may be effected by a longitudinal line through one side, or by far more than usual form (figs. 664, 667, 672; and p. 674), or occasion- ally by a transverse line (figs. 673, 674). In some cases (fig. 670), and universally in Cruciferous plants (fig. 677). 2. **Transverse or Circumferential Dehiscence.—** In this kind of dehiscence, a longitudinal line passes through the fruit across the sutures, so that the upper part remains closed while the lower part opens out into a tube-like space round the fruit, as in *Jasminum* (fig. 702). Some- times it is only a transverse line which separates two parts on one side, as by a hinge. The fruits which present transverse dehiscence may be sup- posed to have been originally compound, in which the laminae are articulated to the petiole by a hinge, which becomes separated at the point of arti- cularion, so that the united pedicels form the lower part of the fruit; or they may result from the pro- longation and hollowing out of the laminae, and the articula- tion of the carpelary leaves to its circumference, so that in the A diagram showing transverse dehiscence in a fruit. Fig. 670. Fruit of *Jasminum* (jasmine), showing circumferen- tial dehiscence. The fruit is composed of two laminae which are articulated at a point by a hinge; when this point is reached, separation takes place between them along a transverse line. For page number 200 TRANSVERSE AND FOROUS DEHISCENCE OF FRUITS. Dehiscence the lower part of the fruit is formed by the concave thalamus, and the upper part by the carpellary leaves; thus re- sembling the dehiscence of the fig (fig. 681), but differing from that from the thalamus. In the fig, the lower part (fig. 680), the lower part of the ovary is adherent to the tube of the calyx, and the upper portion is free; and when dehiscence takes place, it occurs in a transverse manner and at first only on one side, then on both sides, and finally on the lower adnate one, so that it will appear as if the adherence of the ovary had been broken down. In this process there occurs a transverse dehiscence. Such fruits are sometimes called opisthoecia, a term which is also applied by other botanists to all forms of trans- verse dehiscence, in which a portion of the primary sepals separate from the lower in the form of a lid or operculum. Fig. 680. Fig. 681. Fig. 681. Tryde of the Lepidoptera (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) (Lepidoptera) Transverse dehiscence may also occur in fruits which are formed by a single ovary or carpel, as well as in the compound ones mentioned above. Thus, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs, in the figs Transverse dehiscence may also occur with fruits which are formed by a single ovary or carpel as well as those which are com- pound ones mentioned above. Thus such fruits as are mentioned above. Thus such fruits as are mentioned above. Thus such fruits as are mentioned above. Thus such fruits as are mentioned above. Thus such fruits as are mentioned above. Thus such fruits as are mentioned above. Thus such fruits as are mentioned above. Thus such fruits as are mentioned above. Thus such fruits as are mentioned above. Thus such fruits as are mentioned above. Thus such fruits as are mentioned above. Thus such fruits as are mentioned above. Thus such fruits as are mentioned above. Thus such fruits as are mentioned above. Thus such fruits as are mentioned above. Thus such fruits as are mentioned above. Thus such fruits as are mentioned above. Thus such fruits as are mentioned above. Thus such fruits as are mentioned above. Thus such fruits as are mentioned above. Thus such fruits as are mentioned above. Thus such fruits as are mentioned above. Thus such fruits as are mentioned above. Thus such fruits as are mentioned above. 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Thus such fruits as are mentioned above. 3 Transverse dehiscence is a peculiar kind of dehis- cence which is found only among certain plants belonging to the family Papaveraceae; these plants have their flowers hanging may be either situated at its apex side or base of fruit. thus they can be described accordingly: apodorus; interius; ex- apodorus; interius; exapodorus; interius; exapodorus; interius; ex- apodorus; interius; exapodorus; interius; exapodorus; interius; ex- apodorus; interius; exapodorus; interius; exapodorus; interius; ex- apodorus; interius; exapodorus; interius; exapodorus; interius; ex- apodorus; interius; exapodorus; interius; exapodorus; interius; ex- apodorus; interius; exapodorus; interius; exapodorus; interius; ex- apodorus; interius; exapodorus; interius; exapodorus; interius; ex- apodorus; interius; exapodorus; interius; exapodorus; interius; ex- apodorus; interius; exapodorus; interius; exapodorus; interius; ex- apodorus; interius; exapodorus; interius; exapodorus; interius; ex- apodorus; interius; exapodorus; interius; exapodorus; interius; ex- apodorus; interius; exapodorus; interius; exapodorus; interius; exapodorus; Poppy [fig 31], In which a number of pores or places separated by the petiole or pedicel open outwards [fig 31]. In which a number of pores or places separated by the petiole or pedicel open outwards [fig 31]. In which a number of pores or places separated by the petiole or pedicel open outwards [fig 31]. In which a number of pores or places separated by the petiole or pedicel open outwards [fig 31]. In which a number of pores or places separated by the petiole or pedicel open outwards [fig 31]. In which a number of pores or places separated by the petiole or pedicel open outwards [fig 31]. In which a number of pores or places separated by the petiole or pedicel open outwards [fig 31]. In which a number of pores or places separated by the petiole or pedicel open outwards [fig 31]. In which a number of pores or places separated by the petiole or pedicel open outwards [fig 31]. In which a number of pores or places separated by the petiole or pedicel open outwards [fig 31]. In which a number of pores or places separated by the petiole or pedicel open outwards [fig 31]. In which a number of pores or places separated by the petiole or pedicel open outwards [fig 31]. In which a number of pores or places separated by the petiole or pedicel open outwards [fig 31]. In which a number of pores or places separated by the petiole or pedicel open outwards [fig 31]. In which a number of pores or places separated by the petiole or pedicel open outwards [fig 31]. In which a number of pores or places separated by the petiole or pedicel open outwards [fig 31]. In which a number of pores or places separated by the petiole or pedicel open outwards [fig 31]. In which a number of pores or places separated by the petiole or pedicel open outwards [fig 31]. In which a number of pores or places separated by the petiole or pedicel open outwards [fig 31]. In which a number of pores or places separated by the petiole or pedicel open outwards [fig 31]. In which a number of pores or places separated by the petiole or pedicel open outwards [fig 31]. In which a number of pores or places separated by the petiole or pedicel open outwards [fig 31]. In which a number of pores or places separated by the petiole or pedicel open outwards [fig 31]. In which a number of pores or places separated by the petiole or pedicel open outwards [fig 31]. In which a number of pores or places separated by the petiole or pedicel open outwards [fig 31]. In which a number of pores or places separated by the petiole or pedicel open outwards [fig 31]. In which a number of pores or places separated by the petiole or pedicel open outwards [fig 31]. In which a number of pores or places separated by the petiole or pedicel open outwards [fig 31]. In which a number of pores or places separated by the petiole or pedicel open outwards [fig 31]. In which a number of pores or places separated by the petiole or pedicel open outwards [fig 31]. In which a number of pores or places separated by the petiole or pedicel open outwards [fig 31]. In which a number of pores or places separated by the petiole or pedicel open outwards [fig 31]. In which a number of pores or places separated by the petiole or pedicel open outwards [fig 31]. In which a number of pores or places separated by the petiole or pedicel open outwards [fig 31]. In which a number of pores or places separated by the petiole or pedicel open outwards [fig 31]. In which a number of pores or places separated by the petiole or pedicel open outwards [fig 31]. In which a number of pores or places separated by the petiole or pedicel open outwards [fig 31]. In which a number of pores or places separated by the petiole or pedicel open outwards [fig 31]. In which a number of pores or places separated by Asterichium [fig 62], where there two two three three three three three three three three three three three three three three three three three three three three three three three three three three three three three three three three three three three three three three three three three three three three three three three three three three three three three three three three three three Asterichium [fig 62], where there two two three three three Asterichium [fig 62], where there two two Asterichium [fig 62], where there two two Asterichium [fig 62], where there two two Asterichium [fig 62], where there two two Asterichium [fig 62], where there two two Asterichium [fig 62], where there two two Asterichium [fig 62], where there two two Asterichium [fig 62], where there two two Asterichium [fig 62], where there two two Asterichium [fig 62], where there two two Asterichium [fig 62], where there two two Asterichium [fig 62], where there two two Asterichium [fig 62], where there two two Asterichium [fig 62], where there two two Asterichium [fig 62], where there two two Asterichium [fig 62], where there two two Asterichium [fig 62], where there two two Asterichium [fig 62], where there two two Asterichium [fig 62], where there two two Asterichium [fig 62], where there two two Asterichium [fig 62], where there two two Asterichium [fig 62], where there two two Asterichium [fig 62], where there two two Asterichium [fig 62], where there two two Asterichium [fig 62], where there two two Asterichium [fig 62], where there two two Asterichium [fig 62], where there two two Asterichium [fig 62], where there two two Asterichium [fig 62], where there two two Asterichium [fig 62], where there two two Asterichium [fig 62], where there two two Asterichium [fig 62], where there two two Asterichium [fig 62], where there two two Asterichium [fig 62], where there two two Asterichium [fig 62], where there two two Asterichium [fig 62], where there two two Asterichium [fig 62], where there two two Asterichium [fig 62], where there two two Asterichium [fig 62], where there twotwo KINDS OF FRUIT. 501 one of which is situated near the summit of the upper cell or ovary, and the other (one or two) in the lower; and in vari- ous species of the same genus, one of these pores is situated on the axis, the others on the ovary, and the pores, which have a vertical arrangement at their margins, penetrate through the walls of the pericarp to the outer surface of the seed and ovary; those pores correspond to the number of cells in the upper cell, which are divided at the side (fig. 683), or towards the base (fig. 683). Fig. 682. Fruit of a species of Compositae. p. 763. Pores at the summit of the upper cell. Fig. 683. Fruit of a species of Compositae. Pores by pores at the base. Kinds of Fruits. A number of different kinds of fruits have been described and named, and several classifications of the same have been proposed at various times, but at present there is no general agreement respecting their classification. This is much to be regretted, as there can be no doubt that a strictly definite phanerology of fruits, founded essentially upon the structure and development of fruits, would be of great value in Descriptive Botany. The difficulties attending this subject have been greatly increased by authors who have given by authors to totally distinct kinds of fruits, even different classes of fruits. In a work like the present it would be desirable to give only such kinds of fruits as have received names. At the same time, the subject is of too much importance to be hastily disposed of, and so much space as possible has been devoted to its consideration in this work. Those who wish to investigate the matter further than my limits will find, elsewhere, a more complete account of it than any of all writers upon Carpology, this author has done most to reduce a perfect chaos to at least some degree of regularity, and we have in this manual made much use of his labours in classifying and Figs. 682 and 683. 302 SIMPLE FRUITS—LEGUME. defining the different kinds of fruits. The classification, how- ever abbreviated, is based on the same principle as that of Lin- ney. We have taken the pittol as our guide and have accord- ingly used the terms when applied to fruits in precisely the same sense as they are used by Linne, and we shall use that organ. The leading divisions of the classification here adopted are as follows— 1. Fruits formed by a Single Flower. a. Simple Fruit. b. Apeonous Fruit. c. Symporous Fruit. 2. Fruits formed by the combination of Several Flowers. I. FRUITS FORMED BY A SINGLE FLOWER. a. SIMPLE FRUIT.—By a simple fruit, we mean one which is formed of a single corolla or corona, and only one produced by a single flower; but we do not include in this term any of the fruits, of whatever nature, which are the produce of a single flower; thus including the simple, sporous, and sporeous fruits of the Legume, the Capsule, the Pod, and the Simple fruit. Simple fruits—namely, the Legume, the Lomentum, the Drupe, and the Vitreous. 1. Legume or Pod.—This is a superior, one-celled, one or many-seeded fruit, delimiting by both ventral and dorsal sutures, as to form a pod or capsule; such as the Legume, the Pod, or the Ventral sutures. Examples occur in the Fag (fig. 653), Bean, Clover, etc., and in many other plants. The name has been derived its name from this circumstance. The legume assumes a variety of forms, but it is generally more or less convex on its two surfaces; but in some cases it is concave on one side; when it becomes contorted so as to resemble a screw (fig. 681), or a mail twisted; thus resembling a spiral shell (fig. 682). It may also be cup-like a carpellary, as in Scorpiusnus scapula (fig. 684), or curved like a worm, as in Cereusoides coriacea, or it assumes a number of other forms; but all these are modifications of the primary structure of a legume; that is met with in some plants; thus in Astrophelus (fig. 683) and in the Podophyllum (fig. 685); which is consequent upon the formation of a spurious dissepiment, which in the first plant proceeds from the dorsal suture, and in the latter from the ventral suture; and in which case two or more series of spurious horizontal dissepiments are formed, by which the legume becomes divided into several compartments containing seeds, as in Cassia (fig. 686). Another irregularity also occurs in the latter plant, the legume being here indistinct; but the two septums are still visible between them; and in some cases legumes are also met with, as in Arachis and Pterocarpus, in which there LOMENTUM.—DRUPE. 303 is sometimes no evident mark of the sutures externally ; such legumes will, however, frequently split into two valves like those of a pod, while pressure may be applied as in the ordinary process of shelling peas. Fig. 684. Fig. 685. Fig. 687. Fig. 684. Cut-off legume of *Scyphularia rufa*. — Fig. 685. Snail-like legume of *Oenothera oregana* (see page 297). — Fig. 687. Cut-off legume of *Medicago sativa*. — Fig. 687. Legume of a species of *Lentaria*. 2. The Lomentum.—This is a kind of legume which is constructed in a monolocular manner between each seed, as in *Hedyosmum* (fig. 681), *Ornithopus*, and *Acacia Sophora* (fig. 687). It is somewhat similar to the pod, but differs from it in being united with the legume, characteristic of the plants of the Leguminosae. When the lomentum is ripe, it consists of two valves, one nearly equal to the other, and both united on its surface (fig. 681), or it remains entire (fig. 687); in the latter case the seeds are separable by means of a slight pressure, and this is effected by the action of so many internal spurious dissepiments as there are external spurious dissepiments. 3. The Drupe.—This is a superior, one-celled, one or two-seeded, indubitent fruit, having a fleshy or pulpy sarcocarp, a seed or seeds enclosed within it, and which is separated into its component parts, namely, of epicarp, sarcocarp, and endocarp. The Drupe is sometimes called a *stone-fruit*. Examples of this kind are the *Peach* (figs. 690 and 691), *Apple* (fig. 690), *Pear* (fig. 690), and *Olive*. In the Almond, the fruit presents all the characters of a drupe; but in the *Peach*, it is composed of a bony shell, instead of being succulent. Many fruits, such as the Walnut and Coconut, are sometimes termed drupes, but they are not true drupes; for though they are formed originally from two or more mericarps or ovaries, besides presenting characters different from that of a drupe (see page 310), and Glass, page 311.) A number of drupes aggregated A diagram showing the structure of a drupe. 301 **ETRICLE. APOCARIOUS FRUTIS.** together on a common thalamus form collectively a kind of Etrio (see Erythros). Any fruit which resembles a drop in its general character is frequently termed drupaceous or drop-like. Fig. 685. Fig. 686. **Fig. 685. Drop of the Peach. --- Fig. 686. The same cut vertically.** 4. **The Utricle is a sepaloid, one-celled, one or few seeded fruit, with a thin membrane, loose pericarp, not adhering to the seed; generally indehiscent, but rarely opening in a transverse manner. Examples of this kind of fruit may be seen in *Amorpha* and *Saponaria* (fig. 691). Fig. 691. **Fig. 691. Vertical section of the drop of the Cherry, on Batsford's *En- dogeny*, fig. 174, and *Botany*, fig. 175. Cutaway view of *Chewy* fruit, surrounded by the persistent calyx.** b. **APOCARIOUS FRUTIS.--Under this name we include those fruits which are produced by a single flower, and consist of such fruits or seeds are produced by a single flower. The simple fruits just described are frequently placed by botanists under this head, together with the *Utricles*. But the true Apocarious fruits are also sometimes called multiple, and the latter term is more correctly applicable to them than to the former. We distinguish three kinds of Apocarious fruits: The Foliole, the Acheneum, and the Elater. 1. The Foliole is a fruit consisting of several seeds, many-seeded fruit, defoliated by the ventral suture only, and conse- **APOCARPOUS FRUITS—FOLICULE—ACERIUM.** 305 quently one-celled (fig. 601). By the latter character it is known at once that the fruit is a follicle, which is distinguished by two organs, and is two-valved; in other respects the two fruits are alike. In *Magnolia glauca* (fig. 602), and some other species Fig. 602. Fig. 603. Fig. 604. ![Image of a magnolia flower](image) Fig. 602. Follicles of the Columba (Aquilegia).—Fig. 603. Follicles of the *Clematis* (Aconitum).—Fig. 604. Follicles of the *Paeonia* (Paeonia). of *Magnolia*, the follicle opens by the dorsal stamens instead of the ventral. Examples of the follicle occur in the Columba (fig. 602) and in the *Clematis* (fig. 603); in both of these plants all of which plants the fruit is composed of three or more follicles placed in a whorled manner on the thalamus; in the *Aesculus*, *Persea*, and *Liriodendron* (fig. 604), however, only two follicles are found; in the *Liriodendron* and *Magnolia* (figs. 604, 605) there are three follicles, but they open in a spiral manner on a more or less elongated thalamus. It rarely happens that a flower produces but a single follicle; this, however, occurs in the *Clematis* (fig. 603), and in the *Liriodendron*. The two follicles of *Aesculus* are more or less united at their base, and thus form a single follicle; this is also the case with *Persea*, as is the case in the true follicle, lie loose in the cavity of the fruit. This double fruit has therefore by some botanists received the name of "dolium." 2. The Aesculus or *dolium* is superior, one-celled, one-seeded fruit, with a dry indehiscent seed; it is similar to the "dolium" of the *Clematis*, and was applied to it. Linnæus mistook one of these seeds for seeds, and called the plants producing them gymnosperms; but he did not know that they were really distinct from seeds by presenting on some point of their sur- face the remains of a thalamus. This style is in some cases very evi- dent at least (fig. 604), but it is not always so evident. Ex- amples may be seen in the Clematis and Aesculus, as just noticed, and also in *Liriodendron* (figs. 604, 605), and *Magnolia* (fig. 605). In rare cases we find a flower producing but a single acheneum. X 306 APOCARIOUS FRUITS.--BY.SERIO.--CYANARODUM. 3. The Sterios.--When the achene borne by a single flower are so numerous that they form a cluster, or bunch, or sorties, they constitute collectively an *sterio*. Fig. 695. In the species of *Ranunculus* and *Cyanus*, the achenes are placed upon a common thalamus of a dry or fleshy nature, as in the *Strawberry* (fig. 680), where each achene is surrounded by a fluffy thalamus. Hence, in the Strawberry, the se- ![image](https://i.imgur.com/5QpZ5yG.png) number of separate achene is equal to the number of flowers, as in the *Daisy* (fig. 681) and in the *Lupin* (fig. 682). The ordinary sterio, are situated upon a common thalamus, on which the calyx is attached (fig. 469). This modification of the ordinary sterio, is called a *separate fruit* by some botanists, to which the name of *Cyamuraceae* is given. A similar kind of fruit also occurs in *Calotropis*. In the *Daisy*, the flower-bud has a kind of sterio formed of a number of little droops, or drupae as these small droops are sometimes termed, crowded together upon a dry thalamus. In the *Lupin*, we find this same kind of fruit by Lindley under a class of fruits called by him *aggregate fruits*, the characters of which are described in the next article. It is a single series produced by each flower.' The term aggregate is also by some botanists applied to fruits which are the produce of several. 2. SYMPARIOUS FRUITS.--Under this head we include all fruits which are composed of two or more parts united together into one or more corpi or carpels, and where only one fruit is produced by a single flower. In the two former classes the fruits are termed *symparous* or *carpellate*, according to their most or least compound nature. In describing these fruits we shall follow the order adopted in the preceding articles; but at the first place, we arrange them, from their superior or inferior char- acter, in two divisions; and each of these divisions is again separated into two sub-divisions, according to the mode of the pappus, and its dehiscent or indehiscent character. Fig. 695. Vertical section of the section of the *Sterio* (fig. 695) of the *Strawberry*. The *Sterio* is seen to consist of many small flowers, in the interior in con- junction with a common thalamus, surrounded by a fluffy thalamus. In the fruit of the *Daisy* (fig. 681) and in that of the *Lupin* (fig. 682) it is seen that each achene is surrounded by a fluffy thalamus. In the Strawberry, the se- number of separate achene is equal to the number of flowers, as in the *Daisy* (fig. 681) and in the *Lupin* (fig. 682). The ordinary sterio, are situated upon a common thalamus, on which the calyx is attached (fig. 469). This modification of the ordinary sterio, is called a *separate fruit* by some botanists, to which the name of *Cyamuraceae* is given. A similar kind of fruit also occurs in *Calotropis*. In the *Daisy*, the flower-bud has a kind of sterio formed of a number of little droops, or drupae as these small droops are sometimes termed, crowded together upon a dry thalamus. In the *Lupin*, we find this same kind of fruit by Lindley under a class of fruits called by him *aggregate fruits*, the characters of which are described in the next article. It is a single series produced by each flower.' The term aggregate is also by some botanists applied to fruits which are the produce of several. 2. SYMPARIOUS FRUITS.--Under this head we include all fruits which are composed of two or more parts united together into one or more corpi or carpels, and where only one fruit is produced by a single flower. In the two former classes the fruits are termed *symparous* or *carpellate*, according to their most or least compound nature. In describing these fruits we shall follow the order adopted in the preceding articles; but at the first place, we arrange them, from their superior or inferior char- acter, in two divisions; and each of these divisions is again separated into two sub-divisions, according to the mode of the pappus, and its dehiscent or indehiscent character. SYNCARPOUS FRUITS.—CARTOPHOR.—SAMARAL. 307 Division 1. Superior Syncarpous Fruits. a. WITH A DRY INERIENARI PERICARP. The Carpepals is a superior, one-celled, one-seeded, indehiscent fruit, with a thin dry pericarpous pericarp, completely and inseparably united to the seed, and generally with a single seed. This fruit resembles the acheneum, but it is distinguished by its indusium. It is moreover, generally considered as a compound nature, from the presence of two or more styles and stigmas on the same flower, and from the presence of two or more seeds in the same fruit. The Carpepals are found in the Maple, Ash, Elm, Blye, Wheat, Barley, and generally in Grasses. These fruits, like the acheneum, are commonly called seeds, but their true nature is at once seen when they are examined in their natural state. Fig. 697. Fig. 698. Fig. 699. Fig. 697. Carpepals or Fructus of the Oak. Fig. 698. Carpepals or Fructus of the Oak. Fig. 699. Carpepals or Fructus of the Oak. 2. The Samara is a superior, two or more celled fruit, each cell being dry, indusiate, few-seeded, and having its pericarp extended into a winged expansion. Each cell of the samara is like a seed; but it differs from the seed in that it may be found in the Maple (fig. 699), Ash, and Elm. By some botanists winged fruits are considered to be formed of two cells; but such fruits as the Maple are considered to be formed of two united samaras. The Mallow is a superior, many-celled fruit, each cell being dry, indusiate, and one or few-seeded, and all the cells being free from each other; and this fruit is also found in the Mallow (fig. 700). The common Mallow (fig. 700) is a good example of this fruit. x2 **208** AMPHIBARCA. CAPSULE. PYXIS. REGMA. Each cell of the carpocarp does not differ essentially from as dehiscent. The *Amphibarca* is a 'superior, many-celled, indehiscent, many-seeded fruit, indurated or woolly externally, pulpy internally.' - Examples, *Omphalocarpa*, *Adenanthus*, *Cremnias*. 5. WITH A DRY DEHISCENT PERICARP. 1. The Carpeis are sessile, or nearly so, and have many-seeded, dry, dehiscent fruit. The dehiscence may either take place by valves, as in Colchicum (fig. 664) and Datura (fig. 674); or Fig. 703. Fig. 704. Fig. 705. by pores, as in the Poppy and Androceras (fig. 621); or transversely, as in the Pimpinella (fig. 703) and Herbaeum (fig. 679) or *Lycium* (fig. 680), and Lycosa (fig. 685). When the carpeis dehisce transversely, the seeds are often distinctively named of Fynx. The capsule is either one-celled as in the *Lycium* (fig. 680), *Heptacris* (fig. 675), and Gentian (fig. 671); or two-celled as in the *Lycium* (fig. 680), *Lycosa* (fig. 685), *Lycium* (fig. 680) to the *Colchicum* (fig. 664), and Datura (fig. 674). It assumes various forms, sometimes very remarkable, as in Helicodendron (fig. 701), where it is composed of five cells joined together, and *Illicium anisatum*, where the carpeis are arranged in a stellar form; but when it is found in the ordinary manner, as it is found almost universally in many natural orders, as Papaver- ose, Caryophyllaceae, Primulaceae, Scrophulariaceae, Lilaceae, Gentianaceae. When a capsule consists of three or more carpeis, which separate by valves, as in the species of *Iris* (fig. 708), it is called a *Bispermum*. When a fruit resembles the ordinary capsule in every respect, except that it is inferior, as in the species of *Iris* (fig. 708) and SILIQUA. SILICULA. 309 Compositae (figs. 682 and 683), it has received the name of *Diplostegia* (see Diplostegia, page 311). In the natural orders we shall describe such fruit as *capitulum*. Fig. 704. Fig. 705. Fig. 704. Fruit of *Santolina arenaria* (Santolina crepidifolia). It is composed of fifteen pericarps, each containing one seed, and is thus a perfect fruit, but it is not a true fruit, as it does not contain any true vegetative part. Fig. 705. Interior member fruit (silique) of the *Lina* species, showing its structure. 2. The Silique is a superior, one- or two-celled, many-seeded, long, narrow fruit, delimiting by two valves separated from below upwards, and leaving the seeds attached to two partial placentae, which are situated at the base of the fruit. This fruit is called a *dissepiment*, called a *replum* (fig. 677). The placentae are here represented by the two valves of the silique, and they are so placed as to be opposite to each other, as is the case in all fruits which are regular in structure. When the replum extends entirely across the cavity, the fruit is two-valved; when it extends only half way across, it is one-valved. Such a fruit occurs in the Wallflower (fig. 677), Stock, Cabbage, and a large number of other plants belonging to the order of Crucifers. The general characters of the silique, but with the lobes of the stigma alternate to instead of opposite the placenta, as in *Chelidonium* (fig. 678), are those of the *Silica* (fig. 679). The silique is sometimes contracted in the spaces between the seeds, as in *Raphanus sativus*, and then it is called a *lino- dichemum*, or in *Raphanus sativus*, and then it is called a *lomondensis silique*. Fig. 706. *Silica*.—This fruit resembles the silique in every respect except as to its length; and in usually containing fewer seeds than that fruit; but it differs from it in having its lobes broad and short. Examples occur in the Sheep-burs' Purse (fig. 706) and Scurry-grass. The Silique is found in plants of the order Cruciferae. Both fruits are occasionally one-seeded, and indehiscent. c. WITH A FLESHY INERDECIDUS PERICARP. 1. The *Hesperidium* is a superior, many-celled, few-seeded, 309 **210** **HESPERIDUM. TRYMA. NUCELARIUM.** indefoliate fruit, consisting of a separable pericarp, formed of the epicalyx and mesocarp combined together (fig. 707, p. r.), and having a mesocarp, d., forming internally a cavity of meso- Fig. 706 Fig. 707 **Fig. 706.** The Mesocarp of the Orange. **Fig. 707.** The Mesocarp of the Lemon. Fy. THE MESOCARP OF ELEPHANT'S PUNCH (Pulmon).—Fig. 707. Transverse sec- tion of the fruit of Elephants Punch (Euphorbia), showing the mesocarp, d., which forms the bulk of the Orange, in which the sepals, r., or, at least one or less distinct from the mesocarp, d., are included. branious partitions, which divide the pulp into a number of por- tions or cells, which are easily separated from each other. This pulp, as already noticed (page 292), is either a development of epicalyx, or of the mesocarp, or both; but it is generally gen- erally, or from the placenta only. The seeds, a, a, are imbedded in the pulp, and are surrounded by a membrane, b, which is the portion in which the fruit is divided. The fruits of the Orange, Lemon, Lime and Slackood, are examples of the hesperidum. It is by this name that they are distinguished from the fruit in a more or less separated state (fig. 708), and we have then pre- cisely what are called 'horne oranges,' and 'horne lemons,' etc., and the fruit of the Slackood is a hesperidum instead of entirely synaporous. 2. The Tryma is a superior, one-celled, one-seeded, indehi- cent fruit, having a separable flabby or leathery rind, containing of spurious cells or portions of cells; and having its cavity formed from the inner lining of which spurious elements extend as to divide the seed into deep lobes. It differs but little from the certainly synaporous fruits, except as it is an originally con- sponding ovary. Example: The Walnut. 3. The Nucelarium.—This fruit, of which the Grape (fig. 712) may serve as an example, is a true fruit; but it is impor- tant to distinguish from the berry, except in being superior. (See Berry.) **Division 2. Inferior Syncarpous Fruits.** *with a dry indrement pericarp.* 1. The Greengages is an inferior, dry, indirement two-celled, two-seeded fruit. The two cells or halves of which this fruit is CREMOCARP, CYPRELA, GLASS, DIPLOTEGIL. 511 compound are joined face to face to a common axis or carpophore, from which they are separated by a persistent calyx. They always remain attached by a slender cord which suspend them (figs. 709). Each half-fruit is termed a hemiscarp or mericarp, and each fruit is called a mesocarp. Each portion of the fruit re- sembles a single seed; hence the name dichasium has been given to such fruit. Examples of the cre- mocarps are found in the order Umbelliferae. The Lamiaceae (figs. 710) have fruits very similar to those of the order Umbelliferae, extended so as to include fruits of a similar nature, but which contain more than two seeds, as in the genus Mentha. 2. The Cycadea.—This differs in nothing essential from the Cremocarps, being inferior and of a compound nature. It occurs in all plants of the order Compositae. When it is applied to the fruit, as in Salviaef and Dandelion. 3. The Cucumis.—This is inferior, dry hard, inedible, one-celled, one or two-seeded fruit, produced from an ovary of two or more cells, with one or more ovules in each cell, all of which are united into a single fruit (figs. 711 and 712), or one or two (page 288). The three layers constituting the pericarp of the nutare firmly coherent and indistinguishable, while the whole is more or less fleshy (figs. 360, 361). The Honeysuckle (fig. 360) may be taken as examples. By some botanists this fruit is termed a berry (fig. 360), but this differs in being superior, and in its pericarp presenting a distinction into epicalyx, mesocarp, and endocarp. (See Drupe, page 303.) See also figs. 713 and 714. C. WITH A DRY INERDENT PERICARP. 1. The Bacca or Berry is an inferior, inedible, one or more called, many-seeded, pulpy fruit (figs. 710 and 711). The A diagram showing the structure of a berry. A diagram showing the structure of a berry. A diagram showing the structure of a berry. A diagram showing the structure of a berry. A diagram showing the structure of a berry. A diagram showing the structure of a berry. A diagram showing the structure of a berry. A diagram showing the structure of a berry. A diagram showing the structure of a berry. A diagram showing the structure of a berry. A diagram showing the structure of a berry. A diagram showing the structure of a berry. A diagram showing the structure of a berry. A diagram showing the structure of a berry. A diagram showing the structure of a berry. A diagram showing the structure of a berry. A diagram showing the structure of a berry. A diagram showing the structure of a berry. A diagram showing the structure of a berry. A diagram showing the structure of a berry. A diagram showing the structure of a berry. A diagram showing the structure of a berry. A diagram showing the structure of a berry. A diagram showing the structure of a berry. A diagram showing the structure of a berry. A diagram showing the structure of a berry. A diagram showing the structure of a berry. A diagram showing the structure of a berry. A diagram showing the structure of a berry. A diagram showing the structure of a berry. A diagram showing the structure of a berry. A diagram showing the structure of a berry. A diagram showing the structure of a berry. A diagram showing the structure of a berry. A diagram showing the structure of a berry. A diagram showing the structure of a berry. A diagram showing the structure of a berry. A diagram showing the structure of a berry. A diagram showing the structure of a berry. A diagram showing the structure of a berry. A diagram showing the structure of a berry. A diagram showing the structure of a berry. A diagram showing the structure of a berry. A diagram showing the structure of a berry. A diagram showing the structure of a berry. A diagram showing the structure of a berry. A diagram showing the structure of a berry. 312 **BERRY. PEPO.** pulp is produced from the placenta, which is parietal (fig. 710, p.), and from the seeds, $x$, at first attached to the placenta, but these become ultimately detached from the pulp, as in fig. 711. An example will be found in the Gooseberry and Currant. We have already seen that the placenta of the Fig. 712 is called a Nuculeum (fig. 712), and that it differs in nothing es- sential from the berry, except in being superior. The name sac- cule of the naturalists is applied to this fruit, because its pericarp is nature, and will sometimes be used in this sense in our descrip- tion of the natural orders. Fig. 710. Fig. 711. Fig. 712. Fig. 713. Transverse section of a berry of the Gooseberry (Ribes Grossularia). At the top is shown the placenta, which is parietal (fig. 710). At the bottom is a section of the Red Currant (Ribes rubrum). Fig. 712. Nuculeum or Pulp of the Fig. 712. The placenta is seen at the top, and the two fruit or pepe of the latter. - L.c.d., Carpus; $p_{1}$, $p_{2}$, $p_{3}$, $p_{4}$, $p_{5}$, Currant seeds; $x$, Seeds; $y$, Placenta; $z$, Fruit; $w$, Pericarp; $u$, Seed coat; those causing the fruit to be sparsely three-celled. The Fig. Pepo is an interior one-celled, or sporiumly three- called (fig. 714), and consists of a single cell containing many seeds which are attached to parietal placenta, and are imbedded in pulp, but they are not separated from each other by any wall like the berry ; and hence this fruit is readily distinguished from it. There has been much discussion with regard to the nature of the pepe, whether it be one-celled or three-celled, and whether it be axile, and the fruit normally three-celled, as it is formed of three ovaries on one axis (fig. 715); or whether it be axile, and the fruit normally one-celled, as defined above. Those who adopt the first view believe that each placenta sends outwards a lateral branch which grows into a seed cavity, and that these processes ultimately reach the walls and then become best invested and form around the outside portion. At both processes remain, the fruit is three-celled ; if, on the contrary, A diagram showing a transverse section of a berry of the Gooseberry (Ribes Grossularia). A diagram showing a section of the Red Currant (Ribes rubrum). A diagram showing a nuculeum or pulp of the Fig. A diagram showing a section of a currant fruit. A diagram showing a section of a currant fruit with seeds. A diagram showing a section of a currant fruit with seeds and placenta. A diagram showing a section of a currant fruit with seeds and placenta. A diagram showing a section of a currant fruit with seeds and placenta. A diagram showing a section of a currant fruit with seeds and placenta. A diagram showing a section of a currant fruit with seeds and placenta. A diagram showing a section of a currant fruit with seeds and placenta. POME. BALUSTA. ANTHOCARPUS. FRUITS. 213 they become absorbed, it is only one-celled, and the placentas are sparsely parted. According to the view here adopted, the ovary is composed of two or more cells, which meet in the centre, and thus render the fruit spuriously three- celled; or, if these are afterwards obliterated, or imperfectly developed, they may be mistaken for such by the Melon, Gourd, Cucumber, Eriocarpon, and other Cucurbitaceae. The Pome or Apple is a pappus-fruit; a pappus generally, excepting m being superior. 3. The Pome is an inferior, indusiate, two or more celled, free-walled fruit; the endocarp is thin, membranous, oec- tagonous, or bony, and surrounded by a fleshy mass consisting of the pericarp and mesocarp; the seeds are supposed to be formed by the cohesion of the general parenchyma of the ovary with the tube of the calyx. Some botanists, however, regard the false pericarp as a true pericarp; but this is not always so. How- ever, in which the true carpels are imbedded. Examples may be found in the Apple (fig. 714), Pear, Quince (fig. 468), Medlar, and Hawthorn. Pom. 714 Fib. 215 Fig. 714. Vertical section of the common fruit of the Apple (Opus Meleti). Fig. 715. Vertical section of the common fruit of the Quince (Opus Meleti). 4. The Balustra is an inferior, many-celled, many-seeded, indusiate fruit, with a tough pericarp. It is formed of two rows of cells on each side of a central cell; the latter forms the calyx, and the seeds are attached irregularly to the walls or centre. The Pomegranate fruit (fig. 715) is the only example. 2. FRUITS FORMED BY THE COMBINATION OF SEVERAL FLOWERS. These fruits are commonly termed Anthocarpous, as they consist not only of the ovaries but also of several flowers united, but usually of the bracts and floral envelopes in combination. Examples are found in the Melon, Gourd, Cucumber, Eriocarpon, and Cucurbitaceae; and the two former terms have also been applied in a different sense, as mentioned under the head of Anthocarpous fruits (pages 204 and 206). Some botanists also term 314 COLLECTIVE FRUITS—CONV.—GALBULUS. them Infrafloraeae or Confinant fruits. The following have received distinctive names— 1. The *Galbula* (Fig. 708) is an elongated fruit, composed of a number of indurated scales, each of which bears one or more naked seeds. It is found in the genus *Galium* (Fig. 288), *Lark's*, *Hemlock*, *Sperum* (Fig. 415), and a great many other plants of the order Coniferae ; which derives its name from this circumstance. The *Galbula* is a very common plant, whose poisonous fruit, have one of a similar structure. There are two views as to the nature of these scales. Some botanists regard them as being regarded as carpsel opened up, by others as bracts. They certainly more resemble the latter organ in apposition with the flower than with the leaf, and are often seen on their surface. Other botanists (see page 197) regard the cone as the fruit of the *Galium*. This view is supported by the collection of fruits, as here described. Others again may make no distinction between a cone and a *Strobilus* (see Strobilus). Figs. 708. Fig. 717. Fig. 718. Fig. 708. Galbula or fruit of the Sperum (Johannes commont).—Fig. 717. Galbula or fruit of the Hemlock (Johannes commont).—Fig. 718. Galbula or fruit of the Yew (Taxus baccata), surrounded by leaves. 2. The *Galbulus.*—This fruit is but a modification of the Cone; differing only in being more or less rounded in form instead of somewhat conical, and in having the scales of the same mass enlarged into a solid body (Fig. 719). In this case, it is impossible (Fig. 716). In the latter the scale become flaky, and are united by a short stalk, while in the former they appear at first sight a berry, but its nature is at once seen by examining the apex, when three radiating lines will be observed corresponding with those of the *Cone*. The two forms are well formed, and which are here but imperfectly suited. No species of *Galbula* or *Galium* and *Galbulus* are found in the natural orders Coniferae and Cycadeae. In the Yew (*Taxus baccata*) (Fig. 718) and other plants belonging to that family, there are two kinds of fruits—the **Sperum** and Cycadeae, the so-called fruit is in reality not a fruit at all, as it is composed simply, as demonstrated by Dr. Hooker, of a naked seed, nearly enclosed in a succulent cup-shaped mass. SPHELOBOCARPITUM. -STROBILUS. -BOROSIS. 315 which is a development from the outer coat (prima) of the ovule. This so-called fruit has been termed a Sphalocarpium. Pyrus, the pear, is a fruit which is derived from a flower belonging to the class of Collective fruits at all, as it is formed of but a single flower. We have placed it here, following Lindley's arrangement, because it is a fruit which is derived from a flower, an essential character consists in its naked seed. Some other fruits which are derived from flowers are included under this name. The Cone must be carefully distinguished from Come like fruits, such as the Pine-cone, the Chestnut, and the Acorn. These latter are not collective fruits at all, but consist of the ovaries or carpels of a single flower, placed upon an elongated thalamus. The Pine-cone (Pinus) is a fruit which belongs to the genus *Lupulina* (fig. 416) is by some botanists considered as a kind of cone, but it is really a fruit, for the seed is enclosed in a cup or *strobile* has been given ; but the strobile differs essentially from the cone, in having its seed distinctly enclosed in an ovary or carpel, and in being produced by the union of two flowers. The fruit, therefore, as a distinct kind, under the above name. It should be noted that the term Borosis is frequently employed as synonymous with Cone. 4. THE CONE is a collective fruit consisting of separate flowers firmly coherent on a common axis, and surrounded by the floral axis upon which they are situated. Examples of this kind are found in the genus *Corylus* (figs. 417-418), where each square or pentagonal portion of the cone is composed of two flowers, the whole is surmounted by a crown of empty bracts. The *Fir-cone* (Abies) is another example of this accretion. The *Moss-cone* (Lycopodium) is also cited as another well-known fruit, which presents an example of this kind. In early summer, the Mulberry appears to resemble the Raspberry (fig. 720). Blackberry, and other fruits derived from flowers belong to this class; but in contrast with the latter are totally different. Thus, as already noticed in speaking of the Eurow (pang 306), the Raspberry, and other fruits derived from flowers, are formed by the union of two flowers or feebly anemous combined together upon a dry thalamus, and are not derived from a flower; whereas on the contrary, each rounded portion of which the fruit may be formed is derived from a flower, the calyx of which has become excurrent and united to the ovary; the combination of several flowers Fn. 719 Fn. 720 A diagram showing the structure of a cone-like fruit. 318 SYCONUS. THE OYULE. in this case therefore forms the fruit, while in the Raspberry the fruit is produced by one flower only. 4. The Ovule (Fig. 60). The Fruit, formed of an enlarged and more or less succulent receptacle, which bears a number of separate seeds (Fig. 61), is called an ovary. In a general view, that the flowers are not entirely enclosed by the enlarged hollow, pear-shaped receptacle, and what are commonly called seeds are merely the fruits of the flowers, is evident. The *Doriden* (fig. 60) is another example of the syconium, although it differs a good deal from the Fig in its general appearance: thus the sepals are wanting, and the petals are very narrow except at its margin, so that the separate fruits are here readily observed. All the more important fruits which have been named and described by botanists have now been alluded to, but in practice only a few of them are used. The *Cucumber*, *Pumpkin*, *Adenio*, *Fellion*, *Carposyne*, *Silique*, *Silicia*, *Capulet*, *Net*, *Fungus*, *Lilac*, etc., are all fruits derived from the same names having been given by different botanists to totally distinct kinds of fruits; and partly from botanists in many cases being mistaken for each other, and partly from their special characters it presents. It is, however, much to be regretted that such a confusion has arisen respecting so properly named and well-defined fruits should not be generally adopted, as it cannot be doubted that, if such were the case, it would be attended with great inconvenience and a good deal of unnec- essary description and repetition. Section 6. THE OYULE AND SEED. HAVING now described the nature, structure, and general characters of the gymnosperm or unimpregnated pistil, and the fruit or mature pistil, we pass to the description of the Ovule and Seed. These two parts are so closely connected together, that their condition as the pistil does to the fruit—that is to say, the ovule is to the unimpregnated body, the seed an impregnated or fertilized ovule. 1. THE OVULE. The ovule is a small, rounded or oval, pulpy body, borne by the placenta, and when ripe becomes the seed. It is either attached directly to the placenta, when it is said to be sessile (fig. 62); or it is attached by a stalk, as in a nail called the *funiculus* (figs. 610, se, and 630), when it is described as stalked. The point of attachment of the ovule to the placenta is usually termed its hilum; and this point is also called its base. These terms are applied to the seed in the same sense as to the ovule. The term *seed-base* is borrowed from a nail, and has been called the *seed-head* by Schleiden and others. A diagram showing a section of a plant with an ovule attached to a placenta. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE OYCLE. 317 The ovules are commonly enclosed in an ovary (figs. 32), but all plants which have been described as gymnosperms are exceptions to this; thus in the Cycadeae they are situated on the margin of leaves in a peculiarly metamorphosed condition, while in the Coniferae they are contained in cup-like or open carpelary leaves (fig. 721, a). Such ovules are therefore not true gymnosperms, but are merely modified seeds. In such plants are called Gymnosperms, while those plants in which the ovules are distinctly enclosed in an ovary, are called Angiosperms. In some plants the ovules are not enclosed in an ovary, but are some plants in which the seeds become partially naked in the centre of the fruit (fig. 722). These are known as the Mignonae (fig. 600), Lecanorae, and Cupulae, in which cases they are sometimes termed seminule. True Gymnosperms plant, in which the ovules are enclosed in an ovary, and their formation, should be carefully distinguished from those with seminule ovules, as the former character is always associated with important structural modifications. It has already been noticed in treating of the stem and other organs, that the development of the seed is closely connected with it; and more especially in the Physiological part of this volume, under the head of Reproduction of Gymnosperms. Fig. 721. Fig. 722. As this is a general leaf, it is a specialised form having two lateral veins, or at its base, a single vein (fig. 723). Vertical section of the leaf shows that it is composed of three parts: the blade, or upper part; the midrib, or central part; and the petiole, or lower part. The blade consists of a single sheet of ordinary mesophyll. The midrib is formed by a series of vascular bundles running parallel to each other. The petiole is inserted at its insertion. NUMBER AND POSITION OF THE OVULES. Number.--The number of ovules produced by one flower of its cells, varies in different plants. Thus in the Polypodiaceae, Compositae, Thelyocarpaceae, and Lycopodiaceae, there is only one primary scale ; in the Umbeliferae and Araliaceae, there is but one scale in each cell. When there is more than one ovule in the cavity of the ovary, these may be either arranged in any form and evenly counted, when the ovules are said to be definite (fig. 724), as in the Liliaceae (fig. 597), or irregularly or well if they be scattered as irregular, irregularate, quadriadiate, quadrilateralis, etc.; or, A diagram showing a cross-section of a plant's structure. 318 NUMBER AND POSITION OF THE OVULES. the ovule may be very numerous, when they are said to be numerous (Fig. 725), or very few, when they are said to be few (Fig. 726). b. Position.--The position of the ovules with regard to the cavity or cell in which they are placed is also liable to vary. When they are inserted into the cavity, they are said to be in the ovary or cell and directed towards the summit, as in Compositae and Polypogon (Fig. 727). When they are inserted into the cell, but not into the cavity, they are said to be in the cavity but not inserted at the summit of the ovary and be turned downwards, as in Hyppophae (Fig. 728), in which case it is termed or pendulous ; Fig. 725 Fig. 726 Fig. 727 Fig. 725. Vertical section of the ovary of the Man's Tail (Rhipsalis) in the state of its being inserted into the cavity, which is formed by the base of the calyx, and is filled with a gelatinous substance ; the section of the cavity of the Polypogon (Polygonum officinale), with a single ovule inserted into it, and directed towards the summit (Fig. 726). From Jones. Fig. 727. Vertical section of the ovary of the Mauveen (Daphne ma- gentea), with an ovule inserted into it and directed towards the summit. From Jones. Fig. 728. Vertical section of a cell of the cavity of a seed plant, showing an ovule inserted into it and turned downwards. From Jones. c. Style.--If it is inserted into the cavity, it is termed or turned downwards, as in Fig. 729, or if it is attached a little above the base, and directed obliquely upwards, as in Fig. 730, or if on the contrary, it arises a little below the summit, and is directed obliquely downwards, as in the Mauroon (Fig. 731) and Aegopodium (Fig. 732), or if it is attached a little above the base, and directed upwards or downwards, as in Origanum, it is hori- zontal or horizontal (Fig. 733). In the Mauroon (Fig. 731), the ovule is suspended from the end of a long funiculus arising from the base of the ovary ; such an ovule is frequently termed reclinate. In this respect there is great diversity among different genera, constant, and hence this character is frequently of much impor- tance in distinguishing them from each other. In the Compositae the solitary ovule is always erect ; while in the allied orders, the Valerianaceae and Dipsacaceae, it is sus- pended or reclinate. This character has been frequently men- tioned by botanists. In the Polypogonum (Fig. 722) the ovule is also always erect ; while in other plants it varies greatly (Fig. 725). In some cases (e.g., Fig. 726) it is inserted into a cavity, Fig. 729 POSITION OF THE OVULES. 219 the same; thus, in the Rosaceae, the genera *Gross*, *Alchemilla*, and others, the ovules are suspended in the *Ferulae*, *Sanguisorba*, &c., have it suspended, and in *Potentilla* both ascending and suspended ovules are found. In the *Ranunculi*, the ovules are suspended, but they are not so many as to represent its position. We may now consider the position of the ovule when their number is more than one. Thus when the ovary or cell has two ovules, those may be either placed side by side at the same level, or one may be placed above the other, which may be called collateral; or they may be placed at different heights, and then they may either be superposed or not. When there are three ovules, one may be ascending and the other suspended, as in *Narcissus* (fig. 728). The position of the cyliners in those cases is usually irregular, but when there are four ovules, two are regular, and similar terms are employed ; but when the number of ovules in the ovary or cell is indefinite, the relation may be said to be irregular. In this case, however, the shape of the call and the size of the placenta. Thus in the long ovaries of *Corydalis*, *Aquilegia*, &c., where all the ovules are superposed, and by not crowding each other they will be turned in the same direction; while, on the contrary, in those cases where there is no regular arrangement of the ovules, they will necessarily press against each other, and acquire irregular shapes. This is also true of the *Cucurbita* (fig. 729), &c., under the pressure. In describing these varying positions the same terms are used as those referred to when speaking of the relations of cells to each other. The following table shows how these terms agree to the relations of seed in the pericarp.
292. Planti
292. Lactates xxviii CONTENTS. BOOK IIII. PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS; OR PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. CHAPTER 1. PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ELEMENTARY STRUCTURES SECTION 1.
1. Functions of Parachoromous Cells and Parachromy. 749
a. Free-cell formation. 749
b. Free-cell formation from a Nucleus. 750
c. Free-cell formation without a previous Nucleus. 751
d. Cell-division without Absorption of the Walls of the Parent Cell. 752
e. Cell-division with Absorption of the Walls of the Parent Cell. 752
f. Rapidity of cell-production. 753
2. Absorption of the Contents of the Cell. 754
3. Movements in the Contents of Cells. 758
4. Elaboration of the Cell-contents. 758
5. Functions of Tendons and Parachromy. 769
6. Functions of Tendons and Parachromy Tissue. 769
7. Functions of Epidermal Tissue. 781
8. Functions of the Appendages of the Epidermis. 784
9. Functions of the Intercellular System. 784
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ORGANS OF NUTRITION OR VEGETATION 1. Of the Root or Descending Axis Absorption by the Root Selection of Food by Roots Excretion by Roots Storing of Nutrition by Roots 2. Of the Stem, Caudome, or Ascending Axis The Apical Meristem and Different Parts of the Stem The Medullar Pith The Wood Formation of Wood The Medullary Rays The Phloem Development of the Stem 763 1. Of the Root or Descending Axis Absorption by the Root Selection of Food by Roots Excretion by Roots Storing of Nutrition by Roots 2. Of the Stem, Caudome, or Ascending Axis The Apical Meristem and Different Parts of the Stem The Medullar Pith The Wood Formation of Wood The Medullary Rays The Phloem Development of the Stem CONTENTS. xxix 2. Of the Leaves or Foliolae 1. Exhibition of Watery Vapour by Leaves 770 2. Absorption of Fruits by Leaves 773 3. Absorption of Water by Gases by Leaves 775 4. Formation of Organic Compounds by Leaves 777 5. Effects of Heat generally upon Leaves 779 Wartian Cases 780 6. Other Effects 782 7. Deflection, in the Fall of the Leaf 782 8. Development of Leaves 783 SECTION 3. PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION . 785 1. Functions of Branches and Floral Buds Colour of Flowers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 786 Development of the Floral Buds 786 Functions of the Flower in Reproduction 787 Sexuality of Plants 787 2. Reproduction of Cryptogamous or Ankylolemonous Plants. A. Reproduction of Thallophytes 1. Algae 787 2. Filamentation 788 3. Impregnation of Naked Spores or Germ Carpsules by Filialan Spermatozoids 788 B. Reproduction of Cormophytes 1. Bryophytes 789 2. Mosses 790 3. Liverworts 791 4. Marchantiales 791 5. Psilotum 792 6. Bryophytes 792 C. Reproduction of Phanerogamous or Caryodomes Plants. A. Reproduction of Gymnosperms 794 B. Reproduction of Angiosperms 795 Hybridisation or Hybridisation 801 2. Of the Fruit. Chemical Constitution of Fruits 804 Bearing of Fruits 806 C. Of the Seed. Vitality of Seeds 806 Preservation and Transportation of Seeds 806 Germination 807 Length of Time required for Germination Conditions requisite for Germination Process of Germination Direction of Humus and Radicle 809 XXX CONTENTS.
Differences between the Germination of Dicotyledonous and Monocotyledonous Seeds 810
1. Monocotyledonous Germination 810
2. Dicotyledonous Germination 811
CHAPTER 2. GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY, OR LIFE OF THE WHOLE PLANT SECTION 1. POSS OF PLANTS AND THEIR SOURCES 1. The Organs of Vegetation and their Sources 2. The Inorganic Constituents of Ash, and their Sources Rotation of Crops SECTION 2. LIFE OF THE WHOLE PLANT, OR THE PLANT IN ACTION 1. Absorption 2. Distribution of Fluid Matter through the Plant, and their Alterations in the Leaves Assume of the Leaves Changes of the Crude Sap in the Leaves Dacent of the Sap CHAPTER 3. SPECIAL PHENOMENA IN THE LIFE OF THE PLANT 1. Development of Heat by Plants 2. Luminosity of Plants 3. Electricity of Plants The Influence of the Electric Light on the Growth of Plants and Production of Chlorophyll 4. Movement of Plants a. Movements depending on External Influences b. Non-Periodical c. Periodical 5. Odours of Plants GENERAL AND GLOSSARIAL INDEX TO STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL DEPARTMENTS INDEX TO SYSTEMATIC BOTANY CORRECTIONS AND ADDITIONS. Page 3. line 5 from the bottom, after march, add (see page 82). - 21, line 21 from the bottom, after for example, insert according to Huxley and others. - 22, line 22 from the bottom, after mature, read perfect. - 23, line 23 from the bottom, after for example, insert according to Huxley and others. - 26, line 23 from the bottom, after those above mentioned, add (see page 78) "Ceratium" (Gmelin, 1781). - 27, line 27 from the top, after starch, add some other carbonates. - 33, line 6 from the top, after FORMS AND SEEDS OF CERATIUM, insert General Properties and Structure of the Cell-wall. - 113, line 10 from the bottom, after infolding of the cell membrane. - 231, line 12 from the bottom, after infolding of the cell proplasm, or according to Mohr, of the cell wall. - 314, line 14 from the bottom, after starch, add may. - 428, line 13 from the bottom, after eaten. Add (This must not be combined with the true Avocados or Alligator Pear which is a fruit of the same family as the Avocado (from Persea gratissima). (See Pears)). - 440, line 15 from the bottom, after Avocados, add It has been repeatedly stated that the nuts have the power of saving for ever all those who eat them. The following are examples of enailing those who eat them to endure continued labour without fatigue. - 539, line 16 from the bottom, after gum, add known as Sarracenia. - 550, line 17 from the bottom, after Antarctica and , or from one nearly allied to this genus. (See Fucus). - 556, line 8 from the bottom, after Alum-root. Add Sarcopogon or Sarcopogon spinulosus which has been termed by some and is reputed to be a powerful tonic; ranking in its action between salvia and quinia. - 596, line 6 from the top; after Cunus; add Flaccinum however has recently been shown to be a new species closely allied to *S. furfuraceus*, Benth., as the chief element of this kind of Cunus; A diagram showing a plant structure. xxiii **INVESTIGATIONS AND ADDITIONS.** Page 784, after line 3 from top, insert the following notice of recent investigations:--- On the Structure of the Protoplasts of Fernable Cells and the Structure of the Nucleus in the Fernable Cell. Professor F. Schmitz finds that the cells of plants contain intra- cellular and intercellular networks resembling those described by Hennig and others in the protoplasts of the cells of animals. The intercellular networks consist of very delicate interlacing threads of protoplasm, enclosing spaces or lacunae, which are in inter- communication with each other, and contain a homogeneous fluid. The protoplasts of fernable cells are usually bounded by a densean outer membrane, which is embedded a number of closely- packed protoplasmic threads, forming a network, some of which have been usually described as nucleoli. Investigations on the structure of the division of the nuclei in many yeastable cells, and a similar method has since been shown by several observers to occur in animal cells. To this process (fission) is due the fact that the nucleus is capable of continuous movement of the membrane and its contents is of essential importance. The nuclear membranes are not always continuous lines forming the intracellular network, so that they become more distinct, and their spaces become larger. The spaces between them become wider and more separated, thus exaggerating the appearance produced during the first stage when the fibres next appear to form long loops, some of which appear to be double or two threads (fig. 1), but whether this is true character, or they are thick fibres which have become separated from one another, cannot be determined until the loops cease to single and are very long, each thread forming several, and the space between them becomes large. When these loops break down so that their heads are central, the ends pointing outwardly, they form a double loop or a double thread (fig. 2). The central mass and rays now appear to divide into two parts having different planes one above the other, except at the periphery of the loops where they are united. These two masses then soon separate, producing the double star, or dyaster, which in many cases is seen to be composed of two or three stars. This may not occur at all. The two stars of the dyaster then proceed from each other as two daughter stars (fig. 3). The daughter stars then produce a double basket appearance. The fibres of these baskets next arrange themselves alternately, so that their own ends point towards each other. The space be- tween the two divisions of the former nucleus, i.e. between the two daughter stars, then becomes smaller than before. A new nucleus appearing in the new nucler an intracellular network similar to that which exists in the old nucleus. These intracellular and intercellular networks, as well as the divi- sion of the nucleus by fission in rapidly growing cells, such as those in the growing points of plants. Page 797, line 12 from bottom,,for three read two. MANUAL OF BOTANY. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. NATURAL HISTORY has for its object the investigation of every-thing that relates to the bodies placed on the surface of the globe ; or combined so as to form its substance. These various bodies are divided into three kingdoms, which the scien-ti-fic investigator, arranged in three great divisions, called, re-spectively, the Animal, Vegetable, and Mineral kingdoms : those comprehending all living beings, whether they be formed from the Organic creation ; while those of the latter, not being en-dowed with life, are termed Inorganic. The first two are our province in this work to treat of the lower members of the or-ga-nic world, called Plants or Vegetables. The science which investigates these bodies is called Botany ; and the word therefore signifying an herb or grass. DANDELION is a Plant. Botany in its extended sense embraces everything which has reference to plants either in a living or fossil state. It investigates their nature ; their in-ternal constitution ; their mode of growth and reproduction by which they are enabled to grow and propagate themselves ; and their relations to each other and to the world about them ; and they are surrounded. As a science, therefore, it is of vast extent, and one which requires for its successful prosecution the most careful attention. It may be conveniently divided into the following departments—1. Geognosy ; this comprises every-thing which relates to the internal constitution and ex-terior arrangement of plants, and their various parts or organs—that portion which treats of their structure, including the development of the plant from its egg-cell ; 2. Zoological Hydrology, commonly termed Structural Botany ; and that which has reference to their forms is called Morphological Botany, or the Compositor's Anatomy of plants. 2. Topological 3 2 **DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN** Botany : this treats of plants, and their organs, in a state of life or action. **Systematic Botany** : this considers plants in their relations to each other, and to the different environments and classification. 4. **Geographical Botany** is that department which examines the distribution of plants over the surface of the globe at the present time. And 5. **Paleontological or Fossil Botany** is that which investigates the history of plants, by examining those which have been found in a fossil state in the different strata of which the earth is composed. The first two treatises of the present work ; the third being of too special and extensive nature to be treated of in this manual. **DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN ANIMALS, PLANTS, AND MINERALS—** Botany being the science which treats of plants, it would natur- ally be supposed that it could not be properly defined by defining a plant. No absolute definition of a plant can, how- ever, be given, because it is impossible to define any one of the organic worlds, neither is it probable that, as our knowledge in- creases, such will ever be the case ; for hitherto the progress of inquiry has been confined to the vegetable kingdom. The connec- tion between plants and animals, the one passing gradually and imperceptibly into the other, has led to some confusion ; particularly it was believed by many that there existed certain organisms which were plants at one period of their lives and animals at another. Thus De Bary (1837) proposed to call these organisms **Eolitha**, species of Eolitha as producing naked, mouthless, protoplasmic bodies which he called **plasmodia**, and species of Eolitha as producing plasmodium (plasmodia), which were destitute of a cell-wall; they were able to cover over the surface of the substance upon which they were placed with a film of water, and thus to digest solid matters; after the fashion of a true amoeba, of the animal nature of these bodies. In this stage of their existence, in this stage he regarded Eolitha as an animal. After a time, how- ever, the plasmodium becomes quiescent, divides into an im- mense number of cells, and then again assumes its original form with a wall of cellulose and becomes a spore; and in this latter stage he regarded Eolitha as a plant. But in 1840, from recent researches of De Bary and others show that this anomalous condi- tion is of frequent recurrence in certain stages of many organ- isms, of both vegetable and animal nature. This question, **Eolithaism** is now relegated to the Vegetable Kingdom alone. Moreover, it is evident that no vegetable matter (plant and animal) of certain organisms does not exist now; naturalists are far from agreeing as to what in all cases shall be regarded as vegetable matter. It is only when we look upon such a complex structure as follows undoubtedly animal, other authors of equal repute acknowledge it as a plant. There are, indeed, even some naturalists who believe that ANIMALS, PLANTS, AND MINERALS. there is no line of demarcation between plants and minerals, but that simple organisms can be, and are, formed out of inorganic matter. The following facts are in conformity with which these views have been supported, we hold such organic bodies to be the result of the action of the sun's rays upon the water of the sea, and that the possession of individual life and power of reproduction in the former, constitute at once, without further investigation, a basis for distinguishing them from the latter. Even when we compare plants with animals, so long as we confine our attention to their external appearance. In the two kingdoms, the distinctions are evident enough; difficulties only occur when we look deeply into the subject and compare together the internal constitution of both. The mode of creation, and stand as it were on the confines of the two kingdome, do not appear to offer any difficulty. We may draw down any certain characteristic by which all the members of the two kingdoms may be absolutely distinguished. We shall at present, therefore, consider only those points in which plant may in a general sense be distinguished from animals, leaving for future investigation of the subject to the future pages of this volume. In the first place, we find that plants hold an intermediate position between mineral and animal substances. They nourish themselves from the earth and the air or water by which they are surrounded; they absorb from these sources either inorganic or organic matter into organic animals. Animals, on the contrary, live on organic matter, and reconvert it into inorganic. In other words, they produce food for themselves, and consume it. Secondly, plants are generally fixed to the soil, to the sub- stance upon which they grow, and derive their food immediately by absorption through their external surface; while animals, being provided with a digestive system, can wander about in search of the food that has been prepared for them by some other agent. Plants cannot assimilate food into an internal cavity or stomach. Plants thus, therefore, are regarded as destitute of sensation and power of voluntary motion, as well as incapable of locomotion. They possess no pos- session of such attributes, and are nourished from within. Thirdly, during the process of assimilation plants decompose the carbonic acid in the air or water which they inhale; drawing in, and uniting the carbon, which is obtained from this decomposition, with oxygen from the atmosphere or water; thus adding to the atmosphere or water the greater part of the oxygen. Animals, on the contrary, during this process of respiration take into their bodies oxygen from the atmosphere or water; but do not decompose any carbonic acid contained in their surrounding medium in which they live; carbon-dioxide, the result of the oxidation of their food stuffs is expelled from their system with the oxygen which has been inhaled. Plants, therefore, n 2 4 DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN ANIMALS AND PLANTS. Animals absorb carbon-dioxide and eliminate oxygen; while plants in assimilation absorb oxygen and eliminate carbon- dioxide. This process of assimilation in plants must not be con- sidered, as was formerly the case, with their respiration, as will be described hereafter, but as a distinct process of nutrition. Fourthly, while all plants and animals are made up of cells, those of the latter do not develop upon their exterior any sub- stance which can be compared to the cuticle of the plant; the whole substance of the one is more or less homogeneous, and considerably more so than that of the other. The cells may be shown to be made up chiefly of the four elements, Carbon, Oxygen, Hydrogen, and Nitrogen. The protoplasmic mass forming the cell is either a liquid or a gelatinous mass (or later become changed) on its outer surface; a membraneous covering is often present, which may be thick or thin, may be come more or less thick, hard, tough or flexible, and which in a pure condition is destitute of the element nitrogen. This membraneous covering is called the cell-skin; and the mass which it composed is called cellularis. Plants, then, are made up of cells the proportion of which to each other is very small; cuti- lule; while animals are made up of cells which have no such cell-wall. In reference to the above distinctive characters, it should be especially noticed that they are only general, namely, those de- rived from the external appearance of the animal and vegetable kingdom; and that to all such characters some exceptions may be found when we compare particular in- dividuals. The presence of starch was also formerly considered as a diagnostic character between plants and animals. Experiments have shown that this substance, or at least one isomeric with it, and presenting the same general appearance as it, is also to be found in many animals. Hence, it follows that starch does not there- fore in any particular organum, can no longer be regarded as forming an absolute distinctive character between a plant and an animal. We arrive accordingly at the conclusion that it is impossible to give a definite character by which we can distinguish one from another; to lay down any single character by which plants can in all cases be distinguished from animals. In determining them, whether an organism under investigation be a plant or an animal, the naturalist must first take into his consideration, not any one character alone, but the sum of all the characters which it may exhibit. BOOK I. ORGANOGRAPHY; OR, STRUCTURAL AND MORPHOLOGICAL BOTANY. Tax most superficial examination by the unassisted eye of any of the more highly developed and organised plants enables us to distinguish various parts or organs, as root, stem, leaves, and the like. The study of the structure and development presented to our notice either the same organs, or organs of an analogous nature to those which we have just mentioned. Upon examination of these several organs by the microscope, it will be found that they are all composed of minute elements, which may be seen in little membranous closed sacs, called cells, and elongated tubular bodies, of various forms, sizes, and appearances, which are combined into a system. In this way, every part of a plant, with reference to its structure, we have two sets of organs: a single set of organs visible to the naked eye, and the elementary structures of which they are composed. A knowledge of these elementary structures or building materials is necessary before we can have a com- plete and satisfactory acquaintance with the compound organs ; for, precisely as we cannot form a correct idea of the form of our in- vestigations if we give a general sketch of the compound organs ; and of the plants which are formed by their union. According to this principle, however, however simple or however less complexity which they exhibit, so, in a corresponding de- gree, do plants vary from one particular. Hence it is that plants exhibiting a great variety of forms and structures Botany which has for its object the study of these forms and their component organs is called Morphology. CHAPTER 1. GENERAL MORPHOLOGY OF THE PLANT. The simplest plant, such as the Red Snow (Protococcus), or Gloeococcus, consist of a single cell, which in form is more or less spherical or oval. In Protococcus (Fig. 1) the cells separate almost immediately as formed, while in Gloeococcus they remain bound together by an enveloping capsule of gelatinous matter, Fig. 1. Fig. 2. A diagram showing the structure of a protococcus cell. Fig. 3. Several Red Snow plants (Protococcus (Palmaria) minor), extending millimeters within a single space, magnified.—Fig. 4. Two plants of Oedophyton spurium. formed from the cell-wall, for a longer or shorter period. As, however, this matter absorbs more water, it is gradually dis- solved and dispersed throughout the cell, so that, although above these in point of complexity we find the cells still all alike, but infinitely larger than those of the Red Snow, yet they retain a straight or curved rod, as in Oedophyton (Fig. 3). All these plants—so far as known at least—multiply by division of their cells only, and are thus termed monads. The cells in which certain of their cells perform the function of nutrition, while others serve as organs of reproduction are called peridic. Thus, in the Monilis, such as Mucor (Fig. 5), and Penicillium (Fig. 4), the cells which serve as organs of nutrition form branched, jointed filaments, while those which serve as organs of reproduction branch the plants with food ; while those destined to reproduce the individuals are developed in globular vesicles (Fig. 6), as in Mucor or are arranged in chains of filaments, as in Penicillium. Not only do we find the scale of vegetable life we find the cell as combined as to form leaf-like expansions (Fig. 5), or solid axes, as well as special organs of reproduction (Fig. 6, 7, 8). But THALLOPHYTES.—CELLULAR AND VASCULAR PLANTS. 7 these cells are all more or less alike, so that no true distinction can be drawn between the often very different looking parts we meet with in the Thallophytes. This is especially the case when a combination of similar cells, whatever the precise form may be, which presents no differentiation of leaf, stem, and root, is called a Thallus. The Thallophytes are therefore termed a Thallophyte or Thallophyte. Under the head of Thallophytes are included all the simple plants which are commonly known as Algae, Lichens, and Fungi. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Fig. 3. A species of Monil (Monil), with mycelium growing out from the base of the plant, each of which is terminated by a sac (ascus), in which the spores are formed. (See p. 10.) (From *Flora*, pl. 168.) Fig. 4. A species of *Lichens* (Lichen), with mycelium and leaf-like structures (fruticose). (See p. 10.) (From *Flora*, pl. 169.) Fig. 5. A species of *Fungi* (Fungus), with mycelium and leaf-like structures (fruticose). (See p. 10.) (From *Flora*, pl. 170.) Again, as all Thallophytes are composed of cells which approach more or less closely to the spherical or oval form, or to elongated ones, they are called *Cellular Plants*. As regards the *Vascular Plants*, in contradistinction to those which come above them which are called *Cellular Plants* on account of their possessing, in addition to the mycelium, a stem and leaves, there are found in the higher plants, variously formed tubular organs, which are known under the name of vessels. From the lower forms up to the higher stages, we ar- rive at an order of plants called *Liverworts*. In this lower forms this stage is represented by a flat-leafed plant, with a long flat thallus-looking stem bearing upon its under surface scale-like appendages, the first representatives of true leaves. In the higher forms, as *Jepsonites* (p. 7), the stem and leaves are A diagram showing a thallus-like structure with leaf-like appendages. 8 LIVERWORTS AND MOBES. both more highly developed. In the Mosses, e.g. Polytrichum (figs. 8 and 9), the stems often contain elongated cells, which are Fig. 6. Fig. 7. Fig. 8. Fig. 9. Fig. 6. A portion of the flat thalloid stem of Marchantia polymorpha, showing the leaf-like appendages (bracts) at the base of the stem. Fig. 7. *Ampullaria* indica. The stem is branching, and bears numerous small leaves, or leaflets, at its nodes. Fig. 8. *Polytrichum* commune. Stem, and fructification (*Polytrichum*).—Fig. 9. The true plant, as it is commonly called, with its leaf-like stem and leaves, and terminated by the male organs (antheridia). to a certain extent thickened, and differ little from the true leaf (leaf-like appendage), except that they are often prolonged into the leaf, when it forms a midrib. Correlated with CORMOPHYTES.—CRYPTOGRAMOUS OR FLOWERLESS PLANTS. 9 this greater development of the organs of nutrition we find the reproductive apparatus similarly advanced in complexity of structure. The flowerless plants are all of the same type, a mass of protoplasm situated in the interior of a dark-shaped cellular organ, the archeophyllum (fig. 8), and this is further modified by small particles of protoplasm, which are distributed throughout the cells formed into a bladder-like structure called the calyculus. All plants, from and including the Liverworts and Mosses up-wards, under ordinary circumstances, present us with a distinct stem, leaf, and root. The stem is a solid cylinder (fig. 9, curve); a stem, signifying that they are stem-producing plants, to distin- guish them from the Thallophytes or thallus-forming plants, just alluded to. The Liverworts and Mosses are, how- ever, decidedly inferior to the higher plants, such as exist in the next and all the higher orders. Still ascending, we find in the Club- mosses (fig. 10), Orecostella (fig. 11), Ferns (fig. 12), and other plants, an en- hancement in complexity of structure, spiral and other forms of ornamentation appearing for the first time, and the stems are fre- quently of considerable magnitude. Clu- b-mosses (fig. 13) are very large plants allied to the Horsetails, and which were ex- tremely common in the Carboniferous period of our coal measures, would appear to have reached the height of our leafist trees (trees with leaves). In many countries, Tree-forms will frequently at- tain to heights twenty feet or more (fig. 15), and sometimes even as much as forty feet. In these plants true roots do not exist; but their stems are broken up into numerous small fibres and become enlarged as in the taproots (fig. 16). Cryptogamous Plants—in all the plantae above mentioned, excepting the flower- less plants are in the higher plants, hence they are called Flower- less; but their organs of reproduction are very small and incon- spicuous. They are called cryptogamous plants because they are so to say, plants with concealed or invisible reproductive organs. These Cryptogamous Plants form two great groups, called Cormophytes and Thallophytes; the latter comprising the simpler forms of plant, which, as previously noticed, are com- monly known as Algae, Fungi, and Lichens, and which present Fig. 10. Fig. 11. The origin of the various Club- mosses (Lycopodium), alon- g with some of the most pro- minent of the Great Water Lichens (Arctostoma Ficu- m). 10 CRYPTOGAMOUS OR FLOWERLESS PLANTS. no distinction of root, stem, and leaf (figs. 1-5); and the former group those plants, such as the Liverworts (figs. 6-7), Mosses (figs. 8 and 9), Club-mosses (fig. 10), Horsetails (fig. 13. Fig. 12. Fig. 13. Fig. 11. The Fern-fern (Lobaria Pulmonaria). — Fig. 12. A Tree-fern, show- ing a tuft of leaves (proved) at the apex of a prismatic stem, which is elongated as the case, etc., by the development of a mass of adventitious roots. 11), and Ferns (figs. 12 and 13), which present us with an evi- dent stem, bearing leaves, and, except the Liverworts and Mosses, also true roots and vessels of different kinds. PHANEROGRAMOUS OR FLOWERING PLANTS. 11 Phanerogamous Plants.—All plants above those called Cyp- togamous, from possessing evident flowers or reproductive organs, are termed Phanerogames, Phanerogamæ, or Flowering. These latter terms are derived from the Greek words phaneros, meaning visible, as is the case in all Cyprogamous ; a seed being essentially dis- tincted from the plant, and the plant itself being only in a medi- imentary condition all the essential parts of the future plant in the form of an embryo (Fig. 16); while a spore merely conveys a single cell, and is not even capable of producing any other which exhibit any distinction of parts until it begins to develop in the ordinary process of vegetative reproduction. These Phanerogamous plants also present two well-marked divisions, called respectively the Anepistemonia and Omonomeria ; the former consisting of those plants in which the seeds or ovules are enclosed in a case called an ovary (Fig. 32, p. 9) ; and the latter, such plants as the Fur and Larch, in which the ovules Figs. 14. Fig. 15. Fig. 14. Distyliodendron embryo of the Pae. r. The radicle. t. The axis (protome), terminal part of the embryo, with its two leaves, e, e. Fig. 15. Brotia semiperticula leaf, e, of a species of Paeon, bearing two seed-capsules, c. are naked (Fig. 15), or not enlosed in an ovary. In the Phanerogamous plants we have the highest and most perfect condition of vegetation, and it is to these that our attention is to be directed in this chapter on flowering plants. But before proceeding to describe in detail the elementary struc- tures of these plants, and their mode of combination into organs which they form by their combination, it will be more conve- nient and intelligible to give a general sketch of the nature and characters of these plants, so as to enable us to fully grasp the meaning of the various technical terms which are employed for their description. We have just stated that a seed contains an embryo, in which the essential parts or organs of the future plant are present, or are at least represented by rudiments; and this may be taken for the purpose of illustration (Fig. 14). Here we find a distinct central axis, t, the lower part of which is called the 12 SEED—GERMINATION. radicle, r : and its upper extremity, which is terminated by two or more rudimentary leaves, is termed the pinnule or pinnae. This radicle is the first to appear, and is the first part of a temporary nature, and to which the name of cotyledon or seed-leaf has been given. Some seeds only contain one coty- ledon (Fig. 14, c), while others have two cotyledons, as de- scribed in the Pen (fig. 14, e); hence we divide Phanerogamous plants, on account of their number of cotyledons, into three classes, called, respectively, Diotyledonous (two cotyledons), and Monocotyledonous (one cotyledon). As Cryptogamous plants have no cotyledons, they are included in the Acrogamous class. We have two great divisions of plants, the Cotyledones and the Acoty- ledones, the former being again divided into the Monocotyle- dones and the Diotyledones. Fig. 16. Germination of the Heracleum Pancratia Black-seedless plant. The root, springing from the lower end of the axis (Q), grows up, and sends out two branches, one of which grows upwards towards cotyledonous plant, z. The axis, growing off node from its lower extremity. The other branch grows downwards towards the soil. When a seed is placed under favourable circumstances (which will be treated of hereafter in speaking of the process of germi- nation), the embryo it contains begins to develop (figs. 16 and 17): the upper branch grows upwards towards the cotyledonous plant, z, branch from it, growing in a downward direction, while the upper branch elongates upwards, carrying the plant forward. At last both branches become developed and form the first leafy organs. We have thus produced a central axis developing in two opposite directions; the lower A diagram showing the germination of a seed. The root (r) grows from the lower end of the axis (Q). One branch grows upwards towards a cotyledonous plant (z), while another branch grows downwards towards the soil. **ORGANS OF NUTRITION—ROOT—STEM.** 13 part is called the descending axis or root (figs. 36, 37), and the upper the ascending axis or stem. Upon this ascending axis lie its derivatives, which are termed leaves, and are composed, those which immediately succeed the cotyledons, c., c., constitute the first true leaves, or leaves, d., e., f., g., h., i., j., k., l., m., n., o., p., q., r., s., t., u., v., w., x., y., z.; those which succeed the leaves in order of development, such as the bracts and their parts, are merely modifications designed for special purposes of growth and reproduction. Three organs, namely, root, stem, and leaves, which originally exist in the embryo in a rudimentary state, or are developed as soon as necessary for nutrition and reproduction, are organs of nutrition or nutrition; because they are employed for nutrition, and another for reproduction. Hence in treating of the different organs of the plant, both in reference to their structure and functions, we shall consider them under two divisions namely, 1. Organs of Nutrition or Nutrition; and 2. Organs of Reproduction or Reproduction. In describing each organ in detail, it is necessary that we should briefly define these organs, and explain the terms used in describing their principal modifications. 1. **Organs of Nutrition or Nutrition—The Root.** The root (figs. 18 and 19, a,) is that part of a plant which is at first placed in contact with the soil, and by means of which it is supported on the ground when the plant is placed upon the surface of that medium. The divi- sion of the root into three parts—the base, middle, and top—is not always symmetrical arrangement, are termed branches (figs. 18, e.), and the hair-like prolongations found upon young growing roots are called hairs (figs. 18, f.). b. The Stem or Canine. The stem (fig. 19, b,) is that organ which at first develops from the lower part of the root; it bears light and air, and supports the ascending axis, and bearing on its surface leaves, l., p., and other leafy appendages. The leaves are leaves by which the plant is nourished; they are attached to the stem, which are called nodes, and in the axil of every leaf (that is, in the angle produced by the junction of the base of the upper sur- face of the leaf with the stem) we find, under ordinary circum- 14 ORGANS OF NUTRITION.—STEM. stamens, a little conical body called a leaf-bud (Figs. 18, b, b, and 21, b). From these leaf-buds the branches are subsequently Fig. 18. Fig. 19. Fig. 18. Leaf and part of the stem and root of the common thistle or the root with its bud, showing $c$. The neck or point between stem and root is called the calyx. Fig. 19. Bud or root-bud on the surface of a young root. produced, and hence, in the stem, these are symmetrically arranged, and not irregularly, as in the root, where there is no such special provision for their formation. Fig. 20. Fig. 21. Fig. 20. Leaf and portion of a branch of false arum, a plant. $a$, Branch. $b$, Bud. $c$, Calyx. $d$, Petiole. $e$, Leaf. $f$, Stipule. $g$, Laminas or blades. p., Petiole. d., Stipule or stipula. Fig. 21. Leaf and portion of stem of Pulmonaria officinalis. of leaves and leaf-buds that we find the essential characteristics of a stem, as both these organs are absent in the root. A diagram showing a stem with a bud at the top, and two leaves below it. A diagram showing a leaf with a petiole attached to it. A diagram showing a stipule attached to a leaf. LEAF.—ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION.—THE FLOWER. 15 c. The Leaf or Phyllole.—The leaf is commonly a more or less flattened expansion of the stem or branch (figs. 20 and 21). As already stated, the leaf is usually a flat plate, but in some cases, and the space between two nodes is therefore termed an internode. In the case of the leaves of the higher plants, namely, of an expanded portion, which is usually more or less flattened (figs. 20 and 21), termed the lamina or blade ; of a narrow-leafed plant, such as the ferns, the term, termed the peltate or leaf-stipe (figs. 20 and 21); and of a third kind, such as the mosses, the term, termed a sheath (fig. 20, d) enclosing the stem, or as two little leaf-like appendages on each side, which are called stipules (fig. 20, f). A leaf may be either simple or compound; but one or two of them may be absent; and in such cases when the petiole is wanting, the leaf is described as sessile. When the stipules are wanting the leaf is described as caducate. When a leaf becomes thick and flimsy, instead of presenting its ordinary surface to view, it is said to be caducous. 2. Organs of Reproduction.—As already noticed, the parts of a flower are generally divided into three classes for special purposes; and hence flower-bud is analogous to a leaf-bud, and the flower itself to a branch intercalars of which we have spoken. The flowers are placed in nearly the same plane. In THE FLOWERING PLANTS or Podophyta (fig. 22), that which bears a solitary flower or peduncle (if the stalk branches and each branch bears a single flower) is called a raceme; and the stalk of each flower a pedicel (fig. 23, ped., pod.), or this arrangement is applied to all the branches of peduncle is applied to the whole, with the exception of the stipules immediately supporting the flowers, which are in all cases omitted. The stalks of these branches are called the flower-stalks, and from the axils of which the flowers bud arise, are termed axillary buds. The flowers themselves assume those forms of a green colour, and in other respects resemble the ordinary leaves, but usually they are distinguished from them by their peculiarities in shape, size, form and other peculiarities. The flowers are variously arranged upon the floral axis, and to each mode of arrangement a special name is applied; thus we speak of a raceme when a group is so arranged as to include all such modifications. b. The Flowering Plants (fig. 24) consists of the essential organs of reproduction enclosed in two particular envelopes which are denoted by their respective names. The essential organs are known as stamens and pistils; and these are contained within two envelopes or Podule (figs. 25.a., and 31., st.). The floral envelope proper termed Calyx (fig. 26), which surrounds the receptacle upon which the parts of the flower are placed, is called THE FLOWER.---CALyx.---COROLLA. the Thalama, or sometimes, but improperly, the Receptacle (figs. 20, 2, and 30, 2). The floral whorls of the Calyx are situated on the thallus, and are directed towards each other in a spiraling order.--1. Calyx. 2. Corolla. 3. Androecium. 4. Gynaeceum. The Calyx (figs. 24, 2) is the whorl or series of organs forming Fig. 25. Fig. 22. ped. ped. ped. ped. Fig. 23. Fig. 25. Inflorescence of a species of Sturm's rape (Crepisadae Bryoniae). p. Pe- belsia. b. Bursa. c. Calyx. d. Corolla. e. Androecium. f. Gynaeceum. (Crepisadae Bryoniae: p. Petunia, ped., ped., Petunia, b. A. Bristow, b., b., Bristow, c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c., c, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p, p ped. ped. ped. ped. ped. ped. ped. ped. ped. ped. ped. ped. ped. ped. ped. ped. ped. ped. ped. ped. ped. ped. ped. ped. ped. ped. ped. ped.A diagram showing the structure of a flower, with labels indicating different parts such as calyx, corolla, and stamens. A diagram showing the structure of a flower, with labels indicating different parts such as calyx, corolla, and stamens. A diagram showing the structure of a flower, with labels indicating different parts such as calyx, corolla, and stamens. A diagram showing the structure of a flower, with labels indicating different parts such as calyx, corolla, and stamens. A diagram showing the structure of a flower, with labels indicating different parts such as calyx, corolla, and stamens. A diagram showing the structure of a flower, with labels indicating different parts such as calyx, corolla, and stamens. A diagram showing the structure of a flower, with labels indicating different parts such as calyx, corolla, and stamens. A diagram showing the structure of a flower, with labels indicating different parts such as calyx, corolla, and stamens. A diagram showing the structure of a flower, with labels indicating different parts such as calyx, corolla, and stamens. A diagram showing the structure of a flower, with labels indicating different parts such as calyx, corolla, and stamens. A diagram showing the structure of a flower, with labels indicating different parts such as calyx, corolla, and stamens. A diagram showing the structure of a flower, with labels indicating different parts such as calyx, corolla, and stamens. A diagram showing the structure of a flower, with labels indicating different parts such as calyx, corolla, and stamens. A diagram showing the structure of a flower, with labels indicating different parts such as calyx, corolla, and stamens. A diagram showing the structure of a flower, with labels indicating different parts such as calyx, corolla, and stamens. A diagram showing the structure of a flower, with labels indicating different parts such as calyx, corolla, and stamens. A diagram showing the structure of a flower, with labels indicating different parts such as calyx, corolla, and stamens. A diagram showing the structure of a flower, with labels indicating different parts such as calyx, corolla, and stamens. A diagram showing the structure of a flower, with labels indicating different parts such as calyx, corolla, and stamens. A diagram showing the structure of a flower, with labels indicating different parts such as calyx, corolla, and stamens. A diagram showing the structure of a flower, with labels indicating different parts such as calyx, corolla, and stamens. A diagram showing the structure of a flower, with labels indicating different parts such as calyx, corolla, and stamens. A diagram showing the structure of a flower, with labels indicating different parts such as calyx, corolla, and stamens. A diagram showing the structure of a flower, with labels indicating different parts such as calyx, corolla, and stamens. A diagram showing the structure of a flower, with labels indicating different parts such as calyx, corolla, and stamens. A diagram showing the structure of a flower, with labels indicating different parts such as calyx, corolla, and stamens. A diagram showing the structure of a flower, with labels indicating different parts such as calyx, corolla, and stamens. A diagram showing the structure of a flower, with labels indicating different parts such as calyx, corolla, and stamens. A diagram showing the structure of a flower, with labels indicating different parts such as calyx, corolla, and stamens. A diagram showing the structure of a flower, with labels indicating different parts such as calyx, corolla **PERIANTHE—ANDROECIUM.** The *Corolla* (fig. 24, p, p), is the whorl or whorls of leafy organs situated within the calyx, and forming the inner envelope of the flower. The corollae of the *Caryophyllaceae* are frequently decorated with the richest colours ; by which character, and by their more delicate nature, they may be usually known from those of other genera. The calyx and corolla are sometimes spoken of collectively as the *Flower*, but this term is not always used in a precise manner, particularly applied to Monoeciousous Plants, where the floral envelopes generally resemble each other, and are usually of colourless or white. In such cases, as in *Silip*, the lms, and the Crocus may be taken as familiar examples. Fig. 25. Fig. 26. Fig. 27. A diagram showing the structure of a flower with the calyx and corolla removed, in order to show the internal organs of reproduction. The diagram is of a plant with a single flower. Fig. 28. Flower of Wallflower with the calyx and corolla removed, in order to show the internal organs of reproduction. The diagram is of a plant with a single flower. The floral envelopes are also called the *non-ovoid* organs of the flower, because they are not necessary for the production of the seed. Sometimes there is only one floral envelope, as in the Goosefoot (fig. 29); this is then merely considered as a modification of the calyx, and has no other peculiarity, and the flower is said to be Monocarpicous. Some plants have two floral envelopes, as in *Lilium*. This will be described hereafter in treating of the Calyx in detail. At other times, as in the Ash (fig. 29) and Willow (figs. 33 and 34), both floral envelopes are present, but one is more or less reduced or Absenteous. When both floral envelopes are present (fig. 29), the flower is said to be Diocarpicous. The *Androecium* constitutes the whorl or whorls of organs o 18 THE FLOWER.--ANDROECIUM. situated on the inside of the corolla (fig. 25, cc. se.). Its parts are called stamens. Each stamen consists essentially of a tube or bag, which contains the pollen, and a filament, or stalk, its inter- ior a powdery, or more rarely waxy, substance, called the Pollen, p. This pollen, the nature of which can only be seen when Fig. 28. Fig. 29. Flower of Cosmosus (Chrysanthemum), with only one floral envelope (antheridium) visible. The other two envelopes are not shown, in which the floral coverings appear altogether sheet (antheridium). highly magnified, is found to be formed of an innumerable num- ber of minute grains, or more properly cells, the poles prims or pollen grains each of which resembles a double cylinder exhibiting a Fig. 30. Fig. 31. Fig. 32. Fig. 33. Ovulation of Cosmosus (Chrysanthemum) receptacle, p. Petaloides ; x. Thylacium ; x. Thylacium with its leaves ; z. Zygote ; y. Zygote, etc. Page 11: Ovulation of Poppy (Papaver), with the stamens arising from the base of the flower ; x. Stamen ; y. Stamen with its anther ; z. Anther ; a. Anther with its pollen ; b. Anther with its pollen removed ; c. Pollen ; d. Grains ; e. Pinnae ; o. Ovule ; a figure of a segment of a short spiral. granular fluid prothecum, the fertile, and which constitutes the male fertilizing element. The pollen when ripe is discharged, as represented in the figure, through little slots or holes formed by the author These are the only essential parts of a stamen ; A diagram showing the structure of a stamen. GENECIUM OR PISTIL. but it generally possesses in addition a little column or stalk, called the filament, $f$, which then supports the anther on its axis. When this is the case, the pistil is said to be staminate. The staminate form is termed the *Androecium*, from its constitution, and the pistillate the *Gynaeceum* or *Pistil*. The *Ovule* or *Fruit* is the only true organ; it occurs at the centre of the flower (figs. 25, 30), all the other organs being derived from it. The ovule is usually composed of one or more parts, called *Carpels*, which are either distinct from each other (apocarpous), as in the Columbine (fig. 30, c), or com- bined into one (monocarpous), as in the Poppy (fig. 31). The pistil is termed the gynaeceum from its constituting the female part of the flower; it consists of a hollow inferior part, called the *Ovary* (figs. 30, a, and 31, b), Fig. 33. Fig. 34. in which are placed one or more little bodies called *Ovules* (figs. 25, a, b, c). These are the seeds of the plant; they grow up from which are placed one or more little bodies called *Ovules* (figs. 25, a, b, c). These are the seeds of the plant; they grow up from ultimately by fertilization from the pollen becomes the seed ; of Nopalea, and are contained in a sac-like cavity called *Carpel*, known as the *Ovary*. In some plants, such as the *Poppy* (fig. 31, a), in which it is situated at the top of the ovary, as in the Poppy (fig. 31, a), it is situated at the top of the ovary, as in the Poppy (fig. 31, a), it is situated at the top of the ovary, as in the Poppy (fig. 31, a), it is situated at the top of the ovary, as in the Poppy (fig. 31, a), it is situated at the top of the ovary, as in the Poppy (fig. 31, a), it is situated at the top of the ovary, as in the Poppy (fig. 31, a), it is situated at the top of the ovary, as in the Poppy (fig. 31, a), it is situated at the top of the ovary, as in the Poppy (fig. 31, a), it is situated at the top of the ovary, as in the Poppy (fig. 31, a), it is situated at the top of the ovary, as in the Poppy (fig. 31, a), it is situated at the top of the ovary, as in the Poppy (fig. 31, a), it is situated at the top of the ovary, as in the Poppy (fig. 31, a), it is situated at the top of the ovary, as in the Poppy (fig. 31, a), it is situated at the top of the ovary, as in the Poppy (fig. 31, a), it is situated at the top of the ovary, as in the Poppy (fig. 31, a), it is situated at the top of the ovary, as in the Poppy (fig. 31, a), it is situated at the top of the ovary, as in the Poppy (fig. 31, a), it is situated at the top of the ovary, as in the Poppy (fig. 31, a), it is situated at the top of the ovary, as in the Poppy (fig. 31, a), it is situated at the top of the ovary, as in the Poppy (fig. 31, a), it is situated at the top of the ovary, as in the Poppy (fig. 31, a), it is situated at the top of the ovary, as in the Poppy (fig. 31, a), it is situated at the top of the ovary, as in the Poppy (fig. 31, a), it is situated at the top of the ovary, as in the Poppy (fig. 31, a), it is situated at the top of the ovary, as in the Poppy (fig. 31, a), it is situated at the top of the ovary, as in the Poppy (fig. 31, a), it is situated at the top of the ovary, as in Fig. III. Fig. III. Female or carpellate section of one-leafed species of Willow. Fig. III. Fig. III. Female or carpellate section of one-leafed species of Willow. Fig. III. Fig. III. Female or carpellate section of one-leafed species of Willow. Fig. III. Fig. III. Female or carpellate section of one-leafed species of Willow. Fig. III. Fig. III. Female or carpellate section of one-leafed species of Willow. Fig. III. Fig. III. Female or carpellate section of one-leafed species of Willow. Fig. III. Fig. III. Female or carpellate section of one-leafed species of Willow. Fig. III. Fig. III. Female or carpellate section of one-leafed species of Willow. Fig. III. Fig. III. Female or carpellate section of one-leafed species of Willow. Fig. III. Fig. III. Female or carpellate section of one-leafed species of Willow. Fig. III. Fig. III. Female or carpellate section of one-leafed species of Willow. Fig. III. Fig. III. Female or carpellate section of one-leafed species of Willow. Fig. III. Fig. III. Female or carpellate section of one-leafed species of Willow. Fig. III. Fig. III. Female or carpellate section of one-leafed species of Willow. Fig. III. Fig. III. Female or carpellate section of one-leafed species of Willow. Fig. III. Fig. III. Female or carpellate section of one-leafed species of Willow. Fig. III. Fig. III. Female or carpellate section of one-leafed species of Willow. Fig. III. Fig. III. Female or carpellate section of one-leafed species of Willow. Fig. III. Fig. III. Female or carpellate section of one-leafed species of Willow. Fig. III. Fig. -2- and gymnoecium is absent **FRUIT AND SEED.** 28 from a flower, as in the Willow (figs. 33 and 34), in which case the flower is termed *unisexual* ; and it is still further charac- terised by the fact that the pollen is carried to the stigma either by the *anepistal*, or female, (fig. 34), according as it possesses one or the other of these organs. At this point, Fruit and Seed.—At a certain period the pollen is carried to the stigma by insects (nematophores), or borne by the wind (anemophores). The fruit is then formed, and is distin- guished from fertilisation, which consists in the commingling of the ovaria with the female element of the ovule,--the perianth being at this time shed. The seeds are then formed, and may take place in the pistil and surrounding organs of the flower. The receptacle of the fruit is usually a modified leaf, but the fruit consists of the mature ovary or ovaries, containing the im- pregnated or fertilised ovule or ovules, which are then termed seeds. In some cases, however, the seeds are produced in other parts of the flower, as will be explained hereafter (see Furr). The seed is thus formed, and it is usually enclosed within a fruit, which is properly termed a fruit. The fruit, when perfectly formed, nevertheless be its composition, consists of two parts only, namely, the shell or pericarp, and the seeds or seed contained within it. When the fruit ripens, and becomes dry and hard in its ripe, the pericarp opens so as to allow the seeds to escape; or it remains closed, and is then termed a dry fruit. In this latter case the seed is said to be *dehiscent*; in the latter, *resinous*. Fruits with very hard or leathery pericarps are usually indistinguishable. The seed, as already noticed, is the fertilised ovule. It con- sists essentially of two parts, namely, of a rudiment or kernel and a covering or pericarp. This covering may be either thin, Fig. 35. or int. thin. or thick. thick. and may be either soft or hard. The kernel consists of two parts, one being designated as the testa or epiparium, and the other as the tegmen or endocarpus. The testa is composed of the embryo alone, which is alone essential to life; while the endocarpus is composed of nutritive matter (fig. 35). (See endocarpus.) The endocarpus is enclosed in nourishing matter, called the endocarpus or albumen, etc. Fig. 35. Vertical section of the seed of Poppy (Papaver rhoeas Linn.), showing how all elements have been previously developed from them; we have now finished our general sketch of plants in different stages of development. We see that each part represents an organ which they respectively present, and are, therefore, necessary for their existence; and that all elementary structures or building materials of which they are composed. 28 21 CHAPTER 2. ELEMENTARY STRUCTURE OF PLANTS, OR VEGETABLE HISTOLOGY. SECTION I. OF THE CELL AS AN INDIVIDUAL. The description of the elementary structure of plants is termed Vegetable Histology. All plants, as we have previously seen (page 5), are made up of one or more cells, which may differ greatly in form, size, and texture according to the different surrounding conditions in which they are found, and to the functions which they have to perform (see page 35). The cell is therefore a highly individual organ possessed by a plant ; and hence cells, as the ultimate elements of all living organisms, deserve special attention. We shall begin, then, by first describing their general characters and the nature of their contents ; and then pass on to a more detailed study of the various forms and structures. I. GENERAL CHARACTER ; AND CONTENTS OF CELLS.—In the very earliest stages of development, when the protoplasm of the germinative vesicle of the higher plants—the cell, then termed the primordial cell—consists only of a rounded mass of a semifluid substance (see page 36), three distinct parts can be observed in the cell (fig. 36, s). The cell wall, $s$, $e$; the internal protoplasm above mentioned, $p$; and finally a third part, $q$, situated in the concrescence lying in the midst of the protoplasm. At first the pro- plasm is homogeneous and uniform in appearance (fig. 37). As age becomes sufficient, and hollow spaces or cavities (figs. 37 and 38, $s$, $e$), make their appearance in it, which are filled with a clear liquorous fluid (fig. 38, $q$), this third part becomes separated from the cell and connected to the protoplasm lining its inner wall, by a slender thread-like process (fig. 38, $q$). This water sac in the young cells is diffused generally through the protoplasm. As the cell continues to enlarge, these processes become more numerous and larger (figs. 38, $s$, $e$), and the protoplasm is then confined to a thin layer lining the interior of the cell-wall—the *primordial sub-cell*, $p$, with the 22 THE CELL—CELL-WALL nucleus showing as a dense mass in an enlargement of the proto- plasm on one side, &c. In this mature cell, as it may be termed, we distinguish three distinct parts—the nucleus, the cytoplasm, 4. the cell-wall, which will now be described or ordered, as placed. 1. The protoplasm (figs. 36, 38, 39, A)—The protoplasm appears that the original cell, from which the division of which the future structure is built up, is a simple discoid body—that, in other words, that the cell-wall is not a part of the cell-protoplast but a structure of things disappears. The protoplasm, having elaborated mole- cules of cellulose (C,H,O), passes them to its outer surface, where they form a thin, colourless, transparent, continuous mem- brane or skin. This membrane increases in thickness by the intermixture of new molecules between the older ones, and eventually there are generated various kinds of markings, which are seen as protuberances as in the case of some pollen cells (fig. 70), and on the cells forming the hairs on the surface of leaves (fig. 71). These markings can also be seen in spiral, annular, reticulated, scalariform, and pitted cells (see pages 30-42). These cells which are marked, or on the sur- face of the plant, have the various markings on their order or free Fig. 36. Fig. 37. Fig. 38. a c b d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z Fig. 36. Cell from the root of the Linseed (Linum usitatissimum). a. The cell-wall, consisting of cellulose. b. The protoplasm connected by strands. c. The nucleus. d. The vacuole. e. The chloroplasts. f. The chloro- plasts and vacuoles.—Fig. 37. Cells from the root of Polygonum imperi- alium. A. The cell-wall with a few strands of protoplasm connecting it. B. The protoplasm with a few strands connecting it to the nucleus. C. The nucleus with a few strands connecting it to the vacuole. D. The vacuole with a few strands connecting it to the chloroplasts. E. The chloroplasts with a few strands connecting them to each other. F. The chloroplasts with a few strands connecting them to each other. G. The chloroplasts with a few strands connecting them to each other. H. The chloroplasts with a few strands connecting them to each other. I. The chloroplasts with a few strands connecting them to each other. J. The chloroplasts with a few strands connecting them to each other. K. The chloroplasts with a few strands connecting them to each other. L. The chloroplasts with a few strands connecting them to each other. M. The chloroplasts with a few strands connecting them to each other. N. The chloroplasts with a few strands connecting them to each other. O. The chloroplasts with a few strands connecting them to each other. P. The chloroplasts with a few strands connecting them to each other. Q. The chloroplasts with a few strands connecting them to each other. R. The chloroplasts with a few strands connecting them to each other. S. The chloroplasts with a few strands connecting them to each other. T. The chloroplasts with a few strands connecting them to each other. U. The chloroplasts with a few strands connecting them to each other. V. The chloroplasts with a few strands connecting them to each other. W. The chloroplasts with a few strands connecting them to each other. X. The chloroplasts with a few strands connecting them to each other. Y. The chloroplasts with a few strands connecting them to each other. Z. The chloroplasts with a few strands connecting them to each other. CELL-WALL—PROTOPLASM. surface, while those that are united to form tissues have them on the internal surface of their cell-wall. The former is termed caryoplasts, and the latter protoplasts, or protoplasmic cells. This cellulose is insoluble both in cold and in boiling water, also in alcohol, ether, and dilute acids, and almost insoluble in salt alkali. In the presence of heat, and in the presence of concentrated sulphuric acid the cellulose is broken down, and when diluted with water it becomes a syrupy solution containing glucose and sugar. When cellulose is steeped in dilute sulphuric acid, and then treated with a solution of iodine, or if it is acted upon by Schwartz's reagent, it is found that the cellulose contains in addition to the molecules of cellulose a small quantity of mineral matter. It rarely happens that cellulose can be found pure, as, in addition to the mineral ash above mentioned, it generally is rendered more or less impure by the action of the enzymes which cause the death of the cell. That which is furnished by the cells of hair, and other parts of plants, is usually very impure. The cell-wall is frequently hardened by the conversion of its cellulose into a substance called lignin. This lignification takes place when the walls of the cells become thickened and new tissue forming the shell of nuts, or in the wood-cells forming the stems of trees. The lignin is a substance composed of plant-lignins, and are consequently exposed to more active chemical influ- ences, usually becoming cutinizedalised, as in the epidermis of leaves. In this way the cell-walls become more resistant to moisture, and it is owing to this that many of these delicate plants are enabled to withstand the searching and without harm both of frost and drought. Thus this cutinization of the cork cells of the bark which protects the external surface of trees from the intense influence of frost in winter. Besides these chemical changes which take place in the cell-wall, others occur which are the result of mechanical action. The mucilage of plants, as that of the Mallow, or the slime sub- stance given off by certain plants such as *Nasturtium* and *Glyceria*, are examples of this; gums and resins are also the products of the degradation of the cell-walls. Secondly, there is a process known as *plasmolysis*. 2. The Protoplastor is the only part of the cell, and therefore it is capable of exerting all its energy. The shape, size, the form, size and nature of cells is due to the vital energy which it is capable of exerting. If this energy is exerted equally in all directions, then no change will take place in any force, such as pressure from neighbouring cells, the form which the cell will assume will be elongated (Fig. 58), (Fig. 60). If, on the other hand, this energy is exerted in one direction only, the cell will assume an elongated form (Fig. 67). It again in two directions, flattened or tabular cells will be the result 24 THE CELL.--PROTOPLASM. (§ 68.) This internal energy, which is peculiar to living pro- toplasm, is called protoplasmic energy. The appearance of protoplasm is as varied as is the form of the cells which it produces. It may be granular and opaque, or perfectly transparent, like a jelly; or it may be of a great consist- ency of dough; or again it may be hard or brittle ; generally, however, it has a light grey colour and more or less granular. According to Sauter, the protoplasm of the potato is of this nature, as Fig. 39. Fig. 40. Fig. 41. Fig. 39. Three cells of one of the leaves of the common Potato plant, showing the direction of the currents in the protoplasm. The arrows indicate the central cell; the direction of the currents is in part indistinctly by arrows. Illustrating the fact that the protoplasm is not a homogeneous mass, but con- tains circulating currents with its granular contents passing on outside of each other. The direction of these currents is indicated by the arrows.--Fig. 41. Cell of the leaf of Juniper (Thuja occidentalis L.), showing the protoplasmic currents in a cell of this protoplasm which is perfectly transparent, and the granules where they occur are to be looked upon as "probably finely divided, assimilated food-material." The above figures show that during the whole time that the cells are growing the protoplasm is in a constant state of motion, although in many cases too slow to be observed ; but in some cases very rapid indeed, as in certain plants--e.g. as in those of the Potato (§g. 39), those occurring NUCLEUS. —SAP. on the filaments of Trichoderma, or in those forming the stings of the Nettle, or again in the cells forming the leaves of many water plants, and in other cases where they are readily observable. It would seem as though these movements existed for the purpose of bringing every part of the living matter into contact with the water, which is necessary to its life. In most cases the presence of protoplasm may be readily de- tected by the fact that when a cell is dried up it contracts so as to shrink from the cell-wall (figs. 38 and 41); a solution of iodine colours it brown; while sugar and sulphuric acid cause it to assume a yellowish tinge. Protoplasm is extremely rich in albinomine, which chemically consists chiefly of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, and phosphorus, the most distinctive element being that of nitrogen. The gluten of Wheat is a good example of an albu- minoid, which is easily separated from the cell by boiling in a coarse muslin bag till all the starch has been got rid of. It can also be obtained by dissolving it in water and then burning gives off an offensive odour like that of burnt meat. Protoplasm also frequently contains globules of oil, granules of starch, and other substances which are not soluble in water. The Protozoal Uricle (fig. 38, p.), as has already been observed, is the largest layer of protoplasm on the inner wall of the cell as it has grown too large to be filled with the protoplasm alone. It is frequently so thin and transparent that it cannot be detected without a microscope. In some cases it is so thin that it is to separate from the cell-wall as mentioned above. Whilst living it the principal cells always live in organic connection with the cell- wall, which is often seen to be slightly bulged outwards and deflec- ted by the protoplasm, and then deposited upon its outer surface. Very few cells contain more than one layer of protoplasm. The cells of the higher plants, and is absent from only a few of the lower forms, is differentiated from the surrounding protoplasm as a dense mass of protoplasm which is usually surrounded by a mem- brane a more or less rounded outline, and contains one (figs. 36, 37) or two (fig. 38) vacuoles, called vacuoli. It is always situated in, and more or less en- closed by the protoplasm, as we have already seen, and never lies beneath it. It is therefore a part of the substance of the living substance. The vacuole is the watery fluid which is found in the interior of the cell; it contains dissolved or suspended in it all those food materials which are necessary for the life and growth of the cell. In this respect it differs from the protoplasm which has ap- peared, say as a substance distinct from the protoplasm does not exist. The vacuole is formed by means of vacuoles which have been found insufficient to fill the cell cavity does it make its appear- ance in these vacuoles. Besides containing substances which are necessary to the life of the cell, it contains also many 26 CONTENTS OF CELLS—CHLOROPHYLL things which have been thrown out from the protoplasm as no longer serviceable. Of this nature are the crystals of carbonate and oxide of calcium, and the starch granules. From one point of view as the food upon which the protoplasm lives, and from another as the reservoir into which it pours out certain of its waste products. Besides sap, cells frequently contain other matters, the chief of which is chlorophyll, a green substance possessing presis. **Chlorophyll** and **Chlorophyllous Green**, a Chlorophyll— This is the colouring material which gives to leaves their well-known green appearance. Its chemical composition, owing to the great difficulty of obtaining pure samples, is not known; but there seems much reason to believe that it is closely allied to wax. It is not soluble in water, but is readily so in alcohol, ether, and benzol. When these substances a beautiful green solution is obtained when viewed by transmitted light. In a weak alcoholic solution of chlorophyll is shaken up with an excess of benzene, the mixture separates into two dis- tinct layers, one containing the chlorophyll being bright green, and the lower one of alcohol which is coloured bright yel- low; by shaking up with ether, the chlorophyll separates into two sub- stances, but is a mixture made up of two or more colouring prin- ciples. It is possible however that the yellow colouring matter is due to decomposition of the green pigment during shaking. The changes of colour of the leaves in autumn are due to changes in the chlorophyll pigments. In some cases, such as the Cucurbitae, such as the Cherry, Tomato, or Arum, the chlorophyll of the peri- cary becomes first yellow and then red, as the fruit approaches maturity; in others, such as the Oak and Ash tree, the green chlorophyll is obscured by an olive-green pigment, melanoidin; in still others, such as the Blackberry plant, by a red pigment, phloeoideus. In these cases the pigments are more readily soluble in alcohol than the chlorophyll, so that by shaking up with alcohol they separate into two distinct layers, the colouring matters which yield the chlorophyll are dissolved out, and the pericary remains behind. In some cases also, in some of the lower plants, such as *Cedrella* and *Nosee*, there exists a blue pigment, *phloxin*; this may be obtained by soaking well branched spruce twigs in alcohol; it yields a beautiful blue colour when viewed by transmitted light, and a beautiful yellow when viewed by reflected light. b. **Chlorophyll Green**— It is not to be supposed that the chlorophyll exists indiscriminately in every part of the cell, for on the contrary it has been shown that there are different chlorophylls which have been differentiated from one general mass. These por- tions of protoplasm are the most chlorophyllous parts of the chloroplastic grana; or, as they are also termed, *chloroplastic bodies* A diagram showing different types of chloroplasts. STARCH. and chlorophyll granules. These granules appear as soft, doughy, more or less rounded masses, which are always enveloped by the surrounding protoplasm and never lie loose in the cell cavity. If a plant is exposed to sunlight, these granules remain pale coloured; but if it is exposed to sunlight, they speedily become dark brown, and finally black. When so coloured they have the power of breaking up the carbon dioxide in the air, and thus the oxygen is given off into the air, returning the oxygen to the air, retain the carbon which they contain able to mix with the elements of water in such proportions as to build up a molecule of sugar. The process of breaking up and restoring back into the air the carbon dioxide of the air water is termed the process of assimilation, as mentioned on page 3, and is not to be confounded with respiration, which is a different process very opposite takes place, will be described hereafter in treating of the Physiological properties of starch. It has been said that chlorophyll is confined to the proto- plasm forming the chlorophyll granules ; this is true in all the Fig. 42. Fig. 43. Fig. 44. Fig. 45.-Cut of the Protozoa containing starch granules., Fig. 43. West. Data Assenmeyer, 1860. (From "The Anatomy of Plants.") higher plants, but there are some plants amongst the lower orders in which the coloured portions form plates or spiral bands, as in Euglena and Chlorella, which are capable of being coloured, as in Glomus and Oscillatoria. STARCH.-There is no substance contained in the cells which has given rise to any great amount of speculation as to its nature than starch. It is, with the exception of protoplasm, the most abundant constituent of living vegetable tissues, occurring as it does, more or less, in all parenchymatous cells (fig. 42), except those of the epidermis. It is, however, most abundantly found in roots and tubers, in which it fills pits of stems, seeds, roots, and other internal and subterranean organs which are not used for food purposes. In these re- spects it presents a marked contrast to chlorophyll, which, as we have seen, occur only in young and visually active structures placed near the surface of plants, and directly exposed to light. A diagram showing a cross-section of a plant cell with starch granules visible within. **88** STARCH GRANULES. Starch is not only widely distributed through the different parts of a plant, but it also occurs in varying quantity in all classes of plants. The following are examples of Indian Arrow-root (Fig. 43), Sago (Fig. 44), Tons-le-mois (Fig. 45), and Potato starch (Fig. 46). In each case the granules are masses of starches derived from different plants. In all cases starch is a transitory product stored up for future use, resembling in this respect the fat of animals. When these required for the nutri- tion of the plant, it is converted previously, as will be afterwards seen, into dextrin and sugar, which are soluble substances, and can therefore be at once applied to the purposes of nutrition, which is not the case with starch in its unaltered condition, as it is then insoluble. When fully formed starch is found floating in the cell-sap (Fig. 42) in the form of colourless transparent granules or Fig. 45. Tons-le-mois (x 200). Fig. 46. Potato starch (x 200). Fig. 47. Compound starch-granules of West-India Arrow-root. After Schütz. Fig. 48. Wheat starch (x 100). Fig. 49. Rice starch (x 100). granules, varying in size ; which are either distinct from one another or combined in one mass (Fig. 47). They are more or less combined so as to form compound granules (Fig. 47). Fig. 45. Fig. 46. DEVELOPMENT OF STARCH. In form the separate granules are always spherical or nearly so in their earliest condition. In some cases this form is mainly main- tained (figs. 45 and 46), but the granules frequently assume other forms, as ovate, elliptical, more or less irregular, club-shaped or angular (figs. 43 and 46). The shape of the granules is determined by the pressure of the sides of the granules, or from mutual pressure, the same causes being also responsible for the various forms of the cells in which they are contained. Starch granules vary also extremely in size in different plants, and even in the same plant of one species, and in different parts of the same plant. They appear to be those of Canna scabra, or, as it is commonly termed, "Toussaint's" starch (fig. 47), which may be seen to measure about an inch in length (fig. 48); while the smallest granules, among which may be mentioned those of Rice starch (fig. 49), are fre- quently only half an inch long. Development of starch.—Starch first makes its appearance as a white substance in the interior of the chloro- phyllous grains when set upon the light of the sun, and was previously noticed on page 27. These primary starch granules rarely exceed an inch in diameter, and are almost always charac- teristically altered, and poured out into the sap, of which they then form a part. A part of this sap is retained within the cell by the protocy- lum. A part of this sap is it seems used for the structure of its cell-wall, but by far the greater part is handed down from one cell to another, and is thus stored up for future use. In this latter state starch assumes its more characteristic appear- ance (figs. 43 and 46). When a leaf is placed in water, it swells (figs. 45 and 46) we may observe a round dark spot, which is termed a starch grain (fig. 48). This grain is spherical, and surrounded by a number of faint lines which alternate with other darker ones, so that the whole presents the appearance of a circle or ring. This spot is usually situated at a point closed around a common point. At first sight it is almost impossible to tell whether these spots are formed by the deposition of fresh water over the older, or, in other words, that the outer rings of the starch grains are made up of water alone; but further experi- ments have shown that therefore they are the youngest portion of the starch grains, and that they are formed by water alone. Never- theless this too was not to be the case. This observer has shown that the appearance of striation in the starch granule is really due to water alone; for he has observed that it occurs in the different parts of the granule, and he has proved that the outer- most layer of each granule contains no water at all; while as it ought to do if it were the youngest part of the granule, con- tains the least, while the nucleus on the other hand in the most water of all. Nagell concluded from these observations that 88 COMPOSITION OF STARCH. the growth of the starch granule was precisely the same as that which occurs in the cell wall (see page 30); namely, that it grows by assimilation of water, and that this process is separated between those of an older date; and hence that the regular alternation of these two processes is responsible for the fact that starch produces the peculiar appearance of starch granules. Seeing then that the growth of the starch granule is by assimilation, it will be seen that the water which is absorbed cannot be carried on except so long as the granule is imbedded in the protoplasm, and that it is only when the granule is formed as soon as the protoplasm of the cells in which the starch is being formed is used up or killed, all the water which can be absorbed by the granule is absorbed. In some cases, as for instance in the *Euphorbia* *lactifera*, there is a distinct difference between the outermost layer of the protoplasm and the innermost cap of the leuciferous vessels (*fig. 50*), and this would seem to be in contradiction to the above-mentioned theory. The starch granules are formed while enveloped in protoplasm, but the actual formation of these granules has not been observed. The line drawn through the hilum and the line connecting it with the periphery of the starch granule represents a line of growth. Sometimes a starch granule contains another granule similar to itself, but sometimes it does not. Surrounding each, the common envelope at length becomes round each, the common envelope at length becomes round each, and so compound starch granules are formed, such as are shown in *fig. 51*. **Composition and Chemical Characteristics of Starch, $C_6H_{12}O_6$**,— The starch granules consist of two substances, one of which is intimately blended together with, viz., proteose and cellulose. The granules contain about 75 per cent. of this starch compound, being in the proportion of 95 to 5 of cellulose. It is capable of being dissolved in cold water, but after addition of iodine solution it is to this substance that the starch granule owes its violet-blue colour when treated with solution of iodine. The colloidal nature of this substance is shown behind as a skeleton, and is not coloured blue by the iodine solution. Starch is, therefore, composed chemically of carbon and this element only; but it contains water, and although in a perfectly pure condition, but it always contains a very small quantity of water. This water is necessary for the production of the peculiar secretion of the plant from whence it is derived. These impurities can never, under ordinary circumstances, be entirely removed from starch; but they do not appreciably alter starches arising in a great degree the differences in their value for food. They are soluble in alcohol, ether, and oils. By the action of boiling water it swells A diagram showing a starch grain with a central hilum and surrounding layers. Fig. 50. A diagram showing a starch grain with a central hilum and surrounding layers. Fig. 51. RAPHIDES. 51 up and forms a gelatinous mass. Iodine when applied to it is green, and the substance is very similar to the white, amorphous character of starch. The blue colour is at once destroyed by the application of heat and alkalies. If starch be exposed to heat for some time, it becomes a very fine powder, a very amorphous substance, called dextrin or Brustel's gum. A similar change is pro- duced in starch by the action of acids, which causes it to become also by dissolving out a peculiarly amorphous substance occurring in germini- nating seeds. Starch was formerly considered as peculiar to plants, and it was supposed that no animal could produce any substance with a distinctive mark between them and animals. Of late years, how- ever, as already noticed (page 4), a substance resembling the chemical nature of starch has been found in some animal tissues, such as a distinctive character, though not so marked as in the case of starch. RAPHIDE--This name is now commonly applied to all incor- porated crystals of starch, whether they occur in the walls of plants, although the term raphide (which is the Greek for needles) was originally given to those only that were shaped like a needle. On account of their shape, they are often called "starch needles" or "starch of plants, and in all their organs; generally, however, they are more abundant than the stems of herbaceous plants, in the bark of young trees, and in the roots. In such cases they may occur in such enormous quantities that they exceed in weight the dried dross of the plant itself. This is well known from observations in some Cactaceae; thus Edwin Quatrefages in his dried tissue of the stem of the Old-man Cactus (Cereus senilis) as much as 70 per cent. of its weight consisted of starch needles. The same kind of Locust back as the thickness of ordinary writing paper, more or less resembles a sheet of paper covered with needles. That kind of Rhubarb which was formerly known as Turkey or Russian Rhubarb, commonly contains from 35 to 60 per cent., but has been observed to contain 80 per cent. The variety of Rhubarb usually contains a larger proportion of rhaphides than other varieties; this difference being sufficient for distinguishing it from them. The raphides are commonly con- tained in cells, in which starch, chlorophyll, and other granular materials are contained together, but they are not necessarily the case. These crystals are more commonly found in the viscid parts of the plant than in the solid parts; and in all cases, they are mineral salts which have crystallised naturally out of the self-eau. They may be especially found in the walls of vessels containing water. The raphides occur either singly in the cells, as in those of the inner bark of the Rhubarb; or they may be more commonly there are a number of crystals in the same cell. In the latter case they are usually either placed side by side, as in the stem of Rhusus (fig. 1), or they may form a cluster or conglomerate appearance, as in the stem 82 RAPHIDES. of the common Beet (fig. 52). The former are usually termed aculeus raphides, and the latter conglomerate raphides. In some of the most ancient fossil remains of raphides made some years since by Gulliver, he has distinguished the aculeus raphides from the conglomerate raphides, from those which occur either singly (fig. 61), or in more or less globular or conglomerate masses (fig. 62), which he has termed "aculeus raphides," because they are devoid of the absence of the former or true raphides, and their comparative abundance. In this respect, the raphides of the various orders may be distinguished at once from the allied species of neighbouring orders. He has instanced the plants of the Oma- graves, which he considers to be closely allied to those produced from the plants of allied orders. Gulliver speaks very strongly upon this point as follows: No other single diagnosis for the order in question is so simple, fundamental, and universal as Fig. 51. Fig. 52. Fig. 53. Fig. 51. Silvery crystals or raphides in the cells of the inner back of the Locust tree (Locustia). The crystals are seen in a section through the leaf. Fig. 52. Aculeus raphides of a species of France. Two orthorhombic raphides, and three of them elongated. This ; and the orders in which it applies should be named "aculeus raphides." With regard to Sphaerophydes, Gulliver believes that there are few if any such plants in nature; but he does not deny that they do not exist; hence it is questionable how far their distri- bution might be rendered available as a test of distinguishing plants from one another. Their presence, however, he finds universal in every species of the orders Carpyophylloes, Gerani- soes, Puccinioes, and Lycosioes; and in all these he regards them as especially characteristic of these orders. In the leaves of many trees these raphides are very abundant, and in some other Araceae, the cells which contain the raphides are filled with a water-like fluid, which is afterwards condensed with water endosmose take place, by which they are distended **ALEURONE GRAINs.—CRYSTALLOIDS.—GLOBOIDS.** and caused ultimately to burst and discharge their crystals from an orifice at each end (fig. 54). Such cells were called *Biforisia* by Turpin, who erroneously regarded them as organs of a special nature. In many plants belonging to the family of the Urticeae, *Morus*, *Ceratophyllum*, and others, free crystals observed just beneath the surface of the leaves, or sometimes more deeply embedded in the tissues, have been described under the name of *Cystoliths* which has been applied by Weddell. These consist of an enlarged cell which has been termed a *lithocel*, containing numerous small crystals, usually of calcium carbonate, suspended in a gelatinous mass (fig. 55). The crystals are held together by a kind of stalk formed by the protoplasmic material, and are often deposited upon a nucleus. All crystals found in these structures are composed of calcium carbonate. Crystals of this composition have been described as occurring in different plants, but more accurate observations Fig. 54. Fig. 55. Fig. 56. show that all the crystals hitherto found are composed of calcium carbonate, as in the cystoliths, and in some of the lower Fungi; or of calcium oxalate. The latter salt crystallises in two forms, rhombic and prismatic (fig. 57). "Thus in the one case when the crystals contain six equivalents of water of crystallisation they are rhombic (fig. 57), while in the commoner rhombus or rhombohedron form (fig. 58) on the other hand, when there are only two equivalents of water of crystallisation, both hexagonal and cubic or true rhombohedral forms are produced (figs. 53 and 64). **ALEURONE GRAINs.—CRYSTALLOIDS, AND GLOBOIDS.—Besides the crystals already mentioned, it is interesting to note that portions of the protoplasmic matter in the cells, more generally in those of the Aleurone grain, may be converted into globular bodies which are enclosed in a cell in which reserve food material is stored up—assumes a crystalline form and becomes cellular, octahedral, tetrahedral, thomboid, etc. (fig. 57). These are not however true crystals, as is seen by their 34 ALEURONE GRAINS—CRYSTALLOID—GLOBOIDS. angles not being very clearly defined by the action of various reagents, such as dilute caustic potash, which causes them to swell up and become more or less transparent. The crystalline masses are known as crystalloids or proteic crystals. They are really somewhat similar to the starch granules, but the castor seed is placed in dilute glycercine and water (fig. 57). In the cells again of the albumen and cotyledons of ripe castor seed we find a large number of small roundish and colourless aluminous grains, which are termed protocelluloïds or protocelluloïd bodies. These are abundant in oily seeds, as in those of the Castor-oil plant, where they appear to replace starch; but in those seeds where starch is absent, as in the pea (fig. 58, a, b), Bean, Sweet Chestnut, and Grasses. Fig. 57. Fig. 58. Fig. 57. Cell of endosperm or albumen of the seed of the Castor-oil plant. (Rhizomorphomyces) in dilute glycercine, showing large transparent aluminous grains, surrounded by a thin membrane. Magnification 100 diameters. After Burton. Fig. 58. Cell of a cotyledon of the common Pea (Pisum sativum). a. Aluminous grains. b. Starch granules. c. Endosperm. d. Albumen. e. Vitellus. After Burton. In these grains the crystalloids just described are frequently found included, and also peculiar small round bodies, which are composed of double phosphate of calcium and magnesium, termed globoids (fig. 60). The aleurone grains and crystalloids are evidently reservoirs of protein, to be used when growth becomes active in the process of germination; while the globoids and other small matters are reservoirs of hydracellosae for use in a like manner. Aleurone grains are insoluble in alcohol, ether, benzene, or chloroform; but they are soluble in water, and even by iodine, and other re-agents show that they are of an aluminoid nature. The globoids on the other hand are soluble in water, indicating that the proteins exist in these grains as globuline, which hitherto This is a draft version of the text provided by the user. I have made some minor corrections and formatting adjustments to improve readability and coherence. Please let me know if you would like me to make any further changes or additions to this text. FORMS OF CELLS. have been known only to occur in animals, that is, as mimosin- polidinum and eudinum-globulin. Vines has also found the abnor- mous forms of cells, which he calls a quantity of hemisobulina, a sub- stance allied to the peptone. II. FORMS AND SIZES OF CELLS, AND GENERAL PROPERTIES AND SPECIFIC CHARACTERS OF THE CELLS. In order to understand the general characters and contents of cells, we pass on to a more detailed account of the various forms and sizes which they may assume. Fig. 59. Fig. 60. Fig. 61. Fig. 62. Fig. 59. Rounded oval cell (fig. 60). Elliptic or oblong cell (figs. 61, 62). Narrowly elongated rectangular cell (figs. 63, 64). The form of these cells varies, found to assume in different parts, and in the different parts of the same plant; and also to a full description of the general properties of the cells, we refer to the following pages. 1. Forms of Cells—First, then, as we have already partially seen on page 23, when growth is uniform, or nearly so, on all sides, the cells assume a regular polygonal form (figs. 65), slightly elliptic cell (fig. 60), when it is greater at the two extremities than at the sides, the form is truly elliptic (fig. 60). In the above cases, also, the cells almost free from wrinkles. Under other circumstances, in consequence of the mutual pressure of surrounding cells, they assume a polygonal form (figs. 61 and 62), the number of angles varying according to the arrangement of the contiguous cells. Thus, in a perfectly regular arrange- ment, when the contiguous cells are of equal size, we have deduced from our experiments that the cells assume a square appearance (fig. 63). It is rarely, however, that we find cells of this regular mathematical form; since, in consequence of the Fig. 63. Transverse section of regular polygonal cells. —Fig. 64. Stellate cells. 25 36 FORMS OF CELLS. unequal size of the contiguous cells, the polygons which result from their mutual pressure must be more or less irregular, and exhibit a variable form (figs. 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, and 71). Secondly, when the growth is nearly uniform on all sides of the cell, we have cylindrical cells (figs. 65, 66, 67, 68, 69), i.e., we have cells which maintain a rounded form in the centre, but having rays projecting from them in various directions, by which they acquire a somewhat angular appearance (figs. 65 and 90); and hence such cells are called deltoid. These rays may be situated at equal intervals (figs. 65, 66, 67, 68, 69), or at unequal intervals (figs. 70 and 71). It is rarely the case that such cells have the rays at regular intervals, or all of one length, but various degrees of irregularity occur, which lead to the formation of different forms of cells. Thirdly, when the growth takes place chiefly in one direction Fig. 65. Fig. 67. Fig. 66. Fig. 68. Fig. 69. Tamarisk cells.--Fig. 64. Cylindrical cells. The small rounded body in the middle is the nucleus.--Fig. 70. Angular fusiform cells.--Fig. 71. Plumose cells (apex). we have cells which are elongated, either horizontally or vertically. Among the forms resulting from an extension of the cell in a horizontal direction we have the elongated fusiform cells (figs. 65 and 91), that is, six-sided flattened cells with the upper and lower surfaces parallel, or nearly so. Of those cells which are extended in a vertical direction we have the elongated cylindrical (figs. 60) and fusiform (figs. 67), and which by the mutual pressure become somewhat angular. From the above description of the forms of cells it will be seen that they may be divided into the short and elongated, although, as various forms combine forms occur, this division cannot be strictly adhered to. FABENCHYMATOUS AND PROSENCHYMATOUS CELLS. 57 The cells, when in combination with other cells so as to form a tissue, are generally bounded by plane (figs. 62, 63, 66, and 68), or more or less rounded surfaces (figs. 59 and 60), but when connected with each other by a common wall, as to form what are called the endodermal layers, they are elongated, and have pointed extremities (figs. 61 and 67). The different conditions of the cells lead to corresponding differences in their arrangement; thus, in the former case the cells are arranged in lines, placed one upon another, the ends being usually rounded (figs. 62 and 60); while in the latter their tapering extremities over- lap one another, and the points of contact are situated at the sides of the cells which are placed above and below them (fig. 67). From this circumstance cells have been divided into parenchymatous ![Fig. 63.] and parenchymatous; parenchymatous being the term applied to those cells which are placed end to end; and parenchyma- tous is used for those which overlap one another when combined together to form a tissue. Another distinction commonly made between these two kinds of parenchymatous cells arises from the condition of their out-walls; thus, those of parenchymatous cells are usually thin (fig. 66), while those of parenchymatous cells are usually thick (figs. 63 and 94). The above distinctions between parenchymatous and parenchymatous cells are evident enough at the extreme forms, but the two divisions become more difficult in the intermediate forms which render it impossible to draw, in many cases, a distinct line of demarcation between them. A portion of the front of Xanthopteris hercules, a., cell-walls; b., a. Contents of the cell. After H. S. Brady. **SIZE OF CELLS.** When cells are so placed as to be uncombined with other cells, or with the vessels of the plant, or but partially so, they are more or less unrestrained in their development; but even in such cases, the cells may become elongated, and in some form is to be more or less rounded. This form is, however, rarely maintained; and the cells are frequently found to occur in many of the lower Algae, as *Prebocera* (fig. 1); in pollen cells (fig. 70), and in spores; but more frequently, in such cases, they are elongated, and become oblong (fig. 74), or cylindrical (fig. 71). In other instances, the cells are flattened upon one side, and will acquire a special development (see page 52), and become elevated from its general surface as little papillae (fig. 70), warty projections (figs. 73, 76), or cells (figs. 72, 75, and 74); or are prolonged Figs. 70. Fig. 72. Fig. 73. Figs. 71. Fig. 74. Fig. 75. **Fig. 70. Spermatia cell with small projections or papillae on its sur- face.** *Prebocera.* *Fig. 71. Cylindrical cell.* *Cystoseira.* *Fig. 72-74. Glacial algae.* *Fig. 75. Branchlet of *Phragmitum* *premnum.* into tubular processes, or branched in various ways. The hairs which are produced on the surface of plants afford good illustra- tions of this mode of growth; for instance, the leaf-leaves are develop- ment (figs. 138-139); other instances occur in the germination of most species of *Eriogonum*, and in the production of *Bryophyllum* (fig. 70), where the pollen grains fall upon the stigma; and in numerous other cases. The size of the cells varies much in size in different plants, and in different parts of the same plant. The parenchy- maticous cells, on an average, vary from about $\frac{1}{2}$ to $\frac{1}{3}$ of an inch in diameter; but in some cases they are very small, while in some cases they are so large as to be visible to the naked eye, being as much as $\frac{1}{4}$ or even $\frac{1}{6}$ of an inch in diameter. The STRUCTURE OF THE CELL-WALL. largest occur in the pith of plants, in succulent parts, and in water plants. The dimensions of premyomycetous cells generally afford a striking contrast to those of the permyomycetes, for while we find that their transverse diameter is commonly much less, averaging only about 30 microns, than that of the mature cells, they become much more extended longitudinally, some having been measured as much as 1/4 of an inch long, and accord- ingly to be considered as being nearly as long as they are wide, or more inches in length. The premyomycetous cells of the wood and bark of the tree are variable, however, from about the $1/4$ to the $1/2$ of an inch in length. Cells which again have an unrestricted development are frequently found in the roots of plants. In these cases, the cells of which the cell wall is formed (fig. 153, a) are sometimes as much as 1/4 of an inch in length. In the roots of the large- moss water plants, as Chlorella, the cells are also much elongated. III. GENERAL PROPERTIES AND STRUCTURES OF THE CELL-WALL OR CELL-MEMBRANE. In all living cells the cell membrane is very thin, columnar, trans- parent, and elastic. It is so thin that it can be seen through it, so that each cell is perfectly closed sac. The membrane, however, although free from visible pores, is readily permeable by fluids. As the cell grows larger its membrane becomes thickened by the incorporation of new matter into its substance, and then becomes more or less opaque and more or less irregularly sculptured. This increase in thickness may be specially observed in the cells of the wood and inner bark, and in the hard cells of the stem and root of woody plants (fig. 153). This thickening, however, of the cell-membrane is by no means con- fined to woody plants. It may be observed in all cells where active changes are going on; thus it may be especially seen in those of young leaves (fig. 154). A section of one of these cells gives an appearance as though it had been formed by connecting layers of cellulose with branching papillary tubes or canals extending from the outer surface to its periphery. The irregular ringed ap- pearance is due to the difference in the degree of hydration between the cellulose and the intercellular spaces, which have been caused by the passage of the sap during the life of the cell prior to its death. In these cells the membrane has been still further changed by the conversion of the cellulose into lignin. It is to these two Fig. 76. Fig. 78. Transverse section of a thick-walled cell or cell-wall from Moss. Fig. 79. Transverse section of a thin-walled cell or cell-wall from Moss. 40 FITTED OR DOTTED CELLS. conditions that the firmness of the wood of plants and hardness of the stones of many fruits are due, and hence the name of Sclerophyllum (from the Greek word signifying hardness) has been given to such cells. Fitted or dotted cells (Cella) are almost all cases when the cell-membrane has thus become thickened, so as to assume the smooth and homogeneous appearance as is the case, as we have seen, when the cell is cut transversely into thin slices or dots or slits of various kinds (Fig. 77 and 78, e.,). These dots and slits were formerly considered as actual openings in the walls of the cells, but it was afterwards found that they are not so; but, when carefully examined, it may be readily discovered that these openings are merely caused by the increased thickness of the cell to its wall, and are closed (always at least in their young state) by the originally thin membrane of which it is at these points composed. The dotted cells are often seen in the parts of the cell in which they are found, when viewed by transmitted light under the microscope, a more transparent appr. Fig. 77. Fig. 78. Fig. 77. Fitted cell. Fig. 78. Thick-walled cells from the fruit of a Poinc. n. s. The dotted lines show the places where the cell-membrane forms the cavity to the inner wall of the cell. Cavity of the cell, e., Epi- tome plane. appearance than that possessed by the thickened membrane sur- rounding them. Such cells are, therefore, improperly called pores, and hence they are sometimes termed "dotted pores." These perforated canals in the wall of one cell correspond exactly with those in the wall of an adjoining cell; and thus the sap is allowed to pass from one cell to another without any hindering the general thickening which the walls may have undergone (Fig. 76 and 78). It frequently happens that two or more canals unite together at a point on the surface of one cell, and thus form a common opening into its cavity (Fig. 78). Another mode of forming these perforations is by holes or perforations in the original walls of the cells, yet as the latter advance in age, and lose their active vitality, they fre- quently become filled up with matter, so that the cell-membrane becomes more or less absorbed, or breaking away. Such perforations are well seen in the daphniums, where they CELLS WITH BORDERED PITS. are sufficiently large to allow of the passage through them of minute granular masses. Cells with Bordered Pits or Die-burning Wood-cells. —In the cell-walls of the wood-cells of certain trees we find, in addition to the ordinary pits, large circular discs which encircle them so that each pit is surrounded by a ring of cells (figs. 78, 79). Hence such cells have been termed cells with bordered pits or disc-shaped pits. The pits are usually circular in shape, but sometimes they form irregular patches of the cell-wall remaining thin after the general thickening has commenced and the rim growing obliquely inwards, leaving only a narrow band between the pit and the cell-wall. As these thickened rings occur always in two on each side of the cell-wall, they may be regarded as being formed one upon another, one rim to rim, and separated by a thin sheet of paper. To carry out the comparison, however, completely, the watch-glasses must be suspended in their course (fig. 80). Fig. 78. Fig. 78. Fig. 79. Fig. 79. Fig. 75. Discharging wood-cells of the Pinae, with a single row of discs on each side. Bordered pits or wood-cells of the Pinus (figured). In this figure the two rows of discs are seen to be connected by a line, which has been absorbed. c, front-perspective view; dotted positions of motion, w. central lighter spot when examined by transmitted light is caused by the light having to pass only through one membrane (figs. 80, 81), while in the other case the border is caused by the light having to pass through the thicker substance of the three membranes (figs. 82, 83). When (figs. 80, b) becomes absorbed, and then direct communication takes place between the adjoining cells. Cells with bordered pits in appearance are of universal occurrence in the wood of the Conifers and other Gymnosperms; but those that occur in the leaves of Angiosperms are somewhat similar bordered pits may also be not unfrequently observed in the vessels of Phanerogamic plants. These bordered pits are found in double (figs. 79, b), or in double rows (figs. 82). In those cases where there are two rows of discs on each side, each row may be either on the same level, as in more commonly the case (figs. 81), or at different levels, and hence alternate to each other, as in the Aruncaria and allied trees (figs. 82 and 83). A diagram showing a cross-section of a plant cell with bordered pits. The diagram includes various labeled parts: a - outer cell wall, b - inner cell wall, c - central space, d - bordered pit, e - surrounding disc-like structure. 42 FIBROUS CELLS. Fibrous Cells.—It frequently happens that the thickening of the cell-wall (instead of taking place on to give the appear- ance of a single cell) takes place on two or more surfaces of a number of cells just described, forms delicate threads or bands of vary- ing thickness called fibres, which assume a more or less spiral direction upon the inner surface (figs. 54-56), and these give rise Fig. 81. Fig. 82. Fig. 83. Fig. 81. Disc-bearing wood-cells of the Pine, with a double row of discs, which are on the same level, opposite to each other, and show three of the whole series of discs in one view, with different degrees of development (fig. 54). The disc is a very common feature in the wood- cells of trees, with double and triple rows of such discs. After Dewey. to what are called fibrous cells. Such cells occur in various plants and parts of plants; thus in the leaves of Sphagnum, the hairs of many Grasses and other plants, in the inflorescences of some seeds and flowers, in the roots of some plants, in the leaves of Columba, and in the spore-cases of certain Flowering plants, in the interior of the stems of some plants, in thousands of the aerial roots of many Orchids, and in several other instances. Fig. 84. Fig. 85. Fig. 86. Fig. 87. Fig. 88. Fig. 84. Spiral cell—fig. 85. Annular or ringed cell—fig. 86. Ramified or reticulated cell—fig. 87. Compound or reticulate cell—fig. 88. Wooden cells of the Tawa (Tawa serrata). After Mott. These fibrous cells also present some differences of appear- ance as regards the distribution of their fibres. Thus, in some cells the fibres are arranged in one plane only, as in figs. 54 and the other (figs. 84 and 148); such are termed uniserial cells. In other cases the fibre is interrupted at various points by laminae, the form of rings upon the inner surface of the cell-wall (figs. 55), and KINDS OF CELLS. 43 hence such cells are called anucleus or ringed. Instances also occur even more frequently, in which the fibres are so distributed as to produce a ring-like appearance, but in which, however, the cells are termed rounded or reticulated. These an- nular and reticulated cells are merely modifications of the spiral, and it is only by a gradual change in the same cell intermediate conditions of all these forms. The spiral is the most common form, as will be seen right, although instances occur where they have a contrary direc- tion. The turns of the fibre, or the rings, may be nearly in contact with each other, or they may be separated by a mem- brane: this latter appearance is probably due to the growth of the membrane after the deposition of the fibre. The turns of the fibre or of the ring may either be either intimately attached to the cell-membrane, or but slightly adherent, or al- most free from it. In some cases the fibre grows after the deposition of the fibre, the more firmly it is attached to it. In some cases, as in the Yew (fig. 88), Mesocarp, and Lime, we find a spiral fibre or fibres developed in addition to the pita. Thus in the Yew (fig. 88) we see that the pit is surrounded by a number of intermediate forms (fig. 87) with the pitted cells already treated of, but all are formed on the same plan. That by the pit is formed first, and then grows into its own substance, and depositing it upon its external surface in differ- ent parts in varying thickness. Section 2. Of THE KINDS OF CELLS AND THEIR CONNECTION WITH EACH OTHER. We have already seen (page 37), that if the cells are of such forms that when combined together they merely come in contact with each other without any intermediate forms being produced, they are termed parenchymatous; but that when elongated and pointed at their ends, so as to form a kind of tube, they are termed vessels; these are termed pseudovessels. We have also seen that such extreme forms are connected by all sorts of transitional ones. Besides these changes there are also those which take place between similar organs are also found in plants, which are termed resorbs. For- merly it was supposed that all these organs had an entirely distinct origin from the ordinary parenchymatous cells, and were described under the names of Woody Fibres, and Vessels; but it has been shown that both these terms are derived originally from such cells, and owe their peculiar appearances either because they have grown outwards from them later on in the course of growth, or to their combination with one another. This common origin of the Woody Fibres of old shoots and of the Vessels of the parenchymatous cells, is 44 PARENCHYMA proved by the fact, that gradual transitional forms from the one to the other may be commonly observed also by tracing their development, which shows us that all these groups, however modified in form and appearance, are derived originally from one common type. The various modifications made previously, therefore, as to the chemical and general properties of cell-membranes, as well as to its mode of growth and thickenings, have been only secondary changes, and it is stated this to be the case with regard to the Woody Fibres, which we have spoken of before, as well as with regard to the Vessels and Wood-cells. By the combination of the different kinds of cells and vessels, we have various compound structures formed which are capable of performing different functions in the plant. The most important and the most abundant of them all is parenchyma, which must be first alluded to. Fig. 80. Fig. 81. Fig. 80. Round or elliptical parenchyma. In two of the cells a nucleus may be seen. The other cells contain only protoplasm. The parenchyma is composed of thin-walled cells, whose length does not exceed their breadth, or in which the length exceeds their breadth but not by any remarkable extent. There are several varieties of parenchyma, depending chiefly upon the forms of the component cells, and their modes of connection with each other. They are thus distinguished— A. Round or Elliptical Parenchyma (figs. 59 and 60). This is formed of roundal or more or less elliptic cells, with small spaces between them, and they are found in all green plants, and generally in those parts where the tissues are of a lax nature, as in the mesophyll of leaves. B. Conical or Columnar Parenchyma (figs. 57 and 58). It is con- nected by various transitional forms with— VARIETIES OF PARENCHYMA. a. *Spongiiform* Parenchyma, which consists of stellate cells (figs. 64 and 90), or of cells with an irregular outline produced by pressure, or by the presence of a large number of vacuoles in the cell, so as to leave large irregular spaces between them (fig. 65). This variety is found in the leaves, especially on the under surface of most leaves; and frequently in the aerial branches of plants, particularly in the stems and leaf-stalks of such as grow in water, as the *Ceratophyllum* and *Equisetum*. b. *Eosporal* Parenchyma.—This is formed of dendroblastic or polyhedral cells, the faces of which are nearly equal (figs. 62 and 63), and so combined as to leave no interspaces. It occurs mostly in the roots. c. *Dentated* Parenchyma.—This is composed of cells elongated in a longitudinal direction so as to become fusiform (figs. 70 and 71), and having at each end a small tooth-like projection. It occurs frequently in the stems of Monocotyledonous plants. d. *Tubular* Parenchyma.—This is composed of tubular cells, usually closely adjacent cells. It is found in the epidermis and other external parts of plants (figs. 86, 92, c, and 115-125). A variety of this kind is called *Cylindricus*. The cells of which it is composed resemble in their form and arrangement those composing the cortex of the root; but a variety occurs in the medullary rays or the silver grain of wood. Such are the common varieties of parenchyma, all of which are connected with the structure of the plant, and such is it unnecessary to describe here. When the parenchyma becomes such that it forms a layer immediately below the epidermis of many plants, which has been termed the *Hypo- derma*, (see Internal Structure of Leaves), as far as instance in that the leaf-sheathes of many plants are covered with a layer is called *Cochleum*. When the parenchymatic cells become thickened into a solid mass, they are termed *Parenchyma*, and by their combination constitute respectively the *Fibrous* Tissue and *Fibro-collodinous* Tissue, of some authors. In some cases there is another kind of tissue present which is quite distinct from parenchyma as this is not produced by any one particular mode of plant. To this the names of *Tuba reticulata* and *Interstriae fibri- liforme* Tissue have been given. It occurs in the Fungi (figs. 30, 31, &c.), and is composed of very thin filaments, either linear like cells, or strings of cells, simple or branched, with either leaf, stem, or root. In some cases it is produced by and firm cells, as in Lobelia; while the whole intricately interwoven or entangled with each other so as to form a loose fibrillar mass (figs. 40, 41). In some cases it is found under the name of hyphae, and which constitutes, as a general rule, the vegetative portion of all Fungi. In the larger Fungi the hyphae become aggregated at certain parts into a compact parenchy- 46 PROSENCHYMA. malous structure, which is termed pseudo-parenchyma; this tissue forms a large portion of these fungi. The various parenchymatous cells described constitute the entire structure of the lower orders of plants, or Thallophytes, such as the Algae, Bryophytes, and Ferns (Fig. 83), and are frequently termed Cellular Plants; while those orders above them, which contain, commonly, vessels, and procenchymatous wood- cells, is said to be the true Plant Kingdom (Fig. 84). The vascular Plants (see page 7). In these higher orders of plants, parenchy- mation cells are found in all parts of the plant, in the cul- tivating plants or parts of plants for culinary purposes and for food generally, the great object aimed at is to develop this kind of tissue. The procenchymatous cells are developed by various intermediate conditions with procenchyma, which we now proceed to notice. Figs. 85. Fig. 94. Fig. 93. Fig. 96. Fig. 97. Fig. 98. Fig. 85. Prosenchymatous or wood- cells.--Fig. 94. Horizontal section of prosenchymatous cell showing the thickness of their walls. --Fig. 93. Transverse section of a prosenchymatous cell. --Fig. 96. Transverse section of a prosenchymatous cell. --Fig. 97. Transverse section of a prosenchymatous cell. --Fig. 98. Transverse section of a prosenchymatous cell. 2. PROSENCHYMA.--The most perfect form of procenchyma is that commonly termed *Woody Tissue*. This tissue consists of very fine cells, elongated and tapering to a minute point at their two extremities (figs. 99 and 100); and when in contact with one another overlapping by their pointed ends, they form a continuous layer without interstices (fig. 105). The woody portions of all plants consist in a great part of this form of tissue. It is also found in the leaves of certain plants, and in the veins of leaves and those of other expansions of the stem and root. We distinguish three kinds of procenchymatous cells which A microscopic image showing elongated, thin-walled cells arranged in a linear pattern. A microscopic image showing a transverse section through a procenchymatous cell, highlighting its thin walls and elongated shape. A microscopic image showing a transverse section through a procenchymatous cell, emphasizing its thin walls and elongated shape. A microscopic image showing a transverse section through a procenchymatous cell, highlighting its thin walls and elongated shape. WOODY TISSUE. 47 enter into the composition of Woody Tissue : namely, the ordi- nary *Woody Tissue*, Disc-bearing Wood-cells or cells with bordered pits, and *Lenticular Wood-tissue*, consisting of the lenticu- lation, ordinary *Woody Tissue*, Disc-bearing Wood-Tissue, and *Woody Tissue*. a. *Woody Tissue*.—This, the ordinary kind of woody tissue, is composed of procenchymatous cells, the walls of which, although thickened to some extent, are not so much so as in the other commonly the case, or are marked with little dots or pits, as in cortical cells. The cell-walls are often very thin, and in some sections, is exceedingly thin in wood-cells. A transverse section of these cells shows the cuninnes forming the walls to be arranged in concentric layers, and to be very thin at their outer edges, or almost obliterate their cavity (fig. 94). This kind of tissue occurs in the wood of all trees belonging to the Coniferous order, and other Gymnospermous orders ; and in the veins of some leaves, and those of certain parts of the flower. The peculiar manner in which these cells are arranged around each other, overlapping at their pointed extremities, and thus becoming firmly united together by means of their thin cell-walls, makes them of their walls, renders this tissue very strong and tough, and thus admirably adapted for those parts of plants in which it is found. b. *Disc-bearing Wood-Tissue*.—This tissue is composed of cells which have a disc-like form, and which have already been described on page 44 (figs. 79-83). This tissue constitutes generally nearly the whole of the wood of the Coniferous and other Gymnospermous trees, but it is also found in some other plantae. These disc-bearing wood-cells are much larger than the other kinds of wood-cells; occurring often as much as $d$ or $d\frac{1}{2}$ as large as ordinary wood-cells; while their diameter is more than $\frac{1}{20}$ or on an average about $\frac{1}{50}$ of an inch in diameter. c. *Lenticular Wood-Tissue*.—This consists of groups of cells much larger than ordinary wood-cells (figs. 96), with very thick walls ($w$); and having their ends joined together by a peculiar kind of joint, and have received the distinctive name of *lenticular wood-tissue*. It is found in the wood of some trees or leafy of Dioecious stems. Such cells are also termed leaf- tissues, and the tissue formed thereof leaf-tissue; because the inner part is like a leaf-stem (fig. 97). Besides the common occurrence of this tis- sue in the wood of trees, it is also found in certain parts of *branches* of Monocotyledonous stems. The veins which form the framework of such leaves are also in part composed of this kind of tissue. These beast-thorns are called leaf-buds by some botanists, who regard them as young shoots; but they are best regarded as formed like them by the coalescence of rows of cells, the partition walls
48
**VE-SELS--FITTED VESSELS.** between them having become absorbed, so that their cavities communicate with each other. These liber-cells, at least, but not all, must be connected by some vessel or new cell (see page 50), and which are also frequently termed by the botanist "intercellular canals." From these peculiar qualities the speedy tissue of the fiber is admirably adapted to serve various purposes : thus Hemp, Flax, New Zealand Flax, Pita Flax, and the Chinese Grass, and many other fibers, are all composed of the liber tissue of cells, which are capable of conveying the value of such fibers. This fiber when macerated so as to separate the cells from each other, will form a mass into which from the best kinds of paper are made. Indeed, this fiber is used in the woody tissue of many plants, but they lack the toughness of paper matter, and consequently do not convey its value easily. The different kinds of woody tissue are commonly associated in the plant body, and those which are also of an elongated indurated character, but larger than the fibers, are made up of which the woody tissues are composed. These constitute the second class. 3. **VESSELS OR VASCULAR TISSUE.**—These names were origi- nally given to the vessels found in an erroneous idea of their re- semblance to the vessels of animals, in which they have no analogy. The name of duct has also been frequently applied to them; but it is only applicable to certain vessels, that is to say, that it is composed of several cells, which are united end to end, and the septa dividing them, more or less completely sheathed. They may be long and narrow, or they may be short and broad. Their chief function seems to be to convey fluids. There are several varieties of these vessels, which are known as pitted, spiral, annular, reticulated, and scalariform, the char- acteristics of which depend on the manner in which their walls undergo by thickening during their growth. Both these classes of vessels and their varieties, which are commonly distinguished under the names of **pitted vessels**, **annular vessels**, or **hadus-vessels**; **interfascia vessels**; and **reticular or annular vessels**. They differ from one another in their structure and in the nature of their contents; their chief function being not to convey air as the other vascular tissues do, but to convey reservoirs of nutritive fluids, and also as carriers of such fluids to all parts of a plant where they are required. 4. **Pitted Vessel Vessels.**—These constitute by their com- bination fitted tissue, or the Fornacean Tissue of some an- imals. A pit is formed by a row of cylindrical or conical pits cells placed end to end (fig. 90), and these par- titions of which have become more or less absorbed, so that their cavities communicate with each other (fig. 100). The origin of pitted vessels from a row of cells Spiral Vessels. 49 of a similar pitted nature is clearly shown in many instances by the construction which they exhibit at various intervals, by which they acquire a banded appearance (fig. 99); for these contractions evi- dently indicate that the cells composing the component cells come into contact, and in some cases the outermost membrane is completely absorbed be- tween the cavities, but remaining in the form of a narrow column (fig. 100). Pitted vessels generally ter- minate in a single cell, but in those in which they combine with neighbouring vessels, the oblique extremities of the latter are often placed so as to meet each other within the former. In some cases, however, where the vessels are very close together at the ends, they overlap more or less by these points. Pitted vessels may be com- monly seen in the mesoderm of the embryo; when they are mixed with neighbouring vessels, the oblique extremities of the latter are often placed so as to meet each other within the former. In some cases, however, where the vessels are very close together at the ends, they overlap more or less by these points. Pitted vessels may be com- monly seen in the mesoderm of the embryo; when they are mixed with neighbouring vessels, the oblique extremities of the latter are often placed so as to meet each other within the former. In some cases, however, where the vessels are very close together at the ends, they overlap more or less by these points. Fig. 100. Fig. 29. Fig. 30. The pitted vessel is a peculiar structure, terminating ob- liquely on one side, and being surrounded by a thin mem- brane. It is sometimes seen in transverse section across a transverse section of the wood of the oak (fig. 101), and is also found in the wood of other trees; its holes seem less visible than those of the naked eye are caused by their position (figs. 178, r, r'). The pitted vessels are generally among the largest occurring in any tissue. It sometimes happens that when pitted vessels lose their fluid contents and become empty, they contract and push bladder-like portions of their membranes through pores in the walls of a vessel, and then multiply by division and form a cellular mass (fig. 102). This is called a "pith." In intra- cellular tissue the name of *pithus* has been given. It may be well observed in young shoots of *Ceratophyllum* pseudo- morsum, in *Periploca*, and in the stem of *Ceratium* *seminis*. b. Spindle Vessels.—This name is applied to vessels with tapering extremities, having two or three fibres running from end to end, as is commonly the case (fig. 101), or two or three fibres running from side to side another. Those with only one spiral fibre are termed *Single Spiral Vessels*; those with more than one, *Compound Spiral Vessels*. The latter occur in young shoots of *Arbutus*, and in other allied plants, in the young shoots of *Aparagus*, and in the Fir (fig. 103). The compound spiral vessel is generally so elastic as to admit of being unrolled like a tube; this vessel is pulled saunder, in which case the wall is ruptured between the coils; but it can be rolled up again without injury by partially breaking the young shoots or leaf-stalks of almost any 80 SPIRAL VESSELS. plant, or the leaves of the Hyacinth, Banana, and others, and gently pulling around the two ends, when the uncoiled fibre appears alike a fine coilea. In most cases the cells of the fibre are coiled spirally, but in some the outer membrane cannot be observed between them ; but in other instances the two may be more or less separated by portions of membrane (fig. 101). The latter case is very common in the fibres of the leaves of the cell-wall after the thickening which forms the fibre has taken place, by which means the two ends of the fibre are brought near one another. The fibre is generally turned to the right as in the ordinary spiral cella, although instances occur in which it is wound in the opposite direction. In all these cases, when they come into contact they overlap more or less at their ends (fig. 101), and frequently the membrane between them becomes absorbed so that they communicate with each other. Spiral vessels sometimes present a branched appearance; this is generally occasioned by Fig. 101. Fig. 102. Fig. 103. Fig. 104. Fig. 101. Simple spiral vessel. Fig. 102. Compound spiral vessel. Fig. 103. Unbranched spiral vessel. Fig. 104. Union of spiral vessels in an oblique manner. the union of separate vessels in a more or less oblique manner (fig. 104). Occasionally, it is said, as in the Gourd and some other plants, that divisions take place within distinct vessels (figs. 105). Spiral vessels occur in the sheath surrounding the pith of Dicotyledons (fig. 180, B, d.), in the vasculature of Monocotyledons (fig. 176, e.), and in some of the Cormophytes, as the Lycopsidaceae and Lycopodium; also in some of the ferns, and in those of all other organs which are modifications of leaves, as bracts, sepals, petals, etc., They may be also frequently found in roots. The diameter of these vessels varies from 2 to 20 microns in diameter. The average size is about the same as that of the veins of leaves; but they differ from their resemblance to the tracheae or air-tubes of leaves. c. Annular Vessels.—In these vessels the fibre is arranged in **ANNULAR—RETICULATED—AND SCALARIFORM VESSELS. 51** the form of rings upon their inner surface (figs. 105 and 106). Sometimes the whole of the vessel presents this ringed appearance (figs. 107, 108, 109). In other cases, however, the vessel has two rings connected by one or more turns of a spiral, the two forms being hereafter distinguished. The annular vessels vary in size they vary from about $1\frac{1}{2}$ to $2\frac{1}{2}$ in an inch in diameter. These vessels occur especially in the vascular bundles of the stems of all the dicotyledons, but also in the roots of some monocotyledons, also in those of Monocotyledons ; and in those of some Cormo- phytes, in which they exist especially, and of a very regular character in the Equisetum. d. *Reticulated* *Vessels.*—In these vessels the spiral convolutions are so numerous that they appear as if they had been formed by waves by cross or oblique fibres, so as to produce a branched or netted Fig. 105. Fig. 106. Fig. 107. Fig. 108. Fig. 109. Fig. 110. Fig. 111. Figs. 105, 106. Annular vessels. Fig. 107. Vessel showing a combination of rings and spiral. Fig. 108. Reticulated vessel. Fig. 109. Finely reticulated vessel. Fig. 110. Finely reticulated vessel showing a combination of spiral and reticulated fibres, and semiformal markings. appearances (fig. 108). These vessels are generally larger than the annular, and of much more frequent occurrence. They are found in all the dicotyledons. e. *Scalariform* *Vessels.*—The peculiar appearance of these vessels is owing to the presence of many transverse bars on their inner surface over another like the steps of a ladder, whence their name (figs. 109 and 110). These vessels are some- times found in the stems of the Equisetum (figs. 107, 108), and many other Dicotyledonous plants, in which condition they are apparently but slight modifications of reticulated vessels. In other cases, however, these scalariform vessels assume a prismatic form, as in Firma (figs. 109), of which they are the principal members, and in some cases also in Equisetum. The annular, reticulated, and scalariform vessels constitute x2 82 SILET-TUBES OR SILET-VESELS. the previous number of some authors. These vessels have com- monly tapering extremities, which are united, and thus over- lap at their extremities when they come in contact (figs. 109). But in other instances they terminate more or less obliquely, or by flattening out into a kind of disc, but without any angles, or but slight modifications of the true spiral. This is proved by the fact that the two opposite sides of the spirals are more of the above forms combined with the spirals (figs. 107 and 111), and thus forming intermediate states of each other. S. Scopula.—These are the few vessels in which thickening of the cell-walls of their com- ponent cells is confined to one side only, over their whole surface, but only at the ends of the cells, that is, where they are in contact with each other (fig. 112). At these ends it forms a kind of network, sculptured on the surface of the cells (figs. (96, 112, q.), and when in such cases the unthickened part of the walls of con- stantly extends into the cavity of their cavities become continuous, we have formed what are called "seal-fish" or "seal-seasels." They are also sometimes termed boat-seals. These are very common in the sea-animals of the bank of Dicotyledons. If such absorption does not take place, the name of se- a-lotus, or sea-lotus, is given to the component cells. g. Lathyrus.-Ferns.—These consti- tute the Milk-meats of the old authors. They commonly consist of long branched tubes (figs. 113 and 114), and are regarded by some writers as being similar to the tissues (figs. 115 and 116), and others as being similar to one another like the veins of animals, from which peculiarities they may be once distinguished from the true veins of plants. When first formed these vessels are exceedingly thin, but gradually increase in thin; they become, however, large and thick-sided as they increase in age, but even then they do not attain to their full capacity to deposit their interior, as is the case in the thickenings described above. A common size is the size of an inch in diameter. They derive their name from containing a watery fluid called lacto; which is either white, as in the Dandelion, Spruce, Poppy, India- rubber, Lettuce, and other plants; or coloured, as is well Fig. 112. Young sillet-tubes from the longitudinal section of a leaf of Silene scopulae. Fig. 113. Sillet-tubes from a leaf of Lathyrus odoratus. Fig. 114. Sillet-tubes from a leaf of Lathyrus odoratus. Fig. 115. Sillet-tubes from a leaf of Lathyrus odoratus. Fig. 116. Sillet-tubes from a leaf of Lathyrus odoratus. LATICIFEROUS AND VESICULAR VESSELS. seen in the Celandine, where it is yellow. The latex has a number of granules or globules floating in it, which are composed of a yellowish substance, and contain various matters, albumen, and, occasionally, mixed with them may be found few- lar-shaped starch granules, as in Euphorbia (fig. 115). Freinny states that the latex contains also a large quantity of albumen, viz. the serum of the blood, or the albumen of the egg, and what he calls "the white of the egg." Laticiferous vessels occur especially in the inner bark of many Dicotyledons, in the pith, and in the petioles and veins of leaves. They are seen to be long and narrow tubes, having their ends open, and all parts which are prolonged from them. In Acotylodons they exist only in the outer bark. They are formed, like other vessels, from rows of cells arranged in various directions with respect to each other, the partici- Fig. 113. Fig. 114. Fig. 115. Figs. 113, 114. Laticiferous vessels--Fig. 115. Laticiferous vessels from a species of Acotylodon; these vessels contain starch granules of a peculiar form. After Liebreit. Besides the above more common characterisation of laticiferous vessels, there are numerous other varieties; indeed, from the very great variety of plants which contain laticiferous vessels, and the many and various transitions between them and vessels proper, it is impossible to say whether we ought to regard those laticiferous and vesicular vessels should be included under the common name of *latex-aqua*. a. For instance, in *Alchemilla* we resemble laticiferous vessels in one particular, as they contain latex (which, however, is clear and colourless), but they have no starch granules (as do the *phidies*); while, on the other hand, they are unbranched and analogous to sieve-tubes in form, consisting as they do of long rod-like cells without any branches; this was first noticed by Hanstein in the scales of the bulb of Alliums, and have since b. In *Caltha* we find a vessel-like cell containing a large amount of yellowish matter; this is probably a modified laticiferous vessel. 84 EPIDERMAL TISSUE. been observed in the leaves and other parts of Monocotyledonous plants, and in some Dicotyledonous. We have here to consider the different kinds of cells, and the modifications they undergo, and the combinations of them which take place, so as to form vessels. The different kinds of vessels and their modifications are all of a similar character, and have always a tendency to develop and arrange them- selves in a certain order, according to the nature of the plant where they are found, and thus they may be readily distin- guished from the parenchyma in which they are placed, both in their form and arrangement. It is therefore very con- venient to speak of the tissue formed of these bundles under the collective name of Vascular Tissue, or Vascular Paren- chyma. Vertical, Horizontal, or Longitudinal System, to distinguish it from the ordinary cellular tissue, which constitutes the Parenchymatous, Calicular, or Laminar System. Fig. 116. Fig. 117. Fig. 118. Fig. 116. Epidermal tissue from the leaf of the Iris (Iris pseudacorus). p. p. Calicule. a. Oral stomata. b. Epidermal cells. After Joubert. Fig. 117. Epidermal tissue of the Male flower of the evening-wei- dons formed by the sides of the calicle. Fig. 118. Stomata epidermis with associated hairs. 4. EPIDERMAL TISSUE.—In the higher Flowering, and gene- rally in flowering plants, the cells situated on the surface of the different organs are called Epidermal cells, and are con- tents from those placed beneath them, and are so arranged as to constitute a firm layer which may commonly be readily approached at any point without injury to the plant. This term Epidermal Tissue is given. It is generally described as com- prising two layers of cells, one on each side of which is the Epidermis, and of an outer thin pellicle to which the name Calicule has been given. The Epidermis itself consists of one (figs. 92, e, and 119, a), two (figs. 120, e, a), three (figs. 121, a), or more layers of cells, firmly united together by their sides, and forming a continuous membrane, except at the points where it is perforated by the EPIDERMIS. 53 stomata, presently to be described (figs. 127 and 128, s.). These cells are generally of a flattened tabular character (figs. 119, 125), the sides of which vary much in their outline; thus, in the epidermis of the leaves of the Cucurbitaceae they are elongated hexagons (figs. 116, e., o.), in that of the Maize they are quadrangular (figs. 120, b., c.), in that of the common Polypody they are very irregular or sinuous (fig. 118); and in the epidermis of other plants we find them square, rhombic, etc. Ordinarily in European plants and in those generally of cold and temperate climates, the epidermis is formed of but one row of cells (figs. 119, i., a., and 125, a.) but in tropical plants it is frequently two rows thickened and chemically altered (figs. 120, b., c., d., e., f., g., h., i., j., k., l., m., n., o., p., q., r., s., t., u., v., w., x., y., z.) three (fig. 121, o.) or more, rows of cells being produced by the plant to render it impervious to moisture, and as will be afterwards explained, to protect its growth from the effects of heat. The upper walls of the epithe- lial cells are often thickened and chemically altered or cuticularised as is termed, which renders them rendered impervious to moisture, and thus tends to protect the more tender cells beneath from an undue loss of moisture during hot seasons. This thickening Fig. 120. Fig. 121. Fig. 37a. Vertical section through the leaf of a Sambucus with two rows of cells. c. Spergula perennisum. A Sambucus with two rows of cells. b. Spergula perennisum. A Sambucus with two rows of cells. After Schleiden...Pg. 37b. Vertical section through the leaf of Gomphrena showing two rows of cells. c. Gomphrena. After Schleiden...Pg. 37c. Vertical section through the stem of Gomphrena showing above a row of cells and below another row of cells. After Brongniart... of the upper walls of the epidermal cells may be especially observed in the leaves of the Cucurbitaceae, as well as in those of the Oleanaceae (figs. 121, o.), Alnus, Hoya (figs. 122, o.), Dock, and Holly, and in the stems of Cucurbita (figs. 125, o.). The epidermal cells are always filled with colourless fluids; 56 EPIDERMIS.---EPIBLEMA. hence the green and other colours which leaves and other organs assume are due to colouring matters of various kinds which are contained in the cells of the epidermis, and in the parenchyma cells, and which show through the transparent epidermal cells. In the walls, however, of the epidermal cells of many plants, waxy matter is deposited, and this is often seen at times; and in those of the species of Equisetum and of the Grasses. Fig. 122. Fig. 123. Fig. 122. Vertical section of the middle-line of a leaf-stemme covered with mucous protuberances. a. The detailed cuticle. b. The epidermal cells. c. The outer walls of the epidermal cells. d. The inner walls of the epidermal cells. e. The thickened upper wall of the epidermal cell. generally, but not met with in such abundance that, if the organic matter be removed by the agency of heat or acids, a perfect skeleton of the structure will be obtained. The stigmata are found on the leaves upon which it is found that they are directly exposed to the air except the stigmas. Fig. 124. Fig. 125. Fig. 124. Outside of the Calamus, showing that it is covered by the cuticle, and forms stems above the latter. Fig. 125. Vertical section of the epidermis of a Calamus, showing that it is covered by a thickened cuticle, a. After Schleiden. and it is in all cases absent from those which live under water. In Thallophytes, however, it is generally wanting. The epidermis which at first covers the young branches of trees is replaced at a subsequent period by epithelium. The term "epidermis" has been applied to several formations to which the term Epithelium has been given by Schleiden (p. 107); this name is, however, now rarely used. It consists of cells with thin walls, without stomata, but possessing CUTICLE.—STOMATA. cellular hair-like prolongations termed *filicula* or *root-hairs* (39 and 243). b. Cuticle.—This consists generally of a thin transparent pellicle which covers the entire surface of the epidermal cells (figs. 110, p. p, and 122, a) with the exception of the openings called stomata. The cuticle is usually composed of long hairs (figs. 124), and is frequently prolonged into the openings of the stomata, and from thence into the passages which commonly exist between the cells (figs. 125, 126). See also the Deve- lopment of Stomata in Physiological Botany.) Not only does this cuticle afford considerable thick- ness, as in the epidermis of the upper surface of the leaf of Cyane (fig. 125, b), but the cuticle is formed on the outside of some cells to form a layer of air or water between the cells and the air and light. The cut-cell in such a position becomes greatly thickened, so that it may be regarded as if it were that the outer part can be stripped off as a distinct membrane. c. Stomata or *Stomata*.—These are orifices situated between the edges of two adjacent cells, through which air passes from the intercellular cavities beneath, so as to allow a free communication between the cells (figs. 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j); hence they are also sometimes called breathing pores. These orifices are surrounded by cells of a different form from those which surround them externally. These cells contain some chlorophyllous grana. There are generally but two cells sur- rounding each stoma; one being called the *epidermal cell* or *lev- semitum* form (fig. 130), so that the whole has some faint re- semblance to the lips and mouth of an animal, and hence the name of "lips" is given to these cells. The bordering cells have been called "stomatal cells," "pore cells," and "pore-cells." They have the power of opening or closing the orifice which they surround according to circumstances, as will be explained hereafter. In most true leaves there are numerous open-ings of stomata in the part downwards from the midrib (fig. 132). In some Plants instead of two stomatal cells, we some- times find four, or even more than four; but in all cases wherever the stomata are rounded at their extremities, they are surrounded by three or more cells (figs. 133), and in some cases being itself composed of four or five cells, the whole forming a kind of funnel or chimney (126). Fig. 130. Vertical section of a portion of the front of Mentzelia pulcherrima. 9, p. p., showing arrangement of cells forming the walls. After Carrière. Watermark 58 STOMATA OR STOMATES. Upon making a vertical section through a stomate we usually find that the stomatal cells are placed nearly or quite on a level with each other, but they may be somewhat uneven, and especially when situated upon leaves of a leathery or hard- doned leaf, then the stomata are placed below the normal ones, while in some rare instances, again, they are above them. Fo. 127. Fo. 129. Fo. 130. Fig. 127. Vertical section of the epidermis of Lathyrus odoratus showing, a, the stomatal cells, with their stomatal neck, b, with serrated margin. b, the epidermal cells, c, the epidermis. d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z, a series of stomata. a', b', c', d', e', f', g', h', i', j', k', l', m', n', o', p', q', r', s', t', u', v', w', x', y', z'. The stomata vary in form and position in different plants, and in different parts of the same plant, but they are always the same in any particular part of a plant. The more common form Fo. 131. Fo. 132. Fig. 131. Epidermis of the leaf of a species of *Satureia*, showing clustered stomata a, with interesting angles a', b' in which they are absent. Fig. 132. Epidermis of *Lathyrus odoratus* (see also Fig. 127). a', b', c', d', e', f'. (From *Handbook of Botany* by J. H. Wood). c. Warty lined with hairs. p. Parietalumina. e. Epididymis. is the oval (Figs. 116, a., and 117., a.), but in other instances they are round (Fig. 129., b.) and in some cases square (Fig. 130., a.). They are either placed singly upon the epidermis, at STOMATA OR STOMATES. regular (fig. 110), or irregular intervals (fig. 129); or in clusters, the intervening epidermis having none (fig. 131). The former are the most common, and are found on the upper surface of the little cavities beneath the epidermis of the under surface of the leaves (fig. 132 e), which contain a number of hairs, and between them, at their bases, a number of stomata. The number of stomata also varies considerably. The follow- ing table shows the number of stomata on the upper surface of leaves, and it will be observed that the number of stomata is usually greater in those leaves where they are entirely absent from their upper surface. 38,500
38,500
38,500
38,500
38,500
38,500
38,500
38,500
38,500
38,500
38,500
38,500
38,500
38,500
38,500
38,500
38,500
38,500
38,500
38,500
38,500
38,500
38,500
38,500
38,500
38,500
38,500
38,500
38,500
38,500
38,5 ```json [ { "stomata": [ "none", "none", "none", "none", "none", "none", "none", "none", "none", "none", "none", "none", "none", "none", "none", "none", "none", "none", "none", "none", "none", "none", "none", "none", "none", "none" ], "upper_surface": [ 4_299, 4_299, 4_299, 4_299, 4_299, 4_299, 4_299, 4_299, 4_299, 4_299, 4_299, 4_299, 4_299, 4_299, 4_299, 4_299, 4_299, 4_299, 4_299, 4_299, 4_299, 4_299, 4_299, 4_299, 4_299 ], "lower_surface": [ 16_667, 16_667, 16_667, 16_667, 16_667, 16_667, 16_667, 16_667, 16_667, 16_667, 16_667, 16_667, 16_667, 16_667, 16_667, 16_667, 16_667, 16_667, 16_667, 16_667, 16_667, 16_667 ] } ] ``` 60 APPENDAGES OF THE EPIDERMIS.—HAIRS. epidermis of plants growing in darkness so as to be blanched ; and from the tube of leaves. A. Appendages of the EPIDERMIS.—Upon the surface of the epidermis, or in the sub-epidermal tissue, there are frequently to be found certain structures consisting of one or more cells of different shapes, and containing various substances. These are termed, collectively, Appendages of the Epidermis. They may be divided into two classes, according with the fibro-vascular tissues of the leaf or stem. We shall treat of them under the two heads of Hairs and Glands. (1.) HAIRS OR TRICHOMES.—These are simple prolongations Fig. 133. Fig. 134. Fig. 135. Fig. 136. Fig. 137. Fig. 138. Fig. 139. Fig. 138 Simple appendage (a) of the common cucumber (Cucumis sativus).—Fig. 134, Trichome stellar, borne on a shoot of a plant of Cucumis sativus. —Fig. 135, Branched hair of a shoot of a plant of Morrenia.—Fig. 136, Branched hair of Arctium lappa Linn. externally of the epidermal cells covered by cuticle (figs. 119, 120, and 124). They may either consist of a single cell, when they are called simple hairs (figs. 140 and 141), or they may be formed by several cells (figs. 142 and 143), when they are called branched hairs (figs. 140 and 141). Simple hairs may be undivided (fig. 135), or forked (fig. 134), or branched (fig. 135). A beautiful example of a simple hair is seen in the leaves of Devilina scabra, Alisma, etc. (figs. 136 and 137); this is formed by a cell dividing horizontally into a number of parts which are arranged in a star-like form. 9/22 FORMS OF HAIRS. Compound hairs may be also undivided, as is more frequently the case (figs. 140 and 141), and branched (figs. 138 and 139). The compound hairs are usually arranged in a spiral manner, or spirally arranged, and thus give a variety of forms to such hairs. Com- monly they are cylindrical, but sometimes they are so that the hairs assume a more or less cylindrical form ; but when the component cells are contracted at the points where they come in contact with each other, they become somewhat flattened (figs. 140 and 141). When the cells below are larger than those above, so that the hairs gradually taper upwards to a point, they become Figs. 140, 142, 143, 144. Figs. 140. Figs. 142. Figs. 143. Figs. 144. Figs. 145, 146. Fig. 147. Fig. 145. Modified hair of the Virginian spiderwort (*Pentasoma sec- undum*).—Fig. 146. Cheveux hair.—Fig. 147. Captain hair.—Pin. the dotted line shows the direction of the axis of the hair. Bullata has from the 17th.—Fig. 147. Pulita has from *Dichogena* arenæ. Conical ; or when gradually larger from the base to the apex, the hairs are clavate or club-shaped (fig. 142); or when abruptly changed into a conical form (figs. 138 and 139). When the terminal cells of hairs are terminated by a hook on one side only, they are said to be uniserial or uniserial hooked or hooked (fig. 144); or if ending in two or more hooks at the apex, they are gladiolate or hard (fig. 140). Hairs again, instead of being uniserial, may be oblique, or biseriately arranged, may develop horizontally in a more or less circular manner, and form stellar hairs, as in *Corydalis* (fig. 142); or in which one terminal cell may develop in opposite directions from another 62 HAIRS.—SCALES OR SCURF. cell raised above the level of the epidermis, so as to produce what is termed a "hairy" surface. The hairs of the above form occur equally in simple hairs as in compound ones, and the figures are taken indifferently from either kind. Many hairs have their outer surface covered with interlaced those on the outer coat of the seeds of *Acanthodendron*, and the fruit of *Sauria Horminum* (Fig. 148). Fig. 146. Fig. 147. Fig. 151. Fig. 150. Fig. 152. When the divisions of stellate hairs are closely connected by cuticle or otherwise, they form scales or scurf ; such epidermal appendages are termed *scurf-hairs*. A scale may be defined as a flattened membranous more or less rounded plate of parenchymatous tissue, attached by its centre, and proceeding from the epidermis, and having no conspicuous prolongation of its component cells (Fig. 149). These scales are Figs. 146, 147, 151. Figs. 150, 152. Fig. 148. Hairs with spiral fibers in their interior, from the outer coat of the fruit of *Dioscorea*. Drawings, Fig. 149. Scale or scurf-hair of the *Caulis* of *Caulis* (Fig. 153). Drawings, Fig. 154. Hairs of *Bastaraceae* hairy, showing its component cells—Fig. 152. RAMENTACEOUS HAIR.--FRICKLER. particularly abundant on the surface of some plants, to which they communicate a scurfy or silvery appearance, as in the case of the cotton plant (Gossypium), and in the case of the Greek term for a scurf. Other varieties of hairs which are allied to the above, are the remuda or remundaceae hairs so frequently found upon the stem and petioles of Ferns. These consist of cells (fig. 101) similar to those of the bristles, but attached by its base to the surface of the epidermis from whence it grows (fig. 103). When the hairs are composed of cells which are short, and have their internal walls thickened so that they form stiffened Fig. 103. Fig. 104. Fig. 105. processes, they are then called seta or bristles, and the surface is termed setose or setaceous. These, slightly modified, form prickles, which may be defined as large multifurcated hairs which spring from a common base, and whose outer walls are thickened, some of which are hardened by the deposition of lignin, and which terminate in a sharp point (fig. 102). Such structures are frequent on the stems of the Broom and Bracken. Prickles and some other allied structures have been termed Empresses. They should not be confounded with thorns, which are therefore alluded to when speaking of branches. (See page 110.) The hairs above described are either empty, or they contain fluid or solid matter within them, and are then termed spicules. Such have been formerly termed by some botanists, Iphéma- tosa, because they resemble the Iphématia, a kind of fungus which are filled with special secretions, and hence have been A diagram showing different types of hairs. Fig. 101. A Cotton. A. Fine Short- hairs (remuda). B. Long Hairs (remunda). C. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with shorter hairs. D. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hairs. E. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hairs. F. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hairs. G. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hairs. H. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hairs. I. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hairs. J. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hairs. K. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hairs. L. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hairs. M. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hairs. N. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hairs. O. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hairs. P. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hairs. Q. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hairs. R. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hairs. S. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hairs. T. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hairs. U. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hairs. V. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hairs. W. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hairs. X. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hairs. Y. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hairs. Z. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hairs. AA. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hairs. BB. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hairs. CC. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hands. DD. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hands. EE. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hands. FF. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hands. GG. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hands. HH. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hands. II. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hands. JJ. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hands. KK. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hands. LL. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hands. MM. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hands. NN. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hands. OO. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hands. PP. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hands. QQ. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hands. RR. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hands. SS. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hands. TT. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hands. UU. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hands. VV. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hands. WW. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hands. XX. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hands. YY. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hands. ZZ. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hands. AAAAA. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hands. BBBBB. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hands. CCCCC. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hands. DDDDD. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hands. EEEEEE. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hands. FFFFF. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hands. GGGGG. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hands. HHHHH. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hands. IIIII. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hands. JJJJJJJ. The long hairs (remunda) with the style covered with longer hands. KKKKKKK. The long hair 64 GLANDS.—EXTERNAL GLANDS.—SESSILE GLANDS. called *glanular* hairs. The latter will be again alluded to under *plantae*, to which variety of epidermal appendage they properly belong. Hairs occur upon various parts of plants, and according to their abundance, may be divided into two varieties, those close to their surfaces, all of which are distinguished in practical Botany by specific names, and those which are more distant from the leaves and young stems, but they are also found on the parts of the flower, and these are termed the submarginal calloped epidermis, or hairs covering the margins of the petals of the flowers of the genus *Ceratostigma* *previum* ; while cotton is the hair covering the seeds of the species of *Gossypium*. Cotton may be readily distinguished under the microscope from the fiber-olae already described, from its component cells not possessing a central cavity, but being filled with a substance when dry, so that it then resembles a more or less twisted band with thickened walls. The cotton fibers are composed of long, thinening fibres, from having thick walls, always maintain their original cylindrical form and tapering extremities, b. By means of this arrangement, the cotton fibers are spread out on the surface of the flower frequently serve as indirect part in the process of fertilization by collecting the pollen which falls from the stamens (figs. 308, 309), and thus facilitating its reception. The collecting hairs which occur on the stage of the species of *Camellia* (fig. 310) are very similar to those of cotton, b., retracting within their lower, at the period of fertilization. (2.) Glans. —This name properly applies only to cells which secrete a secretion. In some cases they are connected with some other epidermal and sub-epidermal appendages. Glands have been variously arranged in different plants, either as *subterral* and *internal* by others, into simple and compound; while others, again, have adopted different modes of arrangement. We divide them into: a. *External Glands.* These may be again divided into stated, and unstated glands. The former are those which are frequently called glanular hairs. They are either formed of a single cell, dilated at its apex by the peculiar fluid it secretes (figs. 311, 312), or they consist of several cells placed at the end of a hair; or they consist of a mass of cells (figs. 313). *Stated Glands* present various appearances, and consist, like the former, of either one secreting cell (fig. 313), or of two, or more (figs. 314). In some cases they are situated at a level where the epidermis are frequently termed papilla (fig. 315); and it is probable that these are nothing else than the lower part of those that give rise to the peculiar crystalline appearance of that plant. When stated glands are composed of cells containing solid secretions A diagram showing various types of glandular structures. **EXTERNAL GLANDS—STINGS.** so that they form hardened spherical or other shaped appendages upon the surface of the epidermis, they are termed stings. When these stings are long and slender, they are elongated above into one or more hair-like processes, which are placed horizontally (fig. 104), or vertically (fig. 165), we have a Fig. 104. Fig. 157. Fig. 158. Fig. 159. For fig. 104. Stalked terminal gland of Nettle. —Fig. 157. Stalked minute gland of Impatiens. (Austriacus impatiens.) —Fig. 158. Stalked terminal gland of Nettle. —Fig. 159. Stalked terminal gland from daisy plantain. stings formed. Stings are sometimes arranged around the head of stalked glands ; we place them here because their secreting apparatus is situated on the head of the spore, as in stalked glands. In the Nettle (fig. 165), the sting is composed of two cells, enlarged at its base, $b$, by the irritating fluid $f$, $f$, which it com- Fig. 160. Fig. 161. Fig. 162. Fig. 163. For fig. 160. Stalked shoot of Impatiens, terminated at its summit by two erecting cells, —Fig. 161. Stalked plant with four erecting cells at its summit, —Fig. 162. Stalked plant with three erecting cells at its summit, —Fig. 163. Stalked plant with two erecting cells at its summit, and common Nopaleae (Impatiens). —Fig. 164. Common Impatiens (Impatiens). tails, and tapering upwards to near the apex, when it again expands into a rounded head, $a$. The enlarged base is closely invested by a dense layer of epidermal cells, $c$, which forms a kind of sheath round the base of the sting, so that when the head, $a$, is broken off, and the sharp point of the sting then left 63 66 INTERNAL GLANDS. enters the skin, while the irritating fluid is pushed up at the same time into the wound by the pressure exerted by the elastic fibres of the dermis, as in a nettle, or by a needle, instead of being thus touched lightly, as grasped firmly, Fig. 164. Fig. 165. **Fig. 164.** Sting of a species of *Staphylococcus*. a. Epidermis, b. A. b. Glanular Membrane. c. Fig. 165. Sting of the common Nettle (Urtica dioica). a. Epidermis, b. A. b. Glanular Membrane, c. The stinging cell, d. The stinging point, e. The epidermal cells surrounding the stinging point. sting becomes crushed, and as it cannot then enter the skin, no irritation is produced. b. Internal Glands.—These are cavities containing secretions situated below the epidermis, and surrounded by a compact layer of secreting cells (figs. 166, 2, and 167). They are closely allied Fig. 166. Fig. 167. **Fig. 166.** Internal gland from the leaf of the common Rue (Ruta graveolens). y. Glanular surrounding a gland, and itself surrounded by the epidermis, x. The epidermal cells surrounding the gland, see **Fig. 30**, p. 7. Internal glands from the root of the orange. in their nature to receptacles of secretion (see page 68), from which, in fact, in many cases, it is difficult to distinguish them. In some plants they are found on the leaves (figs. 168, 1) of the Rus (figs. 166, 1), Myrtle, Orange, Lemon, and St John's Wort. Illustration showing internal glands in a plant leaf. NECTARIES.—INTERCELLULAR CANALS AND SPACES. 67 They may be readily observed by holding such leaves between the eye and the light, when they appear as little transparent spots. In these spots we see the cells of the epidermis, and only matters they contain reflecting the light in a different manner to that of the other parts of the leaf. In other instances these glands are of a more complicated nature, being composed of cells beyond the surface in the form of little excrescences or tubercles, as those on the leaves of the Cucurbitaceae. These glandular spots on plants are very common in many other plants, besides those already mentioned : thus in all the Labiate Plants, as Mint, Marjoram, Thyme, etc., and in the leaves of the Rutaceous Plants. Most of the secretions they contain that such plants owe their value as articles of commerce. Holding a sort of intermediate position between the internal and external glands as above described, are the true nectaries. Figs. 168, 169, 170. Fig. 168. Nectary of a species of *Rosa* with a nectariferous cavity at its base, containing a secretion which is not nectar. Fig. 169. A nectariferous cavity without a nectariferous gland. Fig. 170. An excrescence on a leaf of *Corydalis*, showing a nectariferous cavity. Flowers, which being strictly of glandular nature will be most properly alluded to here under the name of *nectariferous glands*. They are well seen at the base of the petals of the species of *Forsythia*, *Corydalis*, and *Primula*. The *Orchis* (fig. 169). These glands consist of a pore or depression into which a honey-like secretion is poured from some of the surrounding cells. The tissue of the stigmas of Flowering Plants is also covered by a viscid secretion or excretion at certain periods, and may be considered as nectariferous. INTERCELLULAR SYSTEMS.—Having now described the different kinds of glands, we shall proceed to consider intercellulars when combined so as to form the tissues, we have in the next place to allude to certain cavities, viz., which are placed between two cells, and are called intercellular canals or spaces. a. Intercellular Passages or Canals and Interellular Spaces. The cells being, in the great majority of cases, bounded by rounded angles, it is not very rare irregular outlets must necessarily happen that when they come in contact with one another they can only touch at certain points, and therefore 67 68 AIR CAVITIES—RECEPTACLES OF SECRETION. interseps will be left between them, the size of which will vary, according to the greater or less roundness or irregularity of their surfaces. In some cases these interseps are filled with cells running round the edges of the cells and freely communicating with one another, so that they form a closed or elliptical paracyma (figs. 58, 4, 5, and 59), they are called "intercellular passages" or canals; but when they are of large size, as in spongiæ (figs. 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, c). In most cases these spaces and canals are filled with air, and when they contain any organs exposed to the atmosphere which possess a stalk, they are connected with them (fig. 128, f.), by which means a free passage is kept up between the atmosphere and the interior of the plant. b. Air Cavities.—In water plants the intercellular spaces are commonly of large size, and bounded by a number of small cells regularly arranged by which they are prevented from communicating. A diagram showing a cross-section of a plant cell with air cavities. Fig. 171. Frontal Section (Prostatic section). A. Trunval surface. b. b. c. c. Truncal surface. d. e. e. Truncal surface. The latter two surfaces are cut at right angles to each other. The vitreae are really seen by noting that they are shorter than, and alter- nate with, the trunks. eating with one another, or with the external air (fig. 170); they are then commonly termed air canals. In such plants these canals either communicate directly with the atmosphere through the roots, and of supplying their interior with air. In other instances we find large spaces in the interior of the plant, which are formed by the destruction of their internal tissues by the more rapid growth of their outer portions; those have been termed "air canals." c. Receptacles of Secretion.—In many plants, again, the inter- cellular cavities may be regarded as receptacles for the secretions of the plant; in which case they are termed Receptacles of Secretion. In many instances these are closely allied to the internal passages just mentioned; but in others they are large and are frequently combined with them; but properly speaking, an internal gland is a secreting organ as itself, while a Receptacle of secretion is merely a cavity containing a secretion which has INTERCELLULAR SUBSTANCE. THE STEM. been formed in other parts and deposited in it. These receptacles vary much in form, but are usually more or less elongated. They are formed by the cells of the cortex, which, when they are developed, by which means a cavity is hollowed out of the surrounding substance, and thus become filled with this substance, and have therefore been termed turpentine cœla. In the plants of the order they occur especially in the wood (figs. 187, 188), and also in the bark of the trees of the same order (figs. 170, 171, A and B). The reccipitation of such substances is found especially in certain orders of plants, to which from the nature of their contents they are specially adapted. d. Intercellular Substance.—The spaces above described as occurring between the sides of cells appear in some cases to be filled with a substance, which has been called intercellular substance has been given. This intercellular substance was supposed to be a kind of glue, which united the cells together, gluing them together as it were, and in some plants occurring in great abundance, as in many Algae, the horny albumen or myxoblastum is seen to fill up these spaces. In the leaves of the Houttuynia cordata, Begonia (figs. 92, cf. et al.), &c., But in all these cases this appearance is due to the presence of a liquid substance filling up the cell in the cellulosine forming the cell-wall. Thus, in the Sea Wrack, it is caused by the enormous imbibition of water, which makes the cell-wall swell up, and eventually to be converted into mucilage. CHAPTER 3. ORGANS OF NUTRITION OR VEGETATION. HAVING fully considered the elementary structures of plants, we proceed to consider those organs or compound organs which they form by their combination. These, as already indicated, are three in number—viz., 1. Organ of Nutrition or Vegetation, and 2. Organ of Reproduction. The root, stem, and leaves form those of nutrition; and the seed and fruit those of reproduction. Of these two bodies it is most convenient to commence our notice of the organ of nutrition with the stem. Section 1. The Stem or Callus. The stem may be defined as that part of the axis which at its first development in the embryo takes an opposite direction 79 STEM OR CAULOME. to the root, seeking the light and air, and hence termed the ascending axis, and bearing on its surface the leaves and other leaf appendages. In this respect, however, the numerous instances, only strictly applicable to a stem at its earliest de- velopment, are exceptions to the general rule. For in its ap- pearance, instead of continuing to take an upward direction into the air, it will grow along the ground, or even bury itself beneath the surface of the earth. In this case, although the stem and air it resembles, in such respects, the root, with which organ such stems are, yet they are not identical. For example, how- ever, a stem, as already noticed (page 14), is thus distinguished from a root by bearing modified leaves, each of which has also the power of growth. The leaves of a stem are in consequence of leaves with leaf-buds in their axils so therefore the essential char- acteristic of a stem is its mediation to a root, in which such structures are always absent. All Flowering plants, from the mode in which their axis is developed, may be divided into two classes. One class does not neces- sarily have a stem, although such stem may be very short. Those which do not possess a stem are termed "herbaceous," while those in which it is very short or inconspicuous are termed "aculeate or stellate." In Flowering plants the stem is not necessarily long or conspicuous (page 63), as already noticed (page 7). I. LEAVES AND THE AXILS OF THE LEAVES IN THE SYSTEM OF THE STEM IN GENERAL.—A stem in its simplest condition consists merely of parenchymatous cells, with occasionally a central vertical cord of slightly elongated, anastomosing cells. This is the condition of the root; but it may be, seen with few exceptions, in Liverworts and Mosses (figs. 7-9). Such a structure is not found in any other part of the plant except those of low organisation, and we accordingly find it, as a rule, that in all plants above the Mosses the stem is made up partly of parenchymatous cells and partly of cells which are more or less different kinds, by which the requisite strength and toughness are produced. These cells are arranged in a system similar to sys- tems as already noticed (page 64), namely, a *Phoroncium* or *Cauliflorum*, and a *Floro-macular*. The parenchymatous system grows in any direction whatever; but that portion of it which is vertically upwards, by which the stem is increased in length, or horizontally, by which it is broadened out laterally. In some cases the system only grows longitudinally, and thus forms cords or bundles which are distributed vertically in the midst of the parenchymatous. The parenchymatous system is termed *Phoroncium* or *Cauli- fiorum*, while the *Floro-macular* is likewise called the longi- tudinal or vertical system. In these internal structures the stems of plants are subject to numerous modifications, all of which may be, however, in their essential properties similar to those described above. Of which many are found in Phanerogamous or Flowering plants, and one INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF STEMS. 71 in Cryptogamous or Flowerless plants. As illustrations of the two forms we may take an Oak and a Palm stem, of the latter, that of the Oak being shown in figs. 172. Upon making a transverse section of an Oak (fig. 172), we observe that the vascular bundles, which are the chief component, are so arranged as to exhibit a distinct separation of wood. Thus we have a central one, $a$, called the pith; an external one, $c$, or cortex, as it is termed; and two lateral ones, $b$ and $d$, or rays, and little rays, $b$, connecting the pith and the bark, termed sec- ondary rays. The bark grows mainly in diameter by an- nual additions of new wood on the outside of the old wood, and hence it is called Exogenous (from two Greek words signi- fying outside grooves). Fig. 172. Fig. 173. For 172. Transverse section of an Oak-branch, six years old. $a$, The me- dulla or pith, c, c', c", The bark, d, The wood. A Median ray, e, A secondary ray, f, A little ray, g. The three vascular bundles. The whole being divided by a membrane. In a Palm stem no such distinction of parts can be noticed (fig. 173), but upon making a transverse section we observe a mass of parenchyma, $m$, distributed throughout it; and the three vascular bundles are surrounded by a series of separate bundles, $f$, which have no tendency to form concentric layers of wood ; these being held externally by a fibrous and internal layer of parenchyma. This kind of stem is formed essentially by the ends of the vascular bundles, and which are filled with a mass of parenchyma, called Endogenous (from two Greek words signifying inside grooves), as such stems grow by the addition of new vascular bundles each year. In this way we see that in these two structures, the Exogenous and Endogenous, are characteristic of Flowerless plants. If we now turn our attention to Flowering plants, and make a transverse section of a Tree-fern (fig. 174), we observe the centre, $m$, to be either hollow or filled with parenchyma, the 72 INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF STEMS. vascular bundles being arranged in irregular sinuous plates around it, $r$, $v$, $e$, and forming a continuous or interrupted circle near its base. The vascular bundles consist of a rind, $e$, inapparent from the wood, and a core, $v$, consisting of a torused Acrogenous (from two Greek words signifying ressous growth) which is grown only by additions to its apex. The characteristic peculiarities thus found to exist in the internal structure of stems, and in these three kinds of stem are due to corresponding differences in their anatomy. The wood is commonly called their fibro-ema- cula, and the core their cortex. Thus the vascular bundle of an Exo- genous stem (fig. 170) consists of a rind, $e$, a layer of spiral vessels, $s$, surrounding the core, $v$, and a cortex, $c$, a layer of woody cells, $d$, which are wanting in the endocortex. In an Endogenous stem this arrangement is reversed. The cortex is composed of this layer which are subsequently developed, in permineral plates, pitted vessels, $d$, and wood-cells, $w$, which together form the wood. In the Endogenous stem the cortex is also found intermixed with the wood-cells. The whole is covered externally by a rind, $e$, which consists of parenchymatous cells, $p$, on the outside of which are the liberi, $l$, and the other parts of the bark, $e$, and the epidermis, $e$. The different kinds of tissues are here shown in fig. 171. It will be seen that what has been called the zylen or woody part of the bundle ; and those others which have been called the cortex and libera ; does not grow the different parts is progressive, the inner part of each being first formed, and growing gradually proceeding to the outer part. This is especially evident in connexion with further growth, and thus form periodically new layers of xylen and phloem. These layers are termed secondary vascular bundles. It also necessarily follows from the cambium being placed between the xylem and the phloem, that the layers of in- crease to be formed must be connected with one another with the previous ones. In Endogenous stems the vascular bundles (fig. 170) consist internally of wood-cells, $w$; and vessel-spirals, $s$; on the outside of which other spiral vessels are formed, as well as pits, $d$, and other reserve-cells, $p$. The wood-cells are paren- chymatous cells, $c$, corresponding to cambium cells, which are generally converted into thick-walled parenchymatous cells, $t$, resembling those of the liberi of Exogenous stems. On this Fig. 171. Transverse section of the stem of an Endogenous plant. A diagram showing a transverse section of a stem from an Endogenous plant. A diagram showing a transverse section of a stem from an Endogenous plant. Fig. 170. Transverse section of the stem of an Exogenous plant. A diagram showing a transverse section of a stem from an Exogenous plant. A diagram showing a transverse section of a stem from an Exogenous plant. INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF STEMS. 73 outside of these liber-cells are some latifascicul vessels $l_c$; and the whole bundle is surrounded by parenchyma, $p$. In this case the development of the vascular bundles is very different from that of exogenous stems, it is gradual, the inner part of each being first formed and growth proceeding progressively to the outside; hence these also are progressive, but they differ from those of the former in having a layer of growing cells resembling the cambium layer, no increase in size occurring after the formation of the first vascular bundles of Exogenous stems. Hence the new vascular bundles are not developed in continuity with the old, Fig. 175. Fig. 176. A diagram showing the structure of a stem. The diagram shows a cross-section of a stem, with a central cylinder of xylem and phloem, surrounded by a layer of parenchyma cells (P). Within this layer, there are several vascular bundles (V), each consisting of a central cylinder of xylem and phloem, surrounded by a layer of sclerenchyma cells (S). The outermost layer is made up of epidermal cells (E). Fig. 175. Transverse section of a fibre-vascular bundle of an Exogenous stem (Lindera obtusiloba). $l_c$, Latifascicul vessel; $l$, Liber cell; $p$, Parenchyma; $s$, Sclerenchyma; $e$, Epidermis. Fig. 176. Transverse section of a fibre-vascular bundle of an Endogenous stem (Pinus). $l_c$, Latifascicul vessel; $l$, Liber cell; $p$, Parenchyma surrounding the bundle; $s$, Sclerenchyma surrounding the bundle; $e$, Epidermis. but remain distinct and of limited size. They are therefore named definite or closed vascular bundles. In all stems which have definite vascular bundles are chiefly made up of vessels of the scalariform, annular, or spiral type, according to the different orders of Cormophytes from whence they have been derived. These vessels are surrounded by liber-cells, and the whole is enclosed by a firm layer of parenchyma cells, which is formed during the softening and hardening process, and to which the name of adendroma has been given. Such bundles only grow by additions to their sum- mit, and do not increase in diameter, but are not formed in succession like those of indefinite and definite vascular 74 EXOGENOUS OR DICYTODELONOUS STEM. bundles, but simultaneously, they are called *simultaneous* caules, because they grow together. The distinctive appearance and modes of growth which we have thus seen to occur in the stems of the three plants above noticed, are due to the peculiar structure of their internal struc- ture of their embryo. Thus plants with Exogenous stems have an embryo with two cytoplasmic layers (Fig. 14, c, and 16, c) ; those with Endogenous stems have an embryo with one cytoplasmic layer (Fig. 17, a); while those with Acrogenous stems have no proper embryo, but only a mass of parenchymatous cells. These acrogenous stems are also termed *Dicytodeleous*. Endogenous stems *Mons* *exocytodeleus*, and Acrogenous stems *Dicytodeleus*. For reasons which will appear later on, it is desirable that these three cases be to prefered to the former. In the succeeding pages we shall use the term *Exogenous Stem*. With these general remarks on the internal structure of the three kinds of stems we now proceed to describe them respectively in detail. 4. EXOGENOUS OR DICYTODELENOUS STEM.—All the trees and large shrubs growing in temperate and tropical climates, and all kinds of temperate and cold climates are exogenous in their growth. In warm and tropical climates such plants occur associated with those possessing endogenous stems. The majority of the warm-plant plants are far the most abundant even in those parts of the globe. In the northern hemisphere, however, there are many species of paronychium. But as soon as growth commences, some of its parenchymatous elements become deve- loped into parenchymatous cells, so as to form the wood of the indefinite varieties of paronychium, which is charac- teristic of such a stem. Those woody parts (fig. 17, a) are at first sepa- rated from each other by a series of inter- vening spaces of parenchyma, but as growth proceeds these spaces become large, while at the same time new vas- cular elements are formed between these spaces. The wood thus forms at the end of the first year's growth of the stem a series of parenchymatous cells round the central mass of paren- chyma, interrupted only at certain points by a few vessels or parenchy- ma in the form of radiating lines. This is shown in fig. 17, b, by an external layer, $b$, of parenchymatous tissue, which is connected with the central parenchyma by a few vessels, as shown in fig. 17, c. The stem then presents the following parts (fig. 17): I. A A diagram showing the structure of an exogenous stem. Fig. 17. Horizontal section of the first year's stem of branch of an exogenous stem (fig. 17). $a$. Parenchyma tissue. $b$. Dicytodeleus. $A$. $B$. $C$. $D$. $E$. $F$. $G$. $H$. $I$. $J$. $K$. $L$. $M$. $N$. $O$. $P$. $Q$. $R$. $S$. $T$. $U$. $V$. $W$. $X$. $Y$. $Z$. central parenchyma by the dicytodeleus stem. 17 EXOGENOUS OR DICYOTYLDONOUS STEM. central mass of parenchyma, $m$, which is called the *Medulla* or *Pith*. An interrupted ring of spiral vessels, $n$, called the *Metacalix*, surrounds the pith. The metacalix consists of wood-cells and vessels, forming the *Wood*; $d$. A zone of very delicate thin-walled cells, the *Cortex*, surrounds the metacalix, $r$, connecting the pith with the cambium layer, the *Medullary rays*; $e$. The Bark, $b$, a mass of green parenchyma surrounding the xylem, forms a protective covering for the *Exodermis*. The stems of plants which live more than one year, as those of trees and shrubs, at first resemble those which are herbaceous or die yearly, except that the wood in such plants is generally formed in two years. In the first year, a new zone of wood is formed on the outside of this ![Fig. 178.] **Fig. 178.** Horizontal section from the centre to the circumference of the stem of the Magnolia during three years old. $m$, Pith; $n$, Spiral vessel; $r$, Metacalix; $e$, Medullary rays; $b$, Bark; $d$, Wood. In the second year, a new zone of wood is formed on the outside corresponding to the three years' growth. $m$, Newly formed bark. The figure 1, 2, 3, refers to the three successive years' growth of the wood. One of the previous year (figs. 175, 2), while at the same time a new zone of wood is being formed on its outside (fig. 176). These layers are developed out of the vitally active cells of the cambium layer, already described (fig. 170). The cells of this layer are elongated and the phloem of the indefinite vascular bundles which form the stem of Exogenous plants (figs. 177, c). The medullary rays (fig. 175) are also developed out of these cells. They grow outwards and their outside, and thus continue to keep up the connection between the pith and the outer surface of the stem by forming like narrow new layers of wood and fibrous bark, as each for every year's growth (figs. 178, d), while the medullary rays also continue to grow outwards and to keep up their connection. The preceding year's growth is therefore essentially a repetition of that of the next year, except as regards the pituitary spiral vessel, the former of which does not increase in size after the first year, and the 76 EXOGENOUS STEM—PITH OR MEDULLA. latter are never repeated, so that in old stems we have no more distinct regions than in those of the first year. We have conse- quently in the stem only two parts—the pith and the medulla. Medulla: wood, mesophyll rays, cambium layer, and bark, which we shall now describe in the order in which they are placed. 1. Pith or Medulla (figs. 178, m., and 180, a, a).—This consists usually of a cylindrical or angular column which is situated commonly at, or towards, the centre of the stem. The pith is not continued into the root, but it is always in connection directly with the terminal bud of the stem, and also at first indirectly by the meristematic tissue. In some cases, however, it may be continued into the root, but this is rare. The parenchyma of which the pith is composed is generally that kind which is known as regular (cf. fig. 179), and examined microscopically, it presents a hexagonal (fig. 63), or polygonal form (fig. 178). In the earliest stages of the plant's existence the whole of it consists of cells which form the pith, and the outermost cells of which are called epidermis. From this it is clear that in all plants, by the differentiation of other tissues, such as the phloem and xylem, and other vessels, and wood-cells are developed. As, however, these elements of the three-vas- cular system are formed by their growth on or en- croaching upon the fundamental tissue, circum- scribing the central portion till it assumes the shape of a cylinder or a cone, while the wood-cells filling the interior of the stem and giving off mesophyll rays as flattened plate-like pro- cesses. Fig. 179. Young shoot of a plant (Arundinaria japonica) vertical section through the pith. The diameter of the pith also varies much in different plants. In some it is very small as in young plants, as in the Ebony and Guaiacum; while in soft-wooded plants, as 179 Fig. 178. Young shoot of a plant (Arundinaria japonica) vertical section through the pith. The diameter of the pith also varies much in different plants. In some it is very small as in young plants, as in the Ebony and Guaiacum; while in soft-wooded plants, as THE MEDULLARY SHEATH.—THE WOOD. The Elder and Ruepecker Plant (Tetracome [Aria] papirifera), it is larger. The diameter only varies in different plants, but so also in different parts of the same plant. In the spring, when the name of wood of the first year is fully perfected, the pith which it surrounds can no longer increase, and it accordingly remains at the same level with that of the previous year's wood. The pith, as we have just seen, is essentially composed of parenchyma cells, and its presence in the medullary sheath may be readily observed by breaking a summer a young branch of the Fig-tree, when a quantity of milky juice at once oozes out from that part. 2. The Medullary Sheath (fig. 180, b).—C consists of spiral vessels, $e$, $f$, $g$, $h$, $i$, $j$, $k$, $l$, $m$, $n$, $o$, $p$, $q$, $r$, $s$, $t$, $u$, $v$, $w$, $x$, $y$, $z$; and of a central core of wood. They do not form a continuous investment to the pith, but spaces are left between them, through which the medullary rays are continued. This is shown in fig. 176, where they are re- peated after the first year's growth, the medullary sheath is con- sequently formed by a series of concentric rings, each one being super- posed on the preceding one. 3. The Wood.—This is situated between the pith on the inside and the bark on its outer (fig. 172, r), and it is separated into ridges and furrows by the medullary rays (fig. 172, s). The wood is thus a continuous layer, b. We have seen that in the first year's growth of an ac- cumbent plant such as the Fig., the wood is formed in inter- rupted manner immediately surrounding the pith (fig. 177). That portion of the wood which is first developed consists, as we have seen, chiefly of a mass of parenchyma cells (figs. 180, 181), which form the medullary sheath. On the other hand, in a climbing plant such as the wood forming the first year's growth (fig. 180, b) consists of woody vessels, e., among which are distributed, more or less abundantly, some vessels containing milky juice (fig. 180, d); and in herbaceous plants ; although in herbaceous plants we have also annular and helical vessels (figs. 180, 181), yet in all cases a continuous zone of wood is formed, as we have seen, from the cells of the cambium layer which are placed on the outside of the first stem. This means that in all cases except those of climbing plants that of the first year, except that no medullary sheath is formed; it consists merely of a mass of parenchyma cells (figs. 180, d). b. In the third year of growth another sheath is pro- produced precisely resembling the second (fig. 180, S), and this sheath surrounds entirely the wood which has been formed during the plant continues to live. It is in consequence of each succeeding layer of wood being thus deposited on the outside of those of those two years' growth that we find in all cases a continuous ring of wood round the stem (figs. 180, 181). In climbing plants such as those of the Fig., Vine, and Cypresses (figs. 180, 181), instead of being formed of ordinary woody tissue, and pitted vessels, consist entirely of diac-bearing woody tissue (see pages 45 and 47).
Stomata in one square inch of surface. Upper surface Lower surface
Merceron none 4,000
Fascia none 5,770
Vine none 13,600
Olive none 27,000
Holly none 6,000
Laurustinus none 90,000
Cherry-Lavender none 8,000
Lilac none 160,000
Hydrangea none 160,000
Mistletoe none 390,000
TraDESCANTIA 2,000 2,000
Horse-Plant 1,150 1,150
Garden Flag 11,572 11,572
Aloe 25,000 25,000
Vines 46,400 46,400
Clove Pink
Fig. Description
180 Medullary sheath (b)
172 Pith (r)
176 Medullary rays (s)
177 Wood formation (interrupted)
180 Wood formation (continuous)
180 Wood formation (climbing plant)
180 Wood formation (herbaceous plant)
180 Wood formation (cambium layer)
180 Wood formation (diac-bearing woody tissue)
78 EXOGENOUS STEM.—THE WOOD. The pitted vessels, which we have seen form an essential portion of the annual layers of the wood of all exogenous stems, except those of the conifers, are found also in the leaves, Ash, and other plants, that they may readily be seen by the naked eye upon inspection of their transverse sections. They are found in all cases, upon examining under the microscope a transverse slice of any common exogenous stem, the pitted vessels may be at once recognized by their characteristic structure and size of their openings (figs. 178, v, e, v, and 180, A, b, c, b). In the Fig. 180. A diagram showing the structure of an exogenous stem. It includes a horizontal section (A), a vertical section (B), and a longitudinal section (C). The figure shows the arrangement of cells in the wood and bark of the stem. The wood cells are shown to be larger than the bark cells. The wood cells are also shown to be more numerous than the bark cells. Fig. 180. Diagram showing the structure of an exogenous stem. It includes a horizontal section (A), a vertical section (B), and a longitudinal section (C). The figure shows the arrangement of cells in the wood and bark of the stem. The wood cells are shown to be larger than the bark cells. The wood cells are also shown to be more numerous than the bark cells. Consider a transverse section showing the wood to be made up, as just noticed, of disc-bearing woody tissue, though the cells which have been formed earliest in the year in each zone are larger and have larger openings than those formed later on during the end of the year (fig. 181). They are also larger than those of the ordinary woody tissue of other trees. The pitted vessels in ordinary transverse sections of exogenous stems are not part of each annual zone, the wood-cells forming a compact layer on the THE WOOD.—ANNEAL ZONES. 73 outside (fig. 180). In such cases the limits of each zone are accurately defined. In those trees which have the pitted vessels or the diffuse-porous wood, the zones are not so well marked in the Lime and Maple, the zones are by no means so evident, and only one or two of them can be distinguished on the plates of the wood-cells on the outside of each layer, which appear to be caused by their diminished growth towards the end of the season. The difference between the zones in temperate and tropical woods is most evident in trees growing in temperate and cold climates, where there is a more or less lengthening winter in which no growth takes place, and a shortening after-winter, during which growth occurs and other seasons. In the trees of tropical climates the zones are not so distinct, but they may be seen in some instances. The absence of repose in such regions, although to a certain extent the dry season here leads to a cessation of growth, but the alternation of the growing season and that of rest is not so well marked. Fig. 181. Fig. 180. Horizontal section of the stem of a Fir three years old. The figures 1, 2, 3 refer to the annual layers of wood, i.e., sections containing various successive compounds of secondary growths. As in colder climates. As alterations of growth and seasons of repose occur at different times in different regions, and in different species, we can readily understand that if a plant was submitted to such conditions as those described above, it would pro- duce a corresponding number of zones ; and this does really occur in some plants of temperate climates, particularly in those which grow in hard-wooded perennial plants, so that the influence of such alternating conditions is very evident. The production of two or more zones in a year is probably even more frequent than in temperate regions. In other trees again, we have only one zone per year, as in the Poplar and willow, and also in the Cypres ; and lastly, there are instances occurring in which no annual layers are formed at all. This is a sufficient reason, whatever be the age of the plant, as in certain species of Cypres. A horizontal section of a tree stem showing annual rings. 80 THE WOOD.—DURAMEN AND ALBERUM. Such appearances as the two latter are, however, totally independ- ent of each other, and depend on the peculiarities of certain plants, and even of entire natural orders. The annual layers of different trees vary much in thickness, thus the bark of the Poplar is thicker than that of the Elm, whilst than in those which are harder and of slower growth. The in- fluence of the season upon the thickness of the bark of a tree to vary in this respect, the sense being broader in warm seasons than in cold one, and hence we find the trees as we approach the pits which have been cut down to be more or less thickly covered. And other circumstances will also materially affect the thickness of the annual layers. Thus, in some trees, the bark of one zone will vary in diameter at different parts, so that the pith, instead of being in the centre of the wood, is more or less eccen- tric, owing to the irregularity of the growth of the bark on either the other. This irregular thickness of the different parts of the annual layers is due to the fact that during the greater growth on one side is chiefly due to the fact of its being exposed to light and air than the other. The difference in thickness in the same tree, ac- ceeding to the age of that tree. Thus when a tree is in full vigor (or when it has been recently cut down), its bark (or ) begins to get old. The age in which trees are in full vigor varies according to the species ; thus the Oak, it is said, will form a new layer every year, but this is only true for a short time. That after sixty years of age the amount formed will be much less considerable. Again, in the Larch, the region of growth appears to diminish after thirty years ; in the Beech after forty years ; in the Spruce Fair after forty ; and in the Pine after fifty. Duramen and Alberum.—When the annual layers are first formed, the wood of their components—wood-cells and vessels are pervious to fluids, and these fluids are conveyed with up, which they transmit upwards from the root to the bark. Thus, by this means, a sap is formed which gradually thickens by various deposits from the contained sap, by which their cavities are ultimately almost obliterated, and they are thus rendered impervious to fluids. This process is especi- ally evident in the wood of those trees in which the insuring nature of their bark is most apparent—namely, Mahogany, Rosewood, and Guaiacum. Such coloured deposits are gene- rally most evident in tropical trees, although they also occur more or less frequently in temperate regions. In some of the latter, however, as the Poplar and the Willow, the whole wood may be white or yellowish-white, owing to the difference in appearance of the internal and external layers. The value of wood as timber depends chiefly upon the nature of this deposit. In some cases it is white or yellowish-white ; in colour ; hence these woods, as Ebony, iron-wood, and Mahogany, A diagram showing different types of wood layers. AGE OF EXOGENOUS TREES. 81 which are deeply coloured, are far harder and more durable than white wood, such as the Poplar and the Willow. From this we may conclude that the age of a tree according to its age, we distinguish in it two parts: namely, an internal part, which is formed by the growth of the bark, and external walls, are impervious to fluids, hard in texture, of a dry nature, and commonly more or less coloured, which is called the Intra- cellular or Internal Part; and an external part, which is composed of cells and vessels have thin sides, are pervious to, and full of sap, soft in texture, and of various colours, to which the name of Allogenic or Sapogenous is given. Age of Exogenous Trees.—As each node of wood in an Exoge- nous tree is formed by the growth of a new branch, and presenting the number of nodes in a transverse section of a tree presenting this structure, we can go to the conclusion that its age; and this is true only when the exogenicity, when such trees are found in cold climates, because in those, as we have seen, the annual zones are numerous and distinct; but in warm climates the exogenicity of warm climates is generally difficult, and frequently impossible, to ascertain their age by means of distinguishing them from one another by means so well defined; secondly, more than one zone may be formed on the same branch at different times; thirdly, some of the Cynus, only produce one zone as the growth of several years; fourthly, some plants, as certain species of Cynus, never form annual zones; fifthly, the growth of a tree is not uniform as a uniform mass; while lastly, in some, such as Conoclea, the same tree may grow for many years without any sign of growth. It is commonly stated that the age of a tree may not be only ascertained by counting the annual zones in a transverse section of the wood; but it has been observed that if we know the wood of a tree of which the diameter is known, will also afford means by which we may ascertain its age. Thus if we proceed proceeding in such a case as is follows —Divide half the diameter of the tree divided of its back by the diameter of the fragment, and then multiply this number by 300000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 fragment multiply this number by the quotient previously obtained. Thus if we find that half the diameter of the wood twenty inches; and that if there are eight zones in the fragment, by multiplying this number by 36525 (the number of days in a year), we shall get half the diameter of the tree by that of the fragment; we shall get eighty-eight inches. If now we divide eighty-eight inches by half the diameter of the wood we shall get eight zones. If all these zones was the same on both sides of the tree, and this pith conse- quently central, such a result would be perfectly accurate; but it happens very often that they are not so arranged. Hence it is evident that the zones are frequently much thicker on one side than on the other, and that being inverted from one side to another it immediately would lead to very varying results. A better way to calculate o 82 AGE OF EXOGENOUS TREES. the age of a tree by the inspection of a fragment is to make two notches, or remove two pieces from its two opposite sides, and then having measured the distance between these notches, take the mean of that number, and proceed as in the former case. Thus, suppose two inches, as before, removed from the two opposite sides of a tree, and having measured the distance between them, we have ten zones as the mean of the two. If we now divide, as before, by ten, we shall find that there are nine zones. If we multiply the quotient ten which results, by ten, the mean of the number of zones in the two notches, we get one hundred years as the age of the tree. This is a very simple method; but many cases will no doubt furnish a result internally correct, but even this will frequently give an erroneous result. The cause of this error is the amount of wood produced by a tree at different periods of its age. Dr. Lindley believed that De Candolle and others, in calculating the ages of trees, had neglected to allow for the fact that they do not sufficiently take into account the variations in the growth of the笋wood in different parts of the same tree at any age, and their varying thickness on the two sides ; and he further considered that some trees were estimated by De Candolle to be more than 5000 years old, which he thought was impossible. His calculations give an exaggerated result. But however erroneous they may have been in some cases, it is certain that Exogenous trees grow to a great extent; in fact, when we consider that the new zones of wood are developed from the cambium cells which bear upon them the marks of their origin, it appears that it is in these new layers that all the active functions of the plant are carried on; there can be, under ordinary circumstances, no real limit to their development. It is only when we come to the age of all trees, arising from the increasing difficulty of con- veying water to the roots, that we reach our limit point, as the stem elongates from year to year. We cannot however attach much importance to this opinion, because some trees, as the Sequoia gigantea (Sequoia gigantea), may attain a height of about 460 feet in height, and species of Eucalyptus may also be found in Australia which have reached nearly quite the same height. The following table is given by Lindley of the age of some trees, at least one of which has been proved historical.
A tree near Montpellier 433 years.
Lime trees near Freiburg 1250
Neustadt 800
Larch 575
Cedars on Mount Lebanon 6—800
Oaks at least 1000
There can be no doubt, therefore, that such trees will live beyond the above period. Other trees such as the SIZE OF ELOGENOUS TREES.—CAMELIUM. Sesquio, Yew, and Olive, may be added to the above list; thus, it is probable that the former will live at least 3000 years; and sesquio, which is said to attain the age of 1500 years, and the Olive at least 800 years. Size of Eloegenous Trees.—As there is no assignable limit to the age of certain trees, it is impossible to give any definite size; but, as in like manner the same circumference leads, in many cases, to the same diameter, we may suppose that a tree has been measured 116 feet in circumference at the base; the Chestnut tree (Cedrus sempervirens) of Monte Rosa is 160 feet in circumference; a Umbrella Pine (Pseudotsuga taxifolia) is 170 feet in circumference; the Cebre tree (Bombus penduliflorus) is said to be 200 feet in circumference; and the Pecan tree, whose arms extended to embrace it; even Oaks in this country have been known to measure more than 50 feet in circumference; and every other tree which attains an enormous size, attains such dimensions, its circumference being an index of its size also. 4. Camellia-layer or Camellia (Sgs. 178, c., and 180, A, B, c.). —On the outside of each annual zone of wood, as we have already seen, a layer of cork is formed by the cambium-layer or cambium. The nature of camellia-layer or cambium has been given. It is from these cambium-layers that all the wood of a tree is derived. This is so, from the fact of the cambium-layer being situated between the xylem and the phloem of the indefinite vascular bundles of which it consists. The cambium-layer is a living tissue, which owes its continuity and unlimited power of increase. The cells composing this layer are very thin-walled, and contain a large quantity of a thin wall of cellulose, containing a nucleus, abundance of protoplasm and watery cell-sap; in fact they contain all the sub- stances necessary for their own growth and development. From them becoming changed into the matured woody tissues and being separated from them by the action of the winter's frost, the name cambium or cambium-layer applied to the origin of this stem. Layer is dormant during the winter, at which time it does not grow; but when spring comes on again it gains full activity in the spring, when it becomes charged with the carbohydrates and other substances necessary for its growth, and then the bark may be readily separated from the wood beneath; but such separation can only be effected by the rupture of the cells of the cambium-layer. 5. Modular Raps.—We have already seen that at first the stem consists entirely of parenchyma; but after a short time woody tissue begins to appear, by which this part of the stem be- comes separated into two regions—an internal or pith, and an external or cortex. These two parts are very similar in structure, but the two being connected by tissue of the same nature as thickenings, to which the name of modular raps has been ap- plied (Sgs. 179, c., and 177, c.).o2 84 EXOGENOUS STEM.—MEDULLARY RAYS. The cells forming these medullary rays are in their origin identical with those of the pith (see p. 76), but, unlike the cells of the pith, which remain a short or rounded form, they are flattened (figs. 182, 183). The rays are formed by the interlacing of the neighbouring wedges of the fibro-vascular bundles have ex- serted upon them. As new layers of wood are formed in suc- cessive years, the rays become more numerous and the me- dullary rays, so that, however large the space between the pith and the cambium may be, the rays are always kept in connection by their means. Besides the medullary rays which thus extend throughout the entire thickness of the wood, there are also some which are confined to one or two suc- ceeding years, which extend from the zones of those years re- spectively to the bark; these are called medullary secondary rays. In the Cercocarpus juniperus they may be seen in a transverse section (figs. 182, 182, 2, 3, 4). The medullary rays are formed by a series of flattened discoid cells, which are placed above the other in one or more rows, like the bricks in a wall, hence the tissue which they form is termed **mediofascia** (fig. 182). In the common Maize (Zea mays) it is a variety of **fascia permedia**, as already noticed (page 45). The tissue formed by the medullary rays is rarely continuous from one end of the stem to another, but is often interrupted by more or less interrupted by the passage between them of the fibro- vascular bundles. The medullary rays are usually arranged veri- tally into a number of distinct portions (figs. 163 and 164, res). This arrangement may be observed by examining the surface of a A diagram showing a transverse section of a portion of the stem of the Cercocarpus (Quercus) juniperus, four years old. A. Pith. B. Medullary ray of the first year's growth. C. Medullary ray of the second year's growth. D. Medullary ray of the third year's growth. E. Medullary ray of the fourth year's growth. F. Cambium. G. Vascular bundle. Fig. 182. Transverse section of a portion of the stem of the Cercocarpus (Quercus) juniperus, four years old. A. Pith. B. Medullary ray of the first year's growth. C. Medullary ray of the second year's growth. D. Medullary ray of the third year's growth. E. Medullary ray of the fourth year's growth. F. Cambium. G. Vascular bundle. 183 Fig. 183. Vertical section of a branch of the common Maize, perpendicular to its axis. 184 Fig. 184. 185 **BARK OR CORTICAL SYSTEM.** stem from which the bark has been removed (fig. 183), or still better by making thin sections of the wood perpendicular to the rays, and comparing them with the corresponding sections (fig. 184). In some stems, such as those of the species of *Aristolochia*, and many plants of the natural order Monotropaceae, the medullary rays are so numerous that they form a network over the wedges of wood. In other plants, such as the Yew and Birch, they appear to be wanting altogether. The bark of many trees constitutes the silver grain of cabinet-makers and carpenters, as it is to their presence that many woods, such as the Plane and Sycamore, owe their beauty. 6. The **Bark or Cortical System.**—The bark or phloem is situ- ated on the outside of the stem, and is connected with the cortex, to which it is organically connected by means of the medullary rays and cambium layers (figs. 172, c, c'). When the stem is first formed, it consists of two distinct tissues, viz., a parenchyma or fundamental tissue (page 70), but soon as the cortex is developed, it becomes separated into two portions : one portion being composed of certain cells which lie near the surface of the stem make their appear- ance, which develop into inter-cellular. Externally to these inter- cellular tissues is placed a second layer of cells, which constitute the green layer of the bark, whilst the outer cella develops become into the epidermis. This epidermis is composed of a single layer of coloured cells; the epidermis, so that the bark, when fully formed, consists of two distinct systems; namely, an internally situated parenchymatous system and an external or parenchyma layer. From this it will be seen that a parenchy- matous system also exhibits, in all plants which are des- cribed in this work, a complete separation into two portions : that is to say, an interna- lly situated parenchyma sys- tem and an externally situated epidermis ; and accordingly presents three dis- tinct layers proper to the bark, viz., 1. The Internally Situated Parenchyma Layer. 2. The Epidermis Layer. 3. The Outer Layer or Epithelium Layer. Fig. 185. A diagram showing a cross-section of a plant stem with different layers labeled: 1. Internally Situated Parenchyma Layer; 2. Epidermis Layer; 3. Outer Layer or Epithelium Layer. Fig. 186.Transverse section of a portion of a stem of *Euphorbia*. 1. Internally Situated Parenchyma Layer; 2. Epidermis Layer; 3. Epithelium Layer. 1. Internally Situated Parenchyma Layer. 2. Epidermis Layer. 3. Outer Layer or Epithelium Layer. Fig. 187.Transverse section of a portion of a stem of *Euphorbia*. 1. Internally Situated Parenchyma Layer; 2. Epidermis Layer; 3. Epithelium Layer. 1. Internally Situated Parenchyma Layer. 2. Epidermis Layer. 3. Outer Layer or Epithelium Layer. Fig. 188.Transverse section of a portion of a stem of *Euphorbia*. 1. Internally Situated Parenchyma Layer; 2. Epidermis Layer; 3. Epithelium Layer. 1. Internally Situated Parenchyma Layer. 2. Epidermis Layer. 3. Outer Layer or Epithelium Layer. Fig. 189.Transverse section of a portion of a stem of *Euphorbia*. 1. Internally Situated Parenchyma Layer; 2. Epidermis Layer; 3. Epithelium Layer. 1. Internally Situated Parenchyma Layer. 2. Epidermis Layer. 3. Outer Layer or Epithelium Layer. Fig. 190.Transverse section of a portion of a stem of *Euphorbia*. 1. Internally Situated Parenchyma Layer; 2. Epidermis Layer; 3. Epithelium Layer. 1. Internally Situated Parenchyma Layer. 2. Epidermis Layer. 3. Outer Layer or Epithelium Layer. Fig. 191.Transverse section of a portion of a stem of *Euphorbia*. 1. Internally Situated Parenchyma Layer; 2. Epidermis Layer; 3. Epithelium Layer. 1. Internally Situated Parenchyma Layer. 2. Epidermis Layer. 3. Outer Layer or Epithelium Layer. Fig. 192.Transverse section of a portion of a stem of *Euphorbia*. 1. Internally Situated Parenchyma Layer; 2. Epidermis Layer; 3. Epithelium Layer. 1. Internally Situated Parenchyma Layer. 2. Epidermis Layer. 3. Outer Layer or Epithelium Layer. Fig. 193.Transverse section of a portion of a stem of *Euphorbia*. 1. Internally Situated Parenchyma Layer; 2. Epidermis Layer; 3. Epithelium Layer. 1. Internally Situated Parenchyma Layer. 2. Epidermis Layer. 3. Outer Layer or Epithelium Layer. Fig. 194.Transverse section of a portion of a stem of *Euphorbia*. 1. Internally Situated Parenchyma Layer; 2. Epidermis Layer; 3. Epithelium Layer. 1. Internally Situated Parenchyma Layer. 2. Epidermis Layer. 3. Outer Layer or Epithelium Layer. Fig. 195.Transverse section of a portion of a stem of *Euphorbia*. 1. Internally Situated Parenchyma Layer; 2. Epidermis Layer; 3. Epithelium Layer Fig. 196.Transverse section of a portion of a stem of *Euphorbia*. 1. Internally Situated Parenchyma Layer; 2. Epidermis Layer; 3. Epithelium Layer Fig. 197.Transverse section of a portion of a stem of *Euphorbia*. 1. Internally Situated Parenchyma Layer; 2. Epidermis Layer; 3. Epithelium Layer Fig. 198.Transverse section of a portion of a stem of *Euphorbia*. 1. Internally Situated Parenchyma Layer; 2. Epidermis Layer; 3. Epithelium Layer Fig. 199.Transverse section of a portion of a stem of *Euphorbia*. 1. Internally Situated Parenchyma Layer; 2. Epidermis Layer; 3. Epithelium Layer Fig. 200.Transverse section of a portion of a stem of *Euphorbia*. 1. Internally Situated Parenchyma Layer; 2. Epidermis Layer; 3. Epithelium Layer Fig. 201.Transverse section of a portion of a stem of *Euphorbia*. 1. Internally Situated Parenchyma Layer; 2. Epidermis Layer; 3. Epithelium Layer Fig. 202.Transverse section of a portion of a stem of *Euphorbia*. 1. Internally Situated Parenchyma Layer; 2. Epidermis Layer; 3. Epithelium Layer Fig. 203.Transverse section of a portion of a stem of *Euphorbia*. 1. Internally Situated Parenchyma Layer; 2. Epidermis Layer; 3. Epithelium Layer Fig. 204.Transverse section of a portion of a stem of *Euphorbia*. 1. Internally Situated Parenchyma Layer; 2. Epidermis Layer; 3. Epithelium Layer Fig. 205.Transverse section of a portion of a stem of *Euphorbia*. 1. Internally Situated Parenchyma Layer; 2. Epidermis Layer; 3. Epithelium Layer Fig. 206.Transverse section of a portion of a stem of *Euphorbia*. 1. Internally Situated Parenchyma Layer; 2. Epidermis Layer; 3. Epithelium Layer Fig. 207.Transverse section of a portion of a stem of *Euphorbia*. 1. Internally Situated Parenchyma Layer; 2. Epidermis Layer; 3. Epithelium Layer Fig. 208.Transverse section of a portion of a stem of *Euphorbia*. 1. Internally Situated Parenchyma Layer; 2. Epidermis Layer; 3. Epithelium Layer Fig. 209.Transverse section of a portion of a stem of *Euphorbia*. 1. Internally Situated Parenchyma Layer; 2. Epidermis Layer; 3. Epithelium Layer Fig. 210.Transverse section of a portion of a stem of *Euphorbia*. 1. Internally Situated Parenchyma Layer; 2. Epidermis Layer; 3. Epithelium Layer Fig. 211.Transverse section of a portion of a stem of *Euphorbia*. 1. Internally Situated Parenchyma Layer; 2. Epidermis Layer; 3. Epithelium Layer Fig. 212.Transverse section of a portion of a stem of *Euphorbia*. 1. Internally Situated Parenchyma Layer; 2. Epidermis Layer; 3. Epithelium Layer Fig. 213.Transverse section of a portion of a stem of *Euphorbia*. 1. Internally Situated Parenchyma Layer; 2. Epidermis Layer; 3. Epithelium Layer Fig. 214.Transverse section of a portion of a stem of *Euphorbia*. 1. Internally Situated Parenchyma Layer; 2. Epidermis Layer; 3. Epithelium Layer Fig. 215.Transverse section of a portion of a stem of *Euphorbia*. **EXOGENOUS STEM—LAYERS OF THE BARK** a. The Lobar, Inner Bark, or Endophloem (figs. 185, d, and 186, A), is a layer of cells which consists of a series of interlacing of narrow and elongated cells with thickened and flexible wall, mixed with parenchymatous tissue, and usually laticiferous vessels and sieve tubes. This layer is found only on the inner side of the tree bark, or as it is commonly called, woody tissue of the liber, has been already fully described (page 47). The inner cells of which it is essentially composed are arranged in a regular manner in vertical direction, and thus form by their union a continuous layer, as in the Homoptera. The outer side of this layer presents a wavy outline, and only touch each other at certain points, so that numerous interspaces are left between their sides, in which the medullary rays of the bark may be seen clearly to be observed. From this circumstance the inner bark commonly presents a netted appearance, which is very distinct in the case of the Lace-bark tree (Lepidium latifolium) of Jamaica, and of other plants belonging to the same natural order. b. The Lateral Layer or Phellogen (figs. 180, c, and 180, g, g'). This layer lies between the liber and epidermis, and is formed by a number of cells connected to it. It is connected on its inner surface with the medullary rays. It consists of thin-walled, usually angular or prismatic, parenchymatous cells which are often slightly thickened, and thus leave between their walls a number of interspaces. The cells contain a large amount of chlorophyll, which gives the green colour to young bark, and hence the name of green layer; by which it is also commonly dis- tinguished from the white layer or phelloderm. This is the only part of the bark which usually possesses a green colour. In some cases also, in the liber, we generally find some laticiferous vessels. c. Sclerenchyma, Corky Layer, or Epiphloem (figs. 185, b, and 186, A), is a layer of cells which are either those which have died or have been killed by the epiderrum (fig. 180, e). It has also received the name of periderm; because it is supposed to consist of those parts of the dead portion of the bark, or that which has caused to perform any active part in the life of the plant ; which is commonly the case, as well as in the case of the corky bark of many outer layers (see page 88). In this sense the periderm may consist of epithelial cells alone; or it may consist of portions of both, or even in some cases of a portion of the liber also. Those botanists who adopt this nomenclature commonly apply the term "periderm" to all such parts. The Epiphloem consists of one or more layers of tabular cells (figs. 185, b; 186, A), which are placed parallel to the hori- zontal direction, and which in most cases ultimately become dried up and filled with air, and forming by their union a compact tissue; or they may be separated from each other by spaces due to the young bark of trees and shrubs their peculiar hues, which LAYERS OF THE BARK. 87 are generally brownish or some colour approaching to this ; or sometimes they assume more vivid tints. It is very strongly green, which is the most common tint, but may vary from its inner cells containing chlorophyll. In some plants, as in the Cucurbitaceae, the outer layer is thin and is not deve- loped and forms the substance called cork, and hence the name corky or endocerous layer which is frequently applied to it. Large developed leaves of the same plant, however, often show various species of Elm (Ulmus alata, racemosa, etc.). It commonly hap- pens that the outermost layer of bark is green, but it is not not all the same appearance and colour. Thus in the Cork-oak some are more tabular or compressed and darker-coloured than others which alternate with them, so that the whole exterior Fig. 166. Fig. 167. Fig. 166. Transverse section of a portion of Birch bark. After Gray, a., b., c., d., e., f., g., h., i., j., k., l., m., n., o., p., q., r., s., t., u., v., w., x., y., z. Tumultuous tabular cells. a., b. Layers of bone thick-walled cells alternating with the thin-walled cells. e., f., g., h. Scales. a., b., c., d., e., f., g., h. Scales. On the young bark of most plants may be observed little brown, generally oval projections, which have been called "epithelial" layers by some botanists, but which are of no special nature (fig. 187, I, J). They have, however, no analogy with lashes, and are probably only projections externally of the corky layer or epithelium of the bark. Growth of the Bark.--The bark develops in an opposite direction to that of the leaf-stalks, and increases by additions to its outer surface, the former increases by additions 88 EXOGENOUS STEM.—GROWTH OF THE BARK. to its inner. The bark is therefore strictly endogenous in its growth; while the wood is exogenous. Each layer of the bark also grows by the addition of new matter from the cambium-layer on its inside; the mesophyllon by internal additions from a special set of cells termed the cork cambium or phellogen. The two outer layers, which together constitute the bark, are usually only one year old, and generally cease growing after a few years, and become dead structures on the surface of the tree. This is not always the case, however, throughout the life of the individual, by the addition of a new layer annually on the inner surface from the cambium. In some trees these layers may be several years old at any given cer- tain period, as in the oak. They are commonly so thin when separated that they can be easily torn off with a knife, and hence the supposition arises of the term 'leaf' applied to them. The name 'bark', is, however, sometimes considered to be derived from the Latin 'baccus,' meaning a bunch of grapes, or a burl upon. This distinction of the leaf into layers is generally soon lost, in consequence of the pressure which it is subjected from the outside. The outer layers of the bark, after a certain period in their life, whether they be one or two years old, are gradually pushed in various directions in consequence of the pressure which is exerted upon them by the growth of the wood and fiber beneath, and by the wind and rain. Thus we have the Elm, Beech, and Cork-oak. In some trees, as the Beech, the bark, however, always remains in one piece. It is composed partly from the small development of the parenchymatous layers, and partly from their great dissemblance. Other smooth-barked trees are formed by a similar process; but in some cases this artifice is in their respect to similar causes. When the bark has thus become divided into separate layers, it may be large pieces, or in plates or layers of various sizes and appearances. The epidermis in all cases appears early from the supply of sap; but it does not grow by division and peeling off of portions of the bark; its thickness is con- tinually increased by its own growth. It is evident that the old bark does not in any way injure the tree; hence, it is evident that the old layers of the bark, like the inner layers of the wood, are renewed every year during a certain period. The new layers of wood, the cambium-layer, and the phellogen-layer are all parts of an exogenous stem which are alone concerned in its active development and life. Having now described the different parts which enter into the structure of an Exogenous or Diocyticodendron stem, we will, in conclusion, recapitulate them, and place them in a tabular form:
1 Exogenous Stem.
2 Growth of Bark.
3 Bark Layers.
4 Wood Layer.
5 Cambium-Layer.
6 Phellogen-Layer.
ENODENOMOR MONOCOTYLEDONOUS STEM. 1. Pith or Medulla, belonging to the parenchymatous system. 2. Medullary Shells, consisting of spiral vessels. 3. Wood, composed of interrupted zones, one of which is developed annually on the outside of the previous zone, and consists of a series of wood cells and pitted vessels. 4. Medullary Rays, composed of muriform parenchyma connecting the pith and the bark. 5. Cambium layer, consisting of vitally active cells containing protoplasm, derived from which alludes are made annually to the wood and bark. 6. The Bark, composed of two systems. 1. Inner Bark, Endophlebia, or Liber, formed essentially of liberae, or cells containing the phloem vascular system; and increasing by the annual addition of a new layer on its inner side. 2. Outer Bark, composed of parenchyma, and hence belonging to the parenchymatous system, and consisting of a. Cellular Endophlebia or Mesophlebia, composed of more or less numerous cells with interseptae; and giving the green colour to bark. b. Suberose Layer or Epiphlebia, composed of flattened cells, forming a protective tissue, and giving the peculiar hue to the young bark. 7. The Epihermia, investing the bark of young stems and replaced after a certain age by the epiphlebia. B. ENODENOMOR MONOCOTYLEDONOUS STEM.—In this com- mon way we find that many plants exhibit this mode of growth, although we have numerous herbaceous plants possessing leaves with a very rudimentary indication of endodendron structure. In our gardens again, we have various kinds of Lilium, Yucca, Tulipa, and other bulbous plants, which produce their flowers in a manner similar to that of the palms, and especially in the tropics, where we find this mode of growth in many species of palm trees. The stems, and all of such the Palms are by far the most remarkable. The appearance of such plants, even externally, is very different from that of the palms; but they are commonly of the same diameter throughout, being uniformly cylindrical from below upwards, instead of conical, as is the case with them, and frequently rise to the height of 100 feet or more, com- 90 INTESTINAL STRUCTURE OF ENDOGENOUS STEM. monly without branching, but crowned at the summit by an exogenous stem. Internal Structure.---When we make a transverse section of a Palm stem, it presents, as we have seen (page 71), no such separa- tion of parts as is found in the leaves of the same plant, as we have described as existing in an Exogenous stem; but the fibro- vascular system is seen to consist of bundles (figs. 173, f, and 185, A) which are placed in the middle of the cylinder, and are arranged so Fig. 188. 1. Unbranched stem of the Coconut Palm (Cocos nucifera). B. Branched stem of *Pandanus odoratissimus*. The figures are placed at the base of the stems. as to form zones of wood as in Exogenous stems, but are arranged separately from one another in the mass of parenchymatous cells (figs. 174, b, c). The whole structure of the stem or fundamental tissue is composed. The whole is covered externally by a fibrous and parenchymatous layer, which is called the false bark or rind (fig. 174, d); and internally by a similar paral- lel formation to the wood, as is the case with the bark of Exo- 90 ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF VASCULAR BUNDLES. 91 genous stem, but is formed essentially by the ends of the bundles which have been developed, and cannot there- fore be separated from the mass beneath. In annual or herbaceous Endogenous stems the parenchyma between the vascular bundles is very thin, and at times grows to any height, as Palms, the cell-walls become hardened, and form a hard outer layer called the pericar- phoma, which ultimately binds the original separate bundles into a solid hardened mass resembling wood. Fig. 189. A diagram showing the structure of a vascular bundle in a monopodial stem. A. Transverse section. B. Longitudinal section. A B Fig. 189. Diagram of a Monopodial stem. A. Transverse section. B. Longitudinal section. c. Wood-cell. d. Raphis vessel. After Carpenier. Origin and Growth of the Vascular Bundles. The structure of the vascular bundles in the monopodial embryonatious system has been already referred to under the name of *definite* or closed bundles (page 53); but we have still to describe their origin and development before the mode in which they were formerly supposed that these bundles, as they were successively developed, were formed by the growth of the primary stem, and continued their course in the same direction towards its base as seen in figs. 190, a, b, c, d ; the flat-formed bundles being formed by the growth of the primary stem on one circumference those which had previously been developed. Hence the origin of the name *definitum* or *definite* process, applied to 92 ENDOGENOUS STEMS.—GROWTH OF VASCULAR BUNDLES. these stems. The researches of Mohl first showed that the above mode of growth was not correct, but that the following is true—that which we have hitherto planned—the vascular bundles have their origin in the cortex, and grow upwards and outwards into the leaves, and downwards towards the circumference of the stem. In other words, to render it more simple, the bundle grows upwards to the leaves, from which or- gan it then grows di- rected towards the in- terior of the stem (fig. 190). This is shown by fig. 191. Along which they descend geno- ralised, and then gradually curve upwards again and ter- minate at the circumference, or in young stems they may remain as a ver- sion, and find these bundles intersecting each other as shown in fig. 192. The vascular bundles in their course down the stem generally become more or less branched, showing certain differences which take place in their structure as they descend. Thus when they first originate they consist, as we have seen (see p. 70), of a single cell, which is called a paren- chymatous and woody tissue (figs. 189, B, b, c, d). In their descent they gradually lose their spindles and other cells, so that when they reach the leaves they consist only of a series of cells loosely bound together by parenchyma. The root or false fork (fig. 175) shows this very clearly. At the end of the vascular bundles which originate in the leaves, and hence we see the principal reason why this kind cannot be sepa- rated, as we have stated before, from the true stem. It follows from the mode of growth of the vascular bund- les, as indicated by Mohl's researches, that what has been commonly applied to such stems, is not altogether correct, as the bundles Fig. 190. Fig. 191. Fig. 192. Figs. 190 and 191. Diagrams showing the course of the vascular bundles in a young stem, a., c., e., f., Vascular bundles. Fig. 190 shows how these bundles grow upwards and outwards into the leaves, and downwards towards the circum- ference of the stem. In fig. 191 one can see how these bundles grow upwards to the leaves, from which or- gan it then grows di- rected towards the in- terior of the stem (fig.). This is shown by fig. 192. The vascular bundles in their course down the stem generally become more or less branched, showing certain differences which take place in their structure as they descend. Thus when they first originate they consist, as we have seen (see p. 70), of a single cell, which is called a paren- chymatous and woody tissue (figs. 189, B, b, c, d). In their descent they gradually lose their spindles and other cells, so that when they reach the leaves they consist only of a series of cells loosely bound together by parenchyma. The root or false fork (fig. 175) shows this very clearly. At the end of the vascular bundles which originate in the leaves, and hence we see the principal reason why this kind cannot be sepa- rated, as we have stated before, from the true stem. It follows from the mode of growth of the vascular bund- les, as indicated by Mohl's researches, that what has been commonly applied to such stems, is not altogether correct, as the bundles GROWTH OF VASCULAR BUNDLES. 83 are only endogenous for a portion of their course, terminating as they do ultimately at the circumference. On this account the numerous species of monocotyledons, which are so much used by many botanists, we use instead that of monocotyledonous, a term which is applied to all those plants whose seeds contain but one cotyledon. In this volume we have employed both terms, but for fear of confusion we shall hereafter employ the latter, since by such terms such plants have been known for a long period, and as that therefore is the more general. As the vascular bundles of an endogenous stem, in the course of their successive development, are always directed first towards the exterior, and then towards the interior, those pre- viously formed will be gradually pushed outwards, for which reason the outermost layers of cells are usually found to exhibit a closer aggregation of bundles than the inside (figs. 175, 176, and 180, A, b, c, d). In such stems, therefore, the hardest part is on the outside, and it is not surprising that in these cases what occurs in those of exogenous growth. The lower portion of most stems is also harder than the upper; in some vascular bundles, the elements of which become, moreover or less thickened in their interior, will be harder than the upper. The ratio between these two factors is very variable; from the greater number of fiber-cells which terminate in it. As endogenous stems are usually composed of a large number of vascular bundles in their interior, and partly by the general development of the parenchymatous tissues in which they are placed, it is evident that the bundles cannot grow thus hardened by the lobe-cells; and other causes, it is not capable of further growth. For instance, when a bundle attains at length choked up by the bundles which continue to descend, and further growth is then impossible. It is evident, there- fore, that in endogenous stems growth cannot increase in diameter beyond a certain limit, and that age has no effect upon its increase. Although, as a general rule, the stems of Palms and most other Monocotyledonous plants are thus limited in size and life, there are exceptions to this rule. Thus in the Yucca in Yucca, and the Dracaena or Dragon-tree (fig. 183), in these two trees the bundles are not only continued downwards by vascular bundles, after having reached it, are continued downwards as thorny branches between it and the original vascular bundles, and thus they attain great size before dying. In Hydrangea somewhat after the manner that layers of wood are produced by the cambium-layers of an exogenous stem. Some endogenous stems, like those of Yucca and Dracaena, are limited either to their sizes or age. It is interesting to note the comparatively small increase in diameter which most endogenous stems undergo after they have 94 ENDOGENOUS STEMS.—GROWTH BY TERMINAL BUD. arrived at a certain age, that twining plants which encircle them after that period has arrived do them no injury, frequently not even a little, but on the contrary, may even benefit the surface; thus proving incontrovertibly that such stems do not increase in diameter by means of the terminal bud, as was formerly supposed, as well seen in fig. 193. If we compare this figure with that of an exogenous stem (fig. 194), with a woody twining plant encircling it, we find that the growth of the latter is much more rapid than the swellings produced, which exhibit a corresponding increase of the diameter of the stem. Such a comparison shows, in a very striking and conclusive manner, the great peculiarity of the growth of exogenous and endogenous stems. Fig. 193. Fig. 194. Fig. 195. Fig. 193. The Dragon Tree of Teneriffe (Brecaria Browni), now decapitated. ---Fig. 194. A woody twining plant growing around a terminal bud. ---Fig. 195. Monocotyledonous stem, entwined by a woody twiner. **Growth by Terminal Bud.—In Palms, as we have seen (fig. 188, 1), and in other plants having a terminal bud, there are no branches, the stems of such plants having no power of forming lateral buds, from which branches can alone be pro- duced. The growth of these stems is therefore entirely due to the develop- ment of a terminal bud, when it unfolds crowns the sum- mit with a leaf or leaves, and from thence downwards. In those in this respect exposed throughout their whole length, to as far as possible, the same influence as regards their increase in dia- meter and thickness is exerted upon all parts of their stems are almost uniformly cylindrical from below upwards, being of the same diameter throughout their whole length. Hence it follows, therefore, the destruction of the terminal bud necessarily leads to A diagram showing the growth pattern of a terminal bud in a palm tree. **ANOMALOUS STRUCTURE OF ENDOGENOUS STEMS. 83** their death, as they are then deprived of all further mode of increase. In some Endogenous stems, however, more than one bud is developed at the same time, and several new buds are formed, so that the stem is forked above (Fig. 196); each branch is then again divided into two or more branches below, and this mode of increase is continued with the successive branches, which are therefore also forked. In other Monocotyledonous plants the endogenous stems are hollow, as in the Norty- sedona ; thus this is the case in the Asparagus, the Screw Pine (Araucaria), and the Yucca (Yucca). The lower part of such stems receives more vascular bundles than the upper part; they are necessarily larger in their diameter at that part, and thus the stem is convex or taper upwards like those of Dicotyledonous plants. Fig. 196. Fig. 197. The Down Palm of Egypt (Schefflera arborea), showing twofold structure of endogenous stem. **Anomalous Structure of Endogenous or Monocotyledonous Stems.** Some Monocotyledonous stems present an anomalous structure; thus in most Grasses the stem is hollow (Fig. 197, a), except at its base, where a thickened ring is formed, in which parts solid partitions are formed across the cavity, by which it is divided into a number of compartments (Fig. 197, b). Plants when examined at their first development present the usual Endogenous structure, but in consequence of their growth in diameter taking upon more or less a cylindrical form, these partitions in their interior, the central tissue becomes ruptured, and they soon become filled with air. In the stems of some other Monocotyledonous plants we have A diagram showing a hollow stem with solid partitions dividing it into compartments. 96 AGE OF ENDOGENOUS OR MONOCOTYLEDONOUS TREES. A more striking deviation from the ordinary structure. Thus the species of the genus *Caryota* (figs. 187, 188) have endogenous stems which are strictly endogenous in structure, and under- ground stems which have the vascular bundles arranged in one plane (fig. 187), while the aerial stems are usually several years old, i., like the wood about the pith of an Exogenous stem : such vessels being often very large, and forming a distinct ring round those which form the stem of an Exogenous stem, and have consequently no power of indefinite increase like those of a normal Exogenous stem. There is nothing in the internal structure of Endogenous stems by which we can ascertain their age, but in some cases we may judge of these of Exogenous structure. It is supposed that the age of a Palm tree is indicated by the annular scars (fig. 188) which are pro- duced on the external surface of its stem by the fall of the terminal Fig. 187. Transverse section of the stem of the common Reed, a. A cavity closed at the bottom by a partition ; b. Ring indicating the point (early) where the stem was cut off by a sheath. P. P. The uppermost ring of a species of *Phragmites*. c. A broken stem. d. e, f. The several rings of a species of *Phragmites*. g, h, i. The inner part. tufts of leaves, for as one tuft only is commonly produced an- nually, each ring marks a year's growth, and hence the number of years corresponding to any given ring indicates how old the tree has lived. Although this is true that in some few cases it may enable us to ascertain the age of a Palm, and probably also of some other plants, yet it is not always possible to place dependence can be placed upon it in any particular instance, for there are frequently several rings produced on the stems of Monocotyledonous plants, and these rings sometimes disappear after appearing for a certain period. The best method of determining the age of a plant is to measure their increase in height in any one year's growth, and then, as such stems grow almost uniformly in successive years, by knowing their height at any time we can calculate their age. But even this mode of calculating their age is very liable to error, and can be moreover A cross-sectional view of a plant stem with visible rings. A close-up view showing individual rings on a plant stem. ACROGENOUS STEMS.—STRUCTURE OF FERN STEMS. 97 but of limited application from the absence of data to work upon ; hence we must come to the conclusion that at present we possess no certain knowledge of the structure of the stems of Acrogenous plants. A. ACROGENOUS OR ACROTYLICIOUS STEM.—The simplest form of stem presented by Acrogenous plants is that of Liverworts (figs. 6 and 7), and Mosses (figs. 8 and 9). In such a stem, as in the Lycopsidaceae, there is a central core of slightly elongated cells, which is surrounded by a series of smaller cells, the leaves of Club-mosses (Lycopodium) (fig. 10), Pepperworts (Morusse), and Horsetails (Equisetum) (fig. 11), we have the familiar vascular bundles (sensu stricto), which are their special characteristic. The vessels found in these stems are very similar to those of their mode of growth have been already described (see page 73). The vessels found in the vascular bundles of the Lycopsidaceae are oval, and are arranged in a spiral manner round the periphery of the stem. The vascular bundles grow by additions to their apex, and hence the term *Acrogenous* is applicable to them. In the Ferns (Pilose) we have the Acrogenous stems in the highest state of development. The Ferns of this country are but few, but they are represented by a number of species whose stems merely run along the surface of the ground, or burrow beneath the surface, and are covered with a film of water, usually salin, into which they die down yearly (fig. 12). In many species, and more especially in the trunks, we find such plants much more deeply rooted than in the case of other ferns. The base of the culms or stipes, rises into the air to the height of sometimes as much as ten feet, and supports a tuft of leaves. In these general appearance externally these ferns have great resemblance to Monocotyledonous trees, not only in bearing a tuft of leaves on top of a stem, but also in possessing no lateral branches, and being of uniform diameter from base to apex. In fact, so far as external appearance is concerned, the stem of a Fern is marked by a number of axes, which have leaves or are rhomboidal outline (fig. 10). The surface of these axes presents a series of transverse furrows or grooves, which appearance is produced by the rupture of the vascular bundles proceeding to the leaves, by the fall of which organs the axes become hollow. Internal Structure of Fern Stems.—Upon making a transverse section of a leafy stem (fig. 13), it will be seen that it is widely notched (see page 71), the following parts :—On the outside a hard rind (fig. 17a, b), composed of dark-coloured wood cells covered externally with a layer of thin-walled parenchyma cells; a spongy chymus, viz., the cells which have thin walls; this is analogous to the pith found in some trees; finally, when the outer spongy chymus is destroyed, so that the stem becomes hollow. Towards A diagram showing the internal structure of a fern stem. 88 ACODYMONUS' STEMS.--GROWTH BY TERMINAL BUDS. the outside of this parenchyma, and just within the rind, we find the so-called 'terminal buds,' which are usually arranged in the form of plates, which, when cut, have a wavy outline, v., v., r. These masses of wood have generally openings between them, through which the sap passes both with the rind and that of the centre of the stem communicates; but in other cases they are closed, and the sap circulates only through their margins, and thus form a continuous circle within the rind. These masses, as already noticed, consist of simultaneous vascular bundles, which are situated in the outer part of the stem, in their character; these are situated in the centre of the bundles, where they contain a large quantity of starch, and are of a yellow colour (fig. 174. v., v.). External to them are usually a few layers of parenchymatous cells, which contain starch in the winter, and amongst which are found some vessels. The whole is surrounded by a single layer of cells, usually more or less lignified and dark-coloured, and forming what has been called the 'bundle sheath.' Fig. 190. Rhizome of Male Fern (Luzern Filix-mas), marked externally by tubercular scars, which present dark-red spots and projections. C.--Fig. 300. Vertical section of a leaf-stalk. Great importance attaches to Terminal Buds.--We have already stated that Tree ferns have no branches; this absence of branches arises from their having, like Pinae, no provision for lateral buds; hence the terminal bud is the only one capable of producing them with the stems generally of Monocotyledonous plants. For the sake of illustration I will give a diagram (fig. 200) showing how some Ferns, however, become forked at their apex (fig. 200); such forkings are produced by the division of the terminal bud into two, from which each branch grows outwards in opposite directions. Such branches are very different from those of exogenous stems, which arise from the splitting off of a bud into two; for while that of the exogenous branches combined is only equal to that of the axis from whence they are derived. As Acodymonous stems only A diagram showing how some Ferns become forked at their apex. BUDS AND RAMIFICATION.—LEAF-BUDS. grow by the development of a terminal bud, the destruction of that bud normally leads to their death. There is nothing in the internal structure of the leaf-bud which opposes this process by which we can ascertain their age. 2. Buds are always produced at the nodes (see p. 204, c, c, c), and we have already stated (page 70) that the presence of leaves and leaf-buds is the essential characteristic by which a stem may be distinguished from a root. The leaves are usually produced at the nodes, but they may extend to the parts of the stem from whence they arise, and so describe the nature of the stem as a whole, though not all stems are thus formed. Leaves are always developed at regular points upon the sur- face of the stem, which are called nodes (see p. 204, c, c, c), and the internodes between them are also regularly arranged. The arrangement of the stems of the atom is some- what different to that in the leaves, and thus at a node it ex- hibits a modified form or interruption of its normal form, which arises from a portion of its substance being given off to enter into the shoot. This is especially noticeable in those cases where the internodes are clearly developed, and especially if under one leaf, as in the Bamboo and other plants in such plants each leaf causes the formation of a hardened ring sternally to itself, and this ring is often followed by a division of a joint or articulation; and indeed, in some cases, the stem does really separate into distinct portions these joints, as in the common willow (Salix alba), which is said to be "budded." A LEAF-BUD or BRANCH. Under ordinary circumstances we have developed buds on our stems, and these buds are com- ical body called a leaf-bud, or simply a bud (fig. 201, a, s). In like manner, the apex of a stem, as well as all of its divisions which are on any part of it, may develop buds (fig. 202), or a single bud (fig. 203). In a dicotyledonous plant such bud, whether lateral or terminal, is called a leaf-bud because it is an embry- onate system of stem or one of its divisions, and consists at first of a minute connexional parenchymatous mass (as fig. 201 b), which soon becomes surrounded with epidermis, and other vessels and wood-cells are soon developed, also in mesenchyme cells which soon become transformed into cells of these, in a parenchymatous mass which ultimately becomes the bark. As we little connexional cellule projections developed, which soon become surrounded with epidermis and other parts become more evident, and a little more less connexional body is attached to it (fig. 201 c), which soon becomes covered with epidermis and other cells (fig. 201 d); or laterally in the axil of a leaf (fig. 202), or finally at the base of the leaf (fig. 203), or finally at the base of the leaf (fig. 203), or finally at the base of the leaf (fig. 203), or finally at the base of the leaf (fig. 203), or finally at the base of the leaf (fig. 203), or finally at the base of the leaf (fig. 203), or finally at the base of the leaf (fig. 203), or finally at the base of the leaf (fig. 203), or finally at the base of the leaf (fig. 203), or finally at the base of the leaf (fig. 203), or finally at the base of the leaf (fig. 203), or finally at the base of the leaf (fig. 203), or finally at the base of the leaf (fig. 203), or finally at the base of the leaf (fig. 203), or finally at the base of the leaf (fig. 203), or finally at the base of the leaf (fig. 203), or finally at the base of the leaf (fig. 203), or finally at the base of the leaf (fig. 203), or finally at the base of the leaf (fig. 203), or finally at the base of the leaf (fig. 203), or finally at the base of the leaf (fig. 203), or finally at the base of the leaf (fig. 203), or finally at the base of the leaf (fig. 203), or finally at the base of the leaf (fig. 203), or finally at the base of the leaf (fig. 203), or finally at the base of the leaf (fig. 203), or finally at the base of the leaf (fig. 203), or finally at the base of the leaf (fig. 203), or finally at the base of the leaf (fig. 203), or finally at the base of the leaf (fig. 203), or finally at the base of the leaf (fig. 203), or finally at the base of the leaf (fig. 203), or finally at the base of the leaf (fig. 203), or finally at the base of the leaf (fig. 203), or finally at the base of the leaf (fig. 203), or finally at the base of 106 LEAF-BUDS OR BUDS. all its rigours, have generally certain protective organs developed on their outer surface in the form of modified leaves, or parts of leaves, which protect them from the effects of the cold, by a hardening texture, and are sometimes covered with a resinous secretion, or with a dense coating of soft hairs or down, as in some Willows. Such scales, therefore, by interposing between the tender foliage, Fig. 238. The bud. A branch of Oak with alternate leaves and bud behind its axilla. A Branch of Oak with alternate leaves and bud behind its axilla. o. o. Bud. A. L. Leaves. — Pl. 507. Longitudinal section of bud and of a twig showing the leaf-bud at the base of the leaf. — The bud is protected by a hardening coat of matter, similar to that of the root. — After Bristow.— A. The bud. — The wood, a.c.t. The bark, b.c.t. — The leaf-bud is formed by the falling off of the leaves and renewed growth of the stem. — The axillary bud is a secondary growing point. A & A. Buds formed by the falling off of the leaves and renewed growth of the stem. — The axillary bud is a secondary growing point. — After Bristow.— A & A. Buds formed by the falling off of the leaves and renewed growth of the stem. — The axillary bud is a secondary growing point. mentary leaves of the bud and the air a thick coating of matter which is a protection against the cold, so that they do not produce them from the influence of external circumstances, by which they would be otherwise injured, or even destroyed. Buds thus protected are found in all plants, but especially in those tropical regions, and those of herbaceous plants growing in temperate climates which are not thus exposed to the influence of winter, such protection being rare where the seasons are accordingly absent, and hence all the leaves of these buds are nearly of the same character as those produced during summer; but in circumstances we find even that the buds of perennial plants growing in cold climates, and which are exposed during the winter, are looked like those of tropical and herbaceous plants. Such is the case, STRUCTURE OF LEAF-BUDS. 101 for instance, with the Alder Buckthorn (Rhamnus Frangula), and some species of Fowernum. These rudimentary leaves of the bud are commonly, as we have just mentioned, terminal scales, but they have also received the name of "false leaves," because they are not true leaves, but modified leaves, or parts of leaves, adapted for a special purpose, is proved not only by their position with regard to the true leaves, but also from the gradual transitional state, which may be frequently traced from them to the ordinary leaves of the bud. These scales have only a temporary duration, falling off as soon as the growth of the bud commences in the spring. The bud consists of two parts: one part contains the elements of a stem or branch (fig. 203); in fact, it is really the first stage in the development of a new plant. The other part contains the rudiments of leaves (fig. 204). It is evident that the rudimentary leaves are closely packed together, and thus overlap one another. When growth commences in the spring, or whenever the bud begins to expand, a connection between the leaves becomes developed (figs. 204, d, d'), and these therefore become connected with each other. When this connection between the stem or branch increases in length, or a new branch is formed. In other words, the leaves, which in a bud state overlap one another and surround each other, become separated at their bases, and one of the internodes of that axis becomes separated and dispersed over a branch or axil of one of the leaves, much in the same way as the joints of a telescope become separated from one another by Fig. 203. Fig. 204. Fig. 205. Fig. 203. A shoot one year old of the Horse-chestnut, with terminal bud, not yet expanded. The bud consists of two parts: one part contains rudimentary leaves (a), and the other part contains rudimentary leaves (b). The rudimentary leaves are closely packed together, and thus overlap one another. When growth commences in the spring, or whenever the bud begins to expand, a connection between the leaves becomes developed (c), and these therefore become connected with each other. When this connection between the stem or branch increases in length, or a new branch is formed. Fig. 204. Shoot of the Lime (Carpinus betulus), showing suppression of the terminal bud by a lateral shoot. Fig. 205. Shoot of a young twig of Poplar (Populus tremula) showing rudimentary leaves (a) and true leaves (b). 103 GROWTH OF LEAF-BUDS. lengths of tube when it is drawn out. The branch, therefore, like the bud from which it is formed, necessarily contains the same parts, and these parts are continuous with those of the stem. These parts are also continuous with that axis, with the exception of the pith, which, being a part of the stem, is not included in the bud. It gradually becomes separated by the development of tissue at the point where the branch springs from the axis. But when a branch becomes separated from its parent, and grows away from it upon it to continue its growth, it becomes ultimately enclosed by the succulent tissues of the stem, and is then called a leaf-bud. From the above circumstances it follows that a bud resembles in its functions the embryo from which it grew first commenced, and that it is capable of producing another bud. This difference, however, between them -- a bud continues the im- dividuality of the plant from which it was formed, and is therefore really made up of a number of similar parts or buds called phylloides, which are developed in succession, one upon the mean of another. In this way each bud is continually increasing until bud the stem increases in height; and by thus situated later- ally below the leaves, they are protected from injury occasioned by a compound body, formed of a series of individuals which mu- tually assist one another, and benefit the whole mass to which they belong. In this manner, by means of these phylloides or leaf- buds, the destruction of a few branches of no consequence, as they are soon replaced by others, is rendered impossible; because phylloides, and also in those of Acotyledons, which develope only from terminal buds, the destruction of these under ordi- nary circumstances would destroy all the other branches on the branch or similar parts, of which a tree, or other Dioecy- donous plant, may thus be shown to be made up, being thus dis- tinctly separated from its parent. The same result is obtainable of being separated from their parents and attached to other im- dividuals. For instance, if a branch be cut off from a tree or a branch with one or more buds upon it may be bent down into the earth (fig. 229). The operations of budding, Grating, and Layering (see fig. 230), show how easily plants may be obtained in some plants both naturally separate from their parents, and produce new individuals by means of these operations. The import- ance in horticulture, because all plants raised by such means pro- pagate the individual peculiarities of their parents, which is not the case when they are propagated by seeds. In BUD-PROPAGATION OR BRANCHING.--In the same way as branches are produced from buds placed on the main axis or stem, so in like manner from the axils of the leaves of these branches other branches are produced. Thus a branch may give rise to a third series, to which will succeed a fourth, fifth, and so on. The number of these successive series depends on what the smaller divisions of these are commonly termed twigs. A diagram showing the branching pattern in plants. RAMIFICATION OR BRANCHING. 103 The general arrangement and modifications to which these are liable are commonly described under the name of ramification or branching, but it is more correct to call them ramifications or arrangements of similar parts. Thus the divisions of a stem or root are branches; but the lateral development from a stem of leaves, flowers, or fruits, is called ramification or branching. There are two principal types of branching, the monopodial and the dichotomous. Thus, when the axis continues to develop Fig. 295. Fig. 296. Fig. 295. Diagram of normal or true dichotomous branching showing the two branches developed in a forked manner, and each branch divid- ing into its own daughter branches. The diagram shows the following characters: A, the main stem; B, the first lateral branch; C, the second lateral branch; D, the third lateral branch; E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z, etc., the daughter branches. In the left-hand section, L1, L2, L3 are three successive lateral branches in the left-hand section. L1 and L2 are in an upward direction by a terminal bud or growing point; so as to form a common foot or position for the branches which develop from them. In an upward or perpendicularly from lateral buds (fig. 291), the branches are called monopodial. This is, with rare exceptions, or perhaps the universal system of branching in plants. In this case one branch develops a terminal bud or growing point bifurcates, and thus produces two shoots; so that the two main stem bean two branches arranged in a forked manner (fig. 290), they are called dichotomous. This form is common in many of the Cryptogams (fig. 200). In dicotyledons and gymnosperms there is a second type, one which is termed true or normal dichotomy, in which the two branches continue to develop equally in a forked manner—that is, as soon as one branch has produced a terminal bud or growing point a second, in which one branch grows much more vigorously than the other (fig. 297). This is termed monopodial dichotomy. In this latter case, owing to the unequal growth of the branches, A diagram showing normal or true dichotomous branching. A diagram showing monopodial branching. 104 DICHOTOMOUS AND MONOPodial BRANCHING. the podia of successive bifurcations form an axis which is termed the *pseudarum* or symposium, on which the weaker fork-branches or bifurcations (e.g., A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J) are placed. This branching may at first sight be confused with that of the *monopodium*, but it differs in the con- tinuous axis giving off lateral branches; but it differs in the fact that here the apparent primary axis consists of a succession of secondary axes. In symmetrical branching, again, the symposium may be either formed of one or two parts. In the former case, the axis of suc- cessive dichotomous (fig. 207, A, L, M, N) or it may consist alter- nately of the left and right fork-branches or bifurcations (fig. 207, b, j, k). The latter case is termed *monopodium* or *botryoid dichotomy*; in the latter, symposium or clinic dichotomy. Of the monopodial branching there are two forms, the ra- ceme and the panicle. In the first the primary axis develops upwards and gives off acroptally lateral branches from axillary buds; in the second, the primary axis develops downwards and gives off similar branches; but in the second form the lateral axis at an early age develops much more vigorously than in the first way—this axis and become more branched than in the first way—this axis and become more branched than in the first way—this axis and become more branched than in the first way—this axis and become more branched than in the first way—this axis and become more branched than in the first way—this axis and become more branched than in the first way—this axis and become more branched than in the first way—this axis and become more branched than in the first way—this axis and become more branched than in the first way—this axis and become more branched than in the first way—this axis and become more branched than in the first way—this axis and become more branched than in the first way—this axis and become more branched than in the first way—this axis and become more branched than in the first way—this axis and become more branched than in the first way—this axis and become more branched than in the first way—this axis and become more branched than in the first way—this axis and become more branched than in the first way—this axis and become more branched than in the first way—this axis and become more branched than in the first way—this axis and become more branched than in the first way—this axis and become more branched than in the first way—this axis and become more branched than in the first way—this axis and become more branched than in the first way—this axis and become more branched than in the first way—this axis and become more branched than in the first way—this axis and become more branched than in the first way—this axis and become more branched than in the first way—this axis and become more branched than in the first way—this axis and become more branched than in the first way—this axis and become more branched than in the first way—this axis and become more branched than in the first way—this axis and become more branched than in the first way—this axis and become more branched than in the first way—this axis and become more branched than in the first way—this axis and become more branched than in the first way—this axis and become more branched than in the first way—this axis and become more branched than in the first way—this axis and become more branched than in the first way—this axis and become more branched than in the first way—this axis and become more branched than in the first way—this axis and become more branched than in the first way—this axis and become more branched than in the first way—this axis and become more branched than in the first way—this axis and become more 1. Non-development of the *Raceme*. This frequently takes place when there is no stimulus to develop a bud or apical or special cause; thus, want of light, very much crowding, or bad soil, may prevent a bud from becoming active or its growth after having acquired a slight development. In other instances, A diagram showing various types of branching patterns. ADVENTITIOUS BUDS. however, this non-development of the buds takes place in the most regular manner; thus, in Firs, where the leaves are very closely situated on the twigs, the buds are placed at intervals of presenting a similar arrangement, are placed in circles around the axis, at distant intervals. This shows that the non-develop- ment of the buds is due to the leaves forming a spire, which is followed by the development of the buds in the axis of their leaves. In other cases, when the buds are placed, we are unable, after the development of the branches, to trace clearly the turns of the spire, so that they appear to grow in a circle. Fig. 208. Fig. 209. Fig. 208. Leaf of *Prunus avium* with bud on its surface. Fig. 209. Bud of leaf of *Malus domestica*, with bud, 6, 8, on its margin. 2. **Adventitious Buds.--These have been found on various parts of the plant, as on the root, the woody part of the stem, the leaves, and other organs. The buds may be produced either by those on which they are formed being destroyed, or when the main branches on the apex of the stem are cut off, this part be- comes covered with adventitious buds. In some cases these buds are formed from which branches are developed. The branches thus produced by budding are, however, to a certain extent, altered by the influence of their own growth; but this is not con- sistent with some cause having hitherto interfered with their growth. In every case in which adventitious buds arise from the normal ones, take their origin from paren- chymatous tissue. Thus, if produced on the shoots arising from lateral roots (as in *Pae- lary rass), or when developed on the margins of leaves (as in *Corylus* and *Buxus*), or from the surface of leaves, as in *Ornithogalum* sporophyllum (fig. 210), or from bearing buds are called *proliferi*. Such buds are rare in nature, and only occur on above-named plants, and occasionally on others; but they may also be produced artificially on various plants belonging to *Gloeotrichia*, and *Achimenes*, by the infliction of wounds, and then afterwards placing them in a moist solution exposing them to the other influences which are favourable for the growth of buds. Fig. 210. A portion of a leaf of *Ornithogalum* showing two adventitious buds, 5, 6, on its margin. 106 **EMERTO-BUDS.—ACCESSORY BUDS.** The buds developed on the leaves, in such cases, ultimately form independent plants, and this process is therefore constantly re- sorted to by plants which have no other means of propagation. The acces- titious buds differ from those commonly produced in the axil of leaves, or at least from those which remain dormant during the winter, in being annual, and having no external protective organs or scales. Fig. 211. Fig. 212. A vertical section of the stem shown in fig. 211. Fig. 211. Embryo-bud or embryo-node of the Oregan—see fig. 212. A vertical section of the stem shown in fig. 211. **Embryo-Buds.—In some trees the adventitious buds, instead of being discrete, are grouped together in clusters, which are enclosed in the bark; such have been called **embryo-buds** or **embryo-nodules**. **Embryo-nodules** are found in the bark of certain trees, such as the Cork-oak, the Beech, and the Cedar of Lebanon, in which they produce externally little leaves, which, when shed, leave behind them a scar. In the case of these nodules, which have a more or less irregular ovoid (fig. 211) or spheroidal form, and woody texture. Upon making a transverse section of the bark of such a tree we observe a central pit surrounded by a variable number of concentric rings, which correspond with the growth rings of ordinary trees, and traversed by medullary rays; in fact, it has all the elements of organisation found in the branch or stem of an ordinary tree. In the case of the cork-oak and beech, these embryo-buds frequently reach the wood, with the growth rings of which they are surrounded; and from their form what are called knobs. In other cases a number of nodules meeting together on the surface form an excrescence. That such nodules may sometimes produce a short branch from their summit, as in the case of the Cedar of Lebanon, is well known; but in the latter plant, under the name of Urtili, are really employed for its pro- pagation. **Accessory Buds.—The third cause of irregularity in** the distribution and appearance of branches arises from the multi- plication of buds on the sides of stems or branches; indeed, one bud, we have in rare cases two, three, or more thus situated (figs. 213-215); such are called accessory buds. These buds * ACCESSORY BRANCHES.—FACIATED BRANCHES.* may be either placed one above the other, or side by side. Thus, in certain Willows, Poplars, and Maples we have three branchlets arising from the same node, which may be said to correspond to a corresponding number of branches. In some Ariadneae, such as the Wistaria (fig. 215), and other plants, the accessory buds are arranged one above the other. Sometimes the uppermost bud alone develops (fig. 216). In the Poplar (fig. 217) there is a bud which is formed above beside the axil of the leaf, in which case it is said to be exserted. In the Willow (fig. 218) there is a bud which is called the gallary or forking bud, that which forms the strongest branch, over which a number of smaller branches are placed, arising from the development of the accessory bud. In some Fig. 218. Fig. 217. Fig. 216. Fig. 218. Branch of a species of Maple with three buds, A, B, C. A, A branch of a branch of the Walnut-tree. B, The pe- ripheral part of a branch of the Walnut-tree. C, The central part of a branch of the Walnut-tree. D, A branch of a branch of the Willow. The gallary or forking bud is that which forms the strongest branch, over which a number of smaller branches are placed, arising from its development. The lowermost being the most developed, trees, as the Larch, and Ash; and frequently in herbace- ous plants, these accessory buds, instead of forming separate branches, become united together and develop into those produced then assume a more or less flattened or thickened appearance. These abnormal branches are commonly called faciated. They are often seen in plants growing in a tangled but developing in an irregular manner. Besides this there are occasional occurrences of abnormal or irregular development of the branches, some minor ones also arise from the formation of extra-accessory branches in other ways than those already mentioned. Thus in some trees they appear at the lower part of the branch, which then appears to arise from above and below it; or they may appear to arise from below it. Other irregularities also occur, but 108 FORMS AND KINDS OF STEMS. * * they are of little importance compared with those already mentioned. 3. Of the Form and Kind of Stems and Branches.—In form the stem is usually more or less cylindrical, while in other cases it becomes flattened, or jointed, or twisted. Particularly in those of certain natural orders, it assumes a variety of anomalous forms. Thus in many euphyllous Orchids it becomes more or less oval or even flat ; in the Cereus it is globular ; in the Dendrobium (fig. 251, b, d) ; in the Melon-cactus it is globular ; and in other Fig. 216. Fig. 217. Fig. 218. Fig. 216. Climbing stem of the Ivy; a, aerial roots. Fig. 217. Twining stem of a Clematis. Fig. 218. Twining stem of Honeysuckle. Cacti it is columnar, more or less flattened, or jointed. In the Tortoise or Elephant's-foot Plant (Tortoiscus elephantipes), it forms a large rough irregular mass. In general, stems have a firm texture, and can therefore readily sustain themselves in an upright direction ; but at other times they become limp and supple, and may either trail along the ground, or adhere themselves to some other plant or neighbouring object. In such cases, if they trail on the ground, their upper extremities remain erect, but when thus reclining they rise towards their extremity, they are decumbent; **HEBES.——SHUBS.——TREES.** or if they rise obliquely from near the base, ascending. But if, instead of ascending on the ground, they take an erect position and cling to other plants by means of aerial roots, or aerial appendages, they are called climbing if they proceed in a more or less rectilinear direction, and if they grow in a spiral manner, they are called twining to other bodies by means of little twisted ramifications called ten- drils, v. e., or in the Ivy, where they emit little aerial roots from their stems, and which are attached to the leaves (see figs. 238, a, b). Or if such stems twist round other bodies in a spiral manner, they are called helicoid. The same thing may take place either from right to left, as in some Convallaria (fig. 218), French Bean, and Dodder; or from left to right, as in the Honey-suckle (fig. 219), which grows in two directions in one direction and then in another, irregularly, as in the White Bryony (fig. 220), which grows in two directions in one direction and then in another, regularly, as in the White Bryony (fig. 220), which grows in two directions in one direction and then in another, regularly, as in the White Bryony (fig. 220), which grows in two directions in one direction and then in another, regularly, as in the White Bryony (fig. 220), which grows in two directions in one direction and then in another, regularly, as in the White Bryony (fig. 220), which grows in two directions in one direction and then in another, regularly, as in the White Bryony (fig. 220), which grows in two directions in one direction and then in another, regularly, as in the White Bryony (fig. 220), which grows in two directions in one direction and then in another, regularly, as in the White Bryony (fig. 220), which grows in two directions in one direction and then in another, regularly, as in the White Bryony (fig. 220), which grows in two directions in one direction and then in another, regularly, as in the White Bryony (fig. 220), which grows in two directions in one direction and then in another, regularly, as in the White Bryony (fig. 220), which grows in two directions in one direction and then in another, regularly, as in the White Bryony (fig. 220), which grows in two directions in one direction and then in another, regularly, as in the White Bryony (fig. 220), which grows in two directions in one direction and then in another, regularly, as in the White Bryony (fig. 220), which grows in two directions in one direction and then in another, regularly, as in the White Bryony (fig. 220), which grows in two directions in one direction and then in another, regularly, as in the White Bryony (fig. 220), which grows in two directions in one direction and then in another, regularly, as in the White Bryony (fig. 220), which grows in two directions in one direction and then in another, regularly, as in the White Bryony (fig. 220), which grows in two directions in one direction and then in another, regularly, as in the White Bryony (fig. 220), which grows in two directions in one direction and then in another, regularly, as in the White Bryony (fig. 220), which grows in two directions in one direction and then in another, regularly, as in the White Bryony (fig. 220), which grows in two directions in one direction and then in another, regularly, as in the White Bryony (fig. 220), which grows in two directions in one direction and then in another, regularly, as in the White Bryony (fig. 220), which grows in two directions in one direction and then in another, regularly, as 109 as 109 as 109 as 109 as 109 as 109 as 109 as 109 as 109 as 109 as 109 as 109 as 109 as 109 as 109 as 109 as 109 as 109 as 109 as 109 as 109 as 109 as 109 as 109 as 109 as 109 as 109 as 109 as 109 as 109 as 109 as 109 as 109 as 109 as 109 as 109 as 109 as 10910 DIRECTION OF BRANCHES, SPINE OR THORN. some of its branches generally perish annually, while others are more or less persistent. The direction of growth of some of these are con- nected by a special link, such that in many cases they are so no means well defined. If the stem of a plant is continually developed, the axis upon which it is placed is prolonged upwards from the earth to the summit, giving off branches from its side as in most Trees; and thus the stem is arrested in its development by the process of flowering, or some other cause, and the branches become more vigorously developed, so that the stem appears to divide into a number of irregular branches, it is said to be dichotomous. Those different kinds of plants which have this mode of growth are called Trees. Thus, those with excrescent stems are usually more or less conical, and their branches are either spreading or erect; the planes are rounded or spreading. The general appearance of trees thus depends upon the nature of the lateral branches, and upon the angle which they make with the main stem at their point of origin. Thus, if the branches are firm, and spring at an acute angle to the stem, as in the Oak and Cedar; if they are spreading, as in the tree, and the tree is more or less narrowed ; if they come off at a right angle, the branches are spreading, as in the Oak and Cedar; if the angle is obtuse, they are erect, as in the Willow and Elm; but this weeping appearance arises from the weakness and flexibility of the branches, as in the Weeping Willow and Weeping Elm. The relative length of the branches also affects their form; we will give rise to corresponding differences in the general appearance of trees. Thus, if all the branches are equal in length, they will come shorter as they approach the top, the whole will be shaped like a cone or pyramid, as in the Spruce Fir; if the middle branches are longer than those below them, then their general appearance will be rounded or oval, as in the Horsechestnut; if those of lower parts are long and those of upper parts short, the form will be umbel-like, as in the Italian Pine. Besides the above forms and kinds of stems and branches, there are others which are very common among Trees and Tendril. Spines or Thorns. It sometimes happens that a leaf-stalk, in- stead of developing as usual, so as to form a symmetrical leaf- bearing branch, becomes arrested in its growth, and forms a horizontal projection from its base. This projection may be at any point, and usually without leaves, as in Thorns (fig. 229) and in Glabrous (fig. 230) Plants. A horizontally-developed branch is called a spine or thorn. That the spines or thorns on modified branches is proved not only by their structure, which is exactly similar to that of ordinary leaves, but also by their position on the stem, but also by their position in the axil of leaves; by their TENDRILS. KINDS OF STEM. sometimes bearing leaves, as in the Sloe (fig. 221), and Spiny Fast-harvested, and sometimes with a stem which is invested into sub- nary leaf-bearing branches by cultivation, as in the Apple and Pear. The spines are sometimes confounded with prickles, which are produced by the growth of the epidermis, and separated from these by their structure and connection with the internal parts of the plant. In the former case, they are produced parenchyma, arising immediately from, and in connection only with, the epidermal tissue and layer of cells beneath. Tendrils are slender, flexible, thread-like leafless branch, which is twisted in a spiral direction, as in the Peach (fig. 222). They are also produced by the constrictions of nature by means of which weak plants are enabled to get into the air by attaching themselves to neighbouring bodies for sup- port. Tendrils may be also observed in the Vine (figs. 223, r, r, v), where they are regarded by many botanists as the ter- minal organs of the stem, but this opinion is erroneous. Both spines and tendrils are occasionally produced from leaves on different regions of the plant; these peculiarities will be referred to hereafter under the head of "Vascular Organs," of which they are respectively modifications. Knots and tendrils have been seen that the stem, when first developed, always takes a diametrically opposite direction to that of the root. In many instances this direction is continued more or less throughout life. In other cases, how- ever, the terminal bud either acquires an irregular direction, and the tendril arises from some other point; or it perishes altogether at a very early period, and an axillary A diagram showing a tendril growing from a stem. Fig. 219. Fig. 220. Fig. 221. Fig. 219. Branching spine of the Honeysuckle (Linderaeae) —Fig. 220. Figure of a species of Thunia. Leafy spine of the common rose. port. Tendrils may be also observed in the Vine (figs. 223, r, r, v), where they are regarded by many botanists as the ter- minal organs of the stem, but this opinion is erroneous. Both spines and tendrils are occasionally produced from leaves on different regions of the plant; these peculiarities will be referred to hereafter under the head of "Vascular Organs," of which they are respectively modifications. Knots and tendrils have been seen that the stem, when first developed, always takes a diametrically opposite direction to that of the root. In many instances this direction is continued more or less throughout life. In other cases, how- ever, the terminal bud either acquires an irregular direction, and the tendril arises from some other point; or it perishes altogether at a very early period, and an axillary 112 KINDS OF STEM.—RUNNER.—OFFSET. branch takes its place, which also, by developing laterally, will likewise continue to grow, and thus form a new stem or burrow beneath it. From these peculiarities in the direction and growth of stems and branches, we have a number of modifications which we now proceed to describe. These may be divided into two heads, namely, those which are aerial, and those which are subterranean. The former are all connected with the distinct line between the modifications of stem which these two divisions respectively contain, as certain forms occasionally pass from one into the other. The latter are all connected with the aerial or differ- ent points, or at different periods of their course. Fig. 222. Fig. 223. A diagram showing a plant with a stem that has developed into a runner. Fig. 223. A portion of the stem of *Pseudophyllum* *androsaemum*, *e.* *s.* *Tindale*. ---Fig. 223. Part of the stem of the Vine, *e.* *s.* *Tindale*. 1. Aerial Modifications of Stems and Branches.—Of these the most important are the runner, the offset, the stolon, the maker, and the bulb. a. The Runner or Flagellum (fig. 224).—This is an elongated, slender, leafless stem, which grows out from the base of the leaves, and giving off its extremity leaves, $r$, and roots, $f$, and thus producing a new plant, which extends itself in a similar manner. This is seen in many plants belonging to this class. b. The Offset (fig. 225).—This is a short, prostrate, more or less horizontal stem, which arises from the base of a leaf, and a tuft of leaves, and thus forms an independent plant, which is capable of producing other offsets in a like manner. It is well seen in the *Corydalis*, *Fumaria*, *Hepatica*, &c., and in the *Daisy* runner, except in being shorter, somewhat thicker, and its leaves distinctly tufted. 14 THE STOLON. 113 c. The Stolon.--This is a branch given off above the surface of the ground, but which curves or proceeds downwards towards it, and which, by its own growth, becomes attached to the earth, and a stem upwards into the air, and being thus capable of acquiring food independently of its parent, it ultimately forms Fig. 224. A diagram showing a stolon growing from a plant. Fig. 225. A diagram showing a stolon growing from a plant. Fig. 226. A portion of the common Strawberry plant, c. An axis producing a stalk of leaves at its extremity, the upper of which, c', is well developed and green, while the lower one, c", is very small and white; another second axis or runner, bearing a rudimentary leaf, near the middle of which is a bud, b, which will develop into a new plant. The effect of stolonisation. Fig. 227. Plant showing the process of inversion. a new individual. The Currant, Gooseberry, and other plants, multiply in this way. All such plants are said to be adominal--from the Latin adominales, meaning "to produce new individuals, when they lay down a branch into the earth." From which a plant is gradually formed ; this process is technically called inversion (Fig. 229). 1 114 **KINDS OF STEM.—SUCKER.—RIZOME.** 4. The Sucker (figs. 227 and 228).—This is a branch which arises from the stem, and grows horizontally, and which, after proceeding in a horizontal direction for a certain distance, and giving off roots in its course, turns upwards into the air, and ultimately forms an independent plant. Plants thus pro- Fig. 227. Fig. 228. Figs. 227 and 228. Suckers of species of Mentha. ducing suckers are said to be *surculose*. Good examples of this kind of stem are found in the *Mint* (figs. 227 and 228), the *Mint* (figs. 227 and 228). The sucker can scarcely be said to differ in any essential particular from the stolon, except that it is originally more horizontal, and consequently aerial; whereas the stolon is first aerial, and then subterranean. Fig. 229. Fig. 230. Fig. 230. A portion of the rhizome of a species of Iris.—Fig. 230. A por- tion of the rhizome of a species of Iris. *a* Terminal bud; *b*, *c*, *d* Roots produced by sheathing leaves. 5. The Rhizome or Rootstock (figs. 229 and 230).—This is a penetrating thickened stem or branch running along the surface of the ground, or more generally partly beneath it, and giving off A diagram showing a rhizome or rootstock emerging from the ground. THE CREEPING STEM. 115 roots from its lower side, and buds from its upper. These stems sometimes creep for a long distance in this way, and have their upper parts covered with a sheath, which is produced by the leaves, and caused by the falling off of former leaves or aerial herbaceous branches. Such stems are found in the Iris, Sweet-Bug, Ginger, Solomon's Seal, and other plants. This kind of stem being generally partially beneath the surface of the ground, forms a natural transition to the erect section of subterranean stems. 2. Subterranean (or) Aerial Stems of Herbs. - All those modes of growth of stems and branches which are con- founded with roots, and they are still thus designated in common language, are called subterranean or aerial stems, either by the presence of leaves and buds, or by scars on their surface which are produced by the fall of former leaves. The following are kinds of aerial stems described above, when partially subterranean, may be also distinguished in a similar manner from roots. Fig. 231. a. The Creeping Stem (fig. 231). - This kind of stem is some- times called a Rhizome, and in common language a creeping- root. It is a slender branch which runs along beneath the sur- face of the ground, and has buds from its upper, in the same manner as the rhizome, and it is considered by many botanists as a variety of that stem. The two different kinds of stems described above and the rhizome, are the more slender form, its commonly known name being "Creeper" (fig. 231), as in the case of the Sarsaparilla (Sarsaparilla), Sedgeland (or Carex arenariae [fig. 231]), and the Couch Grass (Trifolium repens), afford good examples of this stem. In some instances such stems serve important purposes in nature; thus those of It is a slender branch which runs along beneath the surface of the ground, and has buds from its upper, in the same manner as the rhizome, and it is considered by many botanists as a variety of that stem. The two different kinds of stems described above and the rhizome, are the more slender form, its commonly known name being "Creeper" (fig. 231), as in the case of the Sarsaparilla (Sarsaparilla), Sedgeland (or Carex arenariae [fig. 231]), and the Couch Grass (Trifolium repens), afford good examples of this stem. In some instances such stems serve important purposes in nature; thus those of 116 KINDS OF STEM.---THE TUBER. The Sand Sedge or Carex, by spreading through the sand of the sea-shore, and in this way finding its tooth, prevents from being washed away, and thus protects itself against the like of those of the Couch Grass, are the pest of the agriculturist, who finds it very difficult to destroy them. The same may be said of the Carex, as every node is capable of developing a leaf-bud and roots, each of the pieces into which they will then be divided may become an independent plant. In this case, instead of destroying such plants, only serves the purpose of still further multiplying their number, and thus increasing their parts under more favourable circumstances for development. Fig. 232. A diagram showing the tuber-like structure of a plant. b. The Tuber (figs. 232 and 233).---This is a subterranean stem or branch, arrested in its growth, and excessively enlarged by the deposits of food materials within its cells. Upon its surface a number of little buds, or eyes, as they are sometimes called, from which new plants are usually produced, are generally found. This tuberous nature is a kind of stem. The Potato (fig. 232), and Jerusalem Artichokes (fig. 233), are good illustrations of this feature. A case was reported in which a potato plant grew from a Potato tuber, in which the buds in the axis of the true leaves above ground showed a tendency to develop into stems. The tendency to produce stems was also clearly indicated. The stem-like nature of the tuber is likewise corroborated by the common experience of gardeners, who have observed that when they dig up the young plants of the Potato with earth, convert the buried buds (which under usual circumstances would have developed secondary branches) into tubers, and thus increase their number. A diagram showing the tuber-like structure of a plant. THE BULB. 117 The tubercles of certain terrestrial Orchidæ and other plants (figs. 256-258), which are described by us as enlarged roots, Fig. 531. Tubers of the Jerusalem Artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus).—Fig. 532. A somewhat crushed or flat of the common Potato. From the Gardener's Chronicle. are considered by some botanists as tubers. The tuber, however, as a rule, is distinct from the root, and, in practice at least, should be distinguished from them. C. The Bulb.—This is a shortened, usually subterranean stem or branch, generally in the form of a rounded or flattened plate or disc (figs. 255-257, a), which bears on its surface a number of flabby scales or modified leaves ; or it may be con- sidered as a modified bulbous root, with a few leaves or leaflets off roots from below (figs. 257, b), and a stem upwards (figs. 256, p), and figs. 258 and 257, d), bearing leaves and flowers. The scales are generally more or less thickened by deposition of nutritive Fig. 533. Vertical section of the early bulb of the Lily. a. Shortened axis or stem of the flower; b. Leafy scale; c. Flower bud; d. Flowering stem. Fig. 534. Vertical section of the early bulb of the Lily. a. Shortened axis or stem of the flower; b. Leafy scale; c. Flower bud; d. Flowering stem. The letters refer to the same parts in both figures. Fig. 535. Vertical section of the early bulb of the Lily. a. Shortened axis or stem of the flower; b. Leafy scale; c. Flower bud; d. Flowering stem. The letters refer to the same parts in both figures. Fig. 536. Vertical section of the early bulb of the Lily. a. Shortened axis or stem of the flower; b. Leafy scale; c. Flower bud; d. Flowering stem. The letters refer to the same parts in both figures. Fig. 537. Vertical section of the early bulb of the Lily. a. Shortened axis or stem of the flower; b. Leafy scale; c. Flower bud; d. Flowering stem. The letters refer to the same parts in both figures. Fig. 538. Vertical section of the early bulb of the Lily. a. Shortened axis or stem of the flower; b. Leafy scale; c. Flower bud; d. Flowering stem. The letters refer to the same parts in both figures. Fig. 539. Vertical section of the early bulb of the Lily. a. Shortened axis or stem of the flower; b. Leafy scale; c. Flower bud; d. Flowering stem. The letters refer to the same parts in both figures. Fig. 540. Vertical section of the early bulb of the Lily. a. Shortened axis or stem of the flower; b. Leafy scale; c. Flower bud; d. Flowering stem. The letters refer to the same parts in both figures. Fig. 541. Vertical section of the early bulb of the Lily. a. Shortened axis or stem of the flower; b. Leafy scale; c. Flower bud; d. Flowering stem. The letters refer to the same parts in both figures. Fig. 542. Vertical section of the early bulb of the Lily. a. Shortened axis or stem of the flower; b. Leafy scale; c. Flower bud; d. Flowering stem. The letters refer to the same parts in both figures. Fig. 543. Vertical section of the early bulb of the Lily. a. Shortened axis or stem of the flower; b. Leafy scale; c. Flower bud; d. Flowering stem. The letters refer to the same parts in both figures. Fig. 544. Vertical section of the early bulb of the Lily. a. Shortened axis or stem of the flower; b. Leafy scale; c. Flower bud; d. Flowering stem. The letters refer to the same parts in both figures. Fig. Shortened axis or stem of the flower; b. Leafy scale; c. Flower bud; d. Flowering stem. The letters refer to the same parts in both figures. Fig. Shortened axis or stem of the flower; b. Leafy scale; c. Flower bud; d. Flowering stem. The letters refer to the same parts in both figures. Fig. Shortened axis or stem of the flower; b. Leafy scale; c. Flower bud; d. Flowering stem. The letters refer to the same parts in both figures. Fig. Shortened axis or stem of the flower; b. Leafy scale; c. Flower bud; d. Flowering stem. The letters refer to the same parts in both figures. Fig. Shortened axis or stem of the flower; b. Leafy scale; c. Flower bud; d. Flowering stem. The letters refer to the same parts in 118 Kinds of stem.—Tunicated and Scaly Bulbs. matter; those, therefore, serve as reservoirs of nutriment for the future use of the plant, just as in other cases the enlarged stems and leaves of the plant are. The bulb is only found in monocotyledonous plants, as in the Lily (figs. 235 and 237). Once formed, the bulb remains stationary, like the ordinary leaves of a branch, have the power of developing in their axis new bulbs (fig. 236, b); these are called by gardeners "bulbils," and are often mistaken for a bud, because of the analogy of a bulb to a branch or bud. There are three kinds of bulbs, which are distinctly distinguished by botanists, namely, the tunicated (fig. 238), and the scaly (figs. 235-237). The tunicated bulb is well seen in the Onion (fig. 238) and Squill. In this kind of bulb the scales, which Figs. 238. Figs. 239. are thick and flimsy, and enclose each other in a concentric manner, cover externally by thin and membraneous ones, which form a protective covering over the whole mass, tunicated or coated, which is applied to it. In the scaly, or sabled bulb as it is also called (figs. 235-237), there are no outer dry scales or leaves, but only a few inner ones, narrow or slightly flattened ones, which simply overlap each other. The young bulbs (shoots) (figs. 230, b), which are developed in the axils of the leaves of the parent plant, belong to their parent, which they thus commonly destroy by absorbing all its stored-up nutriment and energy, prepared in the course of growth, and form independent plants. In the axils of the leaves of certain plants, such as some species of Lily (fig. 230, a, o), the bulb-corm (Lecanorum bulbifera), Fig. 238. Tunicated bulb of the Onion. Fig. 239. Form of a species of Lily (Lecanorum bulbifera) bearing bulbils or bulbules, a, n, in the axils of its leaves. THE CORM. 119 and Pilewort (Ranunculus ficaria), small conical or rounded feathery bodies are produced, which are of the nature of bulbs, but are not so compactly united with their stem as are those from their smaller size, bulbs or bullets. They differ from ordinary buds in their feathery nature, and by spontaneously separating from the parent plant, and being thus dispersed over the places under favourable circumstances ; and from true bulbs from their small size, and from their being more or less enclosed in a case, confined, as is the case with true bulbs, to monocotyledonous plants, as may be seen by the examples given. d. The true bulb, which is like the true bulb, is only found in monocotyledonous plants, as, for example, the Colchicum (Colchicum autumnale), which produces a very thickened solid subterranean stem, of a rounded or oval figure, and commonly covered externally by a few thin membranous scales. By some botanists it is considered as a kind of bulb, in which the Fig. 260. Fig. 261. Fig. 260. Corms of Crocus sativus. a, b. The new corms arising from c, the axil of a leaf on the old corm. — Fig. 261. Section of the flower. The letters refer to the same parts. stem or axis is much enlarged, and the scales reduced to thin membranes. Practically a corn may be distinguished from a bulb by its greater size and by its being composed of flattened interlaced, or concentrically arranged scales. The corn is known by its name because it is formed in the axils of one or more buds, in the form of young corms, as in the Crocus (figs. 260, a, b), where they proceed from the apex, and ultimately become enveloped in a scale-like membrane containing nutrient. These new corms, in a future year, also produce others similar to themselves; but when these have grown up some of their parents also destroy them in like manner, and these again form other corms by which they themselves destroyed. In this way the new corms are gradually developed from the apex of the old corms, come gradually nearer and nearer to the surface of the earth. In the Colchicum (fig. 261), the new corm $a'$ is developed 130 **ROOT.---TRUE OR PRIMARY ROOT.** On one side of the old corn near its base, instead of from the apex, as in the Cucurbita. This also feeds upon its parent, and is in like manner dependent on its own progeny. Thus, in taking up such a corn carefully, we find (fig. 54) that the short-veiled corn of last year; and the long-veiled corn of this season, which, if cut vertically, shows all the corn in a young con- Fig. 54. struction, contain the vitreous matter, which are stored up for their offspring. Section 2. The Root or Descending Axis. The root is defined as that part of the axis which at its first development is inserted into the soil, and by means of which it is fixed to the stem, avoiding the light and air, and hence called the descending axis; and by which it is nourished, being nourished either by that which it grows, or floating in the water when the plant is placed upon the surface of that medium. The part where the stem and root diverge is called the apex; but this point is not always visible, as here generally more or less contracted, at least in the young plant; but, as development proceeds, all traces externally of this point are usually destroyed. It is often very difficult, if not impossible, to discover its position. That part of the root below the apex is termed the base, and the opposite extremity the apex. We distinguish two varieties of roots, namely, the True or Primary, and the Adventitious Roots. 1. **TRUE OR PRIMARY ROOT.** The true root, which can only exist in plants having a tap-root system, arises first by additions made within the extremity of the radicle of the embryo; and the mode in which it takes place may be thus stated:--(1) The radicle is divided into three layers by division just within the apex of the radicle; the mass of cells thus formed is termed the periderm; these layers are an outer, inner, and intermediate. From the inner layer, or as it is termed, the périclere, is subsequently developed the third vascular layer; and from this third layer a primary xylem is formed from the intermediate layer or phloem; whilst the outer single-layered cell is known as the epidermis. This epidermis gives rise to the epidermis, forms the cap-shaped mass of tissue, Fig. 55. Fig. 56. GROWTH OF THE ROOT. 121 called the root-cap or pleurokin by which the growing apex of the root is always clothed. All roots (figs. 243, 245, 246) and the branches of the stem, though they may grow for a long time as above described; hence roots do not grow through their entire length, but only within their extremities, which are continually pushed forward by the growth of the root. The apex of the root is always clothed by a layer of denser tissue which is continuous with that of the stem. This layer is called a cap; a root is likewise terminated by a similar cap (fig. 245, A, B). This cap forms in fact a sort of protecting shield to the young extremity of the root (fig. 247), and is often spoken of as a "thymus" (Phyto- logical Botany.) These extremities of the root were formerly regarded as special organs, and called gonopodes or gonopods (figs. 244, 245, ap.), under the idea that they absorbed fluid for the use of plant life, and thus served as organs of nutrition. But it will be seen from the above description of the growth of roots that such structures have no existence. Roots increase in diameter by means of layers of wood in the same manner as stems. At first there are growing extremities of the roots consisting entirely of parenchymatous cells (figs. 244, 245, a, e); wood-cells and vessels (figs. 244, f, g), however, soon make their appearance, so that at last the whole root consists of wood tissue formed as the root continues to lengthen. When the root is fully developed, these vessels and wood cells generally form a central mass of wood (figs. 244, f, g and 245, f, g), in which there Fig. 244. Fig. 244. Fig. 501. Young root of the Maple magnified. a. The part where growth is taking place. The original extremity. c.c., Fibres or wood-cells. d.d., Vessels or water-cells. e.e., Parenchyma or flesh-cells. f.f., Wood-cells and vessels. e.g., Fertile hydromons cells / c.c. Wood-cells and vessels. A few other growing extremities of roots consist entirely of parenchymatous cells (figs. 244, a, e); wood-cells and vessels (figs. 244, f, g), however, soon make their appearance, so that at last the whole root consists of wood tissue formed as the root continues to lengthen. When the root is fully developed, these vessels and wood cells generally form a central mass of wood (figs. 244, f, g and 245, f, g), in which there 122 **STRUCTURE OF THE ROOT.** is commonly no path, and no medullary sheath. But the medullary rays exist as in the stem; and externally there is a true bark, which is formed by the periderm, and is produced by a modified epidermis without stomata (fig. 19), and which, as we have seen, is sometimes called epiblade (fig. 19). This epidermis is often very thick, and is composed of cells which are termed root-scales or filariae (figs. 19, and 23, c, r). The latter are especially prominent in the young roots, but these advance in age they perish, while the tissue from which they were prolonged becomes at the same time harder and firmer, and is converted into the bark. Roots have no leaves, and normally no bursa, hence they do not possess any special means of growth to divide and subdivide according to circumstances without any definite limit. In this respect the branches of the stem have a more active growth than the root arrangement, as already described, those of the root are unarmoured with scales. The roots of the root are always developed endo- radially, that is, they are deep-seated, being derived from the pericarpium or outer covering of the plant. As they increase in length they ulti- mately push through the tissues which surround them, namely, the cortical layers and epidermis of the stem, which are therefore not continuous with the similar tissues of the branches. The cortex of the root is thus separated from that of the branch, and each possesses its own vascular system. As they are developed, and grow, as already stated, in a similar manner, and, like it, have common meristematic buds below. To this latter character, however, there are many exceptions for although in most cases the root-bud is placed on the surface of the adventitious buds may be formed upon its surface, in the same man- ner as we have seen that under certain circumstances they may be produced on other parts of the plant. For example, it is known that the root thus possesses of forming adventitious buds may be found on the roots of many plants such as the Japanese Anemone, and many other plants. The latter plant especially, exhibits this tendency in a remarkable degree. **Note.** The following frequency of adventitious buds above A diagram showing a longitudinal section of a root. Fig. 23. **Fig. 23.** Longitudinal section of the root of the common Indian Fatsia palm (Fatsia japonica). The cortex of the main axis is shown in A; B shows a bud on one of the lateral roots in different stages developing from the same bud; C shows another bud on a lateral root; D shows a bud on a lateral root near a petiole; E shows a bud on a lateral root near a leaf-stalk; F shows a bud on a lateral root near a leaf-base; G shows a bud on a lateral root near a leaf-midrib; H shows a bud on a lateral root near a leaf-vein; I shows a bud on a lateral root near a leaf-nerved; J shows a bud on a lateral root near a leaf-nerved; K shows a bud on a lateral root near a leaf-nerved; L shows a bud on a lateral root near a leaf-nerved; M shows a bud on a lateral root near a leaf-nerved; N shows a bud on a lateral root near a leaf-nerved; O shows a bud on a lateral root near a leaf-nerved; P shows a bud on a lateral root near a leaf-nerved; Q shows a bud on a lateral root near a leaf-nerved; R shows a bud on a lateral root near a leaf-nerved; S shows a bud on a lateral root near a leaf-nerved; T shows a bud on a lateral root near a leaf-nerved; U shows a bud on a lateral root near a leaf-nerved; V shows a bud on a lateral root near a leaf-nerved; W shows a bud on a lateral root near a leaf-nerved; X shows a bud on a lateral root near a leaf-nerved; Y shows a bud on a lateral root near a leaf-nerved; Z shows a bud on Fig. 24. a lateral root near a leaf-nerved; A shows a bud on a lateral root near a leaf-nerved; B shows a bud on a lateral root near a leaf-nerved; C shows a bud on a lateral root near a leaf-nerved; D shows a bud on a lateral root near a leaf-nerved; E shows a bud on a lateral root near a leaf-nerved; F shows a bud on a lateral root near ADVENTITIOUS OR SECONDARY ROOT. 123 general description which has been given of the growth, structure, and characteristics of the true root, we find that the character of the adventitious roots of the plants in Dicotyledonous plants may be summed up as follows—1st. The tendency of the root at its first formation to develop in an opposite direction to that of the stem, so as to grow from the light and air. 2nd. The root does not grow through the bark, but is confined within the cortex, and is produced only by additions just within its axis, which is covered by a root-cap. 3rd. The root under ordinary circumstances has no pith or medullary rays, and is composed of cells without any intercellular spaces; but in place of this an integument composed of cells without such spaces, is formed on the surface of the root. 4th. It has no leaves, or scales which are modified leaves. 5th. It has no regular buds, and has consequently no provision for a regular multiplication. 2. ADVENTITIOUS OR SECONDARY ROOT.—This name is applied to all those roots which arise from the elongation of the radicle of the embryo; because such roots, instead of proceeding from a definite point as is the case with the true or primary roots, are produced by the growth of parts other than their origin, and depend upon favourable external circumstances for their development. These roots are called adventitious because they originally produced from its apex, are of this nature, as are also those of the different modifications of stems, such as the rhizome, runners, stolons, and tubers; and also because they are roots and cuttings of plants, &c., and those of nearly all Monocotyledonous and Angiospermous plants. They are usually produced either de- veloped from the stems or branches of plants in the air, and are hence called aerial Roots. Such roots are likewise necessarily an adventitious growth. The adventitious roots of Monocotyledonous plants make their first appearance when the shoot begins to grow upwards by division and subsequent growth of the cells constituting the pericarpium or outer layer of the plerome (or procarium); these cells divide into two daughter-cells each, which grow together, and appear externally, at first as parenchymatous elongations, but ultimately have a more or less distinct form. In Monocotyledonous plants where they break through they are surrounded at the base by a kind of sheath or collar called a coleorhiza (Fig. 246), and are then termed corms or bulbs. In other plants they take like true roots, and are terminated like them by a root-cap or pilus- rhamus. In the adventitious roots of the Screw-pine (Jap. 188), &c., other modifications occur; for they are seen in the form of a cap-like covering at the extremity of each root. The second modification occurs in certain aquatic plants; for in the Duckweed (Fig. 247), it is persistent, and appears in this form of a long shoot over the 134 ADVENTITIOUS ROOTS. end of the root ; and is continually pushed onwards by the de- velopment of the cells within the apex. Fig. 246. Fig. 247. Fig. 248. Fig. 246. Germinating embryo of the Oat. e. Rootlet, each with a sheath (incubatorium), on which is a leaf. f. Two young stems, one of them meristematic, the other of the Lower Shoot (leaf). g. Rootlets with the roots of the common shoot. h. The root-caps with the branches c. The root of the common shoot between the stem and root, a. The stem of the common shoot between the stem and root, b. The stem c. A. H. Bock. The adventitious roots of Dicotyledons arise in a some- what similar manner to those of Monocotyledons, making their appearance at the base of the stem, and being formed by sub- stance of the pericarpium, and ultimately breaking through the bark of the stem, or by means of a bud, or by additions within their extremities, and each is protected by a phloretus, and has at its base a sclerophyllus. They have under ordinary circumstances no leaves, but are frequently furnished with stomata. Adventitious roots generally, like true roots, have no leaves or buds, and are usually furnished with a sheath or incu- batorium ; hence when derived from Dicotyledons, they are distinguished from the stem by the same characters as that of the true roots ; but when derived from Monocotyledons, Acotyledons have a similar structure to their respective stems, as will be seen hereafter ; but they differ from them in that, from their exasperated position, frequently furnished with a true epidermis and stomata, and are sometimes of a green colour ; but in other cases they are white or yellowish-white. The true or primary root, from its being formed by direct AERIAL ROOTS. 125 elongation from the radicle, generally continue to grow downwards towards the ground at least, and hence form the main trunk or axis from which the branches arise (Fig. 248). This aerial root is termed a tap-root, and may be commonly observed in Diospyros, Ficus, and other plants. The roots of the Acacia, Eucalyptus, and Acotyledonous plants, which are adventitious, are usually of nearly equal size, and grown off in variable numbers from the radical axis. In some cases, however, these roots become very large, as those called aerial, require a more particular notice. Aerial roots are found on many of aerial roots are seen in the Ivy (fig. 216, e., o.), and some other climbing plants. In Fig. 308. The Banyan-tree (Ficus indica). these plants they are essentially intended for mechanical support, and not to obtain food : this they obtain by their ordinary roots fixed in the soil. In the case of the Ivy and other climbing plants some food may be taken up by these roots. The main stem of the plant is supported partly by the stems or branches descended to the ground, and fixing themselves there, not only act as mechanical supports, but also assist the true roots in obtaining food. So also does the Banyan or Indian Screw-pine (fig. 188, 2), in the Banyan or Indian Fig-tree (fig. 249), in which the stem is entirely supported by these aerial roots frequently form the entire support of the stem in consequence of this decaying at its lower part (fig. 250). Dysphania is a genus of plants in which aerial roots are produced, and as these never reach the soil they 125 **EPIFYETES OR AIR-PLANTS.** cannot obtain any food from it, but must draw their food from the air to which they are developed; hence the name of air-plants which a species of this kind are also called epiphytes, because they grow upon other plants. Most Orchids (fig. 201) and Tillandsia aff. are true epiphytes. Fig. 201. The Mangrove-tree (Bathysperma Mangifolia). The aerial roots of these plants are usually green, and possess a true epidermis and stomata ; in which particular respect the aerial roots present exceptions, as already stated. This fact is commonly observed in other roots. The aerial roots of most Orchids have a thin layer of unusually very delicate fibrous tissue beneath the true epidermis, to which the name of roof-duct has been applied by Schleiden, who also calls such roots coiled roots. Fig. 201. Besides these epiphytes, there is another interesting class of plants which are called porusae ; these we must now notice. Porusae.--These are plants which not only grow upon others, but which also obtain their food from them. In obtaining their food from it, as is the case with the epiphytes, send A diagram showing the structure of an orchid root with a thin layer of fibrous tissue beneath the true epidermis. Fig. 231. Orchidaceous plants, to show their mode of growth. o., aerial roots; p., primary roots; b., bulbous roots; s., secondary roots; t., tertiary roots; n., nutlets; m., mycelium; v., vascular bundles. Besides these epiphytes, there is another interesting class of plants which are called porusae ; these we must now notice. Porusae.--These are plants which not only grow upon others, but which also obtain their food from them. In obtaining their food from it, as is the case with the epiphytes, send PARASITES.—SAFROPHYTES. 127 them into the stems of the plants upon which they grow, and obtain nutrition from them. The common Asparagus (Asparagus officinalis), Broom-rapeseed (Ornithopus) (fig. 253), and Bryophyllum Arnoldii (fig. 253), may be cited as examples of such parasitic plants. The leaves of these plants are usually green foliage, as in the Matthiola, while many others are pale, or brownish, and are often very small. The leaves of the Viper's-vine and Raffiafeae. The latter plant is especially interesting from its producing the largest flowers of any known plant: thus the flower of this plant measures a measured nine feet in circumfer- ence, and weighed fifteen pounds. Parasitic plants also vary in the degree of their parasitism : the Matthiola and the greater number of parasites are so Fig. 253. ![Illustration showing a parasitic plant with large flowers.] Fig. 253. Crucia or Dodder-plant. The leaves, flowers and several leaflets of Bryophyllum Arnoldii, a parasitic plant of Matthiola. far as their roots are concerned entirely dependent upon the plants on which they grow for their food; while others, as the Dodder, obtain their food at first by means of the ordinary roots connecting with those of other plants, but later become independent of these perish, and their roots then derive their food entirely from the plants upon which they grow; others, again, continue throughout life to depend upon other plants for the source of roots imbedded in the soil. It will be seen that these parasites differ from other plants in the fact that they do not live like them entirely on inorganic matter, but derive a portion of their food in an assimilated state from the organic material of other plants. Besides the parasites just described, there is also another class of plants called saprophytes, which, whilst agreeing with ordinary plants in obtaining their food from organic or usual organic material, differ from that latter class in growing on dead A diagram showing a parasitic plant with large flowers. An illustration of a parasitic plant with large flowers. 128 **DURATION OF ROOTS.** organic substances, and therefore assimilating each matter which is in a state of decomposition. The roots of plants are Monocotyledons, Cruciferae, Leguminosae, and Euphorbiae, together with the greater number of Fungi. **Duration of Roots.—Having now described the general characters and structure of the true or primary root, and of the adventitious roots, we shall proceed to consider the various modes in which roots differ from one another, and to ascertain differences which roots present depending upon their duration. Roots are thus divided into annual, biennial, and perennial. 1. Annual Roots.—These are produced by plants which grow from seed, and die at the end of the first year after they are developed. In such plants the roots are usually of small size, and either all spring from a common point as in annual Grasses (fig. 264), or arise from a common base as in the Cabbage (fig. 265). In some cases, however, the roots arise in a number of small branches. Such plants, in the process of flowering and maturing their fruits and seeds, exhaust all the nutriment contained in their roots, and die at the close of the first year. 2. Biennial Roots.—These are produced by plants which flower from seed during the first year, but do not produce any fruit till the second year, when they perish. Such roots are commonly enlarged in various ways at the close of the first season, in order that they may contain sufficient food to nourish and to nutritive materials stored up for the support of the plant during its flowering period. In this case the roots are usually thickened at their base (fig. 262), and Turnip (fig. 264), afford good examples of annual biennial roots. 3. Perennial Roots.—These are the roots of plants which live for many years. In some such plants, as the Dahlia (fig. 258), and Oryza (fig. 260), the roots are very large, and consist of portions of the plant which are thus perennial; their stems dying down to the ground yearly. Perennial roots are either of woody constitution, or consist merely of a mass of fibrous tissue. In the case of flaxy roots such as the Dahlia and Orchis, the individual roots are very large, but they are renewed annually perish annually; but before doing so, they produce other roots from some point or points of their substance; hence, while the root is a large one, it is also a young one; but when it perishes, Woody roots are commonly perennial in themselves, and are not removed. **Roots of Diocotyledonous, Monocotyledonous, and Acorus-leghough Plants.—We have already seen that the stem possesses a certain degree of independence; but this independence is in the three great classes of Diocotyledons, Monocotyledons, and Acorus-leghough Plants. These three classes possess structures like manner possess similar distinctive structural characters, and also some others, which although generally referred to previously, had been overlooked. 1. The Root of Diocotyledonous Plants.—The root of these ROOTS OF DICOTYLEDONS AND MONOCOTYLEDONS. 129 plants is formed, as we have seen (page 120), by the direct elongation of the primary root, which is continued at a new time just within its apex. Such a mode of root-development has been called *exnordal*, and a root thus formed is called a *true root*. It follows from this mode of development that Dicotyledons' plants have generally two roots, one of which is usually very large, and both of which are produced in the same manner as such plants have also an ascending axis, or stem, which is produced in the same manner as the leaves do not, however, commonly descend far into the ground, but their branches become much more numerous than in those cases even among the leaves of the same tribe while in others, as in those of the Gourd tribe, and commonly in all succulent plants, to a less extent. In its internal structure the root resembles the stem except, as already noticed (page 120), that it possesses no vascular bundles. The *cylinder* sheath, or *endodermis*, and *mesodermis* form a central axis. This absence of pith and medullary sheath is general in Dicotyledons; but in Monocotyledons, as in the Lily, the Walnut and Horsechestnut, where the pith is prolonged downwards. 2. The Root of Monocotyledonous Plants. — In these plants the radicle does not itself, except in rare cases, become prolonged to form the stem; but it produces lateral roots, either one or more branches of equal size, which separately pierce the semicircular extremity of the embryo, and becomes the roots (figs. 286, 287). These roots are often so short as to pierce the integuments, with a kind of cellular collar, termed the *endodermal sheath*. This sheath is sometimes termed *endodermal*. The roots of Monocotyledons plants are therefore to be regarded as adventitious or secondary. From this it appears that we must conclude that the plant of this class have tap-roots, but they have instead a vertical cylinder of cells, or a cylinder of cells which are accordingly termed compound. There are, however, exceptions to this, as for instance in the Dragon-tongue (fig. 193), which has a single root like that of a Dicotyledonous plant. Tap-roots are much more common in Monocotyledonous than in Dicotyledonous plants. We have already referred to them in the horset-pine (fig. 188), and other plants of this class. They are produced by the lateral growth towards the base of the stem, by which this portion assumes a central position; and they are consequently termed it presents to the otherwise cylindrical stem of such trees. In its internal structure the root of a Monocotyledon corresponds to that of a Dicotyledonous plant. 3. The Root of Acotyledonous Plants.—Such plants, as we have 130 FORMS OF ROOTS. seem (page 11), have no true seeds containing an embryo, but are propagated by spores, which when they germinate produce a very irregular root, hence this mode of root-development has been called heterocorm. Such roots are therefore all-adventitious, and are often termed "false" roots, as they are made up of many slender branches being compound. When the stem has become developed it soon also gives rise to other aerial adventitious roots, by which such plants are attached to the soil. This is a very common in Acotyledons, as they are in Monocotyledons indeed; in Tracheophyta, however, the adventitious roots are almost at the base of the stem, that they sometimes double, triple, or still further increase its normal thickness (fig. 13, re), and hence give rise to the so-called "true" roots. The general structural of the root of Acotyledons in all essential characters resembles that of the true roots. Forms of Roots. — When a root divides as once into a sum- mer of slender branches or rootlets, or if the primary root is but Fig. 254. Fig. 255. Fig. 254. Phloem root of a Grass. — Fig. 255. Coralline root. little enlarged, and gives off from its sides a multitude of similar branches, we call it a phloem root (fig. 254). Such roots occur in annual plants, and may be well seen in annual Grasses (fig. 264), and in bulbous plants (figs. 257 and 258). Coralline Root. — A coralline root is one to which con- sists of a number of succulent branches of nearly equal size, and arranged in a circle round the stem (fig. 255). It is also called Tuberous Root. — When some of the divisions of a root become enlarged so as to form more or less rounded, oval, or egg-shaped enlargements on their sides, these are called tubercles, and each enlargement is called a tubercle. Such a root occurs in various forms among the Liliaceae and Orchidaceae; but such cases must not be confounded with tubers, which have been already described as subterranean modifications of the stem. The principal forms of roots will now be illustrated by showing them. In many Orchids, as for instance the *Orchis maculata*, the FORMS OF ROOTS. 131 tubercles are divided at their extremities, so that the whole resembles the human hand (Ap. 257); they are then said to be *palmated*, and the root is also thus termed. Fig. 256. A root with tubercles resembling a human hand. Fig. 257. A root with palmated tubercles. Fig. 258. Tubercular root of an Orchis. Fig. 259. Palmented tubercles of an Orchis. Fig. 260. A root with a fasciculated root. Fig. 261. Nodulous root of the Daphne (Nodulus). Fasciculated, Clustered, or Tufted Root.--These names are applied indifferently to a root which consist of a number of tubercles or fibrous roots growing in points, as in the Dahia (fig. 258), and Bird's-meat Orchis (Nothos Nodulus). 2 122 FORMS OF ROOTS. Nodulow, Annuated, and Moniliform or Necklace-shaped Roots.—These terms are applied to roots which are expanded only at the base, and tapering upwards. The Nodules are enlarged irregularly towards the ends, as in the common Dropwort, the root is nodulose (Fig. 380). The Annuated roots are formed by alternate contractions and expansions, so as to present a series of rings on their surface. In the Sweet Flag, the root is moniliform, necklace-shaped, or annulated, but in this case the rings are not a number of ring-like expansions on a surface, as in Spicaennaria, it is annulated (fig. 381). The Moniliform roots are those which are commonly observed in plants which have no true tap-root. These roots may be distinguished owing their special forms to modifications of the latter kind of root. Fig. 381. Moniliform root. Fig. 382. Fig. 381. Annulated root of Spicaennaria (Cypripedium lanceolatum). — Fig. 382. Conical root of the common Dropwort (Drosera rotundifolia). Conical Root.—When a tap-root is broad at its base, and tapers upwards, it is conical (fig. 383). The roots of Monkshood (Adonisum Napulus), Fawnnip (Fumaria) FORMS OF ROOTS. 133 **Asparagus**, and **Carrot (Daucus Carota)** (fig. 262), are familiar ex- amples of this form of root. **Papaver** (fig. 263). This term is applied to a tap-root, which swells out a little below its base, and then tapers upwards and downwards (fig. 263). The common Radish, and Beet (Beta vulgaris), belong to this class. **Nepenthes Root**. This name is given to a root which is much wider at its base than at its apex, and tapers into a long point, the whole being of a somewhat globular form (fig. 264). This form occurs in a variety of the common Radish, which is hence called the Turnip- radish; in the common Turnip (fig. 264), and in some other plants. Figs. 263, 264, 265. Fig. 263. Form of root of the common Radish (Beta vulgaris sativa). Fig. 264. Nepenthes Root. Fig. 265. The root of the **Cynara** (Cynara scolymus). When what would be otherwise a uniform root becomes com- pressed both at its base and apex so that it has no tapering ex- tremity, it is sometimes termed *placoid* (fig. 265). It occurs in the **Sorrel** (Rumex). Some botanists regard the roots of the Radish, the Turnip, the Cyclamen, and some others, as really enlarged leaves. We have, however, no reason to doubt their nature, and on account of their important economic value we must consider them as such. The following forms of roots are also more properly rhizomes, but it is convenient to notice them here, and so long as their nature is understood no confusion can arise. Illustration showing a root with a swollen base and tapering apex. 134 **LEAF OR PHYLLOME.** *Coontorted or Twisted Root.*—When a tap-root, instead of proceeding in a more or less straight direction, becomes twisted, as in the Bistort (fig. 206), the root is said to be coontorted or twisted. Fig. 205. Fig. 207. Fig. 206. Coontorted or twisted root of the Bistort (Polygonum bistorta). Fig. 208. Premorse root of thyme of the Devil's-bit Scabious (Satureja montana). *Premorse Root.*—When the main root ends abruptly, as so to prevent the growth of a branch, this is called abrupt, truncated, or premorse (fig. 207). We have a good example of this form of root in the Devil's-bit Scabious, which plant has a short stem with a few leaves and an onion connected with this peculiar bisset-orn appearance of its root. Section 3. THE LEAF OR PHYLLOME. 1. GENERAL DESCRIPTION AND PARTS OF THE LEAF. The leaf may be defined as a lateral development of the stem or of a branch. In the lowest leaf-bearing plants, as Mosses, it consists essentially of a single cell, but in higher plants the leaf usually contains, in addition to the parenchyma, a framework or skeleton, consisting of wood-cells or liber-cells, or both, and vessels, which are filled with sap and communicate with similar parts of the three-vacuolar system of the stem. We distinguish therefore, in such leaves, as in the stem and branch, both a mesophyll and a vascular tissue; the former constituting the soft parts, and the latter the hard parts, which act as a conduit for water and food. The leaf is therefore an appendicular organ of the stem, but it differs from the latter organ in the order of its development; for while in the stem the apex is GENERAL DESCRIPTION AND PARTS OF THE LEAF. 135 the youngest part, the reverse is the case in the leaf, where the apex is first formed and consequently the oldest, and in gradu- ally passing downwards to the base, the leaves become younger, and the stem and the stem. The part between the stem or branch from which a leaf arises is called a node, and the space between two nodes an internode. The portion of the leaf next the stem is termed its base, the opposite part its tip, and that part between the base and apex the mariae. The leaf is commonly of a flattened nature, but in some cases it is curved or twisted. In plants in which the veins are greatly developed the leaf becomes thick and flaky, and is said to be succulent; and, in such cases, it has frequently more than two surfaces. This is especially the case with respect to the two surfaces of ordinary leaves, because in by far the greater number of cases one surface is turned upwards, while the other downwards. We shall find however, hereafter, that there are certain leaves which are devoid of any such difference of surface. Thus in some Fru- gogesies, in which case the margins are turned upwards and downwards alternately, there is no difference of surface on the union of the upper surface of the leaf with the stem is called the axil, and everything which arises out of that point is said to be axillary. In other cases, however, when there is no axil, it is extra-axillary, or so, as generally described when above, supra-axillary (figs. 203, 204). Duration and Fall of the Leaf. - The leaf varies as regards its duration, and receives different names accordingly. Thus, when it takes off at once from its place of origin, it is said to be caducous; if it lasts throughout the season in which it is deve- loped. In some plants, such as those in which a single simple, or new leaves are developed, so that the plant remains without leaves, it is persistent, evergreen, or perennial. When a leaf falls off after having been used either does so by decaying upon it, when it is said to be auto-necrotic; or by an artificial removal (figs. 205), when it is said to be eviscerated. In some plants, however, there are some leaves which are of a articulated nature; so that they decay upon their axis. These are sometimes called reliquae or indusia, and the stem is said to be su- periorly deciduous (figs. 206). When by artificial section, it leaves a scar or cicatrix (figs. 203, 204). Parts of the Leaf. - The leaf consists of three distinct parts; namely, of a stalk or petiole (p.), a lamina or blade (p.), and a margin or edge (p.), by which the lamina is connected with the stem, termed the petiole or leaf-stalk (p.) ; and of a portion at the base of the petiole, termed the sheath (p.). The petiole may sometimes exist in the form of a sheath or stigma (figs. 205, s.), encircling the stem, or may be prolonged into appendages on each side, which are called stipules (figs. 205, s., s.). A diagram showing parts of a leaf: petiole (petiole), lamina (lamina), margin (margin), sheath (sheath), stipule (stipule). 136 PARTS OF THE LEAF. These three portions are by no means always present, though such is frequently the case. Thus, the leaves of the Water Fig. 265. Leaf and place of the stem of *Ageratum* *hybrida*. 1. Laminar part; 2. Aerial part; 3. Aerial part with a branch of *Dalea* *ciliata*. -- Fig. 266. Leaf and insertion of a branch of *Dalea* *ciliata*. -- Fig. 267. Leaf and insertion of a branch of *Crotalaria* *glandulosa*. -- Fig. 268. Leaf and insertion of a branch of *Crotalaria* *glandulosa*, and attached by a petiole, p., to this stem. Acm. Pepper (fig. 269), and of the Trailing Sallow (fig. 269), may be taken as illustrations of the most highly developed leaves, namely, those in which all the parts are found together, and in which one or more of these parts is absent, and its some two, so that both are present, or only one, or one of its portions only. The petiole and the sheath or stipules are these parts when they are present, but when they are absent, it is cotyledonate (fig. 268). The lamina or blade is that part which is most conspicuous in the leaf, and which is simple if there is but one blade (figs. 268, 270); if there are several blades, they are divided into two or more separate parts (figs. 270). The lamina of the leaf is usually called the blade, but it is also called the ordinary name known under the name of the leaf. It is the part, therefore, which will be considered first in our discussion on leaf structure; but before we proceed to describe it and the other parts of the leaf separately, it will be necessary for us to treat of the internal structure of leaves, and of their insertion and arrangement. A diagram showing the different parts of a leaf: a central stem with branches extending outwards, labeled "Laminar part" (1), "Aerial part" (2), and "Aerial part with a branch of Dalea ciliata" (3). Another diagram shows a leaf with an insertion point for a branch of Crotalaria glandulosa, labeled "Leaf and insertion of a branch of Crotalaria glandulosa," and another diagram shows a leaf with an insertion point for a branch of Crotalaria glandulosa, and attached by a petiole p., to this stem, labeled "Leaf and insertion of a branch of Crotalaria glandulosa." Acm." A diagram showing the different parts of a leaf: a central stem with branches extending outwards, labeled "Laminar part" (1), "Aerial part" (2), and "Aerial part with a branch of Dalea ciliata" (3). Another diagram shows a leaf with an insertion point for a branch of Crotalaria glandulosa, labeled "Leaf and insertion of a branch of Crotalaria glandulosa," and another diagram shows a leaf with an insertion point for a branch of Crotalaria glandulosa, and attached by a petiole p., to this stem, labeled "Leaf and insertion of a branch of Crotalaria glandulosa." Acm." A diagram showing the different parts of a leaf: a central stem with branches extending outwards, labeled "Laminar part" (1), "Aerial part" (2), and "Aerial part with a branch of Dalea ciliata" (3). Another diagram shows a leaf with an insertion point for a branch of Crotalaria glandulosa, labeled "Leaf and insertion of a branch of Crotalaria glandulosa," and another diagram shows a leaf with an insertion point for a branch of Crotalaria glandulosa, and attached by a petiole p., to this stem, labeled "Leaf and insertion of a branch of Crotalaria glandulosa." Acm." A diagram showing the different parts of a leaf: a central stem with branches extending outwards, labeled "Laminar part" (1), "Aerial part" (2), and "Aerial part with a branch of Dalea ciliata" (3). Another diagram shows a leaf with an insertion point for a branch of Crotalaria glandulosa, labeled "Leaf and insertion of a branch of Crotalaria glandulosa," and another diagram shows a leaf with an insertion point for a branch of Crotalaria glandulosa, and attached by a petiole p., to this stem, labeled "Leaf and insertion of a branch of Crotalaria glandulosa." Acm." A diagram showing the different parts of a leaf: a central stem with branches extending outwards, labeled "Laminar part" (1), "Aerial part" (2), and "Aerial part with a branch of Dalea ciliata" (3). Another diagram shows a leaf with an insertion point for a branch of Crotalaria glandulosa, labeled "Leaf and insertion of a branch of Crotalaria glandulosa," and another diagram shows a leaf with an insertion point for a branch of Crotalaria glandulosa, and attached by a petiole p., to this stem, labeled "Leaf and insertion of a branch of Crotalaria glandulosa." Acm." A diagram showing the different parts of a leaf: a central stem with branches extending outwards, labeled "Laminar part" (1), "Aerial part" (2), and "Aerial part with a branch of Dalea ciliata" (3). Another diagram shows a leaf with an insertion point for a branch of Crotalaria glandulosa, labeled "Leaf and insertion of a branch of Crotalaria glandulosa," and another diagram shows a leaf with an insertion point for a branch of Crotalaria glandulosa, and attached by a petiole p., to this stem, labeled "Leaf and insertion of a branch of Crotalaria glandulosa." Acm." A diagram showing the different parts of a leaf: a central stem with branches extending outwards, labeled "Laminar part" (1), "Aerial part" (2), and "Aerial part with a branch of Dalea ciliata" (3). Another diagram shows a leaf with an insertion point for a branch of Crotalaria glandulosa, labeled "Leaf and insertion of a branch of Crotalaria glandulosa," and another diagram shows a leaf with an insertion point for a branch of Crotalaria glandulosa, and attached by a petiole p., to this stem, labeled "Leaf and insertion of a branch of Crotalaria glandulosa." Acm." A diagram showing the different parts of a leaf: a central stem with branches extending outwards, labeled "Laminar part" (1), "Aerial part" (2), and "Aerial part with a branch of Dalea ciliata" (3). Another diagram shows a leaf with an insertion point for a branch of Crotalaria glandulosa, labeled "Leaf and insertion of a branch of Crotalaria glandulosa," and another diagram shows a leaf with an insertion point for a branch of Crotalaria glandulosa, and attached by a petiole p., to this stem, labeled "Leaf and insertion of a branch of Crotalaria glandulosa." Acm." A diagram showing the different parts of a leaf: a central stem with branches extending outwards, labeled "Laminar part" (1), "Aerial part" (2), and "Aerial part with a branch of Dalea ciliata" (3). Another diagram shows a leaf with an insertion point for a branch of Crotalaria glandulosa, labeled "Leaf and insertion of a branch of Crotalaria glandulosa," and another diagram shows a leaf with an insertion point for a branch of Crotalaria glandulosa, and attached by a petiole p., to this stem, labeled "Leaf and insertion of a branch of Crotalaria glandulosa." Acm." A diagram showing the different parts of a leaf: a central stem with branches extending outwards, labeled "Laminar part" (1), "Aerial part" (2), and "Aerial part with a branch of Dalea ciliata" (3). Another diagram shows a leaf with an insertion point for a branch of Crotalaria glandulosa, labeled "Leaf and insertion of a branch of Crotalaria glandulosa," and another diagram shows a leaf with an insertion point for a branch of Crotalaria glandulosa, and attached by a petiole p., to this stem, labeled "Leaf and insertion of a branch of Crotalaria glandulosa." Acm." A diagram showing the different parts of a leaf: a central stem with branches extending outwards, labeled "Laminar part" (1), "Aerial part" (2), and "Aerial part with a branch of Dalea ciliata" (3). Another diagram shows a leaf with an insertion point for a branch of Crotalaria glandulosa, labeled "Leaf and insertion of a branch of Crotalaria glandulosa," and another diagram shows a leaf with an insertion point for INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF LEAVES. 137 2. THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF LEAVES. Leaves with reference to their structure are divided into several and various kinds; by the former it is to be understood those that are developed and situated on the surface of the plant, and by the latter, those that are formed and dwell wholly immersed in water. A. According to the manner in which they are developed, such as Mosses, the leaves consist, as we have seen, simply of parenchymatous tissues, formed by the growing outwards of the parenchymatous cells of the epidermis. In the majority of the higher plants they contain, in addition to this parenchymatous tissue, one or more layers of fibres, either of itself or loosely, or of both, and vessels of different kinds, all of which are in direct connection with corresponding parts of the fibro-vascular system of the plant. The epidermis is often provided with glands, in such leaves, as in the stem and branch, both a parenchymatous and a fibrous layer being present between the outer parts or the parenchyma of the leaf ; the latter the hard part, which by their ramification form what are called veins or nerves. The wood of a tree consists of two principal portions, which are commonly furnished with stomata in the same manner as the leaves. The stomata are, however, almost confined to that portion of the epidermis which corresponds with the upper surface of the leaf. The epidermis is also furnished with various modifications, viz., Glands, and their several modifications. The epidermis and its appendages giving rise to these modifications under their respective heads, it now becomes evident that in all vascular plants there exists a fibro-vascular and parenchymatous systems of the leaf which are situated between the epidermis and the mesophyll. a. Fibro-vascular system. This is in direct connection with a branch or branch in the three great classes of plants respectively. We shall direct our attention first to this system in the leaves of Dioicoidyctyous plants. The fibro-vascular system in such plants is so far from being an essential feature, that it is a constant of up to one per cent only in some species (figs. 271, 272), and a lower which is continuous with the fiber-vascular system of the wood (fig. 271, 272); and a lower which is continuous with the fiber-vascular system of the wood (fig. 271, 272); and a lower which is continuous with the fiber-vascular system of the wood (fig. 271, 272). Fig. 271. Fibro-vascular tissue. From a branch, A, of an herbaceous dioicoidyctyous plant (fig. 271). The upper part is cut off at right angles to its axis, and shows a single vein (the branch vein) running through it. At its base is a small glandular spot (upper mesophyll). Below this is a small mesophyll cell (lower mesophyll). The upper mesophyll contains numerous small cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous large cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous small cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous large cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous small cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous large cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous small cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous large cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous small cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous large cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous small cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous large cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous small cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous large cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous small cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous large cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous small cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous large cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous small cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous large cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous small cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous large cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous small cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous large cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous small cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous large cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous small cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous large cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous small cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous large cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous small cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous large cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous small cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous large cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous small cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous large cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous small cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous large cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous small cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous large cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous small cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous large cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous small cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous large cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous small cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous large cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous small cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous large cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous small cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous large cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous small cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous large cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous small cells (fibro-vascular tissue). The lower mesophyll contains numerous large cells (fibro-vascular tissue). 128 AERIAL LEAVES. the wood, and the lower to the fiber; hence the former is com- posed of spiral and pitted vessels in perennial plants, and of spiral and annular vessels in annuals (see page 371, fig. 1), and also in all cases of wood-cells, f, besides the above-named vesseis, there are also found in the upper layer of the leaf, 1, 4, and laticiferous tissue. To whatever extent the fibro-vascular system may branch, each division of the upper layer accurately corresponds with a corresponding division of the lower layer. This double layer of the fibre-vascular system is readily seen in what is called the "epidermis" of the leaf, in which the parenchyma between the veins has been destroyed by maceration in water or by other means. Thus the leaves lying in a damp dish in the laboratory are often seen to be covered with water, and those which have been artificially prepared by maceration for a sufficient time to destroy the parenchyma are frequently seen. The ramification of the fibro-vascular system in the lamina of the leaf forming the veins or nerves will be described presently under the head of confection. (See page 151.) Fig. 272. Fig. 273. Fig. 273. Vertical section of a leaf of the Melon, highly magnified. a, Epi- dermal cells of the upper surface, furnished with hair, p., and stomata, or little openings through which air passes into and out of the plant from the atmosphere. b, Little hairs on the lower surface. c, Epidermal cells near to the epidermal tissue of the lower surface. d, e, Fibro- vascular cells in the upper layer of the leaf. f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, tissue between the loose mesophyllous parenchyma. Fig. 272. Vertical sec- tion of a leaf showing its structure. The upper surface is shown at a, and that of the lower surface at b. The upper surface shows a few scattered bundles of leaf-nerve and leaf-fibres running from one side to another across both surfaces, with intervening parenchyma. b. Parenchyma or Mesophyll.—By this we understand the parenchy- matous tissue which fills up the spaces between the epidermis of the upper and lower surfaces of the leaf (figs. 272, p., p.), and between these two layers and their respective fibro- vascular systems, f.c. The parenchymatous tissue which is found INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF FLEXTURAL LEAVES. 139 in immediate contact with the under surface of the epidermis of the upper surface of the leaf is sometimes distinguished by the name of "epidermal cells". In some leaves this amount is considerable, in different leaves thus, in ordinary leaves it is moderately developed, and the leaves are then thin and flattened; while in other leaves the epidermal cells are very few, and become thick and flabby, and are termed *succulent*. In ordinary flat leaves the succulent leaves are usually found to be those grown from containing chlorophyllous granules ; but in succulent leaves the cells in the centre of the parenchyma are usually colourless. The parenchyma is composed of a number of distinct layers of its component cells in different parts of the same leaf : thus in ordinary flat leaves (figs. 270, 271) the outermost layer of the upper surface (of fig. 270, two, or three layers of elongate blunt cells (fig. 271, p.), placed perpendicularly to the surface of the leaf, show a tendency to form a continuous layer round the intercellular spaces: the result of this close packing is to protect the cell beneath which are filled with fluid, preventing too rapidly with that fluid, and so causing the drying up of such leaves. This tissue is sometimes termed palisade parenchyma. Hab- itually, however, it is called simply palisade parenchyma. The pali- sade cells are not single cells but branches of cells. The form and arrangement of the cells beneath the epidermis, i.e., of the lower surface of the leaf, varies considerably according to whether they are loosely connected and have numerous large spaces, i. e., between them, thus forming a loose parenchyma (fig. 272), or are recrystallizing commonly two or more projecting rays (figs. 273), which becomes united with similar projections of the cells next them, and thus forms a compact parenchyma (fig. 274). This communi- cate freely with each other, and form a spongy parenchyma. The palisade parenchyma is generally most abundant on the epi- dermis of the lower surface, and thus a free communication is kept between it and the air space below, and also with external air, which is essential to the due performance of its functions. Such a structure is not found in all leaves, but only in certain special leaves, but it is subject to various modifications in those of different plants. Thus in leaves which have their margins serrated or crenulated (figs. 275), as well as in those which have long hairs, the arrangement of the parenchyma is similar beneath the epidermis on both sides of these structures. In such cases the parenchyma is composed of cells which are usually larger than those of ordi- nary leaves, and closely compacted, or with but few interspaces, so that for example, in fig. 276 we see that beneath the crenulated parenchyma beneath the epidermis of the upper surface, and the compact parenchyma beneath that on the lower surface, the position of the two being here completely reversed. 2. SCHERMER LEAVES.—These leaves are entirely made up of parenchyma, the so-called veins being composed simply of 140 SUBMERGED LEAVES.—INSERTION OF LEAVES. more or less elongated parenchymatous cells. Such leaves are generally very thin, only containing two or three layers of cells, so that at first sight they appear to be leaflets, but which they are placed. The cells are disposed very regularly and have no lobes or other outgrowths. In submerged leaves, however, which are thickened we find large cari- Fig. 274. Fig. 274. Vertical section of a leaf of a Pterocarya, highly magnified. a, Air cavity. b, Parenchymatous cells containing chlorophyll granules. tions which are very regular in their form and arrangement (figs. 274, 4, 5). The air-cavity is situated between the epidermis and the leaf is diminished and it is thus enabled to float in the water. Submerged leaves have no true epidermal layer, and no stomata, both of these organs being on their back always exposed to similar hygroscopic conditions. 3. INSERTION AND ARRANGEMENT OF LEAVES. 1. INSERTION.—The point by which a leaf is attached to the stem or branch is called its insertion. Leaves are inserted on various parts of the stem and branches, and receive different names according to this fact. Those which are attached to the upper part of the stem are called cotyledons (figs. 16, a, c),萌ling, or seminal; the latter term is applied also to those which arise from the base of the plant; but these are only leaves that exist in the seed, which is not the case, as the gemmae or pinnule (fig. 16, n) are pos- sessed merely by some plants. Those which arise from the stem dif- ferent in their appearance from the ordinary leaves which suc- ceed them are termed primordia (figs. 16, d, d); these, and the cotyledons, generally persist as soon as, or shortly after, the development of the shoot has begun; they remain attached to the stem when they arise at or below, the surface of the ground, and then appea- rantly leave it again when they have developed into true leaves. Those which arise from the branches are termed axillary buds; those from the branches round; and those from the base of the stem, as in the lower-echesl, joint nodes or bracts (figs. 28 and 23, b, b). Fig. 275. INSERTION OF LEAVES. 141 When a leaf arises from the stem by means of a petiole it is said to be petiolate (fig. 389, p. ); when the blade of a leaf is fixed to the stem without a petiole, it is sessile (fig. 390, p. ), as in the magnolia, as in the Indian Cross (fig. 270), and Castor Oil plant (fig. 397), the leaf is termed petiolate or sessile ; when the Fig. 275. Fig. 276. Fig. 275. Petiole leaf of the Indian Cross, *Crotalaria juncea*. Fig. 276. Appendage of a leaf of *Asparagus*. petiole is absent, so that the blade arises directly from the stem, it is said to be sessile (fig. 281); when a leaf is enlarged at its base and forms a sheath round the stem, it is ciliate (fig. 282) or embracing (fig. 276), as in Fod's Parsley; or if it forms a complete sheath around it, as in Grasses generally (figs. 277 Fig. 277. Fig. 278. Fig. 280. Fig. 278. Fig. 280. Fig. 271. Sheathing leaf of a Grass. Fig. 272. Dorsal leaf of a species of *Thalictrum*. Fig. 273. Thallus of *Lycopodium clavatum*. Fig. 274. Stipule of *Solanum* rufum var. rufum (Dillenius). Fig. 275. Conical leaves of a species of *Hymenocallis* (Lindley). 142 **ARRANGEMENT OF LEAVES.** and 305, §), it is said to be sheathing. When a leaf is prolonged from its base, as in the case of the *Lilium*, only one appendage down the stem, as in Thalictrum, it is described (§g. 278) when the two sides of the base of the leaf are prolonged beyond the stem and unite with each other (§p. 379); it is said to be perfoliate, because the stem then appears to pass through the blade; or when the leaf is prolonged from its base, but does not unite more or less by their base, they are said to be connate, as in the *Tussilago* (§p. 380). **2. ARRANGEMENT OF LEAVES ON THE STEM OR PHYLLOTAXIS.** When only one leaf arises from a node, the leaves as they succeed each other on the stem are said to be **unifoliate**, or single-leaved, and are then said to be alternate (§g. 284). When two leaves are produced at a node, they are usually arranged on opposite sides of the stem, as in *Caltha* (§p. 381), *Primula* (§p. 382), and *Dactylis* (§p. 382); or when three or more leaves arise from the stem so Fig. 281. Fig. 281. Unifoliate leaves of a species of *Galium*. Fig. 282. Fig. 282. Decurrent leaves of *Primula* decumbens. as to be arranged around it in the form of a circle, th~y are called **verticillate** or **whorled** (§g. 281), and each circle is termed a **series** or **whorl** of leaves; and when two series of leaves succeed each other usually cross at right angles, in which case they are said to **decussate** (§g. 282), and the arrangement is called **decussate** (§p. 381); but this arrangement is rare; on the other hand it also frequently happens that a somewhat similar arrangement occurs, though not exactly in the form of a circle, and the leaves revolve round the wheel below it. There are, however, commonly great irregularities in this respect, and in some cases the number of leaves in the series may vary considerably; and this complication becomes still more complicated. This is the case for instance in *Euphorbia* (§p. 383). Only one leaf can arise from the same point, but it some- times happens that, by the non-development of the internodes of PHYLLOTAXIS OR LEAF ARRANGEMENT. 143 an axillary branch, all the leaves of that branch are brought close together (fig. 280), and the leaves are then said to be *tufed* or *flaccid*. Such an ar- rangement is well seen in the Barberry and Larch. That would seem to indicate that the leaves are attached to the stem, that in the young branches of the Larch the internodes be- come elongated and the leaves are then separated from each other. The laws which regulate the arrangement of leaves upon the stem have been very much discussed by botanists, whom we consider that all the organs of the plant which succeed the leaves are formed according to a plan. According to this particular law, the determination of these laws, what he considered as a matter of much importance. It has been supposed by some that the regular arrangement of leaves on the stem is peculiar to plants : thus, that in Diocletianas where the cotyledons or first leaves which are developed are opposite, the regular arrange- ment of the second leaves is also opposite, and so on, until it is altered; and that when they become alternate, this arises from Fig. 281. Fig. 284. ![Diagram showing leaf arrangement] Fig. 281. Fascicled or tufed leaves of the Larch, with their fascicles, and those of the Cherry-tree with its leaves, the stipule at upper left corner, and the base of the stem. The right-hand figure is the Barberry, with its fascicles, and its stipules at upper left corner. The dotted line is placed to indicate the plane of their arrangement. The prolongation or extension of the nodes, while in Mono- cotyledons on the contrary, which have normally but one coty- ledon, that the regular position of the leaves is alternate, and that there is no difference between them arising from the non-development or shortening of the successive internodes. The investigations, however, of Bonnet, nearly a century ago, related to this subject, show that in Monocotyledons there has normally a spiral arrangement on the stem; and he was led to think that this was due to the fact that each node was joined at the top to a stem, so as to touch in succession the base of the different leaves upon its surface, it would describe a spiral movement round it; and since this movement was constant from one another was constant, each being separated from the other by an 14 VARIETIES OF PHYLLOTAXIS—ALTIERATE LEAVES. equal distance so that if we started with any particular leaf and waited until another leaf was reached which corresponded var- tiately with it, and then proceeded to the leaf beyond this, we should find that the leaves would be arranged in a spiral, just as the one next above that which we started from, and so on each successive leaf would be placed vertically over one of the leaves below, but at a greater distance from them than the first. The order of leaves between the one started from, and that which corre- sponded with it, would be the same as before, and if we take a branch of the Apple or Cherry-tree (fig. 284), and commence with any particular leaf which will mark 1, and then proceed to the next leaf which corresponds with it, by the use of succeeding leaves by a line or piece of string, we shall find that we shall have a straight line drawn from the point where we reach the one marked 6, that this will correspond vertically with the 1st, and then proceeding further, that the 7th will be directly over the 1st, and so on. We may see that when we reach the 4th, the 10th over the 5th, and the 11th over the 6th and 1st, and so on. In this way we can draw a straight line, including the one started from, a straight line might be drawn from below upwards to it, and that consequently there were five leaves above it. This arrangement is very simple. But we have also discovered other more complicated arrangements in which many have been led to suppose that the purpose of nature was little attended to at that time. In later years by the researches of Schimper, Braun, Brawny, and others, his views have become more clear. It has been shown by Schimper that the spiral arrangement is not only uni- versal, but that in different plants it may be reduced to mathematical expression, the formula representing the relative position of leaves in different plants varying, although always constant for each plant. The following diagram shows how leaves further than show that the regular arrangement of leaves and their mutual relations are connected with a spiral around the stem, having thus presented us with a beautiful bearing on this subject. The following table gives some of the general discussion of the subject, and as alternate leaves are those which will enable us to do so with most facility, we shall single out these. 1. Alternate Leaves.—If we refer again to the arrangement of the leaves in nature (fig. 283), we see that when we arrive at the sixth leaf (fig. 284), which is over the first, the string or line used to connect the base of the leaves will have passed through two points; at one point where a leaf is thus found, which is placed in a straight line, or perpendicularly above it; at another point where two leaves are or quite, and thus in the Cherry and Apple the cycle consists of five leaves. As the five leaves are equidistant from each other, A diagram showing a spiral arrangement of leaves. ALTERNATE LEAVES. 143 and as the line which connects them passes twice round the stem, the distance of one leaf from the other will be of its circum- ference. Thus, if the circumference of the circle be 360°, or nine times the number of leaves, the first leaf will be at the pole, and the second at the equator, and so on ; but if the per- cent of the circumference of the circle, that is 1 of 360° = 144° ; the numerator indicates the number of turns made in completing the cycle, and the denominator shows how many leaves are in it. The successive leaves as they are produced on the stem, as we have seen before, are arranged in a spiral, and this arrangement in cycles of five is by far the most common in Diotyloidesous plants. It is termed the guenicolous, pentacotious, or five-angled arrangement. A second variety of arrangement in alternate leaves is that which is called diadoble or two-raked. Here the second leaf is above and below opposite to the first (Fig. 285), and the ![Fig. 285.] Fig. 285. third being in like manner opposite to the second, it is placed vertically over the first, and thus completes the cycle, which has consequently been completed by three leaves, namely under the second, and the fifth over the third and first, thus completing a cycle of six leaves. The same arrangement may be observed if one turn complete the spiral, so that the angular divergence is in the circumference of a circle, or 1 of 360° = 180°. This arrangement is met with in some species of Liriodendron (Fig. 286) and in some monopodial plants ; and the Lime-tree (Fig. 287), and other Diotylo- desous plants. A third variety of arrangement in alternate leaves is the 1 146 VARIETIES OF PHYLLOTAXIS. — ALTERNATE LEAVES. tridactylos or three-ruled (fig. 285). Thus, if we start with any leaf, and mark it No. 1, and then pass to 2, 3, and 4, we shall find that the first leaf is over the second, the second leaf is vertically over the first, and thus completes a cycle composed of four leaves. The fourth leaf will be over the second, the sixth over the third, and the seventh over the fourth and first, thus completing a second cycle ; and so on with the successive leaves. This arrangement is that of one turn and two leaves, that is $\frac{4}{3} = 360^\circ - 120^\circ$. This arrangement is found in many plants, especially in the pectinately-lobed plants, and may be considered as the most characteristic of that class of plants, just as the pectinatious arrangement is of Dicrystophora. Fig. 287. Fig. 288. Fig. 287. Fig. 288. Fig. 287. Fig. 288. A fourth variety of Phyllotaxis in alternate leaves is the stachys or spiral line (fig. 289), which occurs in the Holly and Aeonium. In this the ninth leaf is over the first, the tenth over the second, the eleventh over the third, and so on ; thus making three turns round the stem, as the spiral line here makes three turns round the stem, the angular divergence being $360^\circ \div 3 = 120^\circ$. The above are the more common varieties of Phyllotaxis ; but a number of others also frequently occur, as : $\frac{5}{4}$, $\frac{5}{3}$, $\frac{5}{2}$, $\frac{6}{5}$, $\frac{7}{6}$, $\frac{8}{7}$, $\frac{9}{8}$, $\frac{10}{9}$, etc.; as well others of a rare occurrence. These become more complicated as the number of leaves, &c., in the spire is increased ; but in those cases where the leaves, 146 **PHYLLOTAXIS—OPPOSITE AND WROILED LEAVES.** 147 de., are so numerous as to be close to each other, as in the Screw-pine, the Pineapple (fig. 287), and in the Fruit of Com- ficus (fig. 288). The number of leaves on the stem is then once evident. By separating the fractions representing the angular divergence in the different varieties of Phyllostaxis side by side in a line, thus : $-1$, $-1$, $-1$, $-1$, $-1$, $-1$, $-1$, $-1$, $-1$, $-1$, $-1$, we see at once that the numerator of each fraction is equal to the denominator of the two preceding fractions ; also in the first series, that the numerator of each fraction is the denominator of the next but one preceding fraction. In this way, therefore, we may continue the series of fractions representing the angular diver- gence, de., $-1$, $-1$, $-1$, $-1$, $-1$, $-1$, $-1$, $-1$, $-1$, $-1$, $-1$, and so on. It is not necessary to mention with regard to this mode of investigation, that they are mutually interfered with by accidental causes which produce corresponding interruptions in the series. This difficulty is, however, or altogether impossible, to discover the regular condition. All the above variations in Phyllostaxis show that by dividing the circumference into an exact number of equal parts, so that the leaves complete- ing the circle are equally distant from each other, and accommo- ding them, are called referred ; while those in which the diver- gence is such that the circumference cannot be divided by an exact number of equal parts, and must be divided into parts which can be placed precisely in a straight line over any preceding leaf, but disposed at right angles to it, are called irregularly arranged. The first forms of arrangement are looked upon as the normal cases ; the latter will show the impossibility of bringing organic forms and arrangements into harmony with each other. We have thus endeavoured to show that when leaves are al- ternate, their direction is always from left to right or from right to left. The apex may either turn from right to left, or from left to right. In the majority of cases, the direction in both the stem and branch is from left to right. There are some exceptions however ; but instances also occasionally occur in which the direction is different. **2. Opposite and Wroiled Leaves.—** We have already observed with regard to these modifications of arrangement, that the suc- cessive leaves are not commonly inserted immediately over the preceding one, but are separated by intervals which are placed over the intervals of the first, third over those of the second, and so on. Here, therefore, the third pair of leaves will be directly opposite to those of the fifth, and so on. The same thing occurs over the third, and so on. This arrangement occurs in plants of the Lamiate order, and is only mentioned as previously noticed. In some cases these succeeding pairs, or whorls, are not thus 148 PLYLOTAXIS IN DIFFERENT NATURAL ORDERS. placed directly over the intervals of those below, but a little on one side, so that the first pair of leaves is placed at the third or fourth part of the stem, before we arrive at one which is placed directly over the first. Such arrangements, therefore, clearly show that the leaves are not placed in a straight line, but are arranged in a spiral manner with regard to each other. Opposite leaves may be thus placed, or they may be alternated, proceeding up the stem simultaneously in two opposite directions, and the whorl as formed of many spirals as there are component leaves. 2. PLYLOTAXIS in different Natural Orders, &c.--The alternation and opposition of leaves in different natural orders are not always the same species, and even in some cases throughout entire natural orders ; thus, the Borago order (Borageae) have alternate leaves ; the Fisk order (Fisciferae) have opposite leaves ; the Lonicera order (Lonicerae), opposite and decussate ; the Lagenaria order (Lagenariae), opposite and decussate ; the Myrtus order (Myrtales), alternate and decussate, &c. While the opposition or alternation of leaves may be thus shown to be constant throughout entire natural orders, yet the change from one to another is not always gradual, but often abrupt, as upon the same stem, as in the common Myrtle and Snapdragon. Other opinions have been expressed respecting this subject. Some authors assign it at the extremities of their young branches when these grow very rapidly. In other cases alternate leaves may become opposite by means of interruptions of growth ; or, if the whole of the internodes be destroyed by heat or disease, developed, the leaves become tufted or fascicled (fig. 383), as already stated. Generally, however, the relative position of leaves is so constant in the same species that it can never be changed by any accidental circumstance. The arrangement of leaves probably influences, in some degree at least, the form of the stem and branches. Thus, a certain amount of curvature is produced in the stems of plants having a long stem or branch, an opposite or whorled arrangement, to an angular or curved form. In other cases, where there is a short stem of plants, which have opposite and decussate leaves, have square stems, in the Nymphaea order, where the leaves on young branches are opposite and whorled ; and in the species of Olea and Rhus, which have whorled leaves, the stems are also whorled. In other cases also others have also endeavoured to show that the arrangement of the leaves has a direct influence upon the forms of the wood, bark, and both sides of the leaf-stalks. But though such considerations upon them all are true, but although some curious relations have been found to exist between them and the form of certain parts of the stem, yet it is not possible at present to deduce any general laws regulating the relations between them. 3. ARRANGEMENT OF THE LEAVES IN THE BUD, OR VERNATION. A diagram showing different arrangements of leaves in buds. TERNATION OR PSEUDOFOLLITION. 149 **Ternation or Pseudofollition.** Having now described the general arrangement of leaves when in a fully formed and expanded state upon the stem or branch, we shall proceed to consider the different modes in which they are disposed while in a rudimentary and unexpanded condition in the bud. To those modifications the present work is specially devoted, and no other mention has been applied. Under this head we include -1st, The modes in which the leaves are arranged in one plane, whether they are disposed ; 2nd, The relation of the several leaves of the same bud taken as a whole to each other. In the first place we shall describe the mode of disposition of the leaves considered separately is disposed. We arrange these again in two divisions, viz., 1st, Those where it is rolled ; 2nd, Those where it is rolled. The first modification we have three varieties - Thus, 1st, the upper half of the leaf may be bent upon the lower, so that the apex approaches the base Fig. 285. Fig. 290. Fig. 291. Fig. 292. Fig. 293. ![Image](image) Fig. 293. Vertical section of a rudimentary leaf. Fig. 290. Transverse section of a rudimentary leaf. Fig. 291. Transverse section of a rudimentary leaf (see text). Fig. 292. Vertical section of a rudimentary leaf. Fig. 293. Transverse section of a rudimentary leaf. (See figs. 285, as in the Tulip-tree,) it is said that to be real or false, according as the upper margin of the leaf is either entire or divided into two parts, and whether its upper and middle or both ends are united or divided and its lower end is either remaining immovable (fig. 200), as in the Oak and Magnolia, when it is called conduplicate; or, on the contrary, when it is divided into two parts by a furrow (fig. 201), as in the Sycamore, Current, and Vine, when it is pleated or plaited (figs. 202, 203). In all these four varieties then, the apex may be rolled up on the axis of the leaf towards the base, like a crooner (fig. 204), as in the Sundew (Drosera) and Venus' Fly Trap (Dionaea); or it may be rolled up from one margin into a single coil, with the other margin exterior (fig. 205), as in the Ajofoil and Balsam; in which case it is condulate; 3rd, the two margins of the leaf may [Image] Fig. 294. Fig. 295. [Image] 150 VARIETIES OF VERNATION. both be rolled inwards on the upper surface of the leaf, towards the midrib, which remains immovable (fig. 295), as in the *Violet* and *Celandine*. In the *Duckweed*, both two margins may be rolled outwards or towards the midrib on the lower surface of the leaf (fig. 294), as in the Dock and Azalea, in which case it is *recurvate*. We pass now to consider, secondly, the relation of the several leaves of a plant to each other, in their arrangement. Of this we have several varieties which may also be treated of in two divisions, viz., first, that they are placed at different levels, flat or slightly convex ; and 2nd, where they are bent or rolled. Of the first division we shall describe three varieties :-1st, that, in which all the leaves are placed at different levels, at the same level, and in contact by their margins only, without overlapping each other (fig. 296), when they are subdiplicate ; 2nd, that in which Fig. 296. Fig. 297. Fig. 298. the leaves are placed at different levels, and the outer successively over-lapping one another, as in the *Lily* and *Lilac* (figs. 297 and 298), as well as in the *Lilac* and in the outer view of the Symplocos, when they are said to be obovate ; and 3rd, if whem leaves are placed at different levels, but do not overlap one another, one leaf overlaps that of another, while its own turn is overlapped by a third (fig. 299), the vernation is called *oblique* (fig. 300). Of the second division we shall describe four varieties :--1st, when invo- bend or rolled, they shall describe four varieties :--1st, when invo- lated ; 2nd, if they are subdiplicate ; 3rd, if they are sub- lated ; 4th, if they are subdiplicate and overlap each other (fig. 301). Fig. 299. Fig. 300. Fig. 301. Fig. 302. Fig. 296. Transverse section of a bud to show the leaves arranged in a volu- metrous manner (fig. 297). Transverse section of a bud to show oblique vernation (fig. 298). Transverse section of a bud to show involu- metrous vernation (fig. 299). Transverse section of a bud to show oblique vernation (fig. 300). Transverse section of a bud to show involu- metrous vernation (fig. 301). Transverse section of a bud showing recurvate vernation (fig. 302). The leaves are placed at different levels, and the outer succes- sively over-lapping one another, as in the *Lilac* and *Lilac* (figs. 297 and 298), as well as in the *Lilac* and in the outer view of the Symplocos, when they are said to be obovate ; and 3rd, if whem leaves are placed at different levels, but do not overlap one another, one leaf overlaps that of another, while its own turn is overlapped by a third (fig. 299), the vernation is called *oblique* (fig. 300). Of the second division we shall describe four varieties :--1st, when invo- bend or rolled, they shall describe four varieties :--1st, when invo- lated ; 2nd, if they are subdiplicate ; 3rd, if they are sub- lated ; 4th, if they are subdiplicate and overlap each other (fig. 301). LAMINA OR BLADE.—VENATION. 181 leaves are conduplicate, and the outer successively embrace and all strata of those next within them so as to a middle (fig. 303), and the inner ones to a base (fig. 304). In this case, they are equitant; 3rd, if the half of one conduplicate leaf receives its venation from the other half of another conduplicate leaf (fig. 305), as in the Saxe, the venation is half-equitant or obsolet; and 4th, when a conduplicate leaf enfolds another which is rolled up in such a manner that the veins of the latter are concealed by the venation in superposition. The terms thus used in describing the different kinds of venation are also applied in like manner to the component parts of the flower-bud, that is, so far as the floral envelopes are con- cerned, to the leaves of the flower-stalks, and to the stamens themselves. We shall have therefore to refer to them again, together with some others, not found in the leaf-bud, when speaking of the flower-bud. 4. LAMEA OR BLADE. We have already seen that the leaf (figs. 268 and 269) in its most highly developed state consists of three parts : namely, of a lamina or blade, a petiole or stalk, and of a stipule or organum con- cerning with the lamina or blade. Venation in leaves is generally applied generally to indi- cate the various modes in which the veins are distributed throughout the lamina. Those veins have also been called nerves, but we prefer to use the term venation, because it indicates an analogy which does not exist between them and the nerves of animals. The same reason, hence we shall in future always use the terms veins and venation. In some plants, as Mosses, those living under water, etc., the leaves have no petiole at all; they are attached directly to two veins, and are hence said to be reineis; while in succulent plants the veins are very large and conspicuous. This is due to the great development of parenchyma, in which case the leaves are termed Adaxial-reineis. In those plants where the veins are well marked, they are subject to various modifications of arrangement, the more im- portant of which are these: 1st, when there is only one central vein proceeding from the base to the apex of the lamina, and from which all the other veins pro- ceed, as in many of our common plants (fig. 306); or when there are three or more large veins, which thus proceed from their base to their apex (fig. 307); or when there are several divisions of the lamina, the separate veins are then termed Radiculæ. The divisions or primary branches of the midrib and of the separate veins are commonly named costae; and their smaller ramifications venulae. A diagram showing different types of leaf venation. 152 **VARIETIES OF VENATION.** There are two marked modifications of venation. In the first modification (Figs. 303 and 304), if one of the laminae is either continued as the midrib (Fig. 303) or it divides into two or more ribs (Figs. 304 and 305); and from this midrib or ribs. Figs. 303, 304. Figs. 305, 306. Fig. 303. Leaf of the Cherry with lamina, midrib, and epidermis. The lamina has several veins and a large central vein is seen to proceed from the petiole to the base of the leaf. This is termed the midrib. The other veins are termed rami. This central vein is termed the midrib. Fig. 304. Lobed leaf of Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus). The veins are seen to be continuous with the laminae margins. The venation is said to be reticulate or pinnate-venation. In this case, the veins are seen to be continuous with the laminae margins. The veins are seen to be continuous with the laminae margins. The veins are seen to be continuous with the laminae margins. The veins are seen to be continuous with the laminae margins. The other veins are given off; and from them, in like manner, smaller ramifications or branches arise, which unite with one another and form a network over the surface of the lamina. In this type of venation, the fibro-vascular tissue is either continued as a midrib Fig. 306. VARIETIES OF RETICULATED VENATION. 153 from the base to the apex of the lamina, giving off from its sides other veins, which run parallel to the margin, and which are simply connected with one another by a few points (figs. 318, 319); or it divides at once into several veins or ribs, which proceed from the base of the lamina, and give rise to two or more parallel blades, more or less parallel to each other, and are in like manner con- nected only by simple unbranched veins (fig. 306, a). The veins which arise from the base of the lamina may be called reticulated or netted-veined leaves, and occur universally in Dino- cotyledons. In these leaves the veins are reticulate; in monocoty- ledons are termed parallel-veined leaves, and are characteristic with some few exceptions of Monocotyledonous plants. These varieties are subject to certain variations, some of which must be now noticed. I. Varieties of Reticulated or Netted Venation. There are two principal varieties of this kind of venation, namely, the **feather-veined** or *pinnately-veined*, and the *radicated* or *palmitoid-veined*. Fig. 307. Fig. 308. Fig. 309. Fig. 310. A. **Feather-veined**.—In this variety the main stem is covered with lateral veins that proceed from the margin, and which are connected by numerous branching branches in the middle of the leaf. Spanish chestnut (fig. 307), Holly, Oak (fig. 306); or the midrib gives off branches A leaf with a network of veins radiating from the base. A leaf with a network of veins radiating from the base. A leaf with a network of veins radiating from the base. A leaf with a network of veins radiating from the base. 154 **Varieties of Parallel Venation.** from its sides, which proceed at first towards the margins, and then continue to the apex, terminating finally with the margin, which is thus divided into two or more ribs, as in the Dead-nettle (fig. 309), and Lilac. The latter modification of arrangement is termed **Radiculated or Palmatally-veined**. This name is applied to a leaf which possesses two or more ribs that arise from at or near the base of the leaf, and run parallel to each other towards the margin, and are connected by branching veins, as in the Malon (fig. 308) and the Honeysuckle (fig. 307). The same condition, as seen in the Cinnamomum (fig. 304), is but a modification of this variety, in which the rise, instead of diverging from each other, runs in a straight line towards the margin. In such cases, as in the apex, towards which they converge ; such ribs being con- nected with one another by simple unbranched transverse veins; three ribs proceeding from the base, it is said to be *three-ribbed* or *tricostate*; if five, five-ribbed or *quinquedentate*; if more than five, *multiribbed* or *multicostate*. When two such ribs arise from the side of the midrib, a little above its base, another rib, it is said to be *triple-ribbed* or *triplocostate*; if three such ribs arise on either side of the midrib, a little above its base, another rib, it is said to be *quadruple-ribbed* or *quadricostate*; and if two such ribs arise on each side of the midrib, it is termed *quintuple-ribbed* or *quintuncostate*. These ribbed leaves have frequently been distinguished under separate names from those which, however, they may be at once distinguished by their ribs being connected by branching veins. 2. Varieties of Parallel Venation. The term parallel-veined is not strictly applicable in all cases, for it frequently happens that the veins are forked, but from the difficulty of finding a name which will comprise all the modi- fications to which such leaves are liable, it must be understood that we use this term only in reference to those leaves in which the main veins of the lamina are more or less parallel and simply connected by transverse veins. There are certain characteristic varieties of parallel venation. Thus, the main veins may either proceed in a somewhat parallel manner for some distance from the base of the leaf, to which point they converge more or less (fig. 311), as in the ordinary form of the Honeysuckle (fig. 307); they may fork, and are connected by simple unbranched transverse veins; or they diverge from each other towards the circumference of the blade (fig. 312), as in the case of the Honeysuckle (fig. 307), divided leaves, and are likewise united by cross-veins. The leaves of this kind are termed **Reticulate-veined**, and have examples of the first variety; and those of many Palms of the second. Or, the leaves may have a prominent midrib, as in the feather-veined variety of reticulate venation, giving off from VERATION OF ACOTYLEDONOUS LEAVES. 155 Its sides along its whole length other veins, which proceed parallel to each other in a straight or curved direction downwards, and lose themselves in the margin of the leaf. The veins may be con- nected, as in the last variety, by unbranched veins. The Banana, the Plantain, and allied plants, furnish us with ex- amples of this kind of venation. In the leaves of these plants dis- tinguished as the curve-veined, the former being commonly known as the straight-veined or portulacoid. Fig. 312. Fig. 813. Fig. 311. Fig. 314. Fig. 311. Leaf showing the variety of parallel venation usually called straight-veined, as seen in the Portulaca (Portulaca). Fig. 312. Curved-veined variety of parallel venation, as seen in the Banana. Fig. 313. Forked venation of a Portulaca (Portulaca), the margins are cro- nate. **Venation of the Leaves of Acotyledonous Plants.** Besides the above varieties of venation, which are found in Dicotyledonous and Monocotyledonous plants, the leaves (fronds) of Ferns, and other Acotyledonous plants which possess veins, present us with a third variety of venation. This variety may be feather-veined or radiated-veined, but the whole of their terminal ramifications are thus divided into two or more forked maner (fig. 314), or their terminal ramifications are thus divided into a variety of venation has therefore been called Furcate or forked. A diagram showing the venation pattern of a leaf with parallel veins. A diagram showing the venation pattern of a leaf with forked veins. 156 COMPOSITION OF LEAVES. The leaves of the three great classes of plants present us, therefore, with three different varieties of venation : those of Dioscorea, which are simple and compound ; those of Acorus, which are simple and compound ; and those of Acorus, forked. Compound leaves may be simple or compound. Thus a leaf is called simple if it has only one blade (figs. 303 and 304), however much this may be divided, so that the divisions are all equal to each other (fig. 305); or in some cases the divisions may even extend to the base of the leaf (fig. 306). Compound leaves are formed when the parts into which the lamina is divided are attached by a broad base, as in fig. 323. (See Incision, page 188.) A leaf is termed pinnate when it is divided into two or more portions, each of which bears the same relation to the stem as does the whole leaf (fig. 327). A leaf is termed palmate when it is divided into several or many branches from whence it arises (fig. 270). The separated portions of a compound leaf are then called lobes or folioles ; and these may be further divided into lobes or folioles (fig. 275), each of which is then termed a petiolule, stipule, or portion petiolo, and the main stalk of the leaf is termed a petiole. The blade of a compound leaf may be generally at once distinguished from the separate parts by its broad base, forming a foot for the attachment of all situated in the same plane. A simple leaf is one which has but one articulation, which is placed at the point where it joins the stem ; but a compound leaf frequently shows two articulations, one of which corresponds to the common articulation to the stem, each of the separate leaves may also be articulated to each other by their bases (fig. 328). This character frequently forms a good mark of distinction between simple and compound leaves, for although it is quite true that many compound leaves only present one articulation, and can then be distinguished from simple leaves by those which are divided to their midrib or petioles by more than one articulation ; yet, if such leaflets are articulated to the common petiole, their compound nature cannot be detected unless there be more than one articulation, is therefore, possible that they may be simple leaves, but the absence of such articulation does not necessarily prove it to be simple, as we sometimes state. We thus look upon the leaf of fig. 319 as being compound because it has only one blade (fig. 319), as compound, because its petiole, is not only articulated to the stem by one articulation but also articulated to the petiole. There are, however, numerous instances of Fig. 319. Leaf of Dioscorea villosa. Orange (Cynara scolymus). Simple. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. Orange. SIMPLE LEAVES.—MARGINS. leaves in a transitional state between simple and compound, so that it is impossible in all cases to draw a clear line of demarcation between them. We shall now treat in detail of simple and compound leaves. 1. Simple leaves. The modifications which simple leaves present as regards their margins, general outline, form, and other variations of these blades, are extremely numerous; hence we require a more precise definition of the term "simple leaf." These terms are also applied in a similar sense to describe like modi- fications of the veins, as well as of the petioles, which possess a definite shape and form, as the parts of the calyx, corolla, etc., and also those of the stipules, and the branches of a compound leaf. It is evident that this definition of the term should become thoroughly acquainted at once with the more important modifications of the margin, form, and general outline. It was thought by Desfontaines that the shape of the lamina depended upon the distribution and length of the veins, and the extent of parallelism between them; but this view has been generally abandoned as being determined by the former, and the con- ditions of the latter have been neglected. Many erroneous views have been proved to be incorrect in a scientific point of view, still, if this be borne in mind, it is convenient to say the least, that any attempt to determine the nature of a simple leaf without reference to his views, as it is always found that there is a special relation between its margin, form, and its general outline. We shall therefore describe the various modi- fications of the lamina to some extent after this manner, and in doing so we shall refer to the following divisions :— 1. Margins ; 2. Inconspicuous ; 3. Apex ; 4. General Outline ; 5. Form. 1. Margins.—We have already stated that the condition of the margin is dependent upon the extent to which the parenchyma is developed along the axis of the lamina. Fig. 310. A diagram showing different types of leaf margins: 1. Simple Margin; 2. Inconspicuous Margin; 3. Apex; 4. General Outline. *Simple Margin* *Inconspicuous Margin* *Apex* *General Outline* Thus, if the parenchyma completely fills up the interstices between the veins, so that the margins are perfectly even, or free from any teeth or lobes (fig. 310), we have a simple margin (figs. 311 and 315), as in the Orchis tribe. When the parenchyma does not reach the margins, but terminates at a short distance within them, so that they are toothed or lobed (figs. 312 and 316), we have inconspicuous margins (figs. 317 and 318). When one side of a leaf is much broader than another (figs. 319 and 320), we have an apical margin (figs. 321 and 322). When both sides are equal in breadth (figs. 323 and 324), we have an equal margin (figs. 325 and 326). When one side is much broader than another (figs. 327 and 328), we have an unequal margin (figs. 329 and 330). When two or more veins run parallel with each other (figs. 331 and 332), we have a parallel margin (figs. 333 and 334). When two or more veins run obliquely across each other (figs. 335 and 336), we have an oblique margin (figs. 337 and 338). When two or more veins run at right angles to each other (figs. 340 and 341), we have a cross-veined margin (figs. 342 and 344). When two or more veins run at right angles to each other (figs. 345 and 346), we have a cross-veined margin (figs. 347 and 348). When two or more veins run at right angles to each other (figs. 350 and 351), we have a cross-veined margin (figs. 352 and 354). When two or more veins run at right angles to each other (figs. 355 and 356), we have a cross-veined margin (figs. 357 and 358). When two or more veins run at right angles to each other (figs. 360 and 361), we have a cross-veined margin (figs. 362 and 364). When two or more veins run at right angles to each other (figs. 365 and 366), we have a cross-veined margin (figs. 367 and 368). When two or more veins run at right angles to each other (figs. 370 and 371), we have a cross-veined margin (figs. 372 and 374). When two or more veins run at right angles to each other (figs. **MARGINS OF LEAVES.** margins present sharp indentations like the teeth of a saw, and all point to the apex of the leaf is serrate (figs. 309 and 345), as in the common Dead-Nettle ; or, if similar teeth point towards the base, the leaf is dentate (figs. 316, a, and 339), as in the Nettle-leaved Bitter-cress (figs. 316, b, and 339), as in the Elm, and Nettle-leaved Flower-blower ; or when the margins are minutely serrated they are called pinnatifid (figs. 308, a, and 318). When the teeth are sharp, but do not point in any partic- ular direction, they are termed lobed (figs. 308 and 388), as in the Melon, and the lower leaves of the Corn Bluebell ; or when the teeth are themselves Fig. 317. Fig. 318. divided in a similar manner, it is decompound (fig. 310, c). When the teeth are very narrow and pointed (fig. 304) the leaf is ovate, as in Horned-rush, and Ground Ivy ; or if these teeth are them- selves crested it is hornate (fig. 316, a); or if the leaf is mi- nutely serrated it is pinnatifid (figs. 308, a, and 318). When the edges present alternately deep concavities and convexities it is sinuated, as in some of the Lilies (figs. 316, b, and 345). When the edges are under the head of Inoculum ; it may be regarded as an intermed- iate condition between a toothed leaf and one that is pinnatifid (fig. 304). When the edges are deeply concave and convex they are in the Holly (fig. 318); they are said to be corym or undulaté ; or when they are deeply concave they are said to be lobed or lobulate, as in the Garden Endive, Curled Cuckoo, and Curled Mint; they are called crisped or curled (fig. 319). It is only when a leaf is divided when the margins of the blades are more deeply divided than in the above instances of indumentum that it is said to be pinnate; but this term is applied to leaves about midway or a less distance between them and the midrib or petiole. The divisions are then commonly called lobes. It is INCISION OF LEAVES. 159 usual, however, to give different names to these lobes, according to the depth of the incisions by which they are produced; thus if they are produced by a single cleft, they are called midrib-lobed (fig. 308), or petiole-lobed (fig. 306), they are properly called lobes, but are termed midrib-lobed or petiole-lobed. When the term *ad* is used, and the leaf is also said to be *cloft* if nearly to the base, or midrib (fig. 301), they are termed parti- tions, or segments (fig. 321). When the leaf is dissected, or in compound leaves, into several parts, which later differ in the leaflets of compound leaves, as already noticed (page 109), Fig. 318. Fig. 320. Fig. 321. **Fig. 318.** Crossed or curved leaf of a species of Mallow (Malus). **Fig. 319.** Parallel-veined leaf of a species of Viscaria (Viscaria dioica). **Fig. 320.** Dissected leaf of a species of Viscaria. in not being associated ; and also in being united to the mid- rib or petiole by a broad base. In describing the above internal leaves we say that they are midrib-lobed, or petiole-lobed, or cleft-lobed, or semi-cleft, sagittate or semi-sagittate, and multifid or many-cleft, according to the number of lobes formed by the incisions. The term *four- lobed*, &c., from the number of their lobes. Or a leaf is also said to be *separate* or *truncated*, &c., in the same manner, accord- ing for its form and structure. These terms are more especially used with palmetto-like simple leaves. The middle veins of such leaves are usually directed in the direction of the principal veins. Thus, those of feather-veined or pinnaled-veined leaves are directed towards the midrib (fig. 308, 309); those of palmate-veined leaves are directed towards the base of the lamina (figs. 325 Illustration showing a cross-section of a leaf with multiple lobes and veins. 180 MODIFICATIONS OF INCLUSION. and 327). Hence instead of using terms indicating the number of lobes, parts, etc., the term "divided" is generally employed that defines the leaf more accurately, which are derived from the mode of venation combined with that of inclusion. Thus, when the veins are arranged in parallel divisions consequently arranged in that manner, the leaf is said to be pinnatifid (Fig. 322), as in Verbascum phlomoides (Fig. 326), or in Valeriana dioica or pinnatisecta (Fig. 321), as in Valeriana dioica or pinnatisecta (Fig. 321), as in Valeriana dioica or pinnatisecta (Fig. 321). If the divisions are not parallel but radiate from a common centre, the term "pinnate" is used; or, if the sub-divisions of the lamina itself, the leaf is said to be bipinnatifid (Fig. 325), as in Lysimachia punctata (Fig. 324); or, if the sub-divisions of these are again divided in a similar manner, the term "tripinnatifid," "triplinotripartite," or "triplinotripartite." Or, if the lamina is still further divided, the leaf is said to be decomposed or laminated. ![Fig. 322. Pinnatifid leaf.] ![Fig. 323. Bipinnatifid leaf.] ![Fig. 324. Tripinnatifid leaf.] Certain modifications of these varieties have received speci- nal names; thus, when a pinnately-veined leaf is deeply divided, and the divisions are very close and narrow like the teeth of a cog-wheel it is called pinnatipartite; when the terminal lobe of a pinnately-veined leaf is large and A diagram showing a pinnatifid leaf. A diagram showing a bipinnatifid leaf. A diagram showing a tripinnatifid leaf. MODIFICATIONS OF INCISION. 161 recurved, and the lateral lobes which are also more or less recurved, are usually smaller towards the base, it is laciniate or lacerate-shaped, in which case the terminal lobe is triangular, and the other lobes which are also recurved, are smaller than the terminal lobe. When recurved towards the base of the lamina, as in the Dandelion (Fig. 354), the leaf is said to be runcinate, or when a lyrate leaf has its lateral lobes so much reduced that they are almost linear in shape, it is termed panduriform or fiddle-shaped, as in the Fiddle-leaf Fig. (Fig. 355). The above terms are those which are employed to define incised feather-veined leaves; but when the blades are palmetto-veined and have their lateral lobes so much reduced as to be of divergent form. In describing such leaves, the terms leaf, trifoliate, palmatifid. Fig. 326. A diagram showing a palmate leaf with three main lobes and several smaller secondary lobes. Fig. 326. Palmate leaf of a species of Passiflora (Passion-flower). Fig. 327. Palmatifid leaf of the Cactus Opuntia (Chinise succulent). &c., bipartite, tripartite, &c., bidentate, trisected, &c., are employed according to the number of their lobes, partitions, or segments, as in the case of a leaf having two lobes, it is said to be bipartite; or if it is divided into three parts by a single vein, it is said to be trisected; derived from the direction of the veins, &c., are used. Sometimes the term palmate is applied to leaves which have palmetto-veined leaves as with those which are pinnately-veined. Thus, when the blade of such a leaf has five spreading lobes, each of which is again divided into five smaller lobes by a pinnate vein, so that the whole has a resemblance to the palm of a hand, it is said to be palmate-pinnate; or when there are five lobes on one side of the midrib and five on the other side, it is said to be palmate-dichotomous; as in some species of Passiflora (Fig. 328); or when there are more than five lobes, the term is described as palmatifid or palmatifid-pinnate. Some writers, however, use the terms palmate and palmatifid indifferently to describe leaves having any number of lobes, divisions, or incisions; but the sense in which they are defined above MODIFICATIONS OF INCISION. is more precise, and should alone be used. When the lobes are less spreading, narrower, and somewhat deeper than in a true palmate leaf, the leaf is digitate; as when there are more than five lobes (Fig. 328). When the lobes are deeply incised into segments, it is sometimes termed digitipartite, or even digitate (though impropriely so), by some authors. When the lamina is divided Fig. 328. Fig. 328. Denticulate leaf of the Water Crowfoot (Ranunculus aquatilis). nearly to its base into numerous narrow thread-like divisions, as in the submerged leaves of the Water Crowfoot (fig. 328), the leaf is said to be dissected. When the lateral lobes, partitions, or segments, are further divided into two or more divisions (fig. 329), as in the Stinking Heliotrope and Digitalis purpurea, the whole bears some resemblance to a bird's foot, the leaf is termed petiolate; and when the petiole is prolonged, according to the depth of the incision, it is termed stipulate; by some botanists applied generally to these modifications of the palmate leaf. The term stipulate ought properly to be reserved for a compound leaf whose parts are arranged in a pedate manner. Fig. 329. Petiolate leaf. Besides the above modifications of incision, other variations also occur, in consequence of the lobes, partitions, or segments being either entire, or toothed; or of them being either in a pennately-veined, or palmately-veined manner, and terms are used accordingly; the application of which will be at once evident from the following figures. 162 1. Apex. This varies much in the blades of different leaves. Thus the apex is acute or blunt, when it is rounded SIMPLE LEAVES—APEX OF LAMINA. 163 or forms the segment of a circle (figs. 339 and 341), as in the Pinnate; or it is reflexed, as in the leaves of the narrow leafless branches of the White Willow (Salix alba); or it is shallowly lobed, as in the Red Whortleberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea) and the leaves of Logwood; or when under the name of the "leafless" leaves, as in the leaves of the H. marrapino, as in some species of Gagea (fig. 330), and in the com- mon Box (Buxus sempervirens). When the lamina terminates with a point, this point may be acute, as in the leaves of the White Willow and common Reed; or it may be rounded, as in the leaves of the White Willow and common Reed; or when it tapers gradually into a rigid point, it is cuspidate, as in many of the leaves of the Blackthorn (Prunus spinosa); or it has a short hard or softened point standing on it, as is mucronate (fig. 337), as in the leaf of Stachys macroura and Zaluzianskya. 4. General Outline.—By the general outline or shape of the lamina is meant its form, which is determined by its margins. The development of veins and parenchyma is usually nearly equal on the two sides of the midrib, or petiole, so that they appear to be symmetrical, but often one is asymmetrical and of some regular figure; in which case the leaf is said to be asymmetrical. In such cases, when one side is more developed than the other, the leaf is termed unequale or unequale (figs. 338 and 339); in which case it is also called irregular (figs. 340 and 341). Generally speaking, the leaves with ribbed, parallel, or feather- Figs. 330 & 341. Fig. 330. Lamina of a species of Gagea. It is ovate in form or ovate, according to whether it terminates at a point or not. The apex is obtuse, as in the leaf of the Tuft-reef (Aja) 331); or if it ends in a point, it is acute, as in the leaf of Cephalanthus occidentalis; or irregular, as if it had been bitten off, it is praeceate, as in the leaf of Corydalis scouleri. When the apex is sharp, that the two margins are parallel, as in fig. 340; when it is serrate or serrate-pointed, when the point is very long, and tapering (fig. 550), it is acuminate or taper-pointed, as in m 2 184 **FIGURES OR SHAPE OF LEAVES.** veined crenation are longer than broad ; while those which are radially or nearly-venined are more or less rounded, or broader than long. When the lamina of a leaf is nearly at the same breadth as the base of the petiole, the leaf is said to be **parallel** (figs. 310, a, and 354), the leaf is called **linear**, as in Fig. 322. Fig. 323. Fig. 324. Fig. 325. Fig. 326. Fig. 327. Fig. 328. Fig. 329. Fig. 330. Fig. 331. Fig. 332. Leaf of Elm, with its margin serrate, and the lamina angular at the base; fig. 333. Leaf of Ash, with its margin serrate, and the lamina angular at the base; fig. 334. Linear leaf of Cephalonia (Gentiana apertura).—The Sib. Laccocerae and Laccocerae are very similar in shape, but differ in their **chan- pers** (carnes); fig. 335. A crenate and acuminate-petiolated leaf. The **oblong** leaf is longer than broad; fig. 336. Fig. 337. Fig. 338. leaf, with its margin serrate.—Pp. 96, General leaf. The *March Gentian* (*Gentiana pneumonanthe*) and most *Grammies* : when a linear leaf terminates in a sharp rigid point like a needle, as in the leaves of the *Birch*, *Willow*, *Poplar*, *Fir*, and *Larches*, it is acrocer or *needleshaped*. When the blade of a leaf is very narrow and tapers from the base to a very fine tip, as in the leaves of the *Caper* (Caprella capreolus) and the common *Furns* (*Ulcea europaea*), the leaf is *obulate* or *out-shaped*. A figure showing a linear leaf with serrated margins. A figure showing a linear leaf with serrated margins. A figure showing a linear leaf with serrated margins. A figure showing a linear leaf with serrated margins. **FIGURES OF LEAVES.** 163 When the blade of a leaf is broadest at the centre, three or more times as long as broad, and tapers perceptibly from the base to the apex (Fig. 330), the leaf is elliptic (Fig. 330); when it is longer than broad, of about the same breadth at its base and apex, and slightly curved upwards (Fig. 331), the leaf is oblong (Fig. 331); when it is broader than long, and has a rounded apex (Fig. 332), it is obovate. The above definitions of elliptical and obovate are those of Lindley; by many botanists the former term is applied to leaves which are longer than broad, but narrower to one which is four or more times, as long as broad; and in both cases either rounded or acute at the two extremities. If the lamina of a leaf is broad or less rounded at its base and apex, it is orbicular (Fig. 348). ![Fig. 348](image) Orbicular leaf. Orbicular leaves are those which are round or nearly so, with a very obtuse angle between the two sides (Fig. 349). They are also called ovate (Fig. 350) or ovate-lanceolate (Fig. 351). ![Fig. 349](image) Orbicular leaf. Orbicular leaves are also those which are broader at their base than at their apex, so that the whole of its shape is an egg cut lengthwise, the leaf is *cuneate* or *egg-shaped* (Fig. 340), or of the same shape as the heart (Fig. 341), but with a very obtuse angle between the two sides; or it is oblong or inversely obovate-shaped. When the lamina is broad at its base and narrow towards its apex, it is cordate (Fig. 357), as in some Saxifragae, the leaf is cuneate or wedge-shaped; or if the apex is broad and rounded, and tapers down into two rounded lobes, it is cordate-lobed (Fig. 358). When the lamina resembles in shape the heart in a pack of cards, the leaf is cordate or heart-shaped (Fig. 358), as in the Black Bryony (Tamus communis); or if of the same shape, but with the apex broader than ![Fig. 350](image) Ovate leaf. Ovate leaves are those which are broader at their base than at their apex, so that the whole of its shape resembles in shape the heart in a pack of cards, the leaf being cordate or heart-shaped (Fig. 358), as in the Black Bryony (Tamus communis); or if of the same shape, but with the apex broader than 166 **FIGURES OF LEAVES.** the base, and hollowed out into two rounded lobes, it is obcordate or inversely heart-shaped (fig. 345). When a leaf resembles a ovate one, but has two lobes, the upper lobe is usually broad, and the whole blade usually shorter, and broader (fig. 344), it is Fig. 346. Fig. 347. Fig. 348. Fig. 349. Fig. 350. Fig. 351. Fig. 346. Lanceolate or crescent-shaped leaf. --- Fig. 347. Sagittate leaf. --- Fig. 348. Linear-oblong leaf. --- Fig. 349. Ovate leaf. --- Fig. 350. Obovate leaf. --- Fig. 351. Cordate leaf. *reniform* or kidney-shaped, as in the Asarabacca (Asarum europaeum), which has a broad base, and two lobes at the base of the lamina pointed, so that it resembles the form of a crescent FORMS OF LEAVES. 167 (See 346). It is lunate or crescent-shaped, as in Pinusformis lancea. When the blade is broad and hollowed out at its base into two angles, it is cordate (see 345), or ovate (see 348); when the base of the head of an arrow (see 347), the leaf is ovate or arrow-shaped, as in the Arrowhead (Sagittaria sagittifolia); when the lobes of the leaf are separated from each other by a broad space, it is dissected; when it is lobed or lobe-shaped (see 347), it is lobate or lobed-shaped (see 347); when the blade is divided into several parts, it is parted; and lastly, when the blade is separated from the blade, as in the upper leaves of the Woody Nightshade (Solanum dulcamara), it is auriculate or beak-shaped (see 350). If the blade be concave, it is crenate (see 346); if convex, it is convexate (see 350). The leaf is arcuate (see 351), a figure which is scarcely or ever found in nature; but if the blade be curved, it is incurved (see 350). The leaf is involute (see 350), a figure which is rarely met with in nature; but if the blade be rolled up, it is rolled-up (see 350). The leaf is undulate or rounded (see 350). It frequently happens, that a leaf does not distinctly present one of these forms, but that it has some peculiar combination of two of them, in which case we use such terms as lance-lobate, lance-arcuate, lance-cordate, lance-ovate, lance-lanceolate, round-lobate, etc., the application of which will be at once evident. In many cases we find leaves of different figures on the same plant; under which circumstance the plant is said to be hetero- polypetalous. Thus, in the case of the Arrowhead (Sagittaria), the radical leaves are cordate or reniform, and the caulin leaves linear; and this difference of outline between the radical and stem leaves may be observed in many other plants; e.g., in Solanum dulcamara, where some of the leaves are narrowed, while others float on water. In the case of the Wood Sorrel (Oxalis), in Rhamnaceae aquatica, and Arrowhead (Sagittaria sagittifolia), the leaves thus differently situated frequently vary in shape. For further information respecting the construction of the laminae, that is, including its length, breadth, and thickness. These points are so important that they are therefore especially applicable to thick acuminated leaves—viz., those which are produced when the veins are connected by a large diameter. In such cases we have seen that they assume some regular geometrical forms, as cylindrical, pyramidal, conical, prismatic, &c., and receive corresponding names; or they may reach a certain degree of complexity. Thus we have lance- termed arcuate, eniform, acuminata, deltoidiform, clavate, ovate-arcuate, ovate-cordate, ovate-lanceolate, &c., &c. In other instances, the laminae instead of having its veins en- tirely connected by parenchyma, are more or less hollowed out in its middle part; thus we have lance-lobed (see 347), arrow- shaped, &c., &c. Various other similar forms are also found, as well as those which are hollowed out to the head of anomalous forms of leaves. Besides the above described modifications which the blades of leaves present in reference to their margins, incisions, Apex, A diagram showing various leaf shapes and their descriptions. 168 COMPOUND LEAVES.—FINNATE LEAVES. Outline, and Form, they also present numerous other variations as regards their surface, texture, colour, &c. For an explanation of these we refer to the preceding article on the structure of leaves, and more especially to that part which treats of the Appendages of the Spinescent Plants. 2. COMPOUND LEAVES.—We have already defined a compound leaf (page 150). Its separate lobules are subject to similar modifications of outline and form, as regards their texture, surface, colour, &c., as the blades of simple leaves, and the same terms are employed in describing them. The lobules are therefore only now to speak of compound leaves as a whole, and the terms which are employed in describing their special modifications. We shall first describe 1. Simple-lobed Compound Leaves; 2. Finnate or radiculated Compound Leaves. 1. Finnate-or-lobed Compound Leaves.—When a leaf presenting this kind of variation is separated into distinct portions or Fig. 302. Fig. 303. **Fig. 302.** Infiniate or unipinate leaf of Lobelia, showing sinuses. — **Fig. 303.** Sinusate or sinuate pinnae. leaflets, it is termed *pinnate* (figs. 303—305), and the leaflets are then termed *pinnae*. The leaflets are arranged either in an op- posite or alternate manner, i.e., one pair at each node, or com- mon pinnate in pairs, and according to their number the leaf is said to be unipinate or one-paired, as in several species of Lathyrus (fig. 304); bipinate or two-paired, as in several species of Thunbergia (fig. 305); tripartite or three-paired, and multipinate or many-paired (fig. 305). Several kinds of pininate leaves have also been named by special names. Thus when the pinnae end in a single leaflet they are called *pinnules*, as in the Rose and Elder; it is impinnate or unequally-pinnate, or pinnatifid, when the pinnae end in a pair of leaflets; or paripinnate, when it ends in a pair of leaflets or pinnae (fig. 305). Fig. 304. Fig. 305. VARITIES OF PINNATE LEAVES. 169 as in some species of Camois, the Mastich plant (Podocarpus lentiformis), Logwood (Haematococcus phanerogamum), and Osmunda rubra; and it is intermediately pinnate (Fig. 354) when the leaves are of different sizes, so that small pinnae are regularly irregularly in- Fig. 854. Fig. 855. Fig. 857. Fig. 354. Irregularly pinnate leaf of the Potato (Solanum tuberosum). Fig. 355. (Left.) A pinnate leaf of the Silver Weed (Senecio vulgaris). Fig. 356. A pinnate leaf of a species of Helichrysum. Fig. 357. A Triplicate leaf. Some of the leaflets are, how- ever, only bipinnate. terminal with larger ones, as in the Potato and Silver Weed (Senecio aureus). When the terminal leaflet of a pinnate leaf is the largest, and the rest gradually smaller as they approach the 170 PALMATELY-VENINED COMPOUND LEAVES. **Name (fig. 355).** It is *palmately pinnate*. This leaf and the true *lyrate* (page 160) and fig. 352, are alike in being formed either by two leaves, and the two kinds often run into one another, so that it is by no means necessary to distinguish the species of leaf on the same plant, as in the common Turnip and Yellow Rocket. When a leaf is palmately pinnate, its ultimate leaf becomes themselves pinnate, or, in other words, when the partial or secondary pinnae which are arranged on the common petiole exhibit the characters of an ordinary leaf, they are said to be *bipinnate* (fig. 355), as in some species of *Cerastium*, *Lysimachia*, &c., the partial or secondary pinnae are them commonly termed *pinnales*. When a leaf is bipinnate, it becomes themselves pinnate, it is *tripinnate* (fig. 356), as in *Rosa* (Philadelphus minor), and the common *Parley*, ; in common happens, how- ever, that the secondaries are not upper leaves but lower leaves, as in fig. 357. If the division extends beyond the secondaries, the leaf is decon- spond (fig. 358), as in many Umbelliferaous plants. **2 Palmately-vined Compound Leaves.--Such a leaf is formed when the primary veins divide into several secondary veins. These leaves are readily distinguished from those of the pinnate kind, by their having a common point from which all the veins proceed, and of, as in them, along the sides of a common petiole. We dis- tinguish several kinds of such leaves : thus, a leaf is said to be *bundled*, *filiform*, or *nageligt*, if it consists of only two leaflets. Fig. 355. Fig. 356. Fig. 357. Fig. 358. A *bundled* leaf.--Fig. 356. Terminal or trifoliate leaf.--Fig. 357. Quadrifoliate leaf of *Marrubium peregrinum*. springing from a common point (fig. 359), as in *Zygophyllum* ; it is ternate or trilobate if it consists of three leaflets arranged in a VARIETIES OF PALMATELY-VENINED COMPOUND LEAVES. 171 similar manner (figs. 345 and 360), as in the genus *Trifolium*, which receives its name from this circumstance ; it is quadri- nole or quadrifoliate if there are four leaflets (fig. 381), as in *Hedyosmum* (fig. 382) ; it is pentadolate or pentadolate if there are five (fig. 363), as in *Potentilla arenaria* and *P. alba* ; it is septadolate or septadolate, if there are seven (fig. 363), as Fig. 363. Fig. 364. Fig. 365. Quintine or quintifoliate leaf.—Fig. 381. Septifoliate leaf of the Horsechestnut and some Potentillas ; and it is multi- foliate if there are more than seven (fig. 364), as in many of the Lupines (fig. 382). In all these cases, the term " compound " employed to characterise a compound leaf of five leaflets, by which name should be confined to a simple leaf, and used in the sense already noticed (page 162). In speaking of palmately-venined compound leaves, we must distinguish between those, in which the veins are properly termed palmate or digitate ; but when the leaflets of a palmately-venined leaf are arranged in a pedate manner, the leaf is properly called a pinnate or sagittate. Palmately-venined compound leaves may become still more A simple leaf with a central vein and smaller veins radiating outwards. A compound leaf with five leaflets, each having a central vein and smaller veins radiating outwards. A compound leaf with seven leaflets, each having a central vein and smaller veins radiating outwards. A compound leaf with nine leaflets, each having a central vein and smaller veins radiating outwards. 172 PETIOLE OR LEAF-STALK. divided. Thus, if the common petiole divides at its apex into three parts (as in the common beech tree, fig. 365), or as in the Masterwort (Impervia oratium), the leaf is termed *biseriate*; or when the common petiole divides at its apex into two parts (as in the common mullein, fig. 366), or in the same manner as the former, each of which bears three leaflets, as in the Yellow Fumitory (Corydalis lutea) and Epimedium, the leaf is *trifidate* (fig. 306); or when the common petiole is divided into four parts, as in the Common Broom. Fig. 365. Trifidate leaf of Broom. Fig. 365. Trifidate leaf of Broom. 5. PETIOLE OR LEAF-STALK. The petiole or leaf-stalk is that part which connects the blade of the leaf to the stem (figs. 289, p. 269, and 269, p.). It is frequently absent, and the leaf is then said to be *sessile* (fig. 301). In other cases it is a slender stalk, $F_{\text{petiole}}$, surrounded by parenchyma $p_{\text{petiole}}$, and the whole covered by epidermis, which contains but few or no stomata. The fibro-axillary leaves of the Liliaceae and Scrophulariaceae belong to this class of plants, being merely prolongations of that of the three Fig. 366. Trifidate leaf of Baneberry (Adoxa). Fig. 366. Trifidate leaf of Baneberry (Adoxa). GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE PETIOLE. 173 kinds of stem already fully described; thus, in Dicotyledonous plants, the fibre-vascular tissue (fig. 271) consist of spiral, pitted, or reticulated fibres, and of a more or less cellular, lamellar, cistiferous mesophyll, and wood and libercellule, that is, of the same elements as those which constitute the leaf-stalks. The distribution of this fibre-vascular tissue in the lamina forms the veins, which have been already described under the head of Variation (page 181). The petiole is either simple or compound, according to the simple leaves, and in those of a compound character in which the ![Fig. 367.](image) ![Fig. 368.](image) Fig. 367. Vertical section of a portion of the stem and the base of a leaf, showing the disposition of the fibre-vascular tissues, and the presence of a few small vessels. Fasciculose nature of the stem and petiole. c. Petiole. f. Arista. b. Vascular bundles. d. Mesophyll. e. Libercellule. f. Fibre-vascular tissue. The petiole is usually composed of two parts, viz., a short base, showing plates at the base of the petiole (fig. 367), and a long stem, which is divided into two or more portions by a series of nodes (fig. 368). Leaflets are sessile; or it is compound, as in the Rose, when it divides into two or more portions, each of which bears a leaflet (fig. 373). The branches of the petiole or the stalks of the leaflets are termed rachis or common petiole while the main petiole is termed the rachis or common petiole. The petiole is usually furnished with a sheath at its base where it joins the stem owing to the presence of an articulation or joint (fig. 367, f.). Leaves thus furnished with an articulated stalk are said to be articulate; they are adapted to perform their functions; and in doing so they leave a scar or contritus (fig. 360, b.). This scar commonly extends on its surface several little points which are produced by the rupture of the FORMS OF THE PETIOLE. The outline of the catictrix and the simple leaves of the Solanaceae shows very much in different species of plants, and thus frequently form characters by which we may distinguish one plant from another after the leaf has fallen off. The presence of these scars may be well seen by comparing a branch of the Aash with that of the Horsehoe-plant. In compound leaves the petiole is not only generally articu- lated to the stem, but the partial petioles are also fre- quently partially articulated to each other. In some cases the bud becomes detached separately when the leaf begins to decay, as in the Sensitivé Plant (figs. 367, c, and 368), but in most cases, however, no leaf is considered as being completely united so that this character is consequently all leaves however much divided, and apparently composed, are regarded as separate parts. Such leaves are arti- culated, are considered simple. Such a distinctive character cannot, however, be well carried out in practice, and when we consider that the petiole is often very thin and delicate, it is not surprising even in simple leaves, we can see no sufficient grounds for in- cluding separate parts under the name of simple leaves. This is evidence of its compound nature. The distinctive characters of simple and compound leaves as adopted in this manual have been already fully described (see p. 150) in connection with simple leaves. The peculiarity of an articulation is to some extent a character of distinction between the three great classes of plants. Thus the leaves of Dicotyledons are in the majority of instances articulated, while those of Monocotyledons are usually non-articulated. Hence the leaves of the two latter classes, when they fall away from their respective stems, fall away and leaving a catictrix as the former, decay gradually upon their respective plants, to the stems of which they thus give a regular appearance. In contrast with this, however, in which the leaves of Dioecyloides plantae are not articulated, as to the Monocotyledons, they are attached to their respective plants frequently for months, which thus form a striking contrast in their appearance to the sur- rounding vegetation. This is especially evident in some of these being articulated. On the lower side of the petiole at its base, the paren- chyma frequently forms a slight swelling (figs. 367, c, and 368), to which the name of pulvina has been given. This portion of the petiole is called a pulvinus. It is supposed that this structure generally has separated from it in the fall of the leaf. A some- what similar structure is found on the upper side of the petiole at the base of each partial petiole, each of which is then termed a stroma. The compound pinnate leaves of the Sensitivé Plant afford a good illustration of the presence of both pulvinae and stromae. FORMS OF THE PETIOLE. Forms of the Petiole.—The form of the petiole varies in differ- ent leaves. It is usually rounded below, and flattened or more or less green above. In some plants the petiole is elongated, especi- ally in the leaves of Monocotyledonous plants; while in other cases it is short and thickened at its base, and surrounds the stem in the form of a sheath or epipetal (fig. 369, p.). This sheath in all true Grasses terminates in a narrow point, and is called a stipule. In other cases it is divided into two symmetrical portions, or incised in various ways, to the extent that it may be said to resemble a leaf. A new expression by most authorities to be analogous to the stipules, is in the Apon (Populus tremula), the petiole is flattened in a plane at right angles to the stem, and this is due to the peculiarity of the peculiar mobility of such leaves; while in other plants it is flattened in a horizontal direction. In Water Plants the petiole Fig. 370. Fig. 375. A portion of the stem with some leaves of Venus' Fly-trap (Dionaea muscipula). The upper part of the leaf is expanded, but the lower part is closed. p. Winged petiole—Fig. 371. Secured leaves of the Venus' Fly-trap. is frequently more or less dilated from the presence of a number of air cavities, as in Pouteria and Trapa; such petioles by diminishing their diameter towards their bases, keep them from floating in the water. At other times the petiole becomes dilated at its base, and embraces the stem, in which case the leaf is said to be cupped or cupped (fig. 371). This occurs also in Umbel- iferous Plants. Frequently the petiole presents at its two edges a kind-like structure called a wing, when it is said to be winged or tornose (fig. 372). This occurs in many plants (figs. 370, 371, p.). Venus' Fly-trap (fig. 370), Sweet Pea (fig. 380), and many others have this character. The winged petiole sometimes does not terminate at the base of the petiole, but it is continued 175 STIPULES. downwards along the stem ; in which case the stem is also termed winged, and the leaf is termed stipulate (figs. 378 and 379). Besides the above forms of petiole, others still more remarkable occur, which will be alluded to hereafter, under the head of Amplectant leaves. Generally speaking, the petiole is less developed than the lamina; it is often very short, and may even be so insignificant thickness to support it without bending. When the petiole is very long or thin, or when the lamina is very heavy, and in other cases, the stipule must no longer supports the blade in a hori- zontal direction. 6. STIPULES. Stipules are small leafy bodies situated at the base, and usually on each side of the petiole of simple (figs. 260, 261, &c.) or compound (figs. 270, 271) leaves. They have the same structure as the blades of leaves, and exhibit similar modifications as regards venation, shape, size, margin, surface, &c. The stipules are often wanting, and their absence is said to be characteristic when present; but they are often overlooked from their small size; while in other cases they are very large, as in the Fuey (fig. 374), and in some com- mon Fae (figs. 372). In fig. 373, a portion of the flowering stem of the common Fae (fig. 372), showing two stipules (at the top), and having two true blades, or leaves, below them; the lower mar- gins of which are serrate. It sometimes happens that the leaflets of a compound leaf possess little stipules of their own, as in fig. 374; and when such a form of stipule has been given, and the leaf is then termed stipulate. Stipules either remain attached as long as the lamina, when they are termed persistent; or they fall off with its expansion, in which case they are deciduous. In the Beech, the A diagram showing a plant with two stipules at the top and two true leaves below them. KINDS OF STIPULES. 177 Fig. the Magnolia, &c., they form the *tepulae* or protective coverings of the buds, and fall off as these open (page 101). Each of these stipules is a leaf-like structure, with regard to the petiole and to each other, and have received different names accordingly. Thus, when they appear to each side of the bud, they are called *petiolate*, (figs. 368, s, t); when they are said to be *adnate*, *adherent*, or *petiolar*. When they remain attached to the stem, but are not at all like the base of the petiole, but quite distinct from it, as in many Willows (fig. 260, s, o), and the Panax (fig. 574), they are called *cotyledonary*. When they are united by their outer margins only, so that they project on the opposite side of the stem from which the leaf grows, and Figs. 373. Figs. 574. Fig. 373. A portion of a branch of the common Rose (*Rosa canina*). A stipule is a leaf or the axis of a compound leaf, or a stalked leaflet. (See fig. 260.) Fig. 574. A portion of a branch of the Panax (*Pandorea*) with large cotyledonary stipules at its base. become united more or less by their outer margins, and thus form one stipule, as in the *Aegopodium*; they are then said to be *syn- adnate*, or *synpetiolate*. In some cases, however, they cohere by their inner margins, as in *Melanthium amans* (fig. 260, d), and in *Hepatica americana* (fig. 260, b). The stipule which is placed in the axil of the leaf, and is accordingly termed *axillary*, if such stipules cohere by both outer and inner margins we call them *obtuse*, as in the *Bergenia* (fig. 260, d), as in the Rhubarb, and most other plants of the order Polygonumæ; they form what is termed an *obtuse* or *obtusifolious* stipule. X 178 KINDS OF STIPULES. All the above kinds of stipules occur in plants with alternate leaves, in which they are usually more conspicuous than in those with opposite leaves. When the latter plants have stipules these are generally situated in the intervals between the petiole and blade, and are termed adaxial stipules. In some cases, it frequently happens that the stipules of each leaf change its color. Fig. 253. Fig. 256. Fig. 253. A portion of the stem, $r.$ and leaf, $r.$ of the *Asparagus officinalis*. $r.$ Stipule. $r.$ Petiole. $r.$ Blade. $r.$ Intervals between the stem, $r.$ and leaf, $r.$ of *Stratiotes cordatus*. $a.$ Auxiliary stipule. Stipules are often found on the stems of plants belonging to the natural order *Rubiaceae* to which they belong. Stipules are not always constant in their presence or absence in any particular plant. Fig. 257. Fig. 257. A portion of a branch, $v.$ with two opposite leaves, $r.r.$ of *Cephalanthus occidentalis*. It is always constant, and although the appearance and arrangement of them also vary in different plants, they are always uniform in their nature and position. In many cases, throughout entire natural orders, and thus they frequently supply important distinctive characters in such plants and orders. They differ from the stipules described from those of the allied order Apocynaceae by possessing inter- A diagram showing a portion of a plant's stem (stem) with a leaf (leaf), and a stipule (stipule). The diagram is labeled with various parts: stem (stem), leaf (leaf), stipule (stipule). **ANOMALOUS FORMS OF LEAVES — SPINES.** petiolate stipules ; and the plants of the Polygonoaceae from those of allied orders by interfoliaceous stipules. Stipules are often found in the Monocotyledons, except the liliops of Graminae to be considered as analogous to them. The only orders of Monocotyledons in which they undoubtedly occur are the Smilacinaee and Araceae. **MONOLLUSC FORMS OF LEAVES.** We have already seen that the branches of a stem sometimes acquire an irregular development, and take the form of Spines or Tendrils (pages 110 and 111). In the same manner the parts of a stem may acquire a modified form, which others still more remarkable, which now proceed to describe. *Spines of Leaves.*—Any part of the leaf may exhibit a spiny character owing to the non-development or diminution of pinnate Fig. 87. **Fig. 87.** A portion of a branch of the Barberry (*Berberis vulgaris*), bearing leaves with spines on their margins. The spines are produced from the veins, and are not connected with any parenchyma between them.—*Fig. 87a.* A portion of a branch of the Caltha (Caltha palustris) showing spines on its leaves, produced from the petiole. f c f c f c f c f c f c f c f c f c f c f c f c f c f c f c f c f c f c f c f c 179 160 ANOMALOUS LEAVES—TENDRILS—PHYLLODES. when speaking of the spines of branches. 2nd. The petiole may assume a spiny character, either at its apex, as in certain species of *Alopecurus* (figs. 375, 376), or at its base, as in *Glechoma* (fig. 379, c), as in the Gooseberry. And, 3rd. The stipules may become transform'd into tendrils. **Tendril of Leaves.—Any part of the leaf may also become cirriform or transformed into a tendril. Thus, --1st. The midrib of the blade of *Lathyrus odoratus* (fig. 381) becomes cirriform and form a tendril, as in *Gloriosa superba* ; or some of the leaflets of a compound leaf may become tendril-like, as in *Corydalis tuberifera* (figs. 372 and 380), as in certain species of *Lathyrus*, and other Leguminosae. 2nd. The petiole may become cirriform, as in Fig. 380. Fig. 381. **Fig. 380.** Leaf of a species of *Lathyrus*, showing a winged petiole, with two infolded stipules at its base, terminated by a tendril.--Fig. 381. A portion of the stem of *Lathyrus odoratus*, showing a tendril-like petiole.--Fig. 382. A portion of the stem of *Sesleria*, bearing a petiole-like tendril.--Fig. 383. A portion of the stem of *Lathyrus aphra* (fig. 381, v), and many other plants of the Leguminosea. And, 3rd. The stipules may assume the form of tendrils; thus, in *Corydalis tuberifera* (figs. 372 and 380), one on each side of the base of the petiole (fig. 380), in place of the ordinary stipules. **Phylloides.*—In the leaves of certain plants, as in some Australian Acacias (figs. 383 and 384), and certain species of Eucalyptus (figs. 385 and 386), the petiole assumes the appearance of a petiole, instead of remaining till they reach the blade before separating; begin to diverge as soon as they leave the stem or branch and assume the form of a leaf-blade; the petiole thus assumes the appearance of a A diagram showing a phylloidal leaf structure. **ANOMALOUS FORMS OF LEAVES—PHYLLODES.** 191 lamina and then performs all its functions. To each petiole the name of phyllocidus has been applied. In some cases, as in *Aceria* (appendix), the lamina is produced into a long, pointed, compound blade (fig. 384), and its nature is thus clearly ascertained, but in most instances no such blade is produced (fig. 385). These phyllocidous leaves are often very conspicuous, and may be the occasional production of a lamina as just mentioned, but also by other intermediate stages, which are intermediate between those which are more or less parallel (figs. 385 and 384) instead of reticulated, as Fig. 384. Fig. 385. A phyllode of an *Ameris* (Amorae herbae). In *Ameris* (Amorae herbae) the lamina assumes the character of a phyllocidus leaf, and is sometimes called a *bipinnate lamina*. The venation on this leaf may be seen to be somewhat parallel. is the case generally in Dicotyledons, in which class of plants they alone occur. 2nd. By their being placed nearly or quite in a vertical direction—that is, turning their margins upwards and downwards at right angles to one another—the two surfaces resemble each other, whereas in true blades a manner different is commonly observable between their upper and lower surface. Besides the true phyllodes thus described, there are some others, as in certain species of *Bennaceus*, which do not present 182 **ASCIDIA OR PITCHERES.** such well-marked distinctive characters. In these phylloides the direction of the surfaces is horizontal as in true blades, and in some other respects they are similar to true leaves. But in the case of a narrow or less parallel venation instead of reticulated, and, belonging to Dicotyledonous plants, this character will suffice to distinguish them as it does in the true leaves. The leaves of the *Ascidia* are con- sider all organs occupying the place of leaves among Dicotyledons, which we have already mentioned. *Ascidia* or *Pitchers.*—These are the most remarkable of all the anomalous forms presented by leaves. They may be seen in the woods of the West Indies, and also in South America, on the Side-saddle Plant (fig. 365), and in many other plants. These curious organs may be either formed from the petiole, or the Fig. 365. Fig. 366. Fig. 367. Fig. 365. Pitcher of a species of Pitcher Plant (Sarracenia dulcamara, L.). Fig. 366. Pitcher of a species of Side-saddle Plant (Hemionitis parviflora).—Fig. 367. Pitcher of Delphium. blade of the leaf. Thus in *Sarracenia* (fig. 365), the pitcher ap- pears to be produced by the folding towards each other of the margins of a phylloide, which is surrounded by a hollow body or pitcher; but they are still separate above, and thus indicate its origin, and are connected with the petiole below. This is however, probably best seen in a species of *Heliamphora* (fig. 367), in which the union of the margins of the phylloide is even less evident than in *Sarracenia*. In *Delphium* (fig. 367), fig. 368. the petiole first expands into a phylloide, then assumes the ap- pearance of a pitcher, and finally becomes a petiole again; that is, the blade above by a lid, called an operculum, which is united to it by an articulation. The lid is here commonly regarded as a remarkable transformation of the blade ; but some botanists LEAVES OF THE THREE CLASSES OF PLANTS. 183 consider that the pitcher is formed out of the lamina, and that the spermatron is the terminal lobe. This kind of pitcher is also looked upon by some botanists as belonging to the class of plants known as the Orange (fig. 315), and Venus's Fly-trap (fig. 370), in which the peristome is formed into a cup-like structure, and thus forms the winged petiole of such plants to fold inwardly and nurse by its margins, a pitcher would be formed resembling that of *Nepenthes*, and the same may be said of the *Dactylis* and *Ceratophyllum*. In another of these plants, the *Dactylis*, the pitchers are considered to be formed by the folding inwardly and nursing by the margins of the blades. 8. GENERAL VIEW OF THE LEAVES OF THE THREE CLASSES OF PLANTS. We have already given a description of the general characters of stems and roots, that these organs present marked distinctive characters in the three classes of plants. The leaves, however, though they differ essentially generally in their description, also present certain marked differences, which may be summed up as follows: 1. LEAVES OF THE LAMINAR PLANTS.--In these the venation is reticulated in consequence of the veins branching in various directions, so that one vein gives rise to two or more veins, so as to form a more or less angular network (fig. 360). In some plants, as in *Rumex* Linn., *Ligusticum* Linn., &c., the secondary veins are given off on each side, which produces a more or less reticulate venation (figs. 360, 5, and 313). The leaves generally of plants of the class Smilacinae (fig. 382), Discoraceae, &c., as well as those of *Solanum* Linn., &c., are also reticulate in character, for in them the veins branch in various directions and form a network over the surface of the leaf. In all these plants, as the Discoraceae, Smilacinae, &c., were therefore separated from other Monocotyledons by Lindley, and placed in a new class called "Discoraceae," this name has been retained by many writers without any further explanation being given as to what this word signifies. But this class has not been accepted of late years by botanists, and is not therefore adopted in this edition. We have already noticed (page 90) that such plants also pre- 184 ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION.—INFLORESCENCE. sent certain differences in the structure of their stems from those of other Monocotyledons. In Monocotyledonous plants the leaves are commonly not articulated at the base, but are either free from each other, or free from both leaves and internodes of every kind. They are also commonly simple ; often sheathing at the base ; and seldom have stipules, nor are the leaves (page 179) to be considered as ana- logous to these organs. 3. Leaves, when present, are usually simple. In this class which have leaves with a true tracheid-vascular system or veins, these are arranged at first, either in a pinnate or palmate manner, and then divided into two or more parts by a single plane, afterwards in a forked manner, or their ramifications are thus divided (fig. 314). The leaves of Ferns are usually called fronds, the leaves of Lycopodium and Selaginella being like structures which, like those of Ferns, bear the fructification. Such leaves are generally not compound ; either sessile or stalked; frequently toothed or insinuated in various ways; and often highly compound. CHAPTER 4. ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION. Under the head of Organs of Reproduction we include the flower and its appendages. They are called reproductive organs because they have for their office the reproduction of plants by the fertilization of the ovules. The organs of reproduction, as already noticed (page 11), are called Phanerogams, Flesherogams, or Flowering Plants. The parts of these plants are concealed or obscured, are termed Cryptogamous or Flowerless. The former division includes Dioscoreas and Monocotyledo- nous plants only. The parts of a flower (as will be particularly shown hereafter), are only useful for the purposes of reproduction, and for that pur- pose ; and hence a flower-bud is analogous to a leaf-bud, and the flower itself to a branch the internodes of which are but slightly developed. As regards arrangement, they belong to nearly the same plane. As flower-buds are thus analogous to leaf-buds, they are subject to similar laws of arrangement and development. Section 1. INFLORESCENCE OR ANTHORHYM. The term inflorescence is applied generally to indicate the flow- ers as well as the branches on which they grow—viz., the flowers upon that axis. Under this head we have to examine—1st, the ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION.—THE BRACT. 183 Leaf from the axil of which the flower-bud arises ; 2nd, the Stalk upon which the flower or flowers are situated ; and 3rd, the Kinds of Inflorescence. I. THE BRACT. We have just stated that flower-buds are analogous to leaf- buds ; and this analogy is still further proved by their occupying similar situations on the plant. The bract is generally at the apex of the floral axis or branch, or laterally, and then commonly in the axil of leaves. Flower-buds, therefore, like leaf-buds, are terminal or axillary. In the latter case the leaves from which Fig. 368. they arise are called bracts. In strict language the term bract is only applied to the leaf from the axil of which a ordinary flower arises ; but it is also applied to other leaves which are found upon that axis between the bract and the flower proper, as in the case of the White Dead-mistle (Fig. 369, a, b). These two kinds of bracts are, however, but rarely distinguished in practice, the term bract being generally used for both together. In some cases, however, they fall themselves, as a general rule, apply it. The White Dead-mistle has some of them being large, of a green colour, and in other respects resembling the ordinary leaves of the plant upon which they are placed, as in the White Dead-mistle (Fig. 369), and in the Pimpernel (Fig. 369, a, c) ; Fig. 368. Flowering stalk of the White Dead-mistle (Lycium alatum). 186 GENERAL CHARACTERS OF BRACTS. in which case they are called *leafy bracts*. Such bracts can only be distinguished from the true leaves by their position with respect to the leaf-stalks (petiole). In this respect, however, bracts may be known from the ordinary leaves not only by their position, but also by differences of colour, outline, texture, and other peculiarities. Sometimes when the bracts are situated in a whorl immediately below the calyx, they are so closely united together that whether they should be considered as a part of the calyx or as true bracts ; thus in most flowers of the *Caryophyllaceae* (Fig. 380), and many of the Pink (Fig. 400), b., c., and Rose orders (Fig. 391), we have a circle of leaves, which are termed *calyces*, to which the term of *epicalyx* or *calycium* is given by many botanists, but which properly belongs under the denomination of *sepalae* (page 187). Now, when a flower is fur- nished with bracts of some kind or other; it frequently happens, however, ![Fig. 380](image) **Fig. 380. Flowering stalk of the Pimpinellæ (Lamiastrum)** The uppermost bract is a calyx; the next one is a calyce; the next one is a calyx; the next one is a calyce; the next one is a calyx; the next one is a calyce; the next one is a calyx; the next one is a calyce; the next one is a calyx; the next one is a calyce; the next one is a calyx; the next one is a calyce; the next one is a calyx; the next one is a calyce; the next one is a calyx; the next one is a calyce; the next one is a calyx; the next one is a calyce; the next one is a calyx; the next one is a calyce; the next one is a calyx; the next one is a calyce; the next one is a calyx; the next one is a calyce; the next one is a calyx; the next one is a calyce; the next one is a calyx; the next one is a calyce; the next one is a calyx; the next one is a calyce; the next one is a calyx; the next one is a calyce; the next one is a calyx; the next one is a calyce; the next one is a calyx; the next one is a calyce; the next one is a calyx; the next one is a calyce; the next one is a calyx; the next one is a calyce; the next one is a calyx; the next one is a calyce; the next one is a calyx; the next one is a calyce; the next one is a calyx; the next one is a calyce; the next one is a calyx; the next one is a calyce; the next one is a calyx; the next one is a calyce; the next one is a calyx; the next one is a calyce; the next one is a calyx; the next one is a calyce; the next one is a calyx; the next one is a calyce; the next one is a calyx; the next one is a calyce; the next one is a calyx; the next one is a calyce; the next one is a calyx; the next one is a calyce; the next one is a calyx; the next one is a calyce; the next one is a calyx; the next one is a calyce; the next one is a calyx; the next one is a calyce; the next one is a calyx; the next one is a calyce; the next one is a calyx; the next one is a calyce; the next one is a calyx; the next one is a calyce; the next one is a calyx; the next one is a calyce; the next one is a calyx; the next one is a calyce; the next one is a calyx; the next one is a calyce; that some of these bracts do not develop leaf-like flower-buds, just in this same manner as it occasionally happens that leaves do not produce any flowers at all. The development of such non-development of flower-buds in an axil of bracts appears to arise simply from their being too small to develop into leaves according to our law, thus in the Purple Hart (Sedum Hortorum), and in common Pineapple (Fig. 287), there are no number of bracts without flower-buds, but only those which are leaf-like in appearance. Such bracts are called empty. When bracts are almost al- ready, as in many plants in which there are two orders of leaves, Creeping and those of Borage-gamose, such plants are termed ![Fig. 381](image) **Fig. 381. Flowering stalk of Creeping Borage** **ELEMENTAL; when bracts are present the inflorescence is said to be bracteate.** * **A. arrangement and Duration of Bracts.** Bracts follow the same law of arrangement as true leaves, being opposite, alternate, or whorled, &c., in different plants. The bracts of the Pineapple (Fig. 386) and the Cucumber (Fig. 387), show in a marked manner a spiral arrangement. Bracts are usually deciduous, that is, they fall off immediately, or soon after the flower-bud expands; they are said to be deciduous. When they remain long united to the floral axis, they are persistent. In the Pomegranate (Fig. 388) and the Hazelnut (Fig. 390); in the Hazelnut and Filbert they form the husk (Fig. 395), in the Honeysuckle (Fig. 396) and the Honeysuckle (Fig. 397) and Pineapple (Fig. 397), they persist as membranous, woody, or leathery scales. **Varieties of Bracts.** Certain varieties of arrangement and forms of bracts have received special names. Thus the bracts of ![Fig. 392.] ![Fig. 393.] that kind of inflorescence called an Ammation or Catkin (Fig. 395) and that of a Scale or Scale-bract (Fig. 396). These, like those of the Bunchberry (Drosera Carolus), are General involucre; A. A Partium involucrum et involucrum. When one or more whorls of bracts is placed round one flower, as in the Marsh Mallow (Fig. 390) and Strawberry (Fig. 391); or around several flowers, as in the Rose (Fig. 392), or in other Umbelliferous plants, they form what is termed an involucre. In some Umbelliferous plants, as for instance the Carrot (Fig. 395), there are two involucres, one at the base of the primary divisions. ![Image description needed] 138 VARIETIES OF BRACTS.---INTOUCHE.---CUPULE. of the floral axis or general umbel, (page 201); and another at the base of each of the partial umbels or umbellules, a, b, c; the former being usually larger than the latter two; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed of several smaller bracts, or involucres; and each of the latter two being composed 201 Fig. 364. Capitulum (flower) (cyme-oid), showing flowers enclosed in an involucre. Acorn (fig. 365), and the hunk 365; they then form what is called a cupule. Fig. 365. Fig. 366. Fig. 367. Fruit 367 of Oak (Quercus robur), surrounded by a cupule. Fig. 368. Fruit 368 of Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), with cupule on its top. **VARIETIES OF BRACTS—SPATHE.** When a bract is of large size and shothood, and surrounds one or a number of flowers, so as to completely enshroud them when in bud, it is called a spathe (figs. 387, 388). In the Arum (fig. 397), the common Arum or cuckoo-pint (fig. 398), and Palms (fig. 412), the spathe is a large leaf-like structure formed surrounding the kind of inflorescence called a spadix (page 196), as in the Arum (fig. 398), and Palm (fig. 412); and it is also very commonly found in other plants, such as the Cuckoo-pint, which may be either green like an ordinary leaf, as in the Cuckoo-pint, or coloured, as in Eulalius anthophorus. In some Palms these ![Fig. 387. Fig. 388. Fig. 387. Flower of the Spurge Snowball (Leucanthemum arvensis).—Page 395. The flower-stalks of this plant are about two feet long, and the flowers, of which there are many, are crowded together on each stalk, and are usually white in colour. Sometimes the spathe of a Palm branches (fig. 412), and then we have what is called a "spadix," which is a kind of flower, and which has been named spatulate. Some botanists restrict the term spatule to the large enveloping bract of the spadix, and call the other bracts which surround it "spathe." Besides the bracts which surround the head of flowers of the Compositae (figs. 390, a, b) there are others which enclose the individual flowers (figs. 390, c, d) are also provided with little 189 190 GLEWEA—PALES—SQUAMULE—PENUNCLE. bracts or bracteoles, b, b, which are then generally of a mean- bractous nature, but may be of a more or less petalous nature. The term peduncle is applied to certain special bracts found in Grames (see below), they are better named scales, or by other names, according to their external form and character. The only other bracts which have acquired special names are those found in Grames (Gramis, etc.), hence, the partial imme- diate use of the term Grama, termed a leucus or epale (page 396), has at its base the word Grama, and the term Grama is also used (fig. 490, pl. gl.). In the Cyperaceae each flower is surrounded by similar bracts. In the Grames we also find that each flower has two other bracts besides the one which are commonly called pales or pales; and also frequently either Fig. 490. or more little scales, also of the nature of bracts, which are usually called squamules. Fig. 89. The term peduncle is applied to the stalk of a solitary flower, whether it be a leafy peduncle (figs. 417, a'), or to a floral axis which bears a number of sessile flowers (figs. 408 and 409); or it may be a leafy peduncle with sessile flowers on it (figs. 417, b', c', d'). The main axis is still called a peduncle, and the stalk of each flower a pedicel; or if the axis be still further sub- divided, each branch is called a peduncle; but if the whole be divided, with the exception of the axils immediately supporting the flowers, which are all in one plane, the whole is called a peduncle; and this is better to speak of than the main axis as the primary axis (figs. 419, a'), its divisions as the secondary axes a', b', c', d', etc., and so on. Kindred of Peduncles.—Under certain circumstances peduncles A diagram showing the structure of a flower with a peduncle and pedicels. Fig. 490. Reverse side of the Chamaecyparis (Chamaecyparis obtusa) bearing flowers, a, e., and leaves, b, b'. The flowers are sessile on short pedicels. The receptacle is bare down much to the apex of the axis; it should be noticed that the leaves are arranged in two rows along the length of the stem. The leaves are opposite each other. The leaves are deciduous. The flowers are from June to August. The flowers are white. The petals are absent. The stamens are numerous. The pistil is simple. The ovary is superior. The fruit is an achene. The seeds are small. The seeds are brownish-black. The seeds are smooth. The seeds are hard. The seeds are small. The seeds are smooth. The seeds are hard. The seeds are small. The seeds are smooth. The seeds are hard. The seeds are small. The seeds are smooth. The seeds are hard. The seeds are small. The seeds are smooth. The seeds are hard. The seeds are small. The seeds are smooth. The seeds are hard. The seeds are small. The seeds are smooth. The seeds are hard. The seeds are small. The seeds are smooth. The seeds are hard. The seeds are small. The seeds are smooth. The seeds are hard. The seeds are small. The seeds are smooth. The seeds are hard. The seeds are small. The seeds are smooth. The seeds are hard. The seeds are small. The seeds are smooth. The seeds are hard. The seeds are small. The seeds are smooth. The seeds are hard. The seeds are small. The seeds are smooth. The seeds are hard. The seeds are small. The seeds are smooth. The seeds are hard. The seeds are small. The seeds are smooth. The seeds are hard. The seeds are small. The seeds are smooth. The seeds are hard. The seeds are small. The seeds are smooth. The seeds are hard. The seeds are small. The term peduncle is applied to the stalk of a solitary flower, whether it be a leafy peduncle (figs. 417, a'), or to a floral axis which bears a number of sessile flowers (figs. 408 and 409); or it may be a leafy peduncle with sessile flowers on it (figs. 417, b', c', d'). KINDS OF PEDUNCLE. --BACHIS.--RECEPTACLE.--SCAPE. 191 have received special names. Thus, when a peduncle is elongated, and gives off from its sides several flowers (figs. 408 and 409), it is termed a raceme; but if the flowers are crowded on the rachis or axis; but if, instead of being elongated in a longitudinal direction, they are crowded together in a transverse direction, and commonly bearing numerous flowers, it is termed the raceme. This receptacle varies very much in form; thus, it is flat in the Pedicularis (fig. 407); in the Chamaemelum, concave and flaccid in the Dorstenia (fig. 402), pear-shaped in the Euphorbia (fig. 403), and so on; and there are a variety of other intermediate forms. The peculiar receptacle of the Dorstenia is sometimes termed a corona-riunus; and that of Fig. 401. Fig. 402. Fig. 401. Hypostylium of the Fig (Pistia Cortis), showing two leaves with their bases united by a common stalk, or stipe, to the stem. Fig. 402. A flower of Dorstenia. the Fig a hypostylium; or by some botanists both kinds are distinguished by the latter name. It is also observed that the term receptacle is also applied by some botanists to the extremity of the peduncle or pedicel upon which the parts of the flower are placed, whether enlarged or not, as in the case of the aerial stem-leaves of flowers (see Tussilago). When plants which have no aerial stem bear flowers, the peduncle necessarily arises at, or under the ground, in which case it is called a scape or rudimental peduncle (fig. 397), as in the Spring Scurf (fig. 398). In such cases, however, the scape may either bear one flower as in the Tulip, or several flowers as in the Hyacinth. *Formed Peduncle.*--In form the peduncle is generally more or less cylindrical, but besides the departure from this ordinary appearance, it frequently assumes other forms. Thus, it may 193 INSERTION AND DURATION OF PEDUNCLE. become more or less compressed, or grooved in various ways, or it may become somewhat prolonged during the ripening of the fruit, as in the Cashew nut; or it may assume a spiral appearance, as in the Fallow-leaf (fig. 403), where the peduncle becomes rolled into a tendril; or it may be hollowed out at its apex, so as to form a cup-shaped body, to which the lower part of the calyx is attached, and which is called a pericarpium, or a false corona. In some cases the peduncle or pedicel becomes flattened and assumes a leaf-like appearance, and is then termed a peltate peduncle or pedicel, or it is called a phylloclade. Examples of this occur in the Butcher's Broom (fig. 404), where the flowers arise from a flattened stem, and in the Sassafras tree, where the flowers are attached to its margins. Sometimes the peduncle, or several peduncles united, assume an irregular flattened appearance, somewhat resembling the fasciated stems of the arrow-leaf. Fig. 403. Fig. 404. For alt. Plant shoot of Fallopia japonica, with its leaves arranged on spiral adnation. Fig. 404. Portion of a branch of the Butcher's Broom (Sassafras albidum), with its leaves. scribed (page 107), and bear numerous flowers in a sort of crest at their extremities, as in the Cocklebur. Investigating the nature of a stem, we found that in some cases, instead of arising at the midrib of leaves, they became extra-ordinary (page 107) in consequence of adhesions of various kinds between them and other parts of the plant, and other parts. In like manner the peduncle may become extra-ordinary by being attached to the midrib of the bract (fig. 405), the peduncle adheres to the midrib of the bract, b, for some distance, and then becomes free. In many Solanaceae, as in the Waxflower (fig. 406), the peduncle is also extra-ordinary by forming adhesions to the stem in various ways. Dorsal and ventral peduncles are also known; some are male and female vary. Thus, they are said to be ovoidus, when they fall off soon after the opening of the flower, or in the staminate or male flowers of a catkin ; they are deciduous, when they fall off KINDS OF INFLORESCENCE. 183 after the fruit has ripened, as in the Cherry; they are persistent if they remain after the ripening of the fruit and dispersion of the seed, as in the Apple; or they may be shed at the time of ripening, if they enlarge or continue to grow during the ripening of the fruit, as in the Cashew-nut. Fig. 605. Fig. 606. Fig. 605. Inflorescence of the Lime tree (Citrus aurantifolia) attached to the trunk. --- Fig. 606. Branch of Wood-Nightshade (Solanum dulcamara), with cross-ribbed petioles. 3. KINDS OF INFLORESCENCE. The term Inflorescence is used generally to indicate the arrangement of the flowers on the plant. In 1754, in the same way as the term vernalation is employed in a general sense for the growth of plants in spring, so was the term Inflorescence used for that of vegetation for the floral envelopes of a flower-bud. As flowers are variously arranged upon the floral axis, we have a number of different kinds of Inflorescences. When a particular arrangement is applied a particular name is applied. These modifications are always the same for each species, but frequently occur in several genera of seven natural orders, and hence their discriminaion is of great practical importance. All the regular kinds of Inflorescences are derived from one common type, the general characters upon which they depend being understood, their several members become immediately intelligible. There are two kinds called Indefinite or Determinate Inflorescence. The former is also now called Vegetative Inflorescence, and the latter Vegetative Inflorescence. In the former, the primary floral axis is terminated 6 194 INDEFINITE INFLORESCENCE. by a growing point, analogous to the terminal leaf-bud of a stem or a branch, but differing from it in that the axis continues to grow in an upward direction, or of dilating more or less horizontally, in the same manner as the terminal leaf-bud of a stem or branch has grown, and thus to continue its growth until it attains its length. There is consequently no necessary limit to the growth of such an axis, and hence it may be indefinitely long. The Definite axis which is applied to it. Such an axis as it continues to grow upwards develops on its sides other flower-buds, from which flowers are produced. This is called the indefinite inflorescence, and must be necessarily auxiliary, and hence this inflorescence is also termed auxiliary. The general characters of Indefinite, In- definite, or Auxiliary Inflorescence differ from the indefinite growth of the primary axis; while the secondary, tertiary, etc., axes are all of the same nature as those of I., are terminated by flower-buds. In the Definite or Intermittent Inflorescence, on the contrary, the primary axis is terminated at an early period of its growth by a bud or flower-bud. This has therefore a limit at once put to its growth in an upward direction, and hence it is called definite. The term Auxiliary is applied to it. Each of these classes of inflorescence presents us with several modifications, which we now proceed to describe. I. INDEFINITE INFLORESCENCE. The simplest kind of inflorescence in this class is that presented by such plants as the following: Fig. 407. ![Image](image)
Fig. 407. Water-moss (Eriocaulon aquaticum) showing flowers arranged in whorls round the stem.
The ovule first appears on the placenta as a little roundish cellular projection, which gradually enlarges and ultimately acquires a mass or less oval or oblong form, according to its size and position on the placenta (fig. 727).
This nucleus is at first perfectly uniform in texture and form; but as development proceeds it becomes like the ordinary parenchymatous cells of which it is composed, and has no integument; but as development proceeds a special cavity is formed within which is contained that part of the embryo or future plant which is developed; hence this cavity is called a cavity or cavity chamber (fig. 728). In some cases two or three embryos are formed. This sac is produced by the special development of one of the cells lying near the centre of the mature ovule. The young embryo grows by means of processes upon the surrounding parenchymatous cells, and thus occasions them to become somewhat flattened. These processes sometimes cause the almost entire absorption of the nucleus, and even projects beyond it, either through the opening in its case after- wards (fig. 728) or by breaking out through its sides (fig. 729), or through its sides in various directions, by which one or more
320 FORMATION AND STRUCTURE OF THE OVULE. saccate processes are formed. More usually, however, the tissues of the ovule are entirely cellular, and the layers of cells is left coating, as it were, the embryo-sac. The sac contains at first an abundance of semifund protoplasmic matter, in which large numbers of nuclei are found, and from which oval large nucleated cells are formed, which have been termed the germinal vesicles. These cells are the precursors of the cells con- tained of the structure of these germinal vesicles. Thus, by some they are regarded simply as masses of protoplasm in the midst of which are scattered numerous nuclei. The protoplas- m and nucleus are surrounded by a cell-wall formed of cellulose, as in the case of the pollen-grain. (Fig. 728.) Reproduction of Anisogamie. Less frequently one or three of these cells make their appearance. Sometimes the germinal vesicles are so numerous that they form a layer on the wall of the embryo-sac by the narrower end, and projecting by their free rounded extremity into the cavity of the sac. Fig. 727. Fig. 728. Fig. 729. Fig. 730. Fig. 727. Origin of the Blastula (Tunier's scheme), consisting of a naked en- dosperm and an embryo-sac. The outer coat vertically shows the embryo- sac, in which is seen a single nucleus, while the inner coat shows two nuclei, one protruding end of the nucleus, a second overlying it, and a third below. Fig. 728. The formation of the embryo-sac in the Walnut (Juglans regia). a. Endosperm; b. Embryo-sac; c. Embryo-sac with two nuclei; d. Embryo-sac with three nuclei; e. Embryo-sac with four nuclei; f. Embryo-sac with five nuclei; g. Endosperm; h. Embryo-sac; i. Embryo-sac with six nuclei; j. Endosperm; k. Embryo-sac; l. Endosperm; m. Protruding end of nucleus. Some ovules, as those of the Mustard (fig. 728), consist simply of the nucleus, u, and embryo-sac, s, as above described, in which case the endosperm becomes enclosed in one or two coats. Thus, in the Walnut there is but one coat, which appears at first as a little convexity on the surface of the ovule, and grows larger in size, and by growing upwards ultimately forms a sheath or cellular cover around the embryo-sac (fig. 729). In other cases at the apex where a small opening may be always observed (fig. 729, end). The coat thus formed, where there is but one, is called the outer coat; where there are two coats it is called an inner coat. The inner coat is then termed the micropyle or foramen. Besides the Walnut, there is only one genus in this family, viz., the Composite, Campanula, Lycium, etc., and some other orders. In most plants, however, the ovule has two coats, in which FORMATION AND STRUCTURE OF THE OVULE. 321 case we observe two circular or annular processes around the base of the nucleus, the inner one being first developed; these processes are generally situated at the periphery of the ovule, until they ultimately form two sheaths or coats, which entirely enfold the nucleus except at its apex (fig. 790). The inner coat is usually placed on the outer side of the outer coat, but latter ultimately reaches and encloses it. The inner coat is usually imbedded in the outer coat, and is separated from other botanists, following the order of development of the coats, term the inner coat the prime, and the outer the secondary, thus presenting a double layer of coats, which are in general united left at the apex of the ovule, as in the former instance where only one coat is formed (fig. 789), or in a single layer (fig. 790). The openings in the coats commonly correspond to each other, but it is sometimes found convenient to distinguish them by different names, as in fig. 790, where we have the *endocotyledon* (fig. 790, e), that of the inner, *endodote*, end. The *endodote* is a cavity which is generally connected at one point by a collars-like vascular cord or layer, called the *chalaz* (fig. 791, ch. and 792, ch.), but at the other parts of the ovule it is closed off by a thin membrane, which is termed the *endospermum* (fig. 791, es.), where the vesicle pass from the placenta, or when the ovule is stalked from the receptacle. This membrane is generally of a yellowish tenuity to it; it is generally indicated by being coloured, and of a denser texture than the tissue by which it is surrounded. The *endodote* is surrounded by a layer of cells of the ovule, and the micropyle is the organic apex ; but it is better to call this layer *micropyle* (fig. 791, m.p.), and to call the chalaz as the base of the micropyle. Through this micropyle the influence of the pollen is conveyed to the embryo-sac, so will be that of other substances. The development and structure of the ovule as described above refer to those plants belonging to any one of the Gymnosperms; and mention some very striking differences, which will be described hereafter when speaking of their reproduction. In many plants such as *Cycas*, *Ginkgo*, &c., no *ovule*.—When an ovule is first developed, the point of union of its coats and mesophyll is termed its *apex* or *hump* ; in which case a straight line would pass from the micropyle through the axis of this hump to its base. In other cases, however, such rela- tion of parts is preserved throughout its development, as in the Polygonoaceae (fig. 791), while the ovule is termed *embryophorous* or *embryophorus*. In such cases, therefore, it would be situated at its geometrical apex, or at the end furthest away from it; and consequently its apex would correspond with the geometrical apex ; while the chalaz, ch., would be placed at the base of the ovule of hump. It generally happens, however, that the ovule, instead of 322 RELATIONS OF BILUM, CHALAZA, AND MICROPLE. being straight as in the above instance, becomes more or less curved, or even altogether inverted. Thus in the Wallflower (fig. 785), the ovule is bent towards the base of the funiculus, as well as in the Caryophyllaceae and many other plants, the apex of the ovule being gradually turned downwards to its base, and is ultimately brought close to it, so that the whole ovule is bent Fig. 781. Fig. 782. Fig. 783. Vertical section of the orthotropous ovule of Polygonum-A. - Utricularia, Fig. 784. Orthotropous ovule of a Saururaceae, a Solanaceae, and a Cruciferae. Fig. 785. Orthotropous ovule of Wallflower-J. Ficifoliae.-oh. Chlamys- n. Ptilota. upon itself, and is drawn from the micropyle, mic., through the axis of the nucleus, $n$, and its costa, would describe a curve; hence such ovules are called campyloptorous or curved. In these ovules, the micropyle is at one side of the equator, as in campyloptorous ones, but the micropyle, mic., instead of being at the geometrical apex of the ovule, is brought down close to the hilum or base. Fig. 786. Fig. 783. The campyloptorous ovule of the Malva in the different stages of development. The curvature of the micropyle is more evident, as it still remains visible, and is at its completion. - Funtal.-Eucalyptus. The progressive development of the campyloptorous ovule is well seen in this Malva, as represented in fig. 785, $a$, $b$, $c$, $d$. This kind of ovule appears to be formed by one side developing more extensively than the other, by which the micropyle is pushed round to the base. In a third class of ovules the relative position of parts is exactly the reverse of that of orthotropous ones-hence such **ANATROPOUS AND AMPHITROPOUS OVULES.** are called *anatropous* or *inserted* ovules. This arises from an extensive development of the costa of the ovule on one side, by which the hilum is turned towards the base of the ovule, $a$, to the geometrical apex of the ovule; the micropyle, $f$, being at the same time turned towards the hilum, $A$. In anatropous ovules a vascular cord or rod passes from the micropyle, $f$, through the hilum by means of a vascular cord or ridge called the raphe (fig. 734), and this cord is connected with a long, elongated funiculus adherent to the ovule. This raphe or cord of nutritive vessels passing from the placenta or funiculus, and which is connected with the funiculus, is termed the *funicular raphe*. In anatropous ovules on the side which is turned towards the placenta, $b$, the funiculus and funiculiferous vessel are very short; an example may be found in the Dandelion (fig. 734), Apple, and Chestnut. Fig. 734. Fig. 735. Fig. 736. Fig. 734. Vertical section of the anatropous ovule of the Dandelion. A, Hilum; $a$, costa; $b$, ventral side; $c$, dorsal side; $d$, funiculus; $e$, funiculiferous vessel; $f$, micropyle. ch. Charles, r. Kneib. Fig. 735. Longitudinal section of the weakly spirally twisted anatropous ovule of *Cynara scolymus*. $a$, Hilum; $b$, costa; $c$, ventral side; $d$, funiculus; $e$, funiculiferous vessel; $f$, micropyle. ch. Charles, r. Kneib. Fig. 736. Longitudinal section of the anatropous ovule of *Cynara scolymus*. $a$, Hilum; $b$, costa; $c$, ventral side; $d$, funiculus; $e$, funiculiferous vessel; $f$, micropyle. The three kinds of ovule mentioned above are those only which are commonly distinguished by special names; but there are other kinds of ovules which are intermediate between the anatropous ovule, to which the names of amphitropous and amphitrope are applied, and the anatropous ovule, to which the name of amphitrope is also applied. The amphitrope or transverse ovule, is produced when the hilum, $f$, is on one side of the ovule, and the micropyle, $f$, is on the opposite side (figs. 735 and 736). In this case the hilum is connected to the chalaza by a short funiculus, and in consequence of this connexion, the posi- tion of the parts is the same (fig. 735), but the funiculus, $f$, is here parallel to the ovule, instead of being at right angles to it. The further development of the ovule will be described here- after under the head of Reproduction of Phanerogamous Plants. v 2 324 NATURE AND GENERAL CHARACTERS OF THE SEED. 2. THE SEED. NATURE AND GENERAL CHARACTERS OF THE SEED AS COM- PARED WITH THE OVULE. The seed is the fertilized ovule. Like the ovule, it is either attached directly to the placenta, in which case it is described as sessile, or by means of a stalk, and then is said to be pedicelled. See figs. 605, f., and 737, f., when it is said to be stalked; its point of attachment being called the hilum. The position of this hilum may be commonly seen on seeds which have separated from the placenta, and on those which have been removed from one another by the action of water. In some seeds the hilum varies much in size, being sometimes very minute, while in other cases it extends for a considerable distance from the placenta, as in the segments, etc. In the hypocotyl and cotyledons, through which the nourishing vessels pass, has been called the phanoderm. The seeds of many plants are covered with a thin film of water, which prevents them from drying up. This film is called the seed coat or testa. It is formed by the cells of the seed, while the axis is represented by the embryo. The testa (fig. 181) is generally more evident in the seed than in the ovule, and is found in all seeds except the pine cones, but in these the plume-like radial sections of the testa are so closely arranged that they appear as a single layer. The raphe may be generally noticed forming a projection on the face of the seed. The micropyle also, although smaller and less distinct than in the ovule, owing to a contraction of the surrounding part, may be seen as a small opening at the base of the pro- jection of some practical importance, as the radicle, r., of the embryo, with a few exceptions, is directed towards it. It should be observed that in all seeds where there is an organic apex of the ovule, the chalazae indicates that of the seed. The terms orthotropous, campylotropous, etc., are applied to seeds according to their mode of rotation; consequently the hilum, chalaza, and micropyle have the same relations to each other as do the corresponding parts in the ovule. The chalazae are contiguous to each other in an orthotropous seed; and the micropyle is removed to the opposite end; i.e., in a campylotropous seed they are contiguous to each other, and the micropyle is brought round so as to approach the hilum; in an amphitropous seed they are contiguous to each other, and placed at the opposite end, while the micropyle ad Fig. 181. The seed of a Tulip plant (Lilium). The events connected on one side of this figure are shown in fig. 182. 181 FORM AND STRUCTURE OF THE SEED. 515 hilm correspond to each other; while in amphitropous and semi-ampitropous plants, the chalazus and micropyle are both re- spective to the same pole. Almost all seeds, like ovules, are more or less enclosed in an ovary, which is termed the pericarp. The seeds of the pericar- pous plant, as already referred to (page 317) under the head of the OVULE; and hence the division of Pericarpous plants, as also that of Amphitropous and Semi-ampitropous plants. The means of distinguishing small fruits from seeds have been already explained on page 308. In describing the position of the seed in the ovary, the same terms are used as already mentioned (page 318) under the head of the OVULE; viz., in the centre, in the cavity, in the cavity en- closed, encased, encasing, &c. The number of seeds contained in the fruit is denoted by the term seedling; but when different terms are employed accordingly; thus we say the fruit or portion is monospermous, biserious, fruticose, quadrisperous, quin- isperous, &c. The number of seeds in one fruit is denoted by three, seeded, four-seeded, five-seeded, many-seeded, &c. In describing the form of seeds, similar terms are used in forming and, in describing these variations, similar terms are employed to those used in like modifications of the other organs of the plant. Thus we say a seed is oblong, ovoid, ellipsoid (Fig. 200), & c., as in Polypodium (fig. 748); oval, as in Aspidium (fig. 744); oblong, as in Deinocarpus (fig. 741); reniform, as in Papaver (fig. 750), &c. Fig. 736. Remanded seed of the Water-mint (Nepeta officinalis). The seed is oblong-ellipsoid; with a short hilum or pit at one end. Fig. 737. Remanded seed of the Poppy (Papaver) with an alate or pointed stellum. Petal-ten flowers open and close at night. Fig. 738. Remanded seed of the Hellebore (Helleborus). Fig. 739. Seed of Chickweed (Stellaria), the base of which is truncate. Having now alluded to those characters, &c., which the seed possesses in common with the ovule, we pass to the considera- tions of its individual structure. STRUCTURE OF THE SEED.—The seed consists essentially of two parts; namely, of a Nucellus or Kernel (figs. 30, 38), and, of a Seed-coat or Pericarp (figs. 30, 38). 1. THE NUCELLUS.—There are usually two seed-coats or segments. These have been variously named by botanists; the terms employed in this volume, and those most frequently 226 INTEGUMENTS OF THE SEED.—TEXT. used, are testa or epipari for the outer coat; *testae* or *epi- plastae* for the inner coat; and *endosperma* for the whole mass of collectively. But some writers use the word testa in a gene- ral sense for the two integuments, and call the external one epipari, and the internal endosperma. The term *testa* is a leg- ment under the name of *ascendens*, but this layer is commonly and more accurately considered as but a portion of the outer integument, which is usually termed *testa*. A. Testa, epipari, or outer integument (fig. 737, e).—This integument is generally composed of cells, and is often very evi- dent, or is, as more frequently the case, by the combined prin- ciple and mechanism of the plant. The testa is generally composed of cer- tain parenchymatous cells, which are often arranged in a certain order. Accordingly, we have in addition a coating of hair-like cells combining with the outer integument to form a kind of sheath closely to the surface of the seed by a layer of mucilage; hence if such seeds be moistened with water, the mucilage will continue to exude from them until they become free, and then branch out in every direction. It frequently happens, also, that the outer integument is so thin that it may be seen through three or four times before they contain them becoming uncoiled, extend to a considerable distance from the testa. The seeds of Colomee (see page 45), and those of the *Caryophyllaceae*, exhibit this curious structure, and form beautiful microscopical objects. Colomee (fig. 738) has a testa which is generally smooth and white; it is more generally of a brown or some other similar hue, as in the Almond, but it frequently assumes other colours; thus, in some Species it is yellowish-brown, in others black; in the *Caryophyllus* and Pecory also somewhat black; in the Arnottia and Barrecaea (*Lavandula*) it is white; in the *Caryophyllus* it is yellowish-brown; in the *Cassia* Oil plant beautifully motiled, and various other tints may be observed in the seeds of different plants. The testa may be either hard or soft, either of a soft nature, or fealy and succulent, or more or less opaque or membranous, or sometimes transparent. In general, when it is hard and con- tained, it assumes various degrees of hardness, and may be wax, woody, crustaceous, etc. The surface of the testa also presents various appearances, and is often furnished with different appendages. Thus it may be smooth as in *Adonis*, *Lilium*, *Lupinus*, &c., or striated, as in *Tulipa*, marked with ridges and furrows, as in *Daphne* (see fig. 740) ; netted, as in *Neoturritis* (fig. 738); striolate, as in *Chickweed* (fig. 741); aspiny, as in the Mulberry, &c. The teats of some species are covered with scales or scales; and any either cover the entire surface, as in various species of *Campanula* where they constitute the material of so much value called Cat- ton (see page 109), or they may be confined to certain points of the surface, as in the *Wilde* GENERAL CHARACTERS OF THE TESTA. 327 (See p. 760.) Anoplese (fig. 744), Aconyomum, and Eupodium (figs. 745, 746) are the only three kinds of hairs thus confined to certain points of the testa, constitute what is called a corona, and the seed is said to be corona. Figs. 743, 744, 745, 746. Figs. 743. Seed of a species of Physalis, with a perigynous corona. Fig. 744. Magnified or increased view of the corona of Physalis. Fig. 745. Seed of a species of Eupodium. Fig. 746. Coronal seed of a species of Physalis. Other seeds, again, have winged appendages of various kinds ; thus, in the Samurtæ (fig. 743), the testa is prolonged, so as to form a kind of wing-like appendage on each side, which is termed as meropodae or borderæ ; while in the seeds of the Physalis (figs. 743, 745, Catalpa, Bignonia, Sericoma, Morusæ, etc., the testa forms wings upon the sides of the seed ; but these wings are not true seeds must be carefully distinguished from samaroid fruits, such as the date palm (fig. 747), because they are not produced by an expansion of the pericarp instead of the testa. In like manner, bairy seeds should not be confounded with pappose fruits, such as those of the fig (fig. 748), because in both cases the testa is scarcely visible (see fig. 749), where the hairy expansions belong to the calyx. Bearing in mind that the testa may be either homopalous or anterior-antipodal (see figs. 752, 753), we shall now consider of these termed homopalous, and semi-antratous (see figs. 752, 753, 754, and 756), the raphe or vascular cord connecting the hilum with the base of the seed is usually more or less conspicuously indented by a projecting ridge on the surface of the seed, as in the Oryzae (fig. 755). This ridge is often very prominent in the substance of the testa, so that the surface of the seed is smooth, and no evidence is afforded externally of its position. The testa may also be marked by a transverse line indi- cating the hilum or point by which it is attached to the funu- culus (see figs. 752, 753); this line is sometimes seen in Physalis, but may also sometimes be seen on the surface of the testa, as in the Faa (fig. 787, m), but in those cases where no microscope can be obtained it will be necessary to examine the seed under a magni- fication, when it will be indicated by the termination of the radicle ; Fig. 748. Fig. 748. Seed of a fig-tree, showing hairy appendages on each side of the seed. Fig. 749. Fig. 749. The same seed viewed from below. Fig. 750. Fig. 750. The same seed viewed from above. Fig. 751. Fig. 751. The same seed viewed from below. Fig. 752. Fig. 752. Testa of a species of Oryzae. Fig. 753. Fig. 753. Testa of a species of Oryzae. Fig. 754. Fig. 754. Testa of a species of Oryzae. Fig. 755. Fig. 755. Testa of a species of Oryzae. Fig. 756. Fig. 756. Testa of a species of Oryzae. Fig. 757. Fig. 757. Testa of a species of Oryzae. Fig. 758. Fig. 758. Testa of a species of Oryzae. Fig. 759. Fig. 759. Testa of a species of Oryzae. Fig. 760. Fig. 760. Testa of a species of Oryzae. Fig. 761. Fig. 761. Testa of a species of Oryzae. Fig. 762. Fig. 762. Testa of a species of Oryzae. Fig. 763. Fig. 763. Testa of a species of Oryzae. Fig. 764. Fig. 764. Testa of a species of Oryzae. Fig. 765. Fig. 765. Testa of a species of Oryzae. Fig. 766. Fig. 766. Testa of a species of Oryzae. Fig. 767. Fig. 767. Testa of a species of Oryzae. Fig. 768. Fig. 768. Testa of a species of Oryzae. Fig. 769. Fig. 769. Testa of a species of Oryzae. Fig. 770. Fig. 770. Testa of a species of Oryzae. Fig. 771. Fig. 771. Testa of a species of Oryzae. Fig. 772. Fig. 772. Testa of a species of Oryzae. Fig. 773. Fig. 773. Testa of a species of Oryzae. Fig. 780. Fig. 780. Testa of a species of Oryzae. Fig. 801. Fig.-801-802.-Testas-of-a-species-of-Oryzae-showing-the-hilum-and-raphe, and finally by an indentation at one side or end (figs. 801-802). 328 TIGMEN OR ENDOPLERUEL. this being directed, as already alluded to (see p. 304), towards the microspore. In the mature embryo-sac, the situation of the en- croppyle is marked by a small hardened point, which sep- arates rates like a little lid at the period of germination. The en- croppyle is called the endopleurue. Fig. 761. Fig. 761. Young are- nule, showing the two layers of the endopleurue, A and B. A (epispore) cut away, to show the two layers of the endopleurue, N and T. B, the base of the microspore. On removing the tes- ta, a very thin membrane, which frequently manifests itself over the whole surface where it terminates, it constitutes the chalazal membrane (see fig. 762). The structure and gene- ral appearance of these membranes have been already described. (See p. 305.) Pb. Tigmens, endopleurae, or internal membranes (figs. 761, 762). These are membrane-like structures, paranchymatous in nature, and usually consist of cells coalescing (page 309) the embryo-sac, as is usually the case; or of the latter combined with the sac itself ; or, in some instances, it appears to be a single cell. Sometimes this testa seems at times to be altogether wanting, which probably arises from the fact that it is not always present in all cases. Sometimes the embryo-sac in the ripe seed remains distinct from the albumen of the nucleus (fig. 701), and remains in the form of a small vesicle, which is found in the Nyssophyllum, Piperaceae, and Zingiberaceae. To this distinct membrae or coat of the seed is essentially due. The endopleura is generally of a soft and delicate nature, al- though sometimes it is of a fibrous character either entirely or in part. It is often wanting in some species, but its presence is tem- portary. This layer is closely applied to the nucleus of the seed, which it secures to itself by means of its protoplasmic filaments, and in some cases even dips down into the albumen of the nucleus, and thus divides it more or less completely into a number of parts; as in the Nyssophyllum (fig. 701), and in some other plants (see figs. 702). The tests may either accompany the endopleurae in its windings; or, as more frequently happens, they may be separated from them by a space which allows the windings of the nucleus to pass through it; or they may follow the windings of the nucleus, the tests remaining in an almost even condition. Arilus. In many seeds there are found within them arils or arilles; those that are usually found in all seeds, we occasionally find on the surface of some seeds an additional investment, which is generally termed an aril; but this term has been given to seeds which do not contain any aril. 328 **ARILLUS AND ARILLIDE**, CARUNCULE. 219 present in the ovule till after the process of fertilization has taken place, and which are found in the seeds of Helleborus and Planchon, which have been respectively called the *true arillus*, and the false arillus or *arillide*. These have an entirely different origin from that of the true aril, being formed in a similar manner to the coat of the ovule already described (page 200), but they are made its first appearance at the time when the hilum in the form of an angle is detached from the placenta, and gradually proceed upwards, so as to produce a scarlet covering to the testa, which is commonly known as the outside of the tests. This arillus is well seen in the *Nymphaeae* (fig. 746, a, b). But the false arillus or *arillide* arises from the mesophyll of the seed-coat, and is either attached to or contained in the exostome, which gradually extends itself over the tests to which it is connected by a slender stalk. The arillide is then driven back again so as to enclose the microspore. The gradual development of the arillide in the seed of the Spindle-tree is well shown in fig. 747. In this figure, the arillide forms a Fig. 747. Fig. 747. Progressive development of the arillide in the seed of the Spindl- tree (Daphne). Arillus = Fruiting. I represents the youngest and II the fully developed seed. scarlet covering to the tests, which is commonly known in com- mon botany as "the aril." According to Miiller, the arillide is pro- duced from the funiculum and not from the exostome, in which case it would be termed a *false aril*. This view was formerly con- siderably described. In practical botany both the true aril and arillide are generally considered as belonging to one and the same arti- l. Carunculae or Spermodia.--These are small irregular protu- berances which are found on various parts of the tests. They are known as "carunculae" because they are produced consequent to fertilization, and are accordingly not found in the ovule. In the Millefiorae (fig. 748) they are found on the outer surface of the seed; in the Amaryllidaceae (fig. 749) on Valve and on the side of a line with a raphis; while in the Spurge they are placed at the angles between two lines, and are sometimes regarded as forms of the arti., of which they then distinguish four varieties, 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 This content is protected by copyright laws and may not be reproduced without permission. **230 VARIETIES OF THE ARIL—THE NUCLEUS.** namely—1. The true arilus, as in Nypropha (figs. 746, a, b); 2. The arilus as in Aesculus (fig. 747); 3. The raphus arilus, as in Acerum (fig. 749); and 4. The chalazal arilus, as in Epilobium (fig. 750), where the tuft of Fig. 748. Fig. 749. Fig. 750. Fig. 748. Cross-section of Milkwort (Polygala) with a caruncle at its base or summit (fig. 748). The two parts of the aril are shown on the left, so that the whole is called to seem a regular arilus. Fig. 749. Section of the aril of Acerum (fig. 749). The two parts of the aril are shown on the left, so that the whole is called to seem a regular arilus. hair-like appendages are regarded as an aril. Other writers again partially adopt these views, and define the caruncles as little protuberances crowning upon the seed, but origi- nating in the integumentary tissue of the ovule, which is called the caruncle of Milkwort and Spruce, alluded to above, would be regarded as a part of the integumentary tissue of the ovule, which is called the caruncle of Milkwort and Spruce, alluded to above, would be regarded as a part of the integumentary tissue of the ovule, which is called the caruncle of Milkwort and Spruce, alluded to above, would be regarded as a part of the integumentary tissue of the ovule, which is called the caruncle of Milkwort and Spruce, alluded to above, would be regarded as a part of the integumentary tissue of the ovule, which is called the caruncle of Milkwort and Spruce, alluded to above, would be regarded as a part of the integumentary tissue of the ovule, which is called the caruncle of Milkwort and Spruce, alluded to above, would be regarded as a part of the integumentary tissue of the ovule, which is called the caruncle of Milkwort and Spruce, alluded to above, would be regarded as a part of the integumentary tissue of the ovule, which is called the caruncle of Milkwort and Spruce, alluded to above, would be regarded as a part of the integumentary tissue of the ovule, which is called the caruncle of Milkwort and Spruce, alluded to above, would be regarded as a part of the integumentary tissue of the ovule, which is called the caruncle of Milkwort and Spruce, alluded to above, would be regarded as a part of the integumentary tissue of the ovule, which is called the caruncle of Milkwort and Spruce, alluded to above, would be regarded as a part of the integumentary tissue of the ovule, which is called the caruncle of Milkwort and Spruce, alluded to above, would be regarded as a part of the integumentary tissue of the ovule, which is called the caruncle of Milkwort and Spruce, alluded to above, would be regarded as a part of the integumentary tissue of the ovule, which is called the caruncle of Milkwort and Spruce, alluded to above, would be regarded as a part of the integumentary tissue of the ovule, which is called the caruncle of Milkwort and Spruce, alluded to above, would be regarded as a part of the integumentary tissue of the ovule, which is called the caruncle of Milkwort and Spruce, alluded to above, would be regarded as a part of the integumentary tissue of the ovule, which is called the caruncle of Milkwort and Spruce, alluded to above, would be regarded as a part of the integumentary tissue of the ovule, which is called the caruncle of Milkwort and Spruce, alluded to above, would be regarded as a part of the integumentary tissue of the ovule, which is called the caruncle of Milkwort and Spruce, alluded to above, would be regarded as a part of the integumentary tissue of the ovule, which is called the caruncle of Milkwort and Spruce, alluded to above, would be regarded as a part of the integumentary tissue of the ovule, which is called the caruncle of Milkwort and Spruce, alluded to above, would be regarded as a part of the integumentary tissue of the ovule, which is called the caruncle of Milkwort and Spruce, alluded to above, hair-like appendages are regarded as an aril. Other writers again partially adopt these views, and define the caruncles as little protuberances crowning upon the seed, but origi- nating in the integumentary tissue of the ovule; which is called the caruncle of Milkwort and Spruce, alluded to above, would be regarded as a part of the integumentary tissue of the ovule; which is called the caruncle of Milkwort and Spruce, alluded to above, would be regarded as a part of the integumentary tissue of the ovule; which is called the caruncle of Milkwort and Spruce, alluded to above, would be regarded as a part of the integumentary tissue of the ovule; which is called The nucleus or kernel (figs. 358; 359; 360; 361; and 362). The nucleus or kernel (figs. 358; 359; 360; 361; and 362). The nucleus or kernel (figs. 358; 359; 360; 361; and 362). The nucleus or kernel (figs. 358; 359; 360; 361; and 362). The nucleus or kernel (figs. 358; 359; 360; 361; and 362). The nucleus or kernel (figs. 358; 359; 360; 361; and 362). The nucleus or kernel (figs. 358; 359; 360; 361; and 362). The nucleus or kernel (figs. 358; 359; 360; 361; and 362). The nucleus or kernel (figs. 358; 359; 360; 361; and 362). The nucleus or kernel (figs. 358; 359; 360; 361; and 362). The nucleus or kernel (figs. 358; 359; 360; 361; and 362). The nucleus or kernel (figs. 358; 359; 360; 361; and 362). The nucleus or kernel (figs. 358; 359; 360; 361; and 362). The nucleus or kernel (figs. 358; 359; 360; GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE NUCLEUS.—ALBUMEN, 321 embryo which is subsequently developed in the sac, are usually termed endosperm cells. The cells existing outside the embryo, and forming the albumen, are also nutritive material, forming what has been called the "nucleus" of the egg. The embryo, by absorbing the nourishment by which it is surrounded, begins to enlarge, and thus becomes separated from the other cells by which it is enclosed, and thus causes itself to be surrounded by a membrane, according to the size to which it ultimately attains. In some cases, the embryo continues to develop until it is surrounded by a membrane, not only of the parenchymatous tissue within the embryo, but also of that of the nucleus, and in this case the whole interior of the sac, and is coated directly with albumen. In such cases, the embryo does not develop to any such degree of enlargement as to be completely en- trenched in a mass of parenchymatous tissue of varying thickness which may be derived from the albumen. In other cases, however, the nucleus and embryo are according to the extent to which the embryo has developed. To this extent they remain undivided. In such cases, according to the name of albumen has been commonly applied ; but in the nature of this substance is not always so well defined as in the case of vegetable albumen, it is better designated as the pericarp or endosperm according to its origin as described above. Both these conditions may be seen in the Nymphae (figs. 746 and 751). The general name of albumen will be alone employed hereafter. It is a very complex sub- stance, and so long as we recollect its origin and nature, the absorption of such a name will lead to no error. From the above it appears that the nucleus of the embryo may either coat all of the embryo alone, as in the Wall- flower (fig. 748), or may be partially separated from it; or of the embryo enclosed in albumen, as in the Poppy (fig. 765), Farnia (fig. 764, a), Out (fig. 698, b), and Symphore (fig. 760). In all these cases, albumen is one of the constituents of the nucleus, namely, the albumen and the embryo. (Albumen) The albumen is that part of the sac which have the embryo surrounded by albumen are said to be albu- menous; while those in which it is absent are eumembranous. The amount of albumen varies greatly among plants; it is necessarily in inverse proportion to the size of the embryo. The contents of the albumen contain various substances such as starch, and oily matters, either separate or combined, and they Fig. 751. Vertical section through a pea seedling (the same as fig. 750), showing that both embryo and nucleus are imbedded in the re- duced endosperm or sti- cum. The outer layer of sti- cum is shown on the left side of figure. 321 332 KINDS OF ALBUMEN. thus act as reservoirs of nutriment for the use of the embryo during the process of germination. The varying contents of the cells, together with their different appearances, depend on their walls, cause the albumen to assume different appearances in ripe seeds, and consequently to differ in its nutritive qualities according to different seeds. Thus, the albumen is described as mealy, starchy, or fibrous, when its cells are filled with starch-granules, or with fibres, or both; and as oily, when it is flaky, as in the Barberry and Heeswitz, when its walls are not calcified, but are composed of a thin film of oil; as in the Poppy and Cocoa-nut, it is oily; or when the cells are soft, and chiefly formed of mucilage, as in the Mallotus, it is mucilaginous; and when it is hard and compact, as in the Cucurbita and the Persimmon, so that they become of a horny consistence, as in the seeds of the Vesper and the Safflower. In all these cases the albumen is described as horny. These different kinds of albumen are frequently more or less modified in different seeds by the admixture of one with another. Generally speaking, the albumen also presents a uniform appearance throughout the whole seed; but in some seeds it is more or less separated into distinct compartments by the folding inwards of the endosperm as already described (see p. 705). This separation of the albumen is said to be ruminate, as in the Nutmeg and Batel-nut (fig. 705, p.). Fig. 705. A cross-sectional view of a seed showing the separation of the albumen from the endosperm. Fig. 706. A vertical section of the fruit of the Betula-Palm. b. The Embryo is the rudimentary plant, and is present in all seeds. The presence of a true embryo is the essential character of the seed of flowering plants ; for a spore, as the reproductive cell of a fungus, may be regarded as a new embryo, but it merely consists of one or more cells, and never exhibits any signs of growth until it has been enveloped in the ordinary process of vegetation, and then only in certain cases. The embryo being the rudimentary plant, it is necessarily the most important part of a seed; for without it no plant can exist in an undeveloped state, all the essential parts of which a plant is ultimately derived from. It will be seen from what has been said in the first chapter, three parts in the embryo : namely, a radicle, A diagram showing three parts in an embryo: a radicle. THE EMBRYO AND ITS PARTS. 335 plumule or gemmae, and one or more cotyledons. These parts may be readily recognised in many seeds ; thus in the embryo of the Leguminous Plants (fig. 744), the plumule is seen to arise from which the root is developed ; the two expanded lobes above, $c_1$, $c_2$, are the cotyledons, and between these two lobes, the generative plant lies in the axis (fig. 744), the two flimsy lobes, $c_1$, $c_2$ are the cotyledons, between which there is situated a little mass of protoplasm, the radicle, or root, $r$, and the lower part, $r$, the radicle. These parts are still better observed when the embryo has begun to develop in the seed (fig. 745). In fig. 746, which represents the French Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), we see that the cotyledons are marked by $c_1$, $c_2$, and the plumule is seen coming out from below them. The point at which this occurs is a direct continuation of the axis from which the root arises. This point is called the point of union of the base of the plumule with the radicle and cotyledons is called the radicle-point, but at other times it forms a short stalk (figs. 747, 748). The two cotyledons in their embryo are called Decotyledonous. But there are plants in which, as shown in fig. 749, one or more cotyledons present (figs. 754, 755, and 698), and such plants are called Monocotyledonous. In rare instances, however, a mono- cotyledonous embryo has more than one cotsy- ledon, as shown in fig. 750. This is done, with the first, instead of being opposite to it, as is usual in Monocotyledonous Plants, by means of a short stalk connecting two cotyledons of Dicotyledonous Plants. By this difference thus presented in the embryos of Flowering Plants, we have been able to distinguish those plants divided into two great classes, called respectively *Monocotyledonous* and *Dicotyledonous* Flowering Plants, having no true embryo, can have no cotyledons at all, and are there- fore termed *Acotyledonous*. Hence we have primarily two great divisions of flowering plants : namely, the Monocotyledonous and the Dicotyledonous; the former being again divided into the Mono- cotyledons and the Decotyledons. The structure of the spore, or rather of its contents, which form the vegetative organs of the Acotyledons will be described hereafter; hence we have three great divisions of flowering plants : namely, Monocotyledons and Decotyledons; but before doing so we must say a few words as to the development of the embryo. Development of the Embryo.—When the process of fertilisation Fig. 734. 335 334 DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMBRYO. tion has been effected, the embryo-sac, as already noticed, becomes filled with a cellular mass, which is derived from the pro- plasm (contains see page 300), and which is destined for the support of the embryo. The embryo is thus furnished with material for its development, but, although in a great number of instances commence an active development. But in a great many cases, the formation of the embryo-sac is observed till some time after the entrance of the pollen-tube into the embryo-sac. More especially is this the case with many trees, such as the apple, pear, and plum, where several or more may shape before the changes which we are about to de- scribe take place. In these cases, however, the growth of the embryo-sac precedes that latter, growing rapidly in the direc- tion of the long diameter of the embryo-sac, becomes adherent to the wall of the ovule, and is separated from it by transverse partitions, so that a string of cells of varying length is formed. This cellular body continues to increase in size by the process of cell-division, and soon forms a little rounded or somewhat oval swelling at one end (see figs. 780, 781). This cellular body continuing its growth towards the opposite extremity of the ovule, assumes that of the embryo, of which it is the early stage; thus, the upper extremity of this cellular body becomes pointed and somewhat what forms the radicle, while the lower extremity becomes di- vided into lobes, which, by increasing in size, grow form the cotyledons. These dif- ferent stages of the development of the dicotyledonous embryos are diagrammati- cally illustrated in figs. 780, 781, p. 534. In monocotyledonous seeds (figs. 782-784) in the embryo-sac the suspensor dies away, and from the apex of the embryo-sac a radicle appears developed. The formation of the monocotyledonous embryo is essentially the same, except that the lower end remains undivided. From this fact it follows that in all dicotyledonous seeds, it must necessarily follow that the radicle is pointed towards the apex of the embryo-sac and that its upper extremity points towards the opposite extremity or cotyledon. There are some natural orders which offer an exception to the above rule. In some species belonging to Orchidaceae, Orchidaceae, and Balsamorhizaeae, the radicle and cotyledons are never separated from each other until after the embryo appears to be arrested at one of the early stages of its develop- ment. It sometimes happens that more than one embryo is developed in a seed. This is very commonly the case in the Orange and Fig. 785. Diagrams showing the progressive develop- ment of a dicotyledonous embryo. (After Hutton.) 1. Spermatozoid. 2. Spermatozoa's stem or stigma. 3. Ovule. 4. Embryo-sac. 5. Radicle. 6. Cotyledons. 7. Apex of embryo-sac. 8. Apex of radicle. 9. Apex of cotyledon. 10. Apex of ovule. Fig. 786. Diagrams showing the progressive development of a monocotyledonous embryo (after Hutton). 1. Spermatozoid. 2. Spermatozoa's stem or stigma. 3. Ovule. 4. Embryo-sac. 5. Radicle. 6. Cotyledons. 7. Apex of embryo-sac. 8. Apex of radicle. 9. Apex of cotyledon. 10. Apex of ovule. Fig. 787. Diagrams showing the progressive development of a dicotyledonous embryo (after Hutton). 1. Spermatozoid. 2. Spermatozoa's stem or stigma. 3. Ovule. 4. Embryo-sac. 5. Radicle. 6. Cotyledons. 7. Apex of embryo-sac. 8. Apex of radicle. 9. Apex of cotyledon. 10. Apex of ovule. Fig. 788. Diagrams showing the progressive development of a monocotyledonous embryo (after Hutton). 1. Spermatozoid. 2. Spermatozoa's stem or stigma. 3. Ovule. 4. Embryo-sac. 5. Radicle. 6. Cotyledons. 7. Apex of embryo-sac. 8. Apex of radicle. 9. Apex of cotyledon. 10. Apex of ovule. Fig. 789. Diagrams showing the progressive development of a dicotyledonous embryo (after Hutton). 1. Spermatozoid. 2. Spermatozoa's stem or stigma. 3. Ovule. 4. Embryo-sac. 5. Radicle. 6. Cotyledons. 7. Apex of embryo-sac. 8. Apex of radicle. 9. Apex of cotyledon. 10. Apex of ovule. Fig. 790. Diagrams showing the progressive development of a monocotyledonous embryo (after Hutton). 1. Spermatozoid. 2. Spermatozoa's stem or stigma. 3. Ovule. 4. Embryo-sac. 5. Radicle. 6. Cotyledons. 7. Apex of embryo-sac. 8. Apex of radicle. 9. Apex of cotyledon. 10. Apex of ovule. Fig. 791. Diagrams showing the progressive development of a dicotyledonous embryo (after Hutton). 1. Spermatozoid. 2. Spermatozoa's stem or stigma. 3. Ovule. 4. Embryo-sac. 5. Radicle. 6. Cotyledons. 7. Apex of embryo-sac. 8. Apex of radicle. 9. Apex of cotyledon. 10. Apex of ovule. Fig. 792-794 (see page 534) Diagrammatic representations showing how different types of seeds develop their embryos (after Hutton). 534 MONOCOTYLEDONOUS EMBRYO. 335 Mistletoe, and it is a constant character in Gymnospermous Plants (see REPRODUCTIVE OR GYMNOSPERMUS). Of these em- bryos, those of the Monocotyledonous Plants thus producing more than one embryo are said to be polyembry- onie. With these remarks upon the development of the embryo generally, I will now proceed to describe the Mon- cotyledonous and Dicotyledonous plants. A. Monocotyledonous Plants. The parts of the mono- cotyledonous embryo are, in general, by no means so apparent as those of the dicotyledonous. Thus the embryo at first sight appears to be a mere mass of protoplasmic material, with a di- vided body of a cylindrical or somewhat club- shaped form. (Fig. 368.) For this reason, if this be more carefully examined, a little slit, f. or chink, will be observed on one side near the base of the embryo, which is parallel to this slit, a small conical projection is seen to arise from the base of the plumeule ; and now, by making a horizontal section, the cotyledon will be noticed to be folded over the plumeule, almost entirely removed from view, only leaving a little space between them, and the margin of the cotyledon ; and which slit thus became an external indication of the pre- sence of two embryos. In some cases, the cotyledon thus rolled round the plumeule, is not completely separated from it. This is true of most Monocotyledonous plants, which thus, in a similar manner, enlose the young growing parts of their stem. In other monocotyledonous embryos the different parts are more clearly defined. In many Grasses, for instance, the oat (fig. 368), the cotyledon, e. only partially enloses the plumeule, but leaves its margin free. These parts may be readily observed in a hollow space on its surface (fig. 369). We have already stated (p. 333) that a monocotyledonous embryo has occasionally more than one cotyledon, in which case the outermost is usually smaller than the others. These are readily distinguished from those of Dicotyledonous plants, where the cotyledons are always opposite each other if there are two, or alternate if there are three or more numerous. The anterior extremity of the radicle is usually rounded (fig. 707, r.), and it is through this point that the root, r., burst in germination (fig. 704). The radicle is usually much shorter than the cotyledon, and generally thicker and denser in its A diagram showing a vertical section of a monocotyledonous embryo. Fig. 368. Vertical section of a monocotyledonous embryo. A. A portion of a section of a grass-plant. B. A portion of a section of a fern-plant. C. Potentilla c.fusca. D. A portion of a section of a plant of Trifolium. E. A portion of a section of a plant of Trifolium c.fusca. F. A portion of a section of a plant of Trifolium c.fusca. G. A portion of a section of a plant of Trifolium c.fusca. H. A portion of a section of a plant of Trifolium c.fusca. I. A portion of a section of a plant of Trifolium c.fusca. J. A portion of a section of a plant of Trifolium c.fusca. K. A portion of a section of a plant of Trifolium c.fusca. L. A portion of a section of a plant of Trifolium c.fusca. M. A portion of a section of a plant of Trifolium c.fusca. N. A portion of a section of a plant of Trifolium c.fusca. O. A portion of a section of a plant of Trifolium c.fusca. P. A portion of a section of a plant of Trifolium c.fusca. Q. A portion of a section of a plant of Trifolium c.fusca. R. A portion of a section of a plant of Trifolium c.fusca. S. A portion of a section of a plant of Trifolium c.fusca. T. A portion of a section of a plant of Trifolium c.fusca. U. A portion of a section of a plant of Trifolium c.fusca. V. A portion of a section of a plant of Trifolium c.fusca. W. A portion of a section of a plant of Trifolium c.fusca. X. A portion of a section of a plant of Trifolium c.fusca. Y. A portion of a section of a plant of Trifolium c.fusca. Z. A portion of a section of a plant of Trifolium c.fusca. This diagram shows various sections through monocotyledonous plants, including grasses and ferns. A: Section through grass-plant B: Section through fern-plant C: Potentilla fusca D: Section through trifolium E: Section through trifolium F: Section through trifolium G: Section through trifolium H: Section through trifolium I: Section through trifolium J: Section through trifolium K: Section through trifolium L: Section through trifolium M: Section through trifolium N: Section through trifolium O: Section through trifolium P: Section through trifolium Q: Section through trifolium R: Section through trifolium S: Section through trifolium T: Section through trifolium U: Section through trifolium V: Section through trifolium W: Section through trifolium X: Section through trifolium Y: Section through trifolium Z: Section through trifolium This diagram shows various sections through monocotyledonous plants, including grasses and ferns. A: Section through grass-plant B: Section through fern-plant C: Potentilla fusca D: Section through trifolium E: Section through trifolium F: Section through trifolium G: Section through trifolium H: Section through trifolium I: Section through trifolium J: Section through trifolium K: Section through trifolium L: Section through trifolium M: Section through trifolium N: Section through trifolium O: Section through trifolium P: Section through trifolium Q: Section through trifolium R: Section through trifolium S: Section through trifolium T: Section through trifolium U: Section through trifolium V: Section through trifolium W: Section through trifolium X: Section through trifolium Y: Section through trifolium Z: Section through trifolium This diagram shows various sections through monocotyledonous plants, including grasses and ferns. A: Section through grass-plant 335 DICOTYLEDONOUS EMBRYO. nature; but in some embryos it is as long, or even longer, in which case the embryo is called monocotyledonous. (1) In the majority of cases the two cotyledons of the embryo vary very much in form; most frequently they are more or less oval, as in the Banyan (Fig. 706), and in the majority of cases consist of two nearly equal cotyledons, $e$, between which is enclosed a small axis, the upper part of which, $g$, is the phelosem, and the lower, $r$, the radicle. The two cotyledons are united at their base, which, and cotyledons, is called the conoides or nodule, $f$; this upon germination appears as a little stalk (Fig. 14, c.), supporting the nodule. In far the majority of cases the two cotyledons are nearly of equal size, as in the Foa (Fig. 14, c.), but in some embryos, **Fig. 704.** **Fig. 705.** **Fig. 706.** **Fig. 707.** The embryo of the Almond (Amygdalus communis) from which this case is taken, the nodule has been removed. $c$. The cotyledon which is seen to be united with the radicle of the other nodule. **Fig. 708.** Vertical section of the embryo of the Almond (Amygdalus communis). $a$, $b$, $c$, $d$, four cotyledons; $g$, phelosem; $r$, radicle. **Fig. 709.** Vertical section of the embryo of the Almond (Amygdalus communis). $a$, $b$, $c$, three cotyledons; $g$, phelosem; $r$, radicle. **Fig. 710.** Section through a young seedling of the Almond (Amygdalus communis). $a$, $b$, cotyledons; $g$, phelosem; $r$, radicle; $s$, root; $t$, shoot; $u$, epidermis of radicle; $v$, large nodule; $w$, radicle. **Fig. 711.** Section through a young seedling of the Almond (Amygdalus communis). Large nodule; $w$, radicle. as in Trappe, some Hirsutum, Ac. (see Fig. 708, e.), they are very unequal. In some cases (see Fig. 709), especially in those in which the greater part of the embryo (Fig. 14, c.), in other instances, as in Paeonia lutea (see Fig. 710), and in many others, such as in Cepha (see Fig. 709), again, the two cotyledons become united more or less completely into one body, so that the embryo appears to be mono- cotyledonous; but this is only a superficial appearance, for in the diffe- rent position of the plume in these two cases; thus, in the mono- cotyledonous embryo (see Fig. 709), both cotyledons lie on one side of the surface (see Fig. 668, g); but here (see Fig. 709), the plume lies in the axis of the cotyledons. The number of cotyledons sometimes altogether absent, as in Cucurbita. At other times their number is increased, and this may either occur as an irregularity (Fig., see Fig. 711), or it may be a com- mon feature (see Fig. 709), where we frequently find six, nine, 335 DICYOTLEDONOUS EMBRYO. or even fifteen cotyledons; hence such embryos have been termed polycotyledons. In some, however, that this appearance and structure may be due to the presence of two or more cotyle- dons plants, arises from the normal number becoming divided during their initial growth into segments. In all cases where the number of cotyledons is thus increased, the embryo is aborted (fig. 762, c). The cotyledons are usually thick and flabby, as those of the Bean and Almond (fig. 763), in some cases they are thin and flat, at other times they are thin and long, as in the Cucumber when they are said to be foliaceous. The loinsacous cotyledons are found in the embryo of the bean andustoma may be also some- times found in the embryo of the peanut, but these structures are rarely to be found in flabby cotyledons. For this reason it is often used purpose to the albumen, by acting as a substitute for the latter, in fertilization, for the use of the young plant during germination; hence, when the albumen is absent, the cotyledons are generally proportion- ally larger than usual. The cotyledons are commonly sessile, and their margins are usually entire. They are sometimes lobed or toothed; thus in Germanum (fig. 765, b), they are petiolate; while in the Lime (fig. 765, b, c) they are distinctly lobed; and in the Geranium (fig. 765, d) they are toothed with their margins. The cotyledons also vary in their relative positions to each other. Generally they are placed parallel, or face to face, as in the Almond (fig. 708, a), Bean (fig. 764), and Bean; but they fre- quently occur in various positions. Thus some authors speak of others analogous to those already described in speaking of the vera- ments of the radicle and hypocotyl. Thus each of the cotyledons may be either reclinate, concave, con- cave, or circular. These are the commonest conditions, and in many cases one or both may assume any one of them in the same direction, so that they appear to form but one body; or one may be reclinate and the other concave and become reclinate or concave; or either still more complicated arrange- ments may occur. The position of the radicle in relation to the cotyledon is also liable to much variation. Thus the radicle may follow the same direction as the hypocotyl, or a different one. In the former case, if the embryo be straight, the radicle will be more Fig. 762. Fig. 762. The so-called "foliaceous" cotyledons of a species of Convolvulus and Limnaea. Fig. 763. Fig. 764. Fig. 765. Fig. 765. Fig. 765. Fig. 765. Fig. 765. Fig. 765. Fig. 765. Fig. 765. Fig. 765. Fig. 765. Fig. 765. Fig. 765. Fig. 765. Fig. 765. Fig. 765. Fig. 765. Fig. 765. Fig. 765. Fig. 765. Fig. 765. Fig. 765. Fig. 765. Fig. 765. Fig. 765. Fig. 765. Fig. 765. Fig. 765. Fig. 765. Fig. 765. Fig. 765. Fig. 765. Fig. 765. Fig. 765. Fig. 765. Fig. 765. This figure shows a section through a seedling of Limnaea showing its cotyledons and hypocotyls. The cotyledons are seen on either side of the hypocotyl which is shown below them. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below the cotyledons. The hypocotyl is shown below thecotledon s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s 338 DICOTYLEDONOUS EMBRYO. or less continuous in a straight line with the cotyledons, as in the Fava (Fig. 764), and the radicle will be current also (fig. 765), and sometimes the curvature is so great that a spiral is formed, as in Ducusia (fig. 765). In the other cases, where the curvature is not so great, the radicle and radicle is different, the latter may form an acute, obtuse, or right angle bend, which is called a kink, but to such an extent as to be parallel to the cotyledons, in which case the embryo may be either applied to their margins, as in the Wallflower (fig. 766 r.), when the radicle is bent towards the back of one of them, or as in Lotus (fig. 767 r.), when the cotyledons are incumbent on the testa, and this is in reference to Cruciferous plants (cf. Cruciferae), whose are arranged according to the manner in which the different parts of the embryo are folded, and their relative position to each other. **Fig. 764.** **Fig. 765.** **Fig. 766.** **Fig. 764.** Vertical section of the seed of the Fava, a. Hilum, b. Embryo. This will be seen to differ from that of all other dicotyledons. **Fig. 765.** Vertical section of the seed of the Poppy, with th- reasure of the radicle. The radicle is bent towards one of the cotyledons. **Fig. 766.** Vertical section of the seed of Rumex, showing its spiral order. The radicle is bent towards one of the cotyledons. **Fig. 767.** Vertical section of the seed of Brassica oleracea var. Hirta. The radicle is bent towards one of the cotyledons. 1. Flower. 2. Undivided. 3. Horizontal section. 4. Radicle. 5. Cotyledon. Having now described the general characters of the mono- tyledonous and dicotyledonous embryo, we have, in the last place, to consider how they are related to each other; how they bear to one another part of the seed, and to the pericarp or cell in which it is placed. Relation between Embryo to the Other Parts of the Seed, and to the Fruit.—In the first place with regard to the albumen. It must necessarily be supposed that at some time after fertilization, the axis of the embryo will be in the inverse proportion to it; thus in Grasses (figs. 698) we have a large deposit of albumen and but a small amount of embryo; while in Leguminosae (figs. 699) we have a large embryo and very little albumen; and in both these cases it is evident that there has been a change in the relation between (figs. 698 and 699), and that this change is due to the growth of the embryo into a more or less vertical position than that in which it was originally placed; and this change is brought about by the growth of a root-like structure from its base. In those plants where there is no albumen at all, as in Monocots, such as Liliaceae (figs. 700 and 701), it appears that there has been no change whatever in this respect; for here we find that there is no difference between the embryo and its parent plant. In those plants where there is a large deposit of albumen, as in Leguminosae (figs. 702 and 703), it appears that there has been a change in this respect; for here we find that there is a difference between the embryo and its parent plant. In those plants where there is a small deposit of albumen, as in Monocots (figs. 704 and 705), it appears that there has been no change whatever in this respect; for here we find that there is no difference between the embryo and its parent plant. In those plants where there is no albumen at all, as in Monocots, such as Liliaceae (figs. 700 and 701), it appears that there has been no change whatever in this respect; for here we find that there is no difference between the embryo and its parent plant. In those plants where there is a large deposit of albumen, as in Leguminosae (figs. 702 and 703), it appears that there has been a change in this respect; for here we find that there is a difference between the embryo and its parent plant. In those plants where there is a small deposit of albumen, as in Monocots (figs. 704 and 705), it appears that there has been no change whatever in this respect; for here we find that there is no difference between the embryo and its parent plant. In those plants where there is no albumen at all, as in Monocots, such as Liliaceae (figs. 700 and 701), it appears that there has been no change whatever in this respect; for here we find that there is no difference between the embryo and its parent plant. In those plants where there is a large deposit of albumen, as in Leguminosae (figs. 702 and 703), it appears that there has been a change in this respect; for here we find that there is a difference between the embryo and its parent plant. In those plants where there is a small deposit of albumen, as in Monocots (figs. 704 and 705), it appears that there has been no change whatever in this respect; for here we find that there is no difference between the embryo and its parent plant. In those plants where there is no albumen at all, as in Monocots, such as Liliaceae (figs. 700 and 701), it appears that there has been no change whatever in this respect; for here we find that there is no difference between the embryo and its parent plant. In those plants where there is a large deposit of albumen, as in Leguminosae (figs. 702 and 703), it appears that there has been a change in this respect; for here we find that there is a difference between the embryo and its parent plant. In those plants where there is a small deposit of albumen, as in Monocots (figs. 704 and 705), it appears that there has been no change whatever in this respect; for here we find that there is no difference between the embryo and its parent plant. In those plants where there is no albumen at all, as in Monocots, such as Liliaceae (figs. 700 and 701), it appears that there has been no change whatever in this respect; for here we find that there is no difference between the embryo and its parent plant. In those plants where there is a large deposit of albumen, as in Leguminosae (figs. 702 and 703), it appears that there has been a change in this respect; for here we find that there is a difference between the embryo and its parent plant. In those plants where there is a small deposit of albumen, as in Monocots (figs. 704 and 705), it appears that there has been no change whatever in this respect; for here we find that there is no difference between the embryo and its parent plant. In those plants where there is no albumen at all, as in Monocots, such as Liliaceae (figs. 700 and 701), it appears that there has been no change whatever in this respect; for here we find that there is no difference between the embryo and its parent plant. In those plants where there is a large deposit of albumen, as in Leguminosae (figs. 702 and 703), it appears that there has been a change in this respect; for here we find that there is a difference between the embryo and its parent plant. In those plants where there is a small deposit of albumen, as in Monocots (figs. 704 and 705), it appears that there has been no change whatever in this respect; for here we find that there is no difference TARTING RELATIONS OF THE PARTS OF THE EMBRYO. 235 or it may be surrounded by the albumen on all sides, except on its radicular extremity, as in the Panthea (fig. 764, p.), when it is surrounded by the albumen only on one side, and the other three, therefore, become united to the albumen, and can no longer be distin- guished. The embryo is said to be axile or axial when it has the same direction as the axis of the seed, as in Haustrae (fig. 764, p.), or when it is placed at right angles to the axis of the seed, as in Bumus (fig. 770, p.). In the latter case, the embryo is frequently altogether on the outside of the albumen, and described as being "axile," but this term is not correct (fig. 711, p.) and Lycodis (fig. 772, ent.), when it is described as peripherical. Fig. 770. Fig. 769. Fig. 771. Fig. 772. Pp. 188. Vertical section of the anterior of the Metula, containing a single seed, a longish embryo, and a large Mesembryanthemum. Section of a longish embryo of a longish Metula, with a large Mesembryanthemum; as Petunia; see: Mesembryanthemum; see: Petunia; see: Mesembryanthemum; see: Petunia; see: Mesembryanthemum; see: Petunia; see: Mesembryanthemum; see: Petunia; see: Mesembryanthemum; see: Petunia; see: Mesembryanthemum; see: Petunia; see: Mesembryanthemum; see: Petunia; see: Mesembryanthemum; see: Petunia; see: Mesembryanthemum; see: Petunia; see: Mesembryanthemum; see: Petunia; see: Mesembryanthemum; see: Petunia; see: Mesembryanthemum; see: Petunia; see: Mesembryanthemum; see: Petunia; see: Mesembryanthemum; see: Petunia; see: Mesembryanthemum; see: Petunia; see: Mesembryanthemum; see: Petunia; see: Mesembryanthemum; see: Petunia; see: Mesembryanthemum; see: Petunia; see: Mesembryanthemum; see: Petunia; see: Mesembryanthemum; see: Petunia; see: Mesembryanthemum; see: Petunia; see: Mesembryanthemum; see: Petunia; see: Mesembryanthemum; see: Petunia; see: Mesembryanthemum; see: Petunia; see: Mesembryanthemum; see: Petunia; see: Mesembryanthemum; see: Petunia; see: Mesembryanthemum; see: Petunia; see: Mesembryanthemum; see: Petunia; see: Mesembryanthemum; see: Petunia; see: Mesembryanthemum; see: Petunia; see: Mesembryanthemum; see: Petunia; see: Mesembryanthemum; see: Petunia; see: Mesembryanthemum; see: We have already observed, that the radicle is turned towards the micropyle (fig. 770, r.), in which case it is said to be homo- cyclic, and the cotyledonary extremity to the chalaza, ch. Some species of Metula have been found to be homocyclic in the Euphorbiaceae, and a few other plants, when the radicle is de- scribed as eucyclical, but such are merely accidental devia- tions from the normal condition, and do not affect the course of the development of the parts of the seed. When we consider that the radicle and cotyledonary portion are thus seen to be generally constant, it must necessarily tappen from the varying reason which the human bears to the micropyte and chalaza, that in relation to the radicle and coty- 340 GENERAL MORPHOLOGY. Lateral portion of the embryo must also vary in like manner. Thus in an ordinary seed (fig. 770), the radicle and hilum coincide with each other, and the radicle is then turned towards the apex of the seed, and the cotyledonary portion to the opposite side. The radicle is said to be erect, or said to be antipodous or inverted (figs. 722 and 770). In an antipodous seed, the radicle is directed towards the hilum, and the chalaza, oh, at the opposite extremity, the radicle, r, will point towards the hilum or base of the seed. This is a common arrangement in many seeds. In a campylotropous seed, where the chalaza and micropyle are both near together (fig. 771), the radicle is directed towards the extremities of the embryo, which in such cases is generally peripheral, becomes also approximated, and it is said to be amphitropous. In this case, the radicle points towards one part of the embryo, by accentuating the position of the hilum, chalaza, and micropyle. We have now lately to explain the different terms which are in use to express the relations which the embryo bears to the cavity or cell in which it is contained. The following terms are used in defining the position of the seed to the same cavity (see page 325), whether it be round, oval, oblong, or irregularly shaped; whether it be anterior, posterior, or horizontal, in the same sense as previously mentioned when speaking of the ovule (page 318). The radicle is said to be anterior (fig. 772) when it is directed towards the apex of the cell or periphery; inferior or descending when it points to the base of the cell; central when it is directed towards the axis or centre; and central when it is turned towards the sides. Thus we see that there are two ways to refer any part of the seed and to the cavity or cell in which it is placed, as sometimes of great practical importance. Section 7. General Morphology, or The Theoretical Structure of the Flower. Having now taken a comprehensive view of all the differen- ces of those parts of plants which are capable of assuming in detail the theory which has been kept constantly in view in their descrip- tion, namely, that of Linnaeus, I shall proceed to consider one type—the leaf. The germ of this theory originated with Linnæus, but the merit of having first brought it forward in a complete form is due to Gaudin (1836), who published a work on this subject which was afterwards incorporated into his "Systema Vegetabilium." The appearance of Gaudin's work was followed by that of Linnæus' "Systema Naturæ," in which he had already given a general idea of what he meant by the subject, and it is now universally admitted, that all the organs of the flower are formed upon the same plan as that, and that they owe their peculiarities only to differences in their functions which they have severally to perform. Thus th **GENERAL MORPHOLOGY.** leaf being designed to elaborate nutriment for the support of the plant, has a form, structure, and colour which are adapted for this purpose; and the flowers, which are also designed for the purpose of reproduction, have a structure and appearance which enable them to perform their several functions. At first sight, it may appear that the leaves of many were meta- morphosed leaves, but this is stating the question too broadly, because the leaves of most plants are not so modified as to be treated only as homologous parts to leaves, or parts of the same funda- mental nature, that is, as well stated by Lindley, constructed of the same materials and in the same manner, vary- ing in their manner of development, not on account of any ori- ginally different nature. The leaves of all plants are and presupposing causes of the plan the leaf is taken as the type, because it is the organ which is most usually the result of the alteration of other organs. In some cases, however, other organs generally revert, when from any accidental disturbing of their arrangement they become more like leaves than they were originally presumed,—and, moreover, in that in which we have the most complete type of organisation, and, we may add, in that in which we have the most perfect adaptation of the organi- sations of structure into all the other parts. Hence arises a difficulty in applying the doctrines of Mor- phology, or that doctrine which investigates the various alterations of form, and other characters, which the different parts of plants undergo during their development. It is evident that such parts as they were designed, shall then proceed to prove that all the pro- cesses by which they are formed must be considered as those that examine the several organs of reproduction, both as they exist in a natural condition, and in an abnormal state, commencing with the leaf. For example, let us consider how each flower consists of the different whorls of the flower, according to their arrangement from without inwards. In the first place, it is evident that the bud is closely allied to the leaf, from its structure, form, colour, and from the ordinary development of its parts. This analogy is sufficient to be perfectly convinced of this analogy; let anyone examine the flowers, or the tubules, or even the petals themselves; he will find that all these structures occur between leaves and bracts; so that it shall be impossible to doubt their being homologous parts. That they are not homologous parts only by their colour and other characters; but also by the fact, that many flowers exhibit in a natural condition a gradual transition between leaves and bracts; and that many flowers are readily referable to the leaf as the type. Thus, in the Camellia (Japonica), for instance (fig. 308), it is evident that it is almost impossible to say where the latter end and the former begin. In the Marasch Mallow (fig. 309) and Strawberry (fig. 311), again, the five sepals in the flowers of two respectively 342 THEORETICAL STRUCTURE OF THE FLOWERS. alternate with five bracts; and the difficulty of distinguishing them is so great, that some botanists call both sets of organs by the name of leaves. This is a very erroneous opinion; therefore, there is a striking resemblance between sepals and leaves; and this analogy is confirmed by the fact, that in monostrous flowers of the Rose, Clover, Primrose (figs. 773), and other plants, the sepals are frequently converted into true leaves. We have previously observed (p. 508) that these three classes of the majority of flowers are of a different colour to leaves and sepals, and consequently they differ in their structure and general structure they are essentially the same. This is also shown in many natural flowers by the gradual transitions ex- isting between the sepals and leaves. This is remarkably the case in the White Lily (fig. 774). In the Calendula, where the flowers present several whorls of floral envelopes, which resemble each other in form, we have observed that it is next to impossible to say where the sepals end and the petals begin. In many other instances, also, there is no clear distinction between the two organs; but even in those cases where it is possible to distinguish them, as in the Calyx of the Poppy (fig. 775), the difference between petals and leaves is still further shown by the fact, that the former are occasionally green, as in certain species of Coleus, in a variety of which the leaves are green; and also from their being occasionally converted, either entirely or partially, into leaves. Thus in the Petunia, the petals like sepals and bracts are homologous with leaves. The stamens is, of all organs, the one which has the least re- semblance to leaves. We have already seen (p. 506) that we have shown that it is not possible to say where the sepals end and the petals begin. Moreover, that in many plants the petals become gradually transformed into stamens. This is remarkably the case in the White Lily (fig. 774). In this flower, when the inner series of petals gradually becomes narrower, and the upper extremity becomes more or less pointed, it becomes a stamen, which, as those placentae still more internal become true anthers containing pollen. From the fact that the stamens on them are always green, we may conclude that they have been already proved to be modified leaves, if most neces- sarily taken into account that the stamens are also. If we now refer what takes place in many cultivated flowers, we have conclusively Fig. 773. Monostrous Primrose with sepals and true leaves. Monostrous Primrose with sepals and true leaves. From Lindley. Water-lily (fig. 449); also see fig. 774. 342 GENERAL MORPHOLOGY. 343 evidence at once afforded us of the leaf-like nature of stamens. Thus, in what is called double flowers, the number of petals is greater than that of stamens, and this difference is very great; since the number of the latter increases as the former decreases. That such a condition may exist in nature, we may observe between true petals and stamens. In other cases, the stamens have been actually transformed into true leaves. At all events, the stamens are often found to be growing both in the normal and abnormal conditions of the parts of the flower. This is especially evident in the case of secondary leaves, thus forming conclusive evidence of their being developed from some common type with them. If we examine the carpel, we find that transitional states between the stamen and carpel are unknown in the normal condition of plants. The carpel is always distinct from the stamen by then respectively being opposite, that it necessarily leads to corresponding differences in structure. We must, therefore, seek for examples of such transitional states, and for examples of such conditions. Even these are by no means common. Such is, however, known to occur in the House-plant, namely, Poppaea rubra, and in other plants. In a paper published by the author in the *Pharmaceutical Journal* for March, 1856, I gave a description of a plant which was described as possessing carpels as described; it occurred in the *Papaver bracteatum*. In this case, several wheels of bollers, intermediate in their nature between petals and stamens, were observed among the true androecium and gynaeceum. The outer whorls of the intermedium were composed of two or three leaves each, with their odour, in being of a more feathery nature, and in being enlarged at their upper extremity and inner surface into rudimentary leaves. These were smooth on their upper surface and possessed well-marked anthers containing pollen. The whorls in front were composed of two or three leaves each, having a feathery, bare evident stigma, and on their inner surfaces, which were slightly concave, they had rudimentary ovules. Still more interesting was the fact that there were still others just described in their general appearance, because more numerous than those described before. They were perfect ovules; and within these, the intermediate bodies had their two margins folded completely inwardly and united, and thus formed a perfect ovule. This is a most remarkable thing in a striking manner that the stamens and carpels are formed upon common principles; but they differ only in their homologous organs with leaves. The analogy of the carpel to the leaf is, however, constantly shown in cultivated flowers, even in a modified condition of that organ. Thus in many double flowers, e.g., *Dioscorea* and *Hibiscus* are various with its stamens, being transformed into petals. It is by no means rare, again. 344 GENERAL MORPHOLOGY. to find the carpels transformed into true leaves in cultivated Roses, &c. A similar condition also occurs in the Double Cherry, &c., but in this case the transformation takes place when speaking of the carpel; in which place we have also shown the analogous condition to that of the stamen, viz., the develop- ment from a little con cave body but slightly differing in appear- ance from a leaf, up to its mature condition as a closed cavity, containing a seed. In all these cases, however, we must, there- fore, as regards the carpel, the most conclusive evidence of its being formed on the same type with the leaf, and that it is consequently homologous with it. The carpel being thus shown to be homologous with the leaf, we may now proceed to consider the leaf itself. The leaf is likewise a modified condition of the leaf, in which one or more carpels are united together. Further proof of the homologous nature of the leaf is afforded by the fact that the floral axis, in many cases at least, is also homologous with the stem, and sometimes bear whorls of true leaves. In other cases the axis becomes prolonged beyond the limits of a single leaf, and frequently in cultivated Roses (fig. 806), or by means of a bud (fig. 774), becomes a transverse bearing of leaves. To this elonga- tion of the axis the term median proplodigium is applied. Various other examples might be ad- ded to show that the leaves are derived from the leafy organs in more or less perfect leaves. Thus, in the common White Clover, the petiole is prolonged into a leaf-like shoot found in a leaf-like state. A similar condi- tion also exists in some species of Straw-berries. In fact, no one can walk in a garden, and examine cultivated flowers without finding many instances of transitional states occurring between the different organs of the flower, all of which are said to be owing to ascending or direct metamorphosis. When a sepal becomes a petal, or a petal which take place, such as those of the Rose, which make it appear to be owing to ascending or direct metamorphosis. But when a carpel becomes a stamen, or a stamen a carpel, or when a leaf becomes transformed into a leaf, this is called retrograde or decending metamorphosis. We have thus proved by the most conclusive facts, that all Fig. 774. A median proplodigium. A diagram showing a median proplodigium. **SYMMETRY OF THE FLOWER.** 545 The organs of the flower are formed upon a common type with the leaf, and differ only in their special development, or, in other words, in the arrangement of the parts. The flower-bud is analogous to a leaf-bud, and the flower itself to a branch of the tree. In this respect, therefore, we may say that all its parts are situated in nearly the same plane; and, as flower-buds are thus analogous to leaf-buds, their parts are also connected by the same laws of growth and arrangement, and hence a knowledge of the latter gives the clue to that of the former. The symmetrical arrangement of the parts of the flower arising from their being homologous parts with the leaves, will be seen at once when we consider with the various causes which interfere to prevent or disguise it. Section 8. Symmetry of the Flower. This term symmetry has been variously understood by different botanists. As regards flowers, a symmetrical flower is one in which each whorl of organ has an equal number of parts; or each part is similar to every other part in kind or number. Thus, in some species of *Crocus* (Fig. 775), we have a symmetrical flower composed of five sepals, five petals, five stamens, and five calyx-lobes (Fig. 770) we have five sepals, five petals, ten stamens in two rows, and five corolla-lips in the flax; or have five sepals, five petals, ten stamens in two rows, and five corolla-lips in the flax; or have five sepals, each of which is partially divided into two by a spurious disjunction (Fig. 613); or in the Circes (Fig. 777) we have two organs in each whorl, namely, two sepals, two petals, four stamens or five sepals, four or five petals, eight or ten stamens, and a four or five-lobed petal; or in the lily three are three organs in each whorl. All these above are therefore symmetrical flowers. Fig. 775. Flower of *Crocus* nudicaulis. A. Petala; p. P. Petala; s. s. Sepala; m. M. Corolla. Fig. 775. Fig. 776. Flower of *Crocus* nudicaulis. A. Petala; p. P. Petala; s. s. Sepala; m. M. Corolla. Fig. 776. Fig. 777. Flower of *Circa* alba (Linn.). A. Petala; p. P. Petala; s. s. Sepala; m. M. Corolla. Fig. 777. 348 SYMMETRY OF THE FLOWER. When the number of parts in each whorl does not correspond, or when the parts in one whorl are multiplied by one another, the flower is *irregular*, as in Crocus (Fig. 77), where the calyx and corolla have five parts in each whorl, and the androecium and gynoecium six. A symmetrical flower in which the number of parts in each whorl is the same, as in Crocus (Fig. 77), is said to be *isomorous*, or when the number of parts in each whorl differs, as in Scilla (Fig. 77), the flower is *asymetrical*. The number of parts in each whorl may be either even or odd, and this fact is often used as a test of symmetry, signifying a part. Thus when there are two parts in the whorl, as in Crocus (Fig. 77), the flower is *bisymmetric*; when there are three parts in each whorl, as in Scilla (Fig. 77), the flower is *trisymmetric*; when there are four parts in each whorl, as in Cyclamen (Fig. 77), the flower is *tetrametric*; when there are five parts in each whorl, as in Scylla (Fig. 27), the flower is *pentametric*; when there are six parts in each whorl, as in Crocus (Fig. 27), the flower is *hexametric*; when there are seven parts in each whorl, as in Scilla (Fig. 27), the flower is *heptametric*; when there are eight parts in each whorl, as in Cyclamen (Fig. 27), the flower is *octametric*; when there are nine parts in each whorl, as in Scilla (Fig. 27), the flower is *nonametric*; when there are ten parts in each whorl, as in Cyclamen (Fig. 27), the flower is *decametric*. The term *monosymmetric* is applied to a flower which has only one part on each side of its axis, such as that of a lily (see Fig. 140). When there are two equal parts on each side of the axis, such as that of a lily (see Fig. 140) or a buttercup (see Fig. 141), it is said to be *bimonomous*. When there are three equal parts on each side of the axis, such as that of a buttercup (see Fig. 141), it is said to be *trimonomous*. When there are four equal parts on each side of the axis, such as that of a buttercup (see Fig. 141), it is said to be *quadrinomous*. When there are five equal parts on each side of the axis, such as that of a buttercup (see Fig. 141), it is said to be *pentinomous*. When there are six equal parts on each side of the axis, such as that of a buttercup (see Fig. 141), it is said to be *hexinomous*. When there are seven equal parts on each side of the axis, such as that of a buttercup (see Fig. 141), it is said to be *heptinomous*. When there are eight equal parts on each side of the axis, such as that of a buttercup (see Fig. 141), it is said to be *octinomous*. When there are nine equal parts on each side of the axis, such as that of a buttercup (see Fig. 141), it is said to be *noninomous*. When there are ten equal parts on each side of the axis, such as that of a buttercup (see Fig. 141), it is said to be *decinomous*. When all the organs of a flower are alike, they are said to be symmetrical; but when they differ somewhat from one another, they are said to be asymmetrical. A flower which has all its organs alike is called a *pantemonious* flower; but when some organs are developed and others undeveloped, it is called an *anisomerous* flower; or when some organs are developed and others absent, it is called an *anisomorphic* flower. Of the above arrangements, the pantemonious is most common among flowers; but many flowers have been described by no means rare; while the trimerous is generally found in Monocotyledons. Although a symmetrical flower, as above described, needlessly infers that the parts in each whorl are equal to one or more multiples thereof, yet it must be remembered that we cannot call a flower symmetrical when the three outer whorls correspond **SYMMETRY OF THE FLOWER.** in such particular, while the parts of the gynoeceum are unequal to them ; as in *Stephanus pinnatus* (fig. 778), where the three sepals are unequal, and the three petals are also unequal with the stamens. The gynoeceum of all the organs of the flower that has but one whorl corresponds in number to its number of parts to that of the whole. By some writers, again, a flower is said to be symmetrical when it is divided into two similar halves, as in Cruciferae, where there are four sepals, four petals, six stamens, and two pistils (figs. 573 and 606); and the whole so arranged that the flower may be divided into two equal parts. Various other terms are used in describing flowers, which will be best alluded to hereafter, after the several kinds have been noticed. Thus a flower is said to be complete, when the four sepals are united at their bases, and form a tube; as in the Rose (fig. 606); where one or more of the whorls is albeolate, the flower is incomplete (figs. 28 and 29). When the parts of a flower are alternate, as in *Corydalis*, *Hepatica*, &c. (figs. 573 and 606), the flower is regular; under other circumstances it is irregular. In all regular flowers, the usual arrangement of the parts of the flower, the successive whorls alternate with each other as shown in figs. 778 and 777 ; thus, the sepals alternate with each other, as do also the stamens, and the stamens with the corolla. A perfect flower is one whose parts should possess a calyx, corolla, androecium, and gynaeceum, each of which should be so arranged that its parts form a single whorl; the different whorls being alternately placed. In many cases the parts of successive whorls should alternate with one another; and the organ of each whorl should be distinct from those below it, and distant from each other and from the surrounding whorls. This normal and typical flower is, however, liable to various anomalies, as will be seen by examining figs. 778 and 779; and disprove one or more of their typical characters. Some of these anomalies may be due to an imperfect formation of the different organs of the flower, but it will be necessary for us to investigate these more fully here, and classify for systematical purposes all flowers which differ from their normal character may be arranged under the following heads : 1st. The adhesion or union of the parts of the same whorl ; or those of different whorls. 2nd. The presence of one or more entire whorls in one or more of the floral circles; or increase in the number of parts of a whorl, which is due to the multiplication by division of any or all of the organs of a whorl. Fig. 778. Diagram of *Stephanus pinnatus.* 347 368 SYMMETRY OF THE FLOWER.—UNION AND ADDITION. 3rd. The suppression or shortening of one or more whorls; or of one or more organs of a whorl. 4th. The presence of an unequal growth, or unequal degree of union of the members of the same whorl; or by ab- normal increase of the number of the parts of a whorl. That part of Botany which has for its object the investigation of the various deviations from normal structure, both in the flower and in the plant, is called **addition**. 1. The changes due to union or adhesion of parts. — We arrange these under two heads: (a) those produced by the more or less complete union of the members of the same whorl; and (b) the other by the adhesion of the different whorls; the first being called **union**, and the second **adhesion** or **addition**. a. **Union** or **adhesion**.—This is of very common occur- rence in the members of the different whorls of the flower. Thus it occurs in the calyx, when it becomes monopetalous or gamopetalous; in the corolla, when it becomes monopeta- loous; in the filament, when it gives rise to monadelphus, dichadelphus, or polyadelphus; in the stamens, when they are syngenesious or synandrous; and in the pistil, when the carpels are syncarpous. b. **Addition** or multiplication of the different whorls is also by no means uncommon. Thus the calyx may be united to the corolla, or to the petals, or to both together; and this union may be united with the corolla. These different adhesions have been already explained, under the terms perigynous, epigynous (page 260), as well as under their respective names, which are applied to the calyx, when it is said to be epigynous (page 261); and to the pistil, when it is said to be perigynous (page 261). All the changes due to union or adhesion of parts have been fully described in former chapters (pages 257, 258). 2. **Addition** or Multiplication of Parts. — This may be ac- cidentally produced by an increase in the number of one or more whorls in one or more of the floral circles. For instance, the increase in the number of the parts of the wheel, which is due to the increase in number of petals, is called **addition** of a whorl. The former is commonly termed augmentation; the latter choristis, dehiscence, or reduction. A decrease in the number is seen in the number of whorls that may occur in one or more of the floral circles. Thus the Berberis (figs. 771, 772) has only three petals instead of four; and so also are some stamens; in this flower, therefore, we have an addition of one whorl of organs to each of the three external floral circles. In the Magnolia family generally, the increase is chiefly chiefly in number (figs. 781). In the Magnolia family generally, the increase is chiefly chiefly in number (figs. 781). In the Magnolia family generally, the increase is chiefly chiefly in number (figs. 781). In the Magnolia family generally, the increase is chiefly chiefly in number (figs. 781). In the Magnolia family generally, the increase is chiefly chiefly in number (figs. 781). In the Magnolia family generally, the increase is chiefly 368 STEMMETRY OF FLOWER.-AUGMENTATION.-CHORIONS. 349 In many of the Ranunculaceae, as *Clematis* (fig. 782), the stamens and carpels are very numerous, owing to addition of whorls. As a rule, however, the increase is not excessive, but common among the stamens. When the increase is not excessive, the number of parts in each whorl is equal to the normal number of parts in each whorl ; thus in the Barberry (fig. 779) the normal number is three, and that of the sepals, petals, and stamens is four, so that there are seven parts in all the normal number. When the addition of parts extends to beyond three or four whorls, it is not common in most genera to such variation ; when the addition is very great, as in this Fig. 779. Fig. 780. Fig. 781. A diagram of the flower of *Ranunculus* (fig. 782). Diagram of flower of *Ranunculus*. Fig. 782. Diagram of the flower of the *Poppie* (Papaver). The stamens of *Clematis* (fig. 782), and the carpels of *Erodium* (fig. 599, c, c), it cannot be well determined, and the symmetry is not diagonal or destroyed ; which is also the case if the whorls are crowded together. Fig. 782. Fig. 783. Fig. 783. Diagram of the flower of *Clematis* (Ranunculaceae). Fig. 784. Diagram of the flower of *Ranunculus* ruberoides, Benth. b. Chorions or Duplication.--This is generally looked upon by botanists as a defect in flowers, because it involves a loss of a flower. It consists in the division or splitting of an organ in the place of one, or in increasing its number ; these organs are produced in the place of one. Chorions differ from augmentation in the fact, that it not only increases the number of parts, but also introduces a new form into them ; while augmentation does not necessarily interfere with alteration, it only occurs when the number of additional parts is excessive, or when the whorls are crowded together. Fig. 784. 350 SYMMETRY OF THE FLOWER.—CHORISIS. Chorisis may take place in two ways, either transversely, when the increased parts are placed one below the other, which is called "transverse chorisis," or longitudinally, when the increased parts stand side by side, which is termed "collateral chorisis." The former is more common than the latter, being frequent occurrence; thus the petals of *Lupinus* (fig. 496, a), and many other Caryophyllaceous plants, exhibit a little scale on their inner surface, which is united to the claw of the petal. A somewhat similar scale, although less developed, is found in the *Caryophyllaceae*, and in the flowers of *Ranunculus* (fig. 495). The formation of these scales is supposed by many to be due to the chorisis or unlining of an inner petal of the flower with an outer petal. In some cases these appendages are abortive stamens, or glands (see page 289). Each joint of the corolla is supposed to have been divided into a number of parts, somewhat resembling sterile stamens; this is also stated to be produced by transverse chorisis. In plants of this kind, the corolla is composed of three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven, twelve, thirteen, fourteen, fifteen, sixteen, seventeen, eighteen, nineteen, twenty-one, twenty-two, twenty-three, twenty-four, twenty-five, twenty-six, twenty-seven, twenty-eight, twenty-nine, thirty-one, thirty-two, thirty-three, thirty-four, thirty-five, thirty-six, thirty-seven, thirty-eight, thirty-nine, forty-one, forty-two, forty-three, forty-four, forty-five, forty-six, forty-seven, forty-eight, forty-nine leaves. In others the corolla is composed of petals only; in these the stamens are placed opposite to the petals just as they would be if the corolla had been produced by chorisis from the corolla; but others explain this opposition of parts by supposing the suppression of an intermediate whorl (see page 289). This mode of production has been found in the antherumia; but it is less frequent in the gymnosperms. Examples of this form are found in *Ceratostigma* (fig. 497), where each carpell has at its base on the outside a little greenish scale; $a$, $a'$ which is supposed by some to be a stamen. It will be observed that in the above cases of transverse chorisis we find that all the organs are produced from those from which they arise; and this appears to be a universal law in this form of chorisis. **Collaris** (fig. 498).—We have a good example of this form in the *Stock*, Wallflower, and other plants of the natural order Cruciferae. The corolla of these plants is usually composed of four organs alternating with one another (fig. 784). Within these we find six stamens; instead of four; as should be the case according to our theory; but instead of being opposite to the lateral sepals and alternate with the adjacent petals; while the other four are placed in pairs opposite the adaxial and posterior part of the corolla. This arrangement is different instead of two; which results from the collateral chorisis of those two. In order to show how this form arises we have a strong confirmation of this view presented to us in the fact that in place of the two stamens as commonly observed we have a single thimble-like organ which is supposed to be growing as a thorn which would seem to arise from the process of chorisis being arrested at an early stage. Mr. Fuchs has also generally considered to afford another example of collaris. A diagram showing a flower with four petals and six stamens. SYMMETRY OF THE FLOWER.—CHORISIA. 53 Chorisia. In these we have two sepals (fig. 786), four petals in two rows, and six stamens, two of which are perfect, and four imperfect. Fig. 785. Fig. 786. Fig. 784. Diagram of the flower of the common Wallflower, Fig. 785. Flower of Chorisia, showing the two sepals opposite each other, and the two imperfect stamens, showing a forked stamen in place of the two imperfect stamens. From Curtis's Botanical Magazine. More or less perfect; the latter are said to arise from collaterally chorisia, one stamen here being divided into three parts. (Curtis's Botanical Magazine, vol. xlvii., p. 100.) The flowers of the genus *Hesperis* (figs. 787, f.), are so arranged as to be self-sterile, being fed by the flowers of many species of *Spergularia* (figs. 749, f.), in which each bundle of stamens is opposed to act from the same flower. Collateral chorisia may be considered as analogous to a compound leaf, but it is more complicated than any other similar part. Transverse chorisia is supposed by Gray and some other botanists to have its analogies in the ligule of *Grammum* (fig. 309), and in the stipules of *Lilium*. It is also supposed that the leaf as the axile of *Euphorbia* (figs. 490, a) and other plants do not belong to this class. Lindley held that the whole theory of chorisia "is de- sirable of real foundation, for the following reasons:" 1st. That it is impossible to explain chorisia as well as explained by the theory of alternation. 2ndly. That it is inconsistent with the simplicity of vegetable structure, that in the same flower the multiplication of organs should arise from two wholly different causes; namely, from one cause in one flower, and from another in another. 3rdly. As it is known that in some flowers, where the law of chorisia does not hold good, the stamens are placed opposite each other; it is necessary for the supporters of the unlimiting theory to assume that in such a flower's part of the organs are produced by one cause, and at another time all are produced by another cause; and this is contrary to probability and sound philosophy." 4th. The examination of the gradual development of flowers, A diagram showing a flower with two sepals opposite each other and four petals in two rows. There are six stamens, two of which are perfect and four are imperfect. A diagram showing a flower with two sepals opposite each other and four petals in two rows. There are six stamens, two of which are perfect and four are imperfect. A diagram showing a flower with two sepals opposite each other and four petals in two rows. There are six stamens, two of which are perfect and four are imperfect. A diagram showing a flower with two sepals opposite each other and four petals in two rows. There are six stamens, two of which are perfect and four are imperfect. 352 SYMMETRY OF FLOWERS—SUPPRESSION OR ABOLITION. the only irrefragable proof of the real nature of final structure, does not in any degree show that the supposed process of unlin- ing has a real existence. According to Lindley's view, therefore, whenever the organs of adjacent flowers are alike in their symmetry, this is suppos- ed to arise from the suppression of a whorl which should be normally attained between the two that are present. Suppression or Abolition on the Symmetry of Flowers. The suppression or abortion of parts in either order is the most common organ of a wheel. We shall treat this subject briefly under these two heads: a. Suppression or Abolition of one or more Whorls.—We have already stated that a complete flower is one which contains only sepals, petals, stamens, and pistils. When one of these is suppressed, therefore, the flower necessarily becomes incom- plete; or it may take place in the floral enve- lope; or in the essential organ. Sometimes one whorl of the floral envelopes is suppressed, as in Chloranthus (Fig. 70), where the petals are suppressed or monosymmetrical; sometimes both whorls are suppressed, as in the Campanulaceae (Fig. 27), when the flower is said to be dichotomous. When a whorl of the essential organs is suppressed, the flower is said to be monosymmetrical or monosymmetrical. The androecium or gynaeceum may be thus suppressed, in either of which cases we have a monosymmetrical flower. The andro- gynium may be suppressed, as in certain forms of some of the Compositae, &c., when the flower is neuter. When the stamens are absent, we have a monosymmetrical flower; as in that of the pistil-in-axil, staminate (Fig. 410 and 488). The term "monosymmetrical" is used by some authors in reference to this point, have been already sufficiently explained (page 30). Some botanists, as already noticed (page 30), consider that when the stamens are suppressed, they are suppressed entirely, instead of alternate, such an arrangement of parts arises from the suppression of an intermediate whorl; but this view is manfully rejected by many authors for reasons which I do not at all cases. Thus in the Rhacanthaceae (Fig. 763), the stamens are opposite to each other, and not alternate with those of the base, and we cannot but regard them as produced by transverse choisisse from the perianth. In some cases, therefore, we regard the oppo- sition of parts as due to suppression of an intermediate whorl; and in others to choisisse. b. Suppression or Abolition of more Organs of a Wheel.—This is a very common cause of deviation from normal structure; we can here only bring forward a few examples. Thus in the Cruciferae (Fig. 784), we have four sepals, four SYMMETRY OF THE FLOWER.—SUPPRESSION. 313 petals, six stamens, and two carpels ; here two carpels are suppressed. In the Heartsease (Ag. 787), we have a pentamerous flower, with three petals, three sepals, and three stamens ; they are concerned, but only three carpels, two carpels being here suppressed : many Leguminous plants (Ag. 798), we have five sepals, five petals, and five stamens ; they are concerned, but only four carpels, two carpels being here abortive ; in plants of the order Compositae the calyx, corolla, and stamens are all organs, but only two, or according to other botanists, two carpels. Fig. 787. Fig. 788. Fig. 789. Fig. 787. Diagram of the flower of the Heartsease. Fig. 788. Diagram of a Leguminous flower. Fig. 789. Diagram of the flower of Impatiens parviflora. In some species of Impatiens (Ag. 790) we have five carpels, for which we find five petals, but only three stamens ; two carpels are suppressed : in Tragopogon perfoliatus (Ag. 790), there are five sepals; and but two petals; three of the latter Fig. 790. Fig. 791. Fig. 790. Diagram of the flower of Tragopogon perfoliatus. from Ag. 790. Fig. 791. Diagram of flowers of Euphorbia. from Ag. 791. L. = Laciniate leaf. A = Anther. B = Filament. C = Stamen. D = Corolla. E = Calyx. sepal being here abortive. In the Labiate and Scrophulariaceae one of the stamens is commonly suppressed, and sometimes more than in the Leguminae we have five parts to the calyx and corolla, but only four stamens ; and in the Solidae we have 44 334 SYMMETRY OF THE FLOWER.—IRREGULARITY. also five parts to the calyx and corolla, but only two perfect stamens. The abortion of whorls and parts of a whorl is well illustrated by plants of the Euphorbiaceae, and the above diagram from Jussieu will serve to illustrate this point (fig. 460). Thus, in No. 1 we have a flower consisting of but two whorls, the petals and carpels being suppressed ; in No. 2, while the name whorl is complete, the second whorl is suppressed ; in No. 3 two stamens are abortive ; in No. 4 the calyx is suppressed, and one stamen is reduced to a scale-like structure, while the bracteole ; while in No. 5 the place of the calyx is occupied by two bracts, and there is only one stamen present ; thus of itself constitutes a flower with three whorls, but in a different condition. Besides the above examples of the suppression of parts, there is another kind of suppression, to which the term abortion more properly applies. This consists in the degeneration or transforma- tion of one or more stamens into a scale-like structure. The stamen is reduced to a scale ; in the Umbelliferae the limb of the calyx is often transformed into a scale-like structure, either abortive (fig. 460), or membranous (fig. 461), or re- duced to a pappose form. Many of the so-called neotenes of flowers occur under this condition, such as the Liliaceae, and even such as Tussilago, the stamens are frequently present as little scales. In other cases where the stamens are absent, they are very common ; thus we frequently find the stamens and car- pels partially transformed into petals ; or when the flowers are entirely devoid of stamens, their place is taken by petals thus converted into petals. 4. Irregularity of Growth may be produced by three different causes—namely, unequal growth of the members of a whorl ; unequal degree of union ; and abnormal development of the thalamus. The first cause will be treated under "Symmetry," and will be separated, and will be, therefore, treated of under one head. a. Unequal Growth and Unequal Degree of Union of the Men- bers of a Whorl render such whorls irregular, and produce what are called irregular flowers. These irregularities have been al- ready treated of in describing the different floral organs. All the examples given in this work will be found to illustrate which have been alluded to under their respective heads, will afford good illustrations. The stamens of plants belonging to the order of the Compositae are often seen in various stages, some examples of unequal union in the staminal whorl ; and other illustrations will be found under the heads of the anther and gynoecium. b. Abnormal Development of the Thalamus Affects the Flower. The complete abortion of any part of a flower has already been alluded to when describing the thalamus. Thus the flowers REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF ACOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS. 553 the species of *Nelumbon* (fig. 640), *Liriodendron* (fig. 699), *Strawberry* (fig. 600), *Raspberry* (fig. 601), *Rumex* (fig. 602), *Sorbus* (fig. 603), *Corylus* (fig. 604), *Corylus* (fig. 605), and *Genista* (fig. 655), will furnish examples of this form of irregularity.* CHAPTER 5. REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF CRYPTOPOMOUS, FLOWERLESS, OR ACOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS. The nutritive organs of Cryptopomous plants have been already briefly alluded to in the chapter on the General Morphology of the Plant, and in our descriptions of the stem, root, leaf, and other parts of the plant. The following are some of the reproducti ve organs of the same class of plants, which we shall do so later describe. The reproductive organs of the Cryptopomous differ widely from those of the Phanerogamous; for, in the first place, they have no true flowers, but only stamens or carpels; that is, they have no true androecium or gynoecium, the presence of which is essential to the formation of a flower, and which is therefore termed *Flowers*. But although these plants have no true stamens or carpels, they have organs which perform analogous purposes, such as the *Strobilus*, *Pistillate*, *Stylus*, *Stylusoid*, or *Archiegma*, and others, have been applied. These organs being generally sessile, and having a single receptacle, they are often also called Cryptopomous, which signifies, literally, concealed axes. The term sexual, which was formerly applied, has now become obsolete. Secondly, as Cryptopomous plants have no flowers, they do not produce seeds by means of flowers; but by means of their own Plant or embryo; but instead of seeds, they form reproductive bodies called spores, in which most cases consist of one cell (rarely more), containing two nuclei, and surrounded by a wall or membrane. A spore having no embryo can have no cotyledonary body, which would be formed by the germination of the embryo; but these plants have been also called *acotyledons*. In germination again, as the spores have no rudimentary stem or root, they have com- menced life in a state of complete nakedness, with no different extension of one or both of their mesophylls. But some excep- \footnote{* For full detail relating to the General Morphology and Symmetry of the Flower, reference may be made to Mantell's Vegetable Terminology, and to Swain's Text-Book of Botany.*} 356 REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF COMBOPHYTES. tions are afforded to this latter peculiarity by certain spores which have on their outer surface certain spots or pores, through which they are supplied, little-thought-of, with an extension of their inner membrane. This is exactly analogous to the case of the Fungi, in which, although the spores differ in their general structure, spores (especially those of the Fungi, which exhibit the above growth) have a striking similarity to pollen, both in their external appearance and in their mode of formation. The resemblance in structure to pollen, performs essentially different func- tions. The spores of the Fungi are not only incapable of reproducing the plant directly, or give rise to an intermediate body of varying form, called the prothallus, product of the fusion of two such spores, but they are also incapable of producing fruit-bearing frond or stem ultimately springs. Although it is impossible to consider any plant as desti- tute of an embryo, yet it must be admitted that the spores of some of these plants do contain an analogous body to it,—that is to say, a prothallus, which is capable of developing into a young plant in a rudimentary state. Such spores are, however, of but rare occurrence among the Combophytes; and it is probable that so far as is known at present, no plant exists which contains a prothallus in its spores. It is therefore necessary to refer to the true embryo of Phanerogamous plants, that such exceptional cases can scarcely be said to inferior to the ordinary condition of these plants. Such are the chief distinctive characters of the reproductive organs of the Combophytes. The fact that they belong to the different orders of flowering plants is, however, so remark- able, that, in order to become acquainted with them, it will be necessary to treat them separately from each other. The Cryptogamous plants have been arranged, as already mentioned (see page 18), under three great classes: namely, the Bryophytes, Lycophytes and Pteridophytes. The general characters of these will be described hereafter, when treating of Systematic Botany; but it will be sufficient here to state that we shall commence our sketch of the reproductive organs of flowering plants, and hence we shall treat of them under these two heads. Section I. REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF COMBOPHYTES. COMBOPHYTES, or, as they are also termed, Aegopods, have been divided into several sub-divisions, which are commonly called Natural Orders or Families; these are the Filices, Equi- tales, Myriangiales and Lycopodiales. These orders are differently arranged and defined by botanists; but as our object is only to give a general sketch of their re- productive organs we shall confine ourselves to describing at least perhaps, upon the whole, the simplest, and from its being the one most easily accessible. 1. Filices or Ferns.—The fructification of these plants con- 537 Filices or Fers. sists of little somewhat rounded cases, called sporangia, capsules, or theces (fig. 792, $sp$), springing commonly from the veins on the upper surface of the leaves, but sometimes from the petiole (fig. 790) or, in some few instances, as in Aerodium, from their upper surface ; and containing spores in their interior. The sporangia, or capsules, are usually sessile, and are generally very much in form (fig. 792, $sp$, and 793); those are either naked, as in the case of the common Fersa (fig. 792), or have a continuous layer continuous with the epidermis, which is called the indusium or involucre, as in Lactra Filix-mas (fig. 793). Sometimes the epidermis is so thickened that it forms a distinct layer over the para- chyma can be distinguished—the latter being destroyed by the excessive development of the former; in which case, the capsules, Fig. 792. Fig. 793. Fig. 794. Fig. 792. A portion of the frond of the common Polypody (Polyodium vulgare), showing the sporangia or capsules on the upper surface of the leaf, and several of them detached from their stalks, to show their structure. The sporangia are roundish, and contain numerous spores. The outer wall is thin, and consists of two layers—outer and inner—of which the inner is more delicate than the outer. The inner layer is composed of a number of cells, each containing a large number of spores. The outer layer is composed of a single cell, which contains a smaller number of spores. The sporangia are attached to the leaf by a stalk, which is covered with a layer of epidermis. Fig. 793. Portion of the frond of the Fersa or Flowering-fern (Commanda vulgaris). The sporangia are sessile or on short stalks, and are surrounded by a bracted calyx. instead of being collected in sori on the back of the fronds, spores appear as little bodies arranged in a pyramidal manner on a simple or branched radicle as shown in fig. 794. The capsule is a little cellular bag or case (fig. 790, $sp$), usually solitary, but sometimes two or three together (fig. 791). It has a ring or annulus; this ring is frequently elastic, and thus causes the bursting of the capsule when ripe, and the escape of its contained spores into the air. In some cases, however, such bursting does not occur; hence Fersa provided with a ring is said to be immovable; while those in which it is absent are said to be movable. The spores are usually somewhat angular in form, and have two coats like pollen-cells; and like these also, the outer coat, A diagram showing the structure of a sporangium or capsule. A diagram showing the structure of a sporangium or capsule. A diagram showing the structure of a sporangium or capsule. 358 REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF FILICES. which has a yellowish or brownish colour, is either smooth or fur- nished with little points, streaks, ridges, or reticulations. In germination the outer coat is first protruded in the form of Fig. 785. Fig. 796. Fig. 785. Sporangia or receptacles of a Form (Euryptera serratum). A. Spor- gonium with two spores; B. Sporangium with four spores; C. Sporangium with eight spores. The spores are produced in the form of a sphere, which is surrounded at first on its side, and the combined spores in the act of being withdrawn from the sporangium, show a series of cells, each showing archegonia and antheridia with root hairs. After Berg and Schulze. an elongated tube through an aperture in the outer coat, which ultimately bursts, and the tubular prolongation, by cell-divison, forms a thin flat green parenchymatous expansion, called a Fig. 797. Fig. 798. Fig. 797. Side view of an oecidium containing a number of spermo- thecia, or antheridia issuing from the oecidium after having been the product of cell-divisions. The oecidium is cut transversely through the canal and embryo-sac. After Schlechtendal. proliferations (Figs. 795, 796), from which one or more radical filose, or root-hairs, are commonly produced in its earliest stage. On the REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF EQUISTACEAE. under surface of this body (fig. 706), there are soon produced two different structures, called anthocerous and archerous, which resemble each other in their general form, but differ in their bearing plants. The anthocerous are cellular bodies (fig. 707) containing a large number of cells, which are arranged in a spiral manner, with spiral ciliated filaments, on the anthocerous. The archerous (fig. 708) are little cellular papillae of a somewhat oval form, with a central cavity, which is filled with a yellowish substance, which is contained in a cavity called the embryo-sac. Before the formation of these organs, the cells of the epidermis of the sporophyte may be also observed in the germ-cell. Impregnation takes place by the contact of the anthocerous with the corolla, and the archerous with the calyx. The archerous arise from the development of which ultimately the plant with fronds bears fruit. The Fruits are thus seen to exhibit in their growth two stages : in the first of which the spore produces a thalloid expansion (fig. 709), which is terminated by a stalked capsule (fig. 710 and 82); and in the second, peculiar bodies are formed upon the surface of this thallus (fig. 711). In the latter stage, which there is ultimately produced a new plant resembling that which from which the spore was originally derived. Thus, Fruits exhibit an immense variety of forms, according to their different stages. 2. EQUISTACEAE on HERRIARDIA.-In these plants the fully developed fructification, found usually in the early spring, Fig. 709. Fig. 800. Fig. 801. For 709. Pustule stalked bulb of a species of Herrardia (=Equisetum), showing on its lower surface a number of capsules or thorns. For fig. 800, see page 356. For fig. 801, see page 357. The stalked capsules are terminated at each end by a club-shaped expansion.--Fig. 82. The young plants are very similar to those of Equisetum, but somewhat smaller. born as cone-like or club-shaped masses at the termination of the staminate branches (fig. 811). Each mass is composed of a number of pellate stalked scales, on the under surface of which numerous minute spores are attached (fig. 712). These organs, when ripe, open by a longitudinal fissure on their inner surface, and thus set free the contained spores. The spores present a very curious structure; they are little rounded or somewhat oval bodies, and are figured by Hedwig as only possessing one true coat, in consequence of their outer 360 REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF MARSILEACEAE. coat splitting up in a spiral direction so as to form two elastic filaments which are adhered by their middle to the spores, and latterly to each other in a club-shaped expansion (figs. 800 and 801). These spiral elastic filaments, which are called clefts, are very thin, and are easily torn off when dry they ultimately uncoil (fig. 801), and thus appear to assist in the dissemination of the capsule, and in the dispersion of the spore to the wind. When these spores germinate, a little-ponch-like process pro- trudes from the base of the capsule, which is called the prothallus; this ultimately forms a green lobed flattened expansion, the prothallus, which differs however from that of the Ferra, in usually being more or less lobed than that of the Ferra. —the prothallus therefore are said to be disjunct. The prothallus is generally of two kinds—sometimes of one size, the former being larger than the smaller of the two. As in Ferra also, from the embryonal cupule of the germ-cell of the anlage- nium after its liberation from the capsule, a prothallus is ultimately produced resembling in every respect that of the parent plant. In Marsilea, however, this is not always so, as in the case in Ferra, therefore, we have in Marsilea also, an instance of alternation of generations. 3. Marsilea. - The sporophytes.—In the plants of this order the fructification is placed at the base of the leaf-stalks. It consists usually of a two-valved stalked sporophyte or sporocarp. Fig. 802. Fig. 801. Fig. 804. Fig. 802. Fructification of a species of Mar- silea. A. Two-valved sporophyte, p. Po- tentilla; b. One-valved sporophyte, p. Poten- tilia; c. Sporophyte, or ovary, above. After Wank. (fig. 802, e), which is generally many-celled, or sometimes only one-celled. The contents of the sporocarp, and the mode in which they are liberated from it, vary with different groups of this order, and hence it will be necessary for us to allude to these separately. In Marsilea, the fructification consists of a stalked two-valved MARSILEA.--PILULARIA. 261 hardened sporocarp (fig. 802. r). The valves are held together by a mesoglossine ring, which is at first connected with the stalks of the leaves, but later becomes detached from them. The ring be- comes detached from the stalk at one end, straightens, and ap- pears as a long mesoglossine cord protruding from the sporocarp (fig. 803. s). This cord is covered with numerous small spines or scales of fructification, f. These spines are at first enveloped in a membrane, which is called the pericarp, and then in a sheath called cathexis ; and piliatella, epiparum, or oecus. These organs are attached to a sheet of placenta, the anthorhiza being on one side, and the pericarp on the other. Each sporocarp contains but one spore. It consists of a oval cavity, which is filled with a gelatinous substance, in spw, where there is a little cavity (fig. 804). According to Helmstetter, "this cavity is gradually filled up with cellular membranes, which are derived from the cells of the nucleus. A single archegonium is formed in the centre, the spore of which is surrounded by a large number of cells." In this embryo is ultimately formed, which, when it geri- minates, gives off a frond in one direction, and a root in that oppo- site. The anthorhiza contain a number of small cells (fig. 803), which are called small spores or microspores ; while the large germinating spore is called the large spore or macrospore. Fig. 805. Fig. 806. Transverse section of the sporocarp or spore fruit of Pilularia globulifera. After Hertwig.--Fig. 807. Vertical section of the sporocarp or spore fruit showing spore in one cavity, and anthorhiza in the other cavity, e. In Pilularia the fructification consists of ball-like, pill-shaped, lairy sporocarps. The interior of each sporocarp is divided by a thin membrane into two cavities, separated by four valves. In the interior of each cell there is a mesoglossine pro- cess or placenta attached to the walls, upon which are placed numerous anthorhiza and sporangia, as in Marsilea. The 362 REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF LYCOPODIACEAE. structure of these antheridia and sporangia resembles in all essential particulars those of Mariliae. In fact, the only differ- ences between them and those of Mariliae are, first, the more complicated nature of the sporocarpus of Mariliae. The sporocarpus of Lycoptis is similar in structure to that of Mariliae and Ptilotus, except that the antheridia, a, and sporangia, b, are here contained in separate sacs, and are attached to the same stalk. In this organiza- tion also, the prothallium of Sisymis differs from that of Mar- iliae and Ptilotus by containing several archegonia, instead of only one, as is the case with them. In reviewing the fructification of the Mariliaeaceae, we find that it consists of two distinct orders, viz., one producing two distinct kinds of spores, and in the prothallium not forming a definite stalk. The other order produces one spore, but is con- fused with them, but being confluent with the prothallium. These charac- ters show that the Mariliaeaceae are closely allied to the Lycopo- diaceae. 4. LYCOPODACEAE—CLUB-MOSES.—The fructification in the plants of this order is situated on the upper surface of their Fig. 807. Fig. 808. Fig. 809. Fig. 807. Leaf-leaf; scale of Sisymis spinosa, with macrosporangium in its axil. —See p. 544. Antheridium (a) and sporangium (b), both enclosed in the axil of a leaf-leaf scale. —See Fig. 808. Macrosporangium (a) and microsporangium (b), both enclosed in the axil of a leaf-leaf scale. —See Fig. 809. Prothallium (c) with two archegonia (d). —See Fig. 810. Sisymis spinosa, a species of Sisymis, showing the prothallium with two large spores at its base, four small spores scattered along its stem. leaves at the base (figs. 807 and 808). The leaves thus bear- ing the prothallium are collected together into a kind of cone or spike, while at other times they are scattered along the stem. The spores, like those of the Mariliae, are of two kinds, and are enclosed in separate cases. These cases **REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF MYCIL** are variously named; the names which would correspond to those just used in describing the Mucilaceae would be ge- rapeus (figs. 807, 808), and the latter, the microsporae (figs. 807, 808). The former term is applied to the large, usually turned large spores or macrospores (fig. 810); the latter of the latter small spores or microspores (fig. 809). The mucilaceous plants have two-valved cases (fig. 810) with four lobes, each of which contains one large spore or ovule. The male organs is commonly only one-celled, but in some groups it is two, three, or more. The androecium or microsporangium are somewhat uniform two-valved cases, each containing one small spore (microspore), in which antheridia are ultimately produced. In Lepidostomum and some other Lyophyllaceae, only one kind of spore-cause has been found, which is of the nature of the antheridia. The large spores are considered by Hofmeister and others as the analogues of the ovules. The androecium or microsporangium are therefore supposed to be homologous with the ovary, and the macrosporangia as the female. In practically all of these plants produce a prothallium in its interior, thus resembling the Mucilaceae. In this achogonia are soon developed, in which an embryo, and ultimately a new plant is formed. This is called a prothallial plant, and is the androecium. **Myxomycetes on Mosses.** The reproductive organs of this large order of Cryptogamous plants are of two kinds, which are called Fig. 811. Fig. 812. Fig. 811. Antheridium, of the Bar-Snow (Pterospora andromedea), showing number of cells in each of the two valves. Fig. 812. Antheridium of Pterospora andromedea, showing germination of prothallium by protuberance. *androecium (fig. 811), and archegonium or pellidium (fig. 812). These are surrounded by leaves, called perichlamys (fig. 814, f.), which are often very conspicuous in their appearance on both of the stem; and in some Mosses they have, in addition to the perichlamys leaves, another covering formed of three or six small leaves, of a very different appearance to them, termed perigynium.* 353 364 REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF MUSCI. and constituting collectively a peripyle. The antheridia are regarded as the male organs, and the archegonia or pitillaria as the female. The antheridium and archegonium sometimes occur in the same perigone, but more frequently they are found in different perigones, and then both kinds of reproductive organs may occur on the same plant. In this case we apply the term monocious to the former case we apply the term monocious, in the latter dioecious. The archegonia are usually smooth and papillose, more or less rounded or elongated cellular (figs. 811, a), which is filled at Fig. 813. Fig. 814. Fig. 815. Fig. 816. Fig. 813. *Cattleya palustris*. On *Spermacium* enclosed in the perigone, a. Side or stalk view; b. Apex or mouth view; c. Apex or mouth view with the hyphomorphs removed; d. Apex or mouth view with the hyphomorphs removed and showing the antheridium. The Hyphomorphs (Endomeres) appear as a group of cells at the base of the antheridium, each of which supports a stem-cell (fig. 813, b). The stem-cells are surrounded by a layer of cells (fig. 813, c) which are similar to those of the antheridium, but smaller and more numerous than those of the antheridium (fig. 813, d). The antheridium is a little after dehiscence, a few cells remain attached to the perigone (fig. 814). The spermatia, e., of fig. 814 after dehiscence, are very small and appear to have no special function. Maturity with a number of minute cells, or termed spermo-cells or nodules, is that of the antheridium, which is described next. The antheridium opens by an irregular perforation at its apex, and thus discharges the sperm-cells with their antheronids. Among these cells there are also found some long slender cellular jointed threads (fig. 811, p), called paraphyses, which are probably connected with the antheridia, as they appear to perform no special function. The archegonia, like the antheridia, are also often surrounded by filaments (fig. 815), but in this case they do not appear to be in this case abortive archegonia (fig. 812). The archegonium is a stalked cellular organ with a large egg cell somewhat resembling an ovary with its style and stigma (fig. 813). REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF MUSCLE. 365 The neck is perforated by a canal which leads into a cavity, at the bottom of which is a single cell, called the germ or embryo-nus. This germ-cell appears to be fertilised, as in Fores, by the anta- chora, but in the case of Moses, however, the fertilised germ-cell does not directly develop a new plant like its parent, but after fertilisation has taken place it remains in the body of the parent plant, and is somewhat conical or more or less oral body (figs. 813, e) elevated. Fig. 87. Figs. 818. Fig. 819. Fig. 817. Plant (receptacle), showing the separation of the ovary from the spermatium. From Hering, fig. 818. Spermatium, or Hair- plant, showing the two parts of the receptacle, the stalk and the pericarp or hypocarp. Fig. 818. Transverse section of a spermatium (fig. 817). The spermatium is seen to consist of two parts, the stalk and the receptacle. On a stalk, $t$, and as it grows upwards it bursts the epigone, and carries one portion of it upwards as a kind of head (figs. 814, c), while the other part remains behind as a tail (figs. 814, d, e, f, g, h), round the stalk. The central portion formed by the development of this tail is called the spermatium (figs. 814, i, j). The spermatium (figs. 814, u, w, and 815, b); the stalk the axis (figs. 814, p, and m), $t$; the head the epigone (figs. 814 and 815, c), and the shoot or tail the tail (figs. 814 and 815, d). It will be seen that what is commonly called the fructification of Moses (figs. 814 and 815) is not--not the real fructification, but its product. The spermatium, when fully formed, is a hollow urn-like case (figs. 814, e), with a mouth at each end; it is surrounded by a cellular wall; called the epigone (figs. 810), and the space be- tween these walls contains a number of cells filled with free spores, which are small cells with two coats and markings resembling those of pollen-cells. The spermatium is either in- deliberate or fertile; that is to say whether it produces four valves, as in the sub-order *Androecia*; or more commonly by a transverse slit all those of its spores take certain forms by which a kind of prothallus is produced; called the pericarpus (figs. 810, o). 365 366 REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF MURCL 817); this last is either persistent or desiccous. The spermatium is sometimes described as a single cell, but more frequently as a mass of cells. In the latter case, this swelling is called an oophore, or, if it only occurs on one side, a spermatium. The body of the spermatium is commonly described as con- sisting of three cellular layers, the outer of which forms the op- erculum, and the inner two form the testis. The presence or ab- sence of the spermatium's mouth or mouth is, in essence, smooth, or unfurnished with any processes (§p. 817); or it is surrounded by one or more lips (§p. 817), or by a series of teeth (§p. 816, p. 817), which, as just stated, are formed from the two lower lips of the operculum (§p. 815). Sometimes these teeth are always four or some multiple of that number. Sometimes a membrane from the inner wall is stretched across the mouth of the spermatium, and thus forms a kind of lip or lip-like organ or sympathem (§p. 818, p. 819). When the mouth is naked, the Mosse in which such a spermatium is found is said to be symphorete or naked-mouthed; when the mouth is surrounded by a single row of teeth, they are said to be opacopetorous ; or, when with two rows of teeth, they are said to be bimaculose; and so forth. Sometimes a membrane is produced between the outer layer of the wall of the sper- matium, forming a kind of lip-like organ or sympathem; and at other times a chalic ring or annulus is produced, which encircles the mouth of the spermatium. In generation, the inner coat of the operculum is protruded as a tubular process, which, as it elongates by cell-division, forms a green capsule containing a large number of spermatozoa. But, as described by Berkeley, this mass is very much the same nature as the mycelium of Fungi, and is called the Peduncle, and is also known as the "Spermatium" (§p. 817). This opinion is many species may occur in the formation of this mass; but whether it be true or false in any particular species of this plant is doubtful. Be this as it may, after a time a little knot or swollen appearance appears upon the threads, which, by cul- mination, produces a green capsule containing many spermatozoa and anthocoria are afterwards developed. The animal organs are described by Hanfrey as re- sembling "the so-called ovule of Club-Mosses and Pteridophytes"—the archegonium giving rise to spermatogenous individuals. There is no doubt that in all cases where such an organ forms a second generation, developed after a process of fertil- isation, such as occurs in Mosses and Liverworts; while it totally differs in all anatomical and physiological character. It is an instance of alternation of generations. 6. HANFREY'S statement that the reproductive organs of Liverworts are of two kinds like those of Mosses, to which REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF HEPATICACEAE. 367 This order is closely allied; they are called *atharidic*, and ar- *thopae* or *pelleti*, and both kinds may be found on the same plant, but the former are generally more common than either monocot or dicotous. The *atharidic* or *pelleti* organs are various situated in the different genera of this order ; thus, in the leafy plants they are placed in the axil of leaves, as in some species of *Jugumannia*; in the stem, as in *Ceratophyllum*; in the root, as in *Riccia* or that- oid expansion, as in *Roccia* and *Fimbriaria*; and in others, as *Marsipocarpus*. They are round imbedded in the upper sur- face of pelate or discoid-stalked receptacles (figs. 820, 7). The Figs. 820. Fig. 821. Fig. 820. A portion of the thallus or thalloid stem of *Marchantia polymorpha*. In the centre is a small, flask-shaped organ (fig. 821), in which are contained a number of small sperm-cells, and their walls are covered with a thin film of mucilage. When the atharidium bursts and discharges its contents ; the sper- matozoa also burst, and each emits a single endosperm in the form of a spore-grain, which is immediately surrounded by a membrane (figs. 820, 7). Fig. 821. Antennarium of *Mar- chantia polymorpha*, showing the atharidium. The *pelleti* or *pelleti*, like the atharidic, are differen- tially arranged in different genera; thus in *Roccia* they are im- bedded in the substance of the frond, while in *Jugumannia* and *Marchantia*, fig. 822, they are attached to stalks or peduncles, which are elevated above the thallus on stalks, $x$. They are similarly situated in other genera, such as *Ceratophyllum* or *Gymnopus* (fig. 823), having a canal in its upper elongated portion 358 REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF REPATIACRE. which leads to a cavity, at the bottom of which a single free cell, called the pern or endophyall cell, is developed. The germ cell is double, and is situated in the middle of the canal between the antherochors down the canal until they come in contact with it. The pern cell is then divided by a transverse wall, and also at times an additional covering surrounding the epigone, called the perpe, which frequently grows up so as to form a sort of stalk, called the perpe-stalk, and on this stalk grow out the perpens, a number of cellular filaments, perichorial leaves, or parachorals (Fig. 827). The epigone is then developed (Fig. 828). As in the case of Mosse, the fertilised germ-cell does not directly develop a new plant like its parent, but after fertima- tion the germ cell enlarges and bursts through the epigone, and forms a gonocarpus or capsule ; the epigone either remaining as a sort of stalk, or being entirely destroyed, according to which it is called the epigone, or its upper part is carried upwards as a set of hood-like appendages. The sporangia vary much in different genera. In Marchen- tia they are formed of two layers of cells : one external, called the cortical layer, and one internal, called the sporophyll layer ; in which spores, etc., are developed. The cells of the cortical laye A portion of the thallus or thalloid stem of Marchantia polymorpha. 1. Brevicellulae, proliferating from the lower surface of the thallus. 2. A young sporophyte growing from the lower surface of the thallus. 3. A mature sporophyte. Fig. 826. Architecture of March- antia polymorpha. 4. A young sporophyte growing from the upper surface of the thallus. 5. A mature sporophyte. Fig. 827. Arthropodium mertensianum. 6. A young sporophyte growing from the upper surface of the thallus. 7. A mature sporophyte. Fig. 828. Marchantia, a. s. Spores. Fig. 827. Fig. 828. Fig. 821. **REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF THALLOPHYTES.** 369 exhibit spiral fibres, like the cells constituting the inner lining of the receptacle, and which are also found in the outer layer. The inter- nal layer are thus described by Hanfrey: "At an early period the cells of the internal mass present the appearance of a square, with four angles, and a central cavity, which is open to the periphery, and communicates with the wall. These soon become free from each other, and form a series of spaces, which may be of different diameter, and others three or four times as thick. The slender ones are developed at once into the long cisters (fig. 824, e) of the receptacle, while the others remain in a more or less free state. They are called by the two fibres, however, coalescing into one at the ends. The thin ones are developed into a central cavity, and break up into squarish free cells, which are the parent cells of the spores, four of which are produced in each. The spores are formed in two ways: they are found on the under side of the receptacle (fig. 822, f), and vary in form; some they burst by a vertical fissure, and others by a transverse one. In both cases arising out of the spore, they are more or less oval in form, and open by four valves which spread in a cross-like form ; they contain a central cavity, and are surrounded by a wall. In Isidoceros the sporangia open by two valves, and have a central cavity; in other cases they are closed by a single valve in oval or oblong form, and are situated on a short stalk, and contain spore-cells and claters, but the latter have no spiral fibres in their interior, and consequently do not produce spores. This condition is described as found in Marchantia. In Riccia the sporangia are imbedded in the receptacle, and have neither claters nor cuti- cules. They have no regular development. The spores have usually two coats, like pollen-cells; and the cuticle is often wanting. In Marchantia there are two kinds; but in Marchantiafus the spores have but one coat. They all germinate without any well-marked intermediate protoblastal, although some produce a sort of semidermal nucleus or epiblastule. Section 2. REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF THALLOPHYTES. The Thallophytes may be divided into four large natural orders, called respectively, Fungi, Lichenes, Characeae, and Algae. We shall confine ourselves to describing only these last two modes. The general characters of the larger groups will be described elsewhere in Systematic Botany. At present we have only to enumerate them briefly; but before we proceed further we can only give a general sketch; but for fuller information on this subject we must refer to our former work "On the Botany," by Bennett and Dyer. Fungi or Microspora.—To give a detailed description of the various orders of fungi existing in this different sub-divisions of this order of Thallophytes would be beyond the 370 376 REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF FUNGI—CISTOPER. scope of this manual, and we will therefore simply choose a few examples as types of the different methods by which reproductions may take place in the Fungi. The following modes of reproduction proposed by De Bary, according to which the Fungi are divided into the following groups, viz., (i) Ascomycetes, (ii) Basidiomycetes, (iii) Hymenomycetes, (iv) Ascocystomycetes, (i) **Phycomycetes.—** As an example of this group we will briefly describe the life history of *Pleurotus* edodes, a fungus which is commonly found growing upon Cruciferous plants. It resembles *Fusarium* in its general structure, but differs in its life history of which is described under "Algae," page 304, not only in respect to its unicellular mycelium, but also its formation of spores. After a period of growth the mycelium becomes con- worn, as it were, among the cells of its own tissue, and draws nourishment from the latter by means of little rounded projections known as *hyphae*. These grow out from the surface of the mycelium and form a network over the whole plant. In this manner new hyphae are formed by a process of budding. (This term occurs, when used by us, indicates in all cases reproductive cells which are produced by a division of a cell.) The mycelium continues to grow out, dew, rain, &c., noecospores are formed, and these settling down upon a suitable substratum give rise to favourable circumstances again develop the *Cystoype* mycelium. But Cystopera can also produce noecospores by means of a sexual process, which is called *conjugation*. This is shown in fig. 1. The cut of certain lamellae of the mycelium swell up, forming oesopores (fig. 80), through which two nuclei pass into the oesopore. The oesopores (figs. 82, s, x), on reaching their destination, divide into two segments (figs. 83, s, i, and x). These segments are formed by branches which arise from near the base of the oesopore. In the case of *Pleurotus*, the oesopore becomes one or more less spherical in form, and at its base a septum is formed separating the two segments. The smaller segment remains within whilst the greater part of the protoplast remains outside the oesopore arranging itself so as to form a rounded mass known as the *coelom*. When fertilisation is about to take place, one or other of the antheridia passes into the oesopore and subsequently the protoplast of the antheridium reduces that of the oesopore by penetrating the membrane of the latter (fig. 85, b). As coelom is thus formed it is surrounded by a wall which is an- rounded by a distinct cell-wall, and contains numerous such granules (fig. 85, c). After lying dormant during the winter, the propleoderm of the coelom becomes divided into numerous segments, the whole being covered with fine membrane known as the *vulva* (fig. 85, b, s, i, and x). **REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF FUNGI—Puccinia, 371** From each of the little segments of protoplasm is formed a zoospore or swarm-spore (figs. 820, e), each of which subsequently settles down and may produce a new Cytosporium mycelium. A diagram of Cytospora with young segments, etc., on A. Portion of mycelium, showing the young segments, etc., on B. Portion of mycelium, showing the young segments, etc., on C. Portion of mycelium, showing the young segments, etc., on D. Portion of mycelium, showing the young segments, etc., on E. Portion of mycelium, showing the young segments, etc., on F. Portion of mycelium, showing the young segments, etc., on G. Fig. 820. A. Mycelium of Cytospora with young segments, etc., on A. Portion of mycelium, showing the young segments, etc., on B. Portion of mycelium, showing the young segments, etc., on C. Portion of mycelium, showing the young segments, etc., on D. Portion of mycelium, showing the young segments, etc., on E. Portion of mycelium, showing the young segments, etc., on F. Portion of mycelium, showing the young segments, etc., on G. (5) *Hygrodemis.*—*Puccinia graminis*, which we will take as the type of this group, is remarkable not only in showing a dimorphism but also in its mode of reproduction; that is to say that each generation is developed upon different hosts. The first appearance of *Puccinia graminis* (fig. 821) may be seen in one phase of its existence growing upon the Barberry (Berberis majora), whilst in the summer, upon certain Grasses, fungous spores are produced which are developed from spores formed whilst the Puccinia was inhabiting the Barberry plant and are known as *Puccinia* *barbierae*. If a section be made through one of the yellowish swellings seen on the leaf of a Barberry plant which is affected by the fungus, a large number of these spores will be found to be permeated by the mycelium of the *Puccinia*, and they are found to be attached to either side of the leaf. On the upper surface (figs. 820, e), are some-what rounded spaces, termed spermoniae, or full of very dilate hair-like bodies, and from the floor of the cavity very a 2 372 REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF FUNGI---PUCCINIA. small spore-like structures, the *sporangiophores*, are formed. On the under surface are the much larger *sporangia* fruits or *sporangia*, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t closely packed vertical hyphae, from which by continuous budding, a great number of comb-like sporangiophores grow out. It is by the germination of these spores that what are known as the *spore-fruits* are produced. The *sporangia* are dense mycelium (fig. 827., a), in the form of a short stalked cup on the Grass leaf, from which vertical branches shoot up with many small spore-mitites oval granular spores. The *sporangia* are thus *ureodospores*, germinating in other Grasses again producing new *sporangia*. This process may be carried on through-out the summer. But to- Fig. 826. Section through leaf of Bar- berry infected with Puccinia graminis- ciliata. The *sporangia* are seen at a, b, c, d. The *sporangiophores* at e, f, g, h. The *ureodospores* at i, j, k, l. After Stebbins. Fig. 827. Part of a layer of ureodospores. a, Hypha or mycelium ramifying from one of the *sporangia*. b, c, d. Ureodospores at different stages of development. e, f. - Vertical section showing a side of the *ureodospore*. After Stebbins. wards autumn some of the older ureo-fruits produce what are A diagram showing the structure of a Puccinia graminis-ciliata infection on a grass leaf. Fig. 828. A layer of ureodospores. a. Hypha from one of the *sporangia*. b. Ureo- spores at different stages of develop- ment. c. - Vertical section showing a side of the *ureodospore*. After Stebbins. 50 REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF FUNGL—AGARICUS. 373 known as the *teleomorphus* (figs. 827, t, and 828, t, t). These are two-celled, somewhat elongated spores, which, germinating upon the surface of the soil, give rise to the sessile fruits which we have already described. It will be noticed that so far no sexual process has been dis- covered in these fungi. The *teleomorphus* is a *fungus* fruit. Should such be hereafter demonstrated, it will probably be in its growth upon the surface of the soil, and not within it as is usually supposed. (ii) *Basidiomycetes.—As an example of this group we will briefly describe what is known of the life history of the common *Mushroom*. The *mushroom* is in reality the receptacle, fructifor- mation, of the *basidium*, a cell which produces spores. The *basidium* (fig. 829, a, myl.) grows beneath the surface of the ground or other substance upon which the fungus may be growing. It consists of two parts, viz.:—the cap or pileus, $p$, and the stalk or stipe, $st$. Fig. 829. a. Fig. 829. b. Fig. 829. a. Vertical section of the common Mushroom (Agaricus magnellus). The *mycelium* (fig. 829, b), a network of hyphae (fig. 829, c), is connected with its bottom, i.e., $p$. The stipe, $st$, is a Mycelium of several years' duration. The *basidium* (fig. 829, d) is the organ of reproduction. The former may be regarded as the essential part of the receptacle, the spores being produced on its under surface, which is called the *hymenium*. The purpose of raising the cap some distance above the ground. In the earlier stages of development the young receptacle grows up through the soil by means of a root-like structure. This is made up of a dense mass of hyphal tissue continuous with that of the mycelium. As growth proceeds this tissue becomes hyaline and near the upper part, the root of which, growing rapidly 374 REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF FUNGL—AGARICIDS. in a transverse direction, ultimately becomes covered by a number of closely set vertical folds placed in a radiating direction from the margin of the hymenium (fig. 829, a. b.), and collectively constitute the hymenium (fig. 829, a. c.), upon which the sporangia are attached and from which they are released. The growth of the cap gradually causes the floor of the cavity, known as the indus or indusium, to give way from the margin, so that a series of narrow, elongated cells (fig. 829, d., e., f., fringes or sacules (fig. 829, a. uv.). If a transverse section of the lamella of a mature hymenium (fig. 829, a. u.) be made, it will be seen to consist of cells, greatly elongated in the centre, constituting the frans Fig. 829. A transverse section of lamella of mature hymenium of Agaricus propinquus. The cells are shown at different stages of development. A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z. (fig. 830), but being smaller and more or less rounded towards the periphery where they form what is known as the sub-hymenial layer. Placed upon and derived from this layer are the densely crowded sporangia (fig. 830), each consisting of four united $s$, $e$, $n$, $p$; or paraphyses $q$, according as they produce spores or remain sterile. From this medium, in this species, two spores are produced, the process of their development being as follows:—On the fine rounded processes $s$, which extend from the outer edge of the lamella process $e$, which quickly become swollen at their extremities $r$. REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF FUNGI—CLAVICIPES. 375 The swelling in each instance increases, and finally a protoplasmic cell is produced, *a* which becomes separated from the little bulb by a thin membrane. The spores, thus formed, when placed under favourable circumstances are capable of producing the mycelium, or dense net-work of hyphae, which is known as the *mycelium*. This mycelium is developed. As regards this analogy, we would have expected the fruit-fication to be the result of a sexual process taking place in the mycelium, thus giving rise to an alternation of generations, but for the fact that in all these subjects it appears doubtful whether such be the case. For further information on this division of Fungi two examples may be selected for description. The first which we will consider is *Claviceps purpurea*, or the Epehyrænium. If we trace the development of this Fungus upon Fig. 501. Fig. 587. ![Image](image) Fig. 501. Young strobilus, a. of Claviceps showing up and expelling the old strobilus. b.——Fig. 587. Section through the junction of the sporophore with the mycelium. (See text.) The formation of conidia by the ovary of the strobilus (Fig. 601 being taken as more convenient). We find that it first produces what is known as the sporophore. On examining a section of an ovary in Claviceps purpurea, we see that it is surrounded by a dense mass of hyphal tissue, which also penetrates more or less into its interior, and gradually expands outwards entirely, taking the form of a somewhat conical body (Fig. 601), which is particularly the case towards the base of the organ (Fig. 602). From this point onwards, numerous conidia (*a*, Fig. 602) are produced by budding, which appear to have the power of again producing conidia in other places below. Finally, at the apex of this conical body, a thallus takes place gradually from the base to the apex, until the sclerodium (or thallus) is formed (Fig. 603). At this time a somewhat horn-shaped body of a dark purple colour is formed. the ovary of the strobilus (Fig. 601 being taken as more convenient). We find that it first produces what is known as the sporophore. On examining a section of an ovary in Claviceps purpurea, we see that it is surrounded by a dense mass of hyphal tissue, which also penetrates more or less into its interior, and gradually expands outwards entirely, taking the form of a somewhat conical body (Fig. 601), which is particularly the case towards the base of the organ (Fig. 602). From this point onwards, numerous conidia (*a*, Fig. 602) are produced by budding, which appear to have the power of again producing conidia in other places below. Finally, at the apex of this conical body, a thallus takes place gradually from the base to the apex, until the sclerodium (or thallus) is formed (Fig. 603). At this time a somewhat horn-shaped body of a dark purple colour is formed. 378 REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF FUNGL—CLAVICILLIS. After remaining dormant during the winter, the *Exocyt* or *Sclerotium* produce spores (from which the *sporidia* can again be formed) in the following manner. See *Sclerotium* figs. Fig. 854. Fig. 854. Fig. 853. Portion of the horn-shaped sclerotium of *Claviceps purpurea*, or *Blepharum Purpureum*, bearing four stalked sporidia, magnified. Fig. 854. Large portion of the same, showing the long slender sporidia. After Tukin. Fig. 853. Fig. 854. Fig. 853. A single perithecium of *Claviceps purpurea* magnified, showing the numerous stalked sporidia. The *sporidia* are somewhat flask-shaped cavities (fig. 855), which are filled with air. 854 REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF FUNGL---PEZIZA. 377 the latter containing long slender spores (fig. 836), termed *ascospores*, which again, by germinating on the Rye or allied Grasses, give rise to new Fungi. *Peziza*, our second example of the Ascomycetes, is a genus of small, leafy, greenish, or brownish Fungi, whose spores are very common, and may be seen growing upon the dead trunks of trees, &c. *Peziza* is recognised as a small disc-shaped body, attached to the surface of the wood by a short stalk of purple colour. On close examination it is found that this structure (which is in reality a *ascocarp*) is growing from a continuo-us with a mycelium vegetating under the surface of the wood. Fig. 837. Fig. 838. A diagram showing the structure of a *Peziza* ascocarp. The main body of the ascocarp is depicted as a disc-shaped structure (a) with a short stalk (b) attached to the surface of the wood. The stalk is shown in purple colour. Within the disc-shaped body, there are several smaller structures (c) which appear to be budding off from the main body. These smaller structures are also depicted as disc-shaped bodies with short stalks (d). The entire structure is enclosed within a larger disc-shaped body (e). Fig. 837. A. Sub-hymenial layer of the mycelium or hyphae of *Peziza* con- sists, as shown in fig. 838, of numerous short filaments and ascospores intermixed with shorter paraphyses. After Tuilier. B. Hypothetical diagram showing the arrangement of protoplasts f., c., and Anthocyanin after Tuilier. d., upon which the Fungus is situated. On examining a verti- cal section through the mycelium, one finds that it consists of elongated cells closely packed side by side. Of these the outer ones are narrow at their base and taper off at the extremities, whilst the others are broader (fig. 837, c.) and contain within them eight oval spores (fig. 837, d.) while the former produce two or three smaller ones (fig. 837, e.), these spores being produced by the process of free cell formation. That which we have been describing, however, is merely one phase of what is known as *ascocarps*. In another phase, in which a clearly marked alternation of generations exists. At a certain period of the year three appear to be *Peziza* mycelium branches directed vertically upwards, which, after 378 REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF LICHENES. branching and rebranched, produce structures by means of which a sexual pair is formed. The apothecia (figs. 858, 8), and what may be termed oospores, $o$, the latter being ovoid vesicles placed at the extremities of the branchlets; whilst the former are sessile, and are produced on the upper surface of the base of the oogonium. The antheridium, $a$, finally unites with the oogonium, and produces a zygote, $z$. The zygote is a globular, pear-shaped process, $p$, on the latter, and as a result of the fertilisation a number of hyphae, $h$, shoot off from the base of the oogonium, and form a stalk, $s$, which is attached to the substratum by which we have already examined. 2. Lichens are plants, but they have received more recent researches which have been made on this order of plants, it appears to be most probable that Lichens are in reality Aconcomymous Fungi, probably belonging to the genus *Lecanora*. This view has been considered as absolutely settled, and so moreover Lichens present so many points of resemblance to fungi that it would be difficult to well describe them and their modes of reproduction, under a separate head. According to the view then that Lichens are spores or spore-like bodies, and that they reproduce by means of sexual reproductive organs, are in reality Algae upon which the Fungus is parasitic. Thus the thallus of Lichen is a compound structure composed of two distinct parts, viz., the Fungus and the Algae. The reproductive organs of Lichens are of three kinds:—(1) Apothecia; (2) Sporangiophores; and (3) Phycoblasts. The apothecia (figs. 860-862) have received different names according to whether they are round (fig. 840, op.) or linear (fig. 860). In some cases they are called *Aecia* (fig. 861). The apothecium may be either sessile or stalked; the stalk, when present, is termed a *stipe*. The apothecium is either conical or cup-shaped. In the conical form (fig. 860), when the stipe is found, it forms a partial or en- tire covering over the top of the cup; in the cup-shaped form (figs. 841, 205, and 843, pos.), found within the substance of their thallus, it is usually sessile. When the stipe is wanting, the apothecium constitutes the thallusum, and the layer of cells at the bottom of this, upon which the *paraphyses* are placed, is termed *peridium* (fig. 840). When the stipe is wanting but vertical section is seen to contain a number of spor-case called *asci* (fig. 841), these are termed *ascocarps*. The paraphyses are long slender filaments, called paraphyses, per which are usually per- garded as abortive ascis; the ascis and the paraphyses are placed perpendicular to each other. The ascis are generally of a different colour from the surrounding thallus; in the due examination of any one species it will be found that all cases of the ascis are generally containing eight spores; but in some cases only four, and in others sixteen; thus the spores are common to multiple species. In rare cases the ascis have a large number of spores. A diagram showing various parts of a lichen. REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF LICHEREN. 579 and are hence said to be polyporous. The spores themselves are usually termed zoospores. Some of these spores are of a very peculiar form, being long and tapering, with a short stalk-like tail. They are frequently beautifully coloured, and form beautiful ornaments on the surface of the plant. In a very few genera of Lichens, as *Abrodictyus* and *Scutula*, certain structures have been discovered by Tulane, called *sporo- pori*, which are supposed to be the organs of reproduction. They consist of isolated spores borne upon shortish simple stalks. They are produced in concretions to which is applied the name of *pyrulae*. The first of these were first discovered by Tulane, but they have been now found in a great number of Lichens, and probably exist in all. They are generally found in the upper part near the margins of the thallus, in the tissue of which they are usually more or less imbedded (fig. 846, $p$); but rarely, they are quite free (fig. 847). In some cases the spores are in two forms in form, and each has one or more cavities, with a small orifice at the top towards which the spore-point (fig. 848, $p$) points. In others the cavities communicate. The sporogonium, when mature, has A diagram showing the structure of a reproductive organ of Lichen. Fig. 839. Fig. 840. Fig. 841. Fig. 842. Fig. 843. Fig. 844. Fig. 845. Fig. 846. Fig. 847. Fig. 848. Fig. 849. Fig. 850. Fig. 851. Fig. 852. Fig. 853. Fig. 854. Fig. 855. Fig. 856. Fig. 857. Fig. 858. Fig. 859. Fig. 860. Fig. 861. Fig. 862. Fig. 863. Fig. 864. Fig. 865. Fig. 866. Fig. 867. Fig. 868. Fig. 869. Fig. 870. Fig. 871. Fig. 872. Fig. 873. Fig. 874. Fig. 875. Fig. 876. Fig. 877. Fig. 878. Fig. 879. Fig. 880. Fig. 881. Fig. 882. Fig. 883. Fig. 884. Fig. 885. Fig. 886. Fig. 887. Fig. 888. Fig. 889. Fig. 890. Fig. 891. Fig. 892. Fig. 893. Fig. 894. Fig. 895. Fig. 896. Fig. 897. Fig. 898. Fig. 899. Fig. 900. Fig. 901. Fig. 902. Fig. 903. Fig. 904. Fig. 905. Fig. 906. Fig. 907. Fig. 908. Fig. 909. Fig. 910. Fig. 911. Fig. 912. Fig. 913. Fig. 914. Fig. 915. Fig. 916. Fig. 917. Fig. 918. Fig. 919. 1 380 REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF LICHENES. its interior filled with a number of bodies called *spermatozoa* (figs. 842, p., and 843, p.), raised on stalks, termed *sterigmata* or *ger- mophores*, which are the organs of reproduction. The spermatozoa are produced in the *sporophore* according to the mode of produc- tion of the spores. The simplest form is that of a *sporangium* formed by the fusion of two *sporangiospores*. This is followed by articulated branches composed of a great number of cylindrical or globular cells (fig. 843, p.); or the branches are reduced to two or three cells, each of which contains a large number of *spermatozoa* (fig. 843, p.). These latter are long, slender, or the spermatozoa, and consist of exceedingly minute bodies, ordinarily linear, very thin, short or long, straight or curved, without appendages, and motile, and lie in a mucilage of Fig. 842. Fig. 843. extreme transparency. The spermatia are commonly regarded as the analogues of the spermozooids produced in the antheridia of the higher Cryptogamæ. When the spermozomium is mature, the spermatia are liberated through the pore or outside, or in vast numbers (fig. 842). Lichens may also be reproduced in a vegetative manner by means of special spores, which are formed in certain lichens specific. These are regarded by those who maintain the compound nature of Lichens as being due to some of the Algæ, although it is much derived its structure and appearance and interwoven with weft of fine fungal hyphae. Such a seedling when placed under favorable conditions will develop into a new plant identical in its same nature as that from which it derived its origin. A diagram showing the reproductive organs of lichens. REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF CHARACEL. 281 3. CHARACEL OR CHARAS.--By some botanists the Charace are classed among the Algae, but as they present in their structure some peculiarities which do not belong to the Algae, and as the latter, we have placed them in a separate group immediately pre- ceding the Charace. The reproductive organs are of two kinds, both of which grow at the base of the branches, and either on the same or on dif- ferent branches. The former are called *globose* organs, and these organs are called respectively, *gloides* and *nucules*. The gloide (fig. 844), of which is regarded as an antherium, A diagram showing the structure of a globose organ. **Fig. 844.** A diagram showing the structure of a nucule. **Fig. 845.** **Fig. 844. a. Portion of the axis of Characeus, showing the globose organ or antherium. b. Internode, c. Crowner, or nucule, d. Branches with gloides and nucules. e. Globose organ, f. A nucule, g. A gloide, h. A gloide with its stalk, i. A gloide with its stalk and head of leaf, j. A nucule with its stalk and head of leaf, k. A nucule without its stalk and head of leaf, l. A nucule with its stalk and head of leaf, m. A nucule without its stalk and head of leaf, n. A nucule without its stalk and head of leaf, o. A nucule without its stalk and head of leaf, p. A nucule without its stalk and head of leaf, q. A nucule without its stalk and head of leaf, r. A nucule without its stalk and head of leaf, s. A nucule without its stalk and head of leaf, t. A nucule without its stalk and head of leaf, u. A nucule without its stalk and head of leaf, v. A nucule without its stalk and head of leaf, w. A nucule without its stalk and head of leaf, x. A nucule without its stalk and head of leaf, y. A nucule without its stalk and head of leaf, z. A nucule without its stalk and head of leaf, aa. A nucule without its stalk and head of leaf, bb. A nucule without its stalk and head of leaf, cc. A nucule without its stalk and head of leaf, dd. A nucule without its stalk and head of leaf, ee. A nucule without its stalk and head of leaf, ff. A nucule without its stalk and head of leaf, gg. A nucule without its stalk and head of leaf, hh. A nucule without its stalk and head of leaf, ii. A nucule without its stalk and head of leaf, jj. A nucule without its stalk and head of leaf, kk. A nucule without its stalk and head of leaf, ll. A nucule without its stalk and head of leaf, mm. A nucule without its stalk and head of leaf, nn. A nucule without its stalk and head of leaf, oo. A nucule without its stalk and head of leaf, pp. A nucule without its stalk and head of leaf, qq. A nucule without its stalk and head of leaf, rr. A nucule without its stalk and head of leaf, ss. A nucule without its stalk and head of leaf, tt. A nucule without its stalk and head of leaf, uu. A nucule without its stalk and head of leaf, vv. A nucule without its stalk and head of leaf, ww. A nucule without its stalk and head of leaf, xx. A nucule without its stalk and head of leaf, yy. A nucule without its stalk and head of leaf, zz. A nucule without its stalk and head of leaf. is a globular body, usually placed immediately below, but occa- sionally on the side of the muscle. Of a green colour whilst young, it turns to a deep brick red as it becomes mature. It consists of eight cells arranged in a star-like form around a central cell, each of which is flattened triangular or quadrangular cell, curved so as to present a nosegay to the outer surface of the globule; and having their margins crinkled or toothed; so as individual as it were **382 REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF ALGAE—NOSTOC.** with the adjoining shield-cells. From the centre of each shield an elongate (fig. 846, c), the macronema, is given off at a perpendicularly placed angle, and these macronemata converge in the centre of the globule. A ninth cell of a similar form, but smaller than the others, is situated between the centres of the globules between the four lower shield-cells ; this is the stalk which fixes the globule to the branch upon which it is placed. The globule is surrounded by a thick-walled cell, which supports in turn four other smaller cells, and from each of these a long, thin, thread-like cell (fig. 846, d), in each cell of which is produced a single spiral or unistratified (fig. 845), which is furnished with two very long flagella. These flagella are so arranged that, whilst incapable of escaping from the cell by a sudden movement resembling the action of a spring, and yet capable of exhibiting active movements in water. Fig. 847. Fig. 848. The macronema is regarded as a pali- liding process of the cell, and an oval nucleus body, situated in the axis of a globule, contains a large central vacuole containing protoplasm, oil, and starch granules (fig. 846), and surrounded by a thin membrane, which spirals round it, and terminating above in a short stalk (fig. 847), from which remains free (fig. 847, a), and thus forms a kind of crown at the apex of the globule (fig. 847 b). At an early stage of growth the cells are connected by a canal (fig. 847 c), and a canal is thus left between them extending from the crown towards the central cell. This canal is supposed to form a passage, through which the protoplasm of one cell enters into another cell, by which it is fertilized. Ultimately the nucleus drops off, and when it permeates the central cell it produces a new nucleus round its own circumference from which the leaf-bearing sexual plant ultimately grows. A third class of aquatic plants, like the Fungi, comprises a very large number of species, which vary exceedingly in form, size, colour, and other peculiarities. They are all either rooted in mud or sand, or live on moist surfaces, or may be microscopic plants, or growths of enormous size. Although they are not included under algae we will simply describe the processes of reproduction occurring in certain examples as types of the rest. Nostocales. The Nostocales, as Algae, is found living sometimes in water, though more frequently on the damp surfaces of trees, strands of reeds, etc., and on rocks and stones; such as imbedded moniliform threads of cells (fig. 849), the different fil- **REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF ALCHEMIST.-SPYROSTRA. 385** ments being interwoven with one another. The greater number of the constituent cells contain chlorophyll; but usually there are also found some without it. Fig. 849. larger colourless cells, which are situated between the others, capable of division, and which are called the heterocytes (fig. 849). By means of the growth of the heterocytes, the number of the smaller cells, the Nox- cellular corpuscles, is increased in size, and new odocines also at certain fig. 850. Filaments from a Nox. cell grow out in the following manner. The movement of the position of water the jelly of the old colony swells up and allows the Nox filaments or rows of cells to become free. Each cell subsequently grows rapidly in a manner similar to that described under fig. 847. At each filament of a number of disc-like bodies placed side by side. Cell growth takes place on both sides of these bodies, so that each filament, so that a number of septate thread-like bodies are produced, which, joining by their ends, grow so as to form a cylinder. In this way, the filaments of the heterocytes are developed from cells which previously differed in appearance, respectively, from the jelly-like envelope of the colony and from them also gradually formed. Spore-gene, our next example of this order of plant, is one in which all the cells are alike in structure and function, very commonly takes place. Spore-gene is an Algæ which may be found in great quantities in the sea, and at times at the end of summer. The spores of the present objects which may be ex- amined under the microscope. Seen with the naked eye, it con- sists of a mass of minute elongated cells, containing chlorophyll, which float in the water where they are growing. Examined with the microscope, each filament is seen to be more or less divided into two parts by a transverse wall; these cells placed end to and (fig. 850). The chlorophyll is arranged in the middle part of each cell, and is distributed in a regular manner; the name of some of the species being determined by the number of such spirals in a single cell. Each cell is capable of growing independently until it has produced an entire plant is increased. When a filament is about to take place, two filaments ap- proach each other, and from the sides of contiguous cells (fig. 850, a, b, c), projections of the wall occur which meet in the centre. The walls thus intervening between the cavities of the two conjun 384 REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF ALGAE—VAUCHERIA. gaining cells next become absorbed (fig. 501, A), and the pro- toplasts, which have been formed by the division of the cell-wall, gradually traverse into the outer cell, where it becomes intimately mixed with the protoplasm, $a$, existing there. The whole mass then becomes a single cell, which is surrounded by a new wall, a cell-wall, $b$, and in fact constitutes what is called a zoospore. Later on its colour changes from green to that of a deep red, Fig. 500. Fig. 501. Fig. 500. Two filaments of Vaucheria about to conjugate; each cell is seen in two con- secutive stages of development. $A$ and $B$, two young cells; $C$ and $D$, two older cells, each with a protoplasm, and a central nucleus, surrounded by a protoplasmic membrane; $E$ and $F$, two old cells, each with a protoplasmic membrane, but no central nucleus; $G$ and $H$, two old cells, each with a protoplasmic membrane, but no central nucleus; $I$ and $J$, two old cells, each with a protoplasmic membrane, but no central nucleus; $K$ and $L$, two old cells, each with a protoplasmic membrane, but no central nucleus; $M$ and $N$, two old cells, each with a protoplasmic membrane, but no central nucleus; $O$ and $P$, two old cells, each with a protoplasmic membrane, but no central nucleus; $Q$ and $R$, two old cells, each with a protoplasmic membrane, but no central nucleus; $S$ and $T$, two old cells, each with a protoplasmic membrane, but no central nucleus; $U$ and $V$, two old cells, each with a protoplasmic membrane, but no central nucleus; $W$ and $X$, two old cells, each with a protoplasmic membrane, but no central nucleus; $Y$ and $Z$, two old cells, each with a protoplasmic membrane, but no central nucleus; $AA$ and $BB$, two old cells, each with a protoplasmic membrane, but no central nucleus; $CC$ and $DD$, two old cells, each with a protoplasmic membrane, but no cen- tral nucleus; $EE$ and $FF$, two old cells, each with a protoplasmic membrane, but no central nucleus; $GG$ and $HH$, two old cells, each with a protoplasmic membrane, but no central nucleus; $II$ and $JJ$, two old cells, each with a protoplasmic membrane, but no central nucleus; $KK$ and $LL$, two old cells, each with a protoplasmic membrane, but no central nucleus; $MM$ and $NN$, two old cells, each with a protoplasmic membrane, but no central nucleus; $OO$ and $PP$, two old cells, each with a protoplasmic membrane, but no central nucleus; $QQ$ and $RR$, two old cells, each with a pro- toplasmic membrane, but no central nucleus; $SS$ and $TT$, two old cells, each with a protoplasmic mem- brane, but no central nucleus; $UU$ and $VV$, two old cells, each with a protoplasmic membrane, but no central nucleus; $WW$ and $XX$, two old cells, each with a protoplasmic membrane, but no central nucleus; $YY$ and $ZZ$, two old cells, each with a protoplasmic membrane, but no central nucleus; $AA$ and $BB$, two old cells, each with a protoplasmic membrane, but no central nucleus; $CC$ and $DD$, two old cells, each with a protoplasmic membrane, but no central nucleus; $EE$ and $FF$, two old cells, each with a protoplasmic membrane, but no central nucleus; $GG$ and $HH$, two old cells, each with a protoplasmic membrane, but no central nucleus; $II$ and $JJ$, two old cells, each with a protoplasmic membrane, but no central nucleus; $KK$ and $LL$, two old cells, each with a protoplasmic membrane, but no central nucleus; $MM$ and $NN$, two old cells, each with a protoplasmic membrane, but no central nucleus; and after remaining dormant during the winter the zoospores germinate at the beginning of spring, and so give rise to another Spirogyra plant. Vaucheriaeae, which we will now consider, exhibit true sexual reproduction. The zoospores produce male or female spores. An irregular kind of alternation of generations exists in this genus. In one species (fig. 502) the zoospores are produced by a certain number of successive generations, the sexual process only taking place in generations separated by a considerable interval from one another. In another species (fig. 503) the sexual process may be formed in the same plant as that in which sexual reproduction takes place. Vaucheria may be found growing either in water or on moist surfaces. Its thallus consists of one very elongated and greatly branched filament (fig. 504). It is covered by an epidermis of per- Watermark tion of its thallus, which is much branched and perfectly trun REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF ALGAE--VAUCHERIA. 385 parent (fig. 802, n, v). The other, or non-transparent portion of the cell contains protoplasm, chlorophyllous grains, and fre- quently starch granules. In the species which have two spores are formed in various ways in the different species, the more common method being that in which a small branch becomes separated from the main axis of the thallus, grows outwards from it, shut off connecting a cell-wall round itself, and thus forming a new thallus. Ultimately generalising gives rise to a new Vaucheria thallus. Zoospores or Zoogonia are also not unfrequently formed as full-formed zoospores. The young thallus breaks into a sporangium, contract, and escape as a primordial cell, or one without a cell-wall, from a fissure at the apex (fig. 809, x, y). Fig. 802. A B C D Fig. 802. x, y. Newly formed zoospore or zoogonium of Vaucheria stricta growing. z. Zoogonia can after having lost the cell-capsule. c. First stage of prospore formation. d. Prospore with a cell-wall round it. e. Fully grown, active, and motile zoospore. f. Zoospore reaching position, forming a sort of vegetative reproduction. The primordial cell is densely covered by short cells, and is termed a zoospore or zoogonium, which at first rapidly rotates by its own power on the surface of the water, and at an ellipsoid wall is produced (fig. 812, p). This zoospore then gen- erates another zoospore by division within the same cell or form on the other side, at the same time, a branched root-like organ (fig. 802, n, v). When sexual reproduction takes place, short branches of the thallus or laminae, which are in close proximity to each other, become united together (fig. 813), and thus produce ova (fig. 814, n) or (fig. 802, n). The branch which is to form the endosperm is longer than the other which forms the coenocymum, and gener- ates two zoospores by division within the same cell or form on the other side from its base. The protoplasm in the upper part of these zoospores becomes free at the same time as the bursting of the endosperm becomes free at the same time as the rupture of the coenocymum take place. The organs (fig. 802, n, y; op), of which there are fre- x.v. 586 REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF A.G.E.—FUCUS. quently two near to each other, are somewhat ovoid ; they differ from the antheridia in containing a good deal of chlorophyll, and are separated from the cavity of the thallus by a space situated between the two layers of green and granular contents finally collected in the centre of the oogonium and colourless pro- tophormia. The outer layer of granules is always more dense at this point, and the contents at the same time retreat from the cell-wall and white granules appear on its surface. The oogonia open at the same time as the oogonium, and the antheridios escape, reach the coeophere, mix with it, and then disappear; and the protophormia, which have been formed during the period thus formed acquires a distinct cell-wall of its own, and its colour also changes to a reddish hue. By the germination of the coeophere, a new Fucusoria thus is formed. Fig. 63. Fig. 63. Vertical section of a female gonocarpus of *Fucus vesiculosus* (see Fig. 64). **Fucus.—This genus includes numerous species, which form the various plants commonly known as Seaweed. The thallus (Fig. 6) is usually long, very much branched, and of a general brown colour. At first it is composed of cells at the surface of closely packed small cells, but towards the interior the cells are more elongated, and their walls are thicker. The branches are short, which are interwoven amongst one another (Fig. 63). The walls of the constituent cells are peculiar in consisting of two parts : inner firm part and outer thin part, which may be either not or less swollen by intubation of water. Reproduction takes place by sexual process, which takes place in the following way—Numerous little ovicarions, known as gonocarpus, appear sunk in the surface of large swelling leaflets (Fig. 64, 1, 2), on the ends of the longer forked branches.

REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF ALO.E.—FUCUS. 387 the Fucus, and in these are contained the anthoceroid or oogonium, or both of these organs, together with abortive filaments or sporophytes, which are developed from the same protoplasts. The oogonia, i.e. contain both anthoceroids and oogonia in the same conceptacle; but in others, as *Fucus* medusoidus, either only anthoceroids or oogonia are developed from the same protoplast; such species therefore are dioecious. Let us now consider *Asteriella*, as an example of this monocious species, on making a section through a female conceptacle, its cavity is found to be of a more or less spherical form, and nearly filled with a mass of protoplasm, surrounded by a thin layer of dense tissue resembling, and in fact being a part of, the epidermal layer (fig. 854). This protoplasm is the epidermal layer (fig. 855). Springing from all parts of the wall of the conceptacle are slender jointed filaments, the paraphyses. Anthoceroids are produced at the ends of these filaments from certain cells of the lining, or epidermal layer of cells. Fig. 854. Fig. 855. Fig. 856. Fig. 854. *Asteriella*, c., on the branched base of the male conceptacle. The female conceptacle is shown in fig. 855, and the paraphyses emerging therefrom after corroboration. After Thunb.—Fig. 856. A zoospore emerging from a zoosporangium. The anthoceroids in the monocious species, as *Fucus platycarpus*, are developed in the same conceptacle as the oogonia; and in dioecious species in separate conceptacles, their terminal male-com- ponents being formed by means of a short stalk, or paraphysal body, e., a., formed on branched hair-like cells. When mature the anthoceroids are produced from these bodies in a number of small anthoceroids (fig. 856), each of which is fur- nished with a pair of cilia. The oogonia are similar bodies borne upon a short one- celled stalk, in which are produced eight zoospores by means of the division of the contained protoplasm (fig. 855). These, 3 389 REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF ALGAE—EDODONIUM. which are at first angular, become rounded off, and are ultimately set free by the bursting of the zoospore membrane. The entire zoospore is covered with a single layer of the coelopores, gather round the latter and appear to become finally blunted. The zoospore is then liberated, and the thus formed scores around itself a cell-wall and very soon begins to germinate. Growth and division proceed, and so a new Fucus thallus is produced (Edodonium). Fig. 837. (Edodonium.) — The thallus (Fig. 837) consists of a long, unbranched row of cells; and each cell contains one or more chlorophyll-granules, situated in the parietal protoplasmic layer. Reproduction is effected by means of sexual spores; or in a modified form by *arthrodia* and *oogonia*. The former are produced by means of the splitting of a cell and the consequent extrusion of its contents in the form of an ovate mass with a tuft of fine cilia at its pointed extremity. In the latter case the *oogonia* are formed in special cells, and either on the surface of the *oogonia* (fig. 837, a, u), or within them, termed a sexual filament; or on another filament (fig. 837, b), which is also called a male filament. The anthocysts (fig. 837, e) are formed by the zoospores or zoo- gonidia, but are smaller. The zoospores (fig. 837, q, oq) are oval bodies containing a large amount of chlorophyll, and are formed by the enlargement of individual cells of the enigmatic *Fucus* (fig. 837, e). Fig. 837. A. Middle part of sexual filament; B. Filament with zoospores; C. Zoospore; D. Zoospore fertilised by the ovary; E. Male filament; F. Ovule; G. Ovule with fertilised egg; H. Ovule with fertilised egg and young plant; I. Ovule with fertilised egg and young plant; J. Ovule with fertilised egg and young plant; K. Ovule with fertilised egg and young plant; L. Ovule with fertilised egg and young plant; M. Ovule with fertilised egg and young plant; N. Ovule with fertilised egg and young plant; O. Ovule with fertilised egg and young plant; P. Ovule with fertilised egg and young plant; Q. Ovule with fertilised egg and young plant; R. Ovule with fertilised egg and young plant; S. Ovule with fertilised egg and young plant; T. Ovule with fertilised egg and young plant; U. Ovule with fertilised egg and young plant; V. Ovule with fertilised egg and young plant; W. Ovule with fertilised egg and young plant; X. Ovule with fertilised egg and young plant; Y. Ovule with fertilised egg and young plant; Z. Ovule with fertilised egg and young plant. The con- tained protoplasmic mass, or coelopore, may be fertilised in two **REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF ALGÈ.—EDOGENIUM.** 389 different ways. Either the oospore is directly fertilised by contact with the anthocarids above described (fig. 807, c, s, d); or by means of a special form of swarm-spore known as an androspore (fig. 807, a, n). The androspore, which is produced from cells resembling those of the anthocarid, is a very small plant, and is known as a dwarf male plant (fig. 807, s, m, m), and sub- sequently becomes attached to the anthocarid, by which the oospore may be fertilised, and become transformed into an **oospore**. The androspore after a short period of rest gives rise to four swarm-spores (fig. 807, d), each of which (fig. 807, b) produces a new androspore. In *Eodogenium* we have another example of alternation of generations, similar to that which occurs in *Fucus* (page 561), viz., that in which the plant producing the swarm-spore-producing plant, whilst at more or less regular intervals of time produces swarm-spores, but that no swarm-spores are produced however that zoospores may be also produced in the same individual plant as that in which the sexual process takes place. BOOK II. SYSTEMATIC BOTANY, OR THE CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS. CHAPTER 1. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION. Our attention has been hitherto directed to the examination of the structure of the various organs and parts of plants. In doing so, we have endeavoured to consider them under the same forms which have thus been presented to us, and also at the same time to ascertain their affinities with other plants. There are some striking resemblances in the structure of the organs of certain plants, by which a close relationship is thus clearly indicated between them. But this is not always the case, and it is not easy to take notice of such relationships, and thus to bring plants together who appear to be very different from each other. We must therefore look for those that are unlike ; and in this way to take a comprehensive view of the whole Vegetable Kingdom. In its extended sense, sys- tematic botany is the science of arranging plants in a manner that we may really ascertain their affinities, and at the same time get an insight into their affinities and general properties. In the present time there are at least 120,000 species of plants known to naturalists. It would be impossible for any one to study therefore, for the purpose of study, or in order to obtain any satisfactory knowledge of the vegetable kingdom, all these plants, but we should arrange them according to some definite and fixed rules ; but before we proceed to describe the systems that have been devised for arranging plants, I think it will be necessary to define certain terms which are in common use in such systems. I. SPECIES.--By the term species we understand a collection of individuals which resemble each other more nearly than they resemble others. This resemblance is usually determined by seed; so that we may from analogy infer that they have all been A small image of a plant. **SPECIES.—VARIETIES.—RACES.** 301 derived originally from one common stock. Thus, if we walk into a field of Beans, Peas, or Clover, we observe thousands of individuals, all of which are alike in their general form, size, and in some other important characters, yet we once associate them with each other, and now find that they are so widely different as to be commonly observed around us, in the gardens and fields, similar collections of individuals. Such collections of plants, thus seen to resemble each other in many respects, but differing in others, give rise to the idea of a species; and that idea is at once confirmed if, by taking the same plants in different places, we find them to differ from those resembling those from which such seeds have been derived. Species are, however, under special conditions, liable to varia- tions, as will be shown hereafter, which may be permanent and race. **Varieties.—It has just been observed, that if the seed of a species be now, it will produce a plant resembling its parent in all its important parts. But this will only happen, when the soil in which the seed is sown is favourable to its growth; the soil, heat, moisture, and other conditions, as its parent ; and then we shall see that the offspring will be very much like the parent with certain peculiarities in form, colour, size, and other minor cha- racters, in plants raised from the seeds of the same species. In the majority of cases this will be so. In some cases such variations are merely transient, and the indi- viduals revert to their original type after a few generations; but their original specific type, or perish altogether; while in other in- stances they are permanent and continue throughout the life of the individual. Such variations are called races. They are associated with the particular variations thus impressed upon it; and hence are variously designated by botanists. The following are opera- tions of Building. Graphing. Ge. (see page 109), is the case with many of our fruit trees and flowers. But even these varie- ties cannot be considered as races; because if any one tree be grown from a seed obtained from a tree of another race having been obtained, so that the nature of the plant raised will de- pend upon the character of the soil in which it is planted. But other varieties are permanent and do not revert to their original type; as for example, the seedling of a number of differ- ent varieties of Apples, the fruit which it afterwards bears resem- bles that of one variety more than that of any other; or a tree of Apple trees will instead of resembling that of their parents, have a tendency to revert to that of the common Crab, from which they were derived by artificial selection. Hence a variety differs essentially from a species in that it cannot be propagated by seeds. **Races.—Some of the varieties just alluded to there are others, which are called perpetual varieties or races, because they persist through several generations without any change. Such ex- amples of such races are afforded by our Cereal grains, as Wheat, A diagram showing two types of variation: one where an individual shows slight differences from its parent (left) and another where an individual shows significant differences from its parent (right). 392 PERMANENT VARIETIES OR RACES.—HYBRIDS. Oats, and Barley; and also by our culinary vegetables, as Peas, Lettuce, and Cabbage. In all these cases, the seeds of each race of plants have originated, it is impossible to say with any certainty. In the first case they probably arose in an ac- cidental manner, but in the second, and third, the variations are liable to produce certain variations or abnormal deviations from their specific type, or to revert, so as it termed. By further cultivation, and selection, the permanent varieties arise after a time rendered permanent, and can be propagated by seed. Those species which have been perpetuated by seed, or them- selves, or if sown in poor soil, will soon lose their peculiarities, and either perish, or revert to their original specific type; it will be seen, that this is the case with the majority of cultivated plants, by which they are distinguished from true species. Hence, although many of the permanent varieties may be said to become permanent varieties by ages of cultivation and by the skill of the cultivator, they can only be made to continue in that state by a reversion to their original type. If any one could show how they would, as just observed, either perish or revert to their original specific type by some means other than by seed, he would be assured of having discovered a new species. This is the object of the assistance of the agriculturist and gardener in perpetuating and improving such variaions. Another cause which leads to constant variations from the specific types is hybridisation. The varieties thus formed, which appear to be more or less distinct from those originally trans- mitted by seed—although in some instances, such is the case for a few generations—but they gradually revert to one or the other of the original types. We have now seen that species, under certain circumstances, are liable to become variable. It is evident that every species has a de- revert to revert to their original specific type. Hence species must be considered as permanent productions of Nature, which are capable of being perpetuated by seed. But it is not yet pos- sible to ascertain whether any species are capable of being altered so as to assume the characters of another species. It is probable that this cannot be done according to the theory, which has been advocated by some naturalists, of a transmission of species. All such statements, therefore, that have been made respecting the possibility of altering any species whatever into another, are entirely without founda- tion, and have arisen from imperfect observation. The following list contains several varieties that until within the last few years, have been almost universally esteemed by nurserymen and gardeners as distinct species; but which have been fully and most decidedly developed in Darwin's work on "The Origin of Species," and which are now generally admitted as such. This author contends that species, as far from being immutable, as he believes they are not; and that many changes occurring over a long period of time, may become so altered, that they revert to a form very apparent resemblance to those from which they were originally derived. **GENERAL ORDERS.** 398 In practice it is very important that we should distinguish varieties from true species, for nothing is so calculated to lead us astray as to suppose that all the varieties of a plant are mere varieties to the condition of species. No individuals should be considered as constituting a species until they exhibit important and constant distinguishing characters in a single form which can be perpetuated by seed. Great uncertainty still prevails in this point, and I have seen many authors, who write on British and other plants, estimate the number of species contained in a genus by the number of varieties described by them. Swartz, Soler, Smilizz, and others, vary differently. It is evident that the number of varieties of a plant will have noticed that certain species are more nearly allied to each other than to other species. Thus, the different kinds of Roses, Brooms, and other plants, are much more closely allied to each other of such assemblies of species ; for, although the plants comprise different genera, yet they possess many characters in common. In distinctive characters, yet there are at the same time also striking resemblances between them. Such assemblies of species are called genera. The members of a genus resemble each other in general structure and appearance. Thus, the members of a genus of Honeysuckles resemble each other; though some kinds of Honeysuckles constitute one genus, the Roses another, the Willows, Heathas, Cleavers, and Oaks form also, in like manner, one genus each. The members of a genus resemble each other closely from the organs of reproduction, while those of a group do not resemble each other in any way. Hence it appears that a genus is defined as a collection of species which resemble each other in the structure and general character of their organs of reproduction. It is evident that no two genera can contain a species should contain a number of species, for, if a single species possesses peculiarities of a marked kind, it may itself constitute a genus. It frequently happens that two or more species of a genus resemble each other in some particular organ or in some import- ant characters than to other species of the same genus ; in which case these two or more species constitute a subgenus. **399. GENERAL ORDERS.** If we regard collections of genera from the same point of view as we have just done those of species ; we shall find that some of them also resemble each other more than do others ; thus the genera of Strawberries and Brambles, and Cabbage have strong common resemblance, whilst they are unlike Strawberries and Brambles ; and even less so to Handsel, Oak, and Ash. Proceeding in this way throughout the Verte- brate Kingdom, we collect together allied genera, and form them into groups of a higher order called Orders or Natural 394 **ORDERS.—CLASSES.** *Orders; hence, while genera are collections of related species, orders are collections of all orders.* Thus Mustards, Turnips, Radishes, and Cabbage, all belong to the same order, but they all agree in their general structure, and are hence included in the same class. The same may be said of the Asparagus, Folios, Roses, Apples, Plums, and Almonds, are all different genera, but from the general resemblance they bear to each other in their general structure, they are all included in the same class. Again, Oaks, Beeches, and Hazels are different genera, but they belong to the same class because they have certain characters in common. So also the various species of the above genera belong to the same class, because they are all grouped together in one order, which is termed the Coniferous. *Sub-classes.*—By a sub-class we understand a group of certain species of a genus, have a more striking resemblance to each other than do any two species belonging to another genus. These are grouped together into what are called Sub-classes. Thus the Chionyia, Dandelion, Sow-thistle, Lotus, Thistle, Burdock, and Chamomile belong to the same sub-class; for they have a greater resemblance in the Chionyia, Dandelion, Sow-thistle, and Lotus to each other than do any two of these plants with respect to the above genera belong to the same class; they are at the same time placed in two different sub-orders. Thus, one sub- order, the Carpeae; and another sub-order, the Rosaceae; and the other sub-order, the Tulipiferae; that is to say, while we find the Almond, Cherry, Strawberry, Raspberry, Rose, Quince, and Apple, all belonging to the same order Rosaceae, some of them belong to one sub-order Carpeae; others to others. Thus, the Almond and Cherry have a drupaceous fruit, and therefore belong to one sub-order Carpeae; while the Apple and Quince have a fleshy fruit and are called Amygdalae; the Strawberry, Raspberry, and Rose, are much more like each other than they are to the Almond and Cherry, or to the Apple and Quince; hence they belong to one sub- order called Rosae; while the Apple and Quince, from the character of their fruits differ from each other. It is also found convenient at times to subdivide sub-orders into *Triae* and *Sub-triae*, by collecting together into groups certain very similar species. This is done in order either for no illustrate such divisions further, as the principles upon which they depend are too obvious for illustration. *Classes.*—By a class we understand a group of orders pos- sessing some important structural characters in common. Thus we have the classes of Angiosperms (Flowers), Monocotyledons, Dicotyledons which possess certain distinctive characters in their embryos; and these classes derive their names ; as well as other important anatomical differences. The Classes are also divided into Sub-dases and other divisions; but these divisions vary greatly according as they are subdivided; but as such divisions vary in different systems, A diagram showing relationships between orders and classes. CHARACTERS OF THE DIVISIONS OF PLANTS. 395 are all more or less artificial, it is not necessary for us, in this place, to dwell upon them further. The more important divi- sions of plants, which are the basis of the system of classi- fication, are Classes, Orders, Genera, and Species. The following table will show how these divisions have al- luded to ; the more important and those of universal use being indicated by a larger type. 1. CLASS. Sub-classes. Orders or FAMILIERS. Sub-families. Tribes. Sub-tribes. 3. GENERAL. Sub-genus. 4. SPECIES. Varieties. Races or Permanent Varieties. Henslow has taken as an illustration of these different divi- sions *Astragalus Variegatus*, thus :
1. CLASS. Dichotomies.
Sub-class. Corymbes.
2. ORDER. Lepanthes.
Sub-order. Papilionaceae.
Tribes. Legum.
Sub-tribe. Genistae.
3. GENUS. Astragalus.
Sub-genus. Varietaria.
4. SPECIES. Varieties.
Variety. Dulicae.
Race. Furiosa cocinella.
Characters—By the term character, we mean a list of all the points by which any particular species is distinguished from gross, sub-tride, tribe, sub-order, order, sub-class, or class, is dis- tinguished from other species of the same genus, or from other genera, which are called respectively essential and natural. By an essen- tial character, we understand an enumeration of those points which are common to all the members of a genus, and distinct from others of the same nature; such may also be called diagnostic characters. A natural character is one which is common to all the complete description of a species given, generic, order, class, etc., including an account of every organ from the root upwards, through the stem, leaf, flower, fruit, seed; but these descriptions are necessarily of great length, and are not required for general 386 NOMENCLATURE OF CLASSES AND ORDERS. diagnosis, although of great value when a complete history of a plant or group is known, is not always sufficient, again, to render us a precise idea of what species are, and are taken necessarily from all the organs of the plant, and relate chiefly to their form, shape, texture, colour, etc., and not to any other characters, in other words, to characters of a superficial nature, and without reference to their internal structure. The characters of a genus are called generic characters, and those of an order are called ordinal characters. The characters of an order are termed ordinal, and are derived from the general structure of the plant, and not from any particular organ of the organs of reproduction ; while the characters of a class, as already mentioned, are derived from certain important structural peculiarities which are common to all the members of that class. The essential character of a genus, when indicated in Latin, is put in the nominative case, while that of a species is placed in the ablative. NOMENCLATURE—A. Classes.—The names of the classes are derived from the general structure of the plants which they possess, relating either to their structure or mode of development. The following are the principal classes of the various orders of different systematic botanists. Those more commonly used in this country, and which have been accordingly adopted in this work, are denoted by capital letters A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H ; terms which, as we have already explained, are derived from the structure or mode of development of the plants respectively. Other terms also in common use are derived from the absence or presence of a stem, and its mode of development : such as Angiosperms (from Angus), Monocotyledons (from Monos), Dicotyledons (from Dicos), and Phanerogames (from Phaneros). The above names are used especially in what we call the Natural System. In the Artificial System the names of Classes in the Artificial System of Linnaeus are derived chiefly from the number and other characters presented by the stamens. B. Ordinaries.—The Ordinaries are divided into two classes. The Linnean class comprises all those genera which are chiefly derived from the peltal and fruit. Those of Natural Order Linnaean are those which belong to a known genus which is included in any particular order, and which may be regarded as the type of that order. Thus, the genus *Bassia* belongs to the order *Liliaceae*, but it is included in the class *Linnaean*. The other genera belonging to this class re- spectively to the orders *Papaveraceae*, *Malvaceae*, *Hyacinthaceae*, *Gentianaceae*, *Rosaceae*, *Liliaceae*, *Orchidaceae*, and *Indigoferae*. At other times it has been customary to include under this cha- racteristic feature which the plants included in them present. Thus, the genus *Corydalis* includes many plants which have cruciate corolla; the order *Leguminosae* comprises plants whose fruit is a legume; the *Umbelliferae* are umbel-bearing plants; the *Labiatae* have tubular corolla; the *Compositae* are some com- plant; and so on.
A. Nomina Classum Botanicorum.
A. Angiospermae.
B. Monocotyledonae.
C. Dicotyledonae.
D. Phanerogamae.
E. Monocotyledonae Linnaeanae.
F. Dicotyledonae Linnaeanae.
G. Monocotyledonae Linnaeanae.
H. Dicotyledonae Linnaeanae.
**NOMENCLATURE OF GENERA AND SPECIES.** 37 c. Genera.—The names of the genera are derived in various ways: thus, either from the name of some eminent botanist, as Lindley, or from the name of some other person, as Hooker, Jussieu after Jussieu, Tournefort after Tournefort; or from the name of a plant which is included in them, as the rhubarb comprised in them, and from various other denominations. Thus, *Crassula* is derived from the genus comprising plants with succulent leaves; *Corydalis* from the Corydalis having tubular roots; *Arenaria* from growing in sandy places; *Lithospermum* from its frills having a resemblance to the lichens. d. Species.—The names of the species are also variously derived. Thus, the species of the genus *Ficus*, as shown by Gray, exhibit the same characters as the genus itself; but they sometimes distinguish the country which a plant inhabits, for example, *Ficus canadensis*, the Canadian fig; or the station where it grows, as *Ficus carica*, the fig tree found in swamps, and *Ficus arbores*, in fields; or they express some other particular character of the plant. Thus, *Ficus carica* bears a remarkably long spur. *Ficus tricolor*, which has tri-coloured flowers, *Ficus rotundifolia*, with rounded leaves, *Ficus pumila*, with small leaves and small flowers, with compound-petalled leaves. *Ficus profundaefolia*, whose leaves are compound-petalled and have a peculiar shape; they are likened to those of Aureus, *Ficus pubescens*, which is hairy throughout, &c. Frequently the species bear the name of its discoverer or describer, as *Ficus alata* after Linnaeus, *Ficus amicifolia* after Linnaeus, &c. Specific names are written after the generic name, as indicated in the following examples: *Ficus carica* is a tree together constitute the proper application of a plant. The specific names are also commonly adjectives, and agree in gender and case with their genitive. Thus, *Ficus carica* is feminine and singular in form after its discoverer or describer; it is usually placed in the genitive case, as *Ficus carica Linnaeus*. Sometimes specific names are merely given in honour of botanists who have had nothing to do with their discovery or description; the specific names are usually masculine and singular in form, as *Ficus Linnæus* (after Linnaeus), *Ficus Linnæus Linnaeus* (after Linnaeus). Sometimes specific names are masculine and plural in form, as *Ficus Linnæus Linnaeus* (after Linnaeus); such a rule is however frequently departed from. Sometimes specific names are derived from Latin words not necessarily agreeing with the genus in gender, such specific names are often old generic ones, as *Dactylis Fruticosa*, *Buxus Co- lona*, *Laurus nobilis*, &c., or from common words like *Americana*, *Aspidistra Funiculata*. In such cases the specific name should begin with a vowel sound when it is derived from a person; but in all other instances it is better that the specific name should begin with a small letter. The following examples will show how this rule is observed: thus, in the particular kind of Viola called *Viola patula*, Viola is the generic, and patula is the species or trivial name. **ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS:** It is usual in botanical works... 398 ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS. to use certain abbreviations and symbols. A few of the more important ones are here given. Abbreviations.--The names of authors, when of more than one syllable, are commonly abbreviated by writing the first letter or syllables thereof. Thus: L. or Lias, means Mammus; Lusis, is the abbreviation for Justus; D. C., for Dioscorides; Br., for Brown; Landt, for Landt; Rich, for Rich; Hook, for Hooker; Wotk, for Withering; Endl., for Endlicher; Dub., for Duby; etc. It is common to put such abbreviated names after that of the genus or species which has been described by them respectively. Thus: *Dioscorides* *Mammus* (L.) is the name of the first described by Linnaeus; *Melissa* *Lindt.* is the genus *Melissa* as defined by Lindt; *Nepeta* *Candolle* is the species of Nepeta defined by De Candolle, &c., &c. Other abbreviations in common use are: *Ae.* for Root; *Cond.* for stem; *Fer.* for fruit; *Ord.* for Order; *Gen.* for genus; *Sp.* or *Spec.* for species; *Var.* for variety; *Herb.* for herbaceous, &c. Again, V. v. c. (*Vide vire cum spontane*) indicates that the author has seen a living cultivated plant as described by him. V. v. s. c. (*Vide vire spontane*) indicates that the author has seen a living wild plant. V. v. c. (*Vide vire spontanea*) indicates that a dried specimen of the cultivated plant has been examined. V. v. s. (*Vide vire spontanea*) indicates that a dried specimen of the wild plant has been examined. Symbols.--The more important symbols are as follows:—
〇 O. or A. signifies an annual plant.
〇 O. or B. signifies a perennial plant.
〇 O. or P. signifies a perennial herb;
〇 O. or Sh. means a shrub.
〇 O. or S. signifies:
(twining to the right:) twining to the left.
a staminate flower.
a pistillate flower.
a perigynous flower.
a monogamous plant.
: q. a dicotyledonous species.
: y a polygamous plant.
c signifies that the cotyledons are acuminate, and the radii lateral.
CCotyledons incumbent, radicis dorsal.Cotyledons conuplicate, radicis dorsal.Cotyledons conuplicate, radicis dorsal.Cotyledons conuplicate, radicis dorsal.Cotyledons conuplicate, radicis dorsal.Cotyledons conuplicate, radicis dorsal.Cotyledons conuplicate, radicis dorsal.Cotyledons conuplicate, radicis dorsal.Cotyledons conuplicate, radicis dorsal.Cotyledons conuplicate, radicis dorsal.Cotyledons conuplicate, radicis dorsal.Cotyledons conuplicate, radicis dorsal.Cotyledons conuplicate, radicis dorsal.Cotyledons conuplicate, radicis dorsal.Cotyledons conuplicate, radicis dorsal.Cotyledons conuplicate, radicis dorsal.Cotyledons conuplicate, radicis dorsal.Cotyledons conuplicate, radicis dorsal.Cotyledons conuplicate, radicis dorsal.Cotyledons conuplicate, radicis dorsal.Cotyledons conuplicate, radicis dorsal.Cotyledons conuplicate, radicis dorsal.Cotyledons conuplicate, radicis dorsal.Cotyledons conuplicate, radicis dorsal.Cotyledons conuplicate, radicis dorsal.Cotyledons conuplicate, radicis dorsal.Cotyledons conuplicate, radicis dorsal.Cotyledons conuplicate, radicis dorsal.Cotyledons conuplicate, radicis dorsal.Cotyledons conuplicate, radicis dorsal.Cotyledons conuplicate, radicis dorsal.Cotyledons conuplicate, radicis dorsal.Cotyledons conuplicate, radicis dorsal.Cotyledons conuplicate, radicis dorsal.Cotyledons conuplicate, radicis dorsal.Cotyledons conuplicate, radicis dorsal.Cotyledons conuplicate, radicis dorsal.Cotyledons conuplicate, radicis dorsal.Cotyledons conuplicate, radicis dorsal.Cotyledons conuplicate, radicis dorsal.Cotyledons conuplicate, radicis dorsal.Cotyledons conuplicate, radicis dorsal.Cotyledons conuplicate, radicis dorsal.Cotyledons conuplicate, radicis dorsal.Cotyledons conuplicate, radicis dorsal.Cotyledons conuplicate, radicis dorsal.399
□ || Cytotyledons twice folded, radicle dorsal.
|| || Cytotyledons three times folded, radicle dorsal.
The system of classification is often doubtful or uncertain as to the genus, species, locality, etc.
The order of classification indicates certainty in the above particulars.
The asterisk indicates that a good description is to be found at the reference to which it is appended.
CHAPTER 2. SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION. We have already stated that Systematic Botany has for its object the naming, classifying, and describing of plants in such a manner that we may really ascertain their names, and at the same time get an insight into their affinities and general properties. Every one knows how difficult it is to name a plant does not, however, comprise all the above points: for, while this system is useful in giving a name to each plant by means of ascertaining their names; others do not only do this, but at the same time give us a knowledge of their affinities and propensities. Hence it is evident that the Linnean system includes two heads namely, Artificial and Natural—the former only necessary for the purpose of giving a name to each particular plant; while the latter, if perfect, should comprise all the points which come within the scope of the subject of Systematic Botany. The great aim of the Linnean system was to establish a basis of a true Natural System; but, in its day, the Artificial System of Linnean was so much more useful than any other comencing the study of Botany without the aid of a teacher, it cannot prove of essential service. Linnean himself never devised his system with a view to its being used for serving more than a temporary purpose, or as an introduction to the study of Botany; but when he had obtained what he had been obtained. When used in this sense, the Artificial System of Lin- nean may still be used with advantage as an index to the Natural system; but it must be remembered that it is merely a classified description of its principal divisions. In both artificial and natural systems there are two divisions—namely, Genera and Species; these are the same, the difference between the systems consisting in the manner in which these divisions are arranged. In the Natural System, as given by Lin- nean and other artificial systems, one, or at most, a few charac- ters are arbitrarily selected, and all the points in the Vegetable Kingdom are distributed under classes and orders according to A diagram showing different levels of classification in botany. 400 ARTIFICIAL AND NATURAL SYSTEMS. the correspondence or difference of the several genera in such respects, no regard being had to any other characters. The plants in this system are all artificial, and therefore, no necessary agreement with each other except in the characters which they possess in common with the plants respectively. Hence such a system may be compared to a dic- tionary, in which words are arranged, for convenience of reference, so as all to agree with each other, but without any necessary agreement with each other, except in commencing with the same letter. In the natural system, on the contrary, the charac- ters of the genera are taken into consideration, and those are grouped together into orders which correspond in the greatest number possible with the characters of the several genera united, upon the same principles, into groups of a higher order, namely, families. Hence we see that all the knowledge we necessarily gain by an artificial system, is the name of an unknown plant; on the other hand, by the Na- tural System we have a more extensive view of the relations of the plants to the plants by which it is surrounded, and hence get a clue to its nature. For instance, if we find a plant, and want to ascertain its name, if we turn to the Linnean System, and find that such a plant is the *Mimosa pudica*, we shall know that it is a sensitive plant; if we turn to the artificial system, we have gained; but by turning to the Natural System instead, and finding that it belongs to the genus *Mimosa*, we shall have a con- stant at once from its affinities that it must have the tonic and other properties which are possessed by the plants generally of that order; and therefore we shall know that it has all those peculiarities in its structure with the same plants; and hence, by knowing the nature of these plants, we shall know what peculiarities it has all that is most important in its history. It is quite true that all the orders, as at present constituted, are by no means so natural as they ought to be; and it is only by our imperfect knowledge of their constitution, and can only be remedied as our knowledge of them increases. But it is impossible at present to make any improvement in our systems, and can only be done when every new discovery is made. It is perfectly possible one day, may be distant the next, in consequence of new plants being discovered which might compel us to alter our views, but until then our systems will remain as they are imperfectly, and of others, almost entirely unknown. Suffi- cient, however, has been said respecting both natural and arti- ficial classification great divisions according to a natural method, and which after discoveries are not likely to affect any important extent. The artificial divisions are comparatively unimportant, and will no doubt disappear as our knowledge of the flora of the globe becomes extended. Having now described the general characters upon which the artificial and natural systems are founded, and also the merits and disadvantages of the two classes of systems respectively, we ARTIFICIAL SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION. 401 proceed in the next place to describe more particularly the principles on which these systems are founded, commencing with those of an artificial nature. Section I. ARTIFICIAL SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION. The first artificial system of any importance, of which we have any particular record, is that of Cæsareanum, which was promulgated in the year 1680. In 1680 plants were then known; and those were distributed into classes according to their form, and chiefly derived from the fruit. The next systematical arrangement of an artificial nature was that of Linnaeus, about the year 1700. He divided plants into eighteen classes, each of which was constructed according to the nature of the flower and fruit, and the external appearance of the plant. Each class was further subdivided into orders, which were also constructed upon somewhat similar principles, while that of Linnaeus was afterwards modified by the valuers of the pericarp, and their numerous varieties. Upon the corolla--its regularity or irregularity, and the number of its parts--was but a slight alteration of that of Rivinus. That of Tournefort, which was promulgated about the year 1685, was for a more extensive purpose than that of Linnaeus. About 8000 species of plants were then known, which were distributed into two divisions, one of which contained all the trees, shrubs, and other trees and shrubs; and each of these divisions was themselves subdivided according to the form of the corolla. Many other systems were devised by various authors; such as the Hortorum de fragrans, by Pontedera. Magnolius, who introduced a new method of classification on the calyx; while Gleditsch attended one in which the classes were formed according to the nature of the flowers. Above mentioned systems were, without doubt, useful in their day, and paved the way for later ones; but none so extensive as Linnaeus', which being still in use to some extent, constitutes a standard system. LINNAEUS SYSTEM.--This celebrated system was first pro- mulgated in 1735; and was published in 1738. It has been somewhat altered by subsequent improvement; but its fundamental characters, the Linnaean system, as now adopted, is the same as that which Linnaeus himself described. In describing this system we shall adopt the arrange- ment of his own. The classes and orders in the Linnaean System are taken ex- clusively from the vegetative organs of reproduction, the sexual nature of which Linnaeus did not understand. Hence this artificial scheme is commonly termed the Sexual System. D D 402 LINNÉAN SYSTEM.—CLASSES. **Classes.—In this system plants are at first divided into Flow- ering and Flowerless, the latter of which constitutes a class by themselves, called the **Flowering Plants**, or **Flowers**. The former, called the **Angiosperms**, are divided into twenty-three classes; the characters of which are the number of stamens, their posi- tion, relative length, and connection of the stamens; while those of the other three are derived from their universal flowers. The names of these classes are derived from the Greek, and express their distinctive peculi- arities. The first eleven classes comprise all hermaphrodite flowers, the stamens of which are all distinct from each other, and about the same length, and are connected with one another by inter- nervous. The individual classes are distinguished by the ad- solute number of stamens, which is expressed by the combination of the Greek numeral expressing the number, with the termination ondra, meaning man or male, in refer- ence to the stamens being all alike in position and nature. Thus— Class 1. Monandrais, includes all plants which have but one stamen to the flower, as *Hippeastrum* (fig. 407), and *Ceratostigma* (fig. 408). Class 2. Decandrais, those having flowers with two stamens, as the *Ash* (fig. 29), *Lilac*, and *Circus* (fig. 77). Class 3. Duodecandrais, those having flowers with ten stamens, as in many Grasses, Valerian (fig. 489), and Iris. Class 4. Trirandria, those having flowers with three stamens, as the Holly, *Rhamnus*, and *Euphorbia*. Class 5. Pentandrais, those with five stamens, as the Cowslip, *Primula vulgaris* (fig. 410). Class 6. Hexandrais, those with six stamens, as the Tulip (fig. 411), and plants generally of the Lily Order (fig. 412). Class 7. Heptandrais, those with seven stamens, as in the Horse- chestnut (fig. 906), and *Trientalis*. Class 8. Octandrais, those with eight stamens, as in the Heath, Ivy, and Rose (fig. 573). Class 9. Nonandrais, those with nine stamens, as the Flowering Rush (fig. 583), and Rhubarb. Class 10. Decandrais, those with ten stamens, as the Pink and Rose. Class 11. Decandrais. This class includes all plants which have flowers containing from twelve to nineteen stamens. The two succeeding classes include plants with hermaphrodite flowers having twenty or more distinct stamens, which vary as to their number and position; but the names of the classes are not here exactly descriptive. Thus— Class 12. Ioocandrais (literally, twenty stamens), includes all A diagram showing different flower arrangements. **LINNÉAN SYSTEM—CLASSES.** plants which have twenty or more stamens in- serted on the calyx or perigone; as in the Cherry, and many other plants (Fig. 508). Class 13. **Polyandra** (literally, many stamens); those with twenty or more stamens inserted on the thalamus— that is, on the calyx or perigone; as in the Clematis (Fig. 509), Clematis, Poppy, and Anemone. The characters of the two succeeding classes depend upon the relation of the stamens, the flowers being also herma- phrodite; thus: Class 14. **Dolypodium**, includes plants with four stamens to the flower, two of which are long and short—-or, in other words, one long and three short—(Fig. 554), and Dead-nettle. Class 15. **Trispermum**, includes plants with six stamens, of which four are long and two short—or, in other words, trispermous; as in the Wallflower (Fig. 25) and Cuckoo-bush. The names of the two latter classes are derived from the Greek and signify in the former class that the two longer, and in the latter class the four longer, stamens, are more power- ful than the shorter. The three next classes are characterized by the cohesion or union of the stamens into bundles or bunches; more bundled. Their names are derived from the combination of the Greek word *adipo* (meaning a bunch) with that which terminate *adeplos* or brotherhood, which is used euphe- merically for a bundle; thus— **Class 16. Monodaphne,** includes all plants having flowers in which one or more are united by their filaments into one bundle or brotherhood, as in those of the Mallow (Fig. 560) and the Honeysuckle (Fig. 561). **Class 17. Dendrophila,** those with the filaments united into two bundles, as in the Pea (Fig. 547), and many other Plants (Fig. 562). **Class 18. Polypodiphlo,** those with the filaments united into more than two bundles; as in the Mistletoe (Fig. 549), Castor Oil Plant, and Orange (Fig. 548). In the next class the character is taken from the union of the anthers, and the name is derived from two Greek words signifying "many" and "anther." **Class 19. Spermatia,** includes all plants the flowers of which have their anthers united into a tube or ring, and whose stamens are nearly distinct; as in Alli- Composite plants (Fig. 543). A diagram showing different types of plant classifications. 408 404 LINNÉAN SYSTEM.—CLASSES. The character of the next class is founded on the union of the androecium with the gynaeceum. Class 26. Gynodioecious. This includes all plants with flowers in which the androecium and gynaeceum are united together into one column, as in the Orchis Order (figs. 538-540). The name of this class is derived from two Greek words, one of which, in combination gyna, is used for gynaeceum ; and the other, andros, as already mentioned, means male or stamens. In the preceding twenty classes the flowers all contain both an androecium and a gynaeceum. In this class the flowers have the androecium and gynaeceum in separate flowers, either on the same plant, or on two or more different plants of the same species ; thus : Class 21. Monoecces, includes plants in which the androecium and gynaeceum are contained in separate individuals, as in the Euphorbia, Oak, and Arum (figs. 308). The name is derived from the Greek, monos, meaning single. Class 22. Dioces, includes plants in which the androecium and gynaeceum are contained in two different individuals of the same species, as in the Willow (figs. 410 and 411), Hop, and Hemp. The name is derived from the Greek, dios, meaning double. Class 23. Polyploeces, includes plants which have an androecium and gynaeceum in three different individuals of the same species, as in some species of Poppy (figs. 537-540), derived from the Greek, poly, meaning many. The last class includes all Flowering Plants, in which the essential characters need to be considered; hence its name Cryptogamia (page 9). Class 24. Cryptogamia. This includes the Filices (figs. 12, 13), Lycopsidæ (figs. 801-806), Marsileæ (figs. 807-810), Lycopodiæ (figs. 10 and 807-810), Musci (figs. 8, 9, and 814-816), Hepaticæ (figs. 817-820), Sphagnæ (figs. 821-825), Liliaceæ (figs. 839-843), Chrysaceæ (figs. 844-846), and other similar plants; all of which plants are distinguished by being flowerless, and having their organs of reproduction more or less concomitant. Orders—The above classes are subdivided into Orders as follows :— A diagram showing a flower with an androecium and gynaeceum. LINN.EAN SYSTEM.—ORDERS. The orders in the first thirteen classes, from Monandria to Polyanaria, are founded on the number of stigmas, or of the stigma-like organs, which are produced by each flower. They differ from the combination of the Greek numeral expressing the number, with the termination gynae, meaning woman or female, in reference to the function of the gynaeum in the process of fertilisation. Order 1. Monogynia, includes all plants of any of the first thirteen classes which have but one style to each flower, and are termed monogynous (Fig. 576). Order 2. Diandria, includes those having flowers with two styles, as in most Graminae and Dioscorea (Fig. 587). Order 3. Trigyna, those with three styles, as Silene and Rumex. Order 4. Tetragyna, those with four styles, as the Holly and Ivy. Order 5. Pentaegyna, those with five styles, as Flax, Helleborus, Cerastium (Fig. 602), and Cumbinea. Order 6. Hexagyna, those with six styles. Antirrhinum, Balsam (Fig. 887), and Drosera. Order 7. Heptagyna, those with seven styles. No examples among British Plants. Order 8. Octagyna, those with eight styles. No examples among British Plants. Order 9. Enneagyna, those with nine styles. No examples among British Plants. Order 10. Decagyna, those with ten styles. No examples among British Plants. Order 11. Dodecagyna, those with eleven or twelve styles, as in the common Houseleek. Order 12. Polygyna, those with more than twelve styles, as in the Rose, Butternut, Strawberry (Fig. 600), Anemone, and Clematis (Fig. 782). The 14th class, Dianogyna, is divided into two orders, the characters of which are derived from the structure of the seed-vessel, namely— Order 1. Gymnogyna. This term is derived from two Greek words, and signifies naked-seed; because the single seed-vessel (adenum) of these plants was imitated by Linnæus in his type of the Dead nutlet and other Labiate plants. Order 2. Amphigyna. This term is derived from two Greek words, and means seeds in a vesel. It includes those plants in which numerous seeds are enclosed in an evident seed-vesel or pericarp, which is commonly— 408 LINNÉAN SYSTEM.—ORDERS. two-celled, as in the Foxglove and Snapdragon (fig. 621). The 15th Class, *Tetramonieae*, is also divided into two orders, which are in like manner characterized by the nature of the fruit as follows: Order 1. *Siliceae*; the fruit a Silicula or short pod, as in the *Silene* of Purse, Sea Aloe, and Scourry-grass (fig. 700). Order 2. *Siliceae*; the fruit a Silique or long pod, as in Muscari and *Scilla* (fig. 573). The orders of the 16th, 17th, and 18th Classes are distinguished by the number of stamens, and have names, therefore, similar to the third thirteen Classes. The number of stamens is, however, not always three. Order 1. *Triandrae*, with three stamens, as in Tamarind. Order 2. *Pentandrae*, with five stamens, as in Eucalyptus and *Passiflora*. Order 3. *Hexandrae*, with six stamens, as in Fumitory (fig. 786). Order 4. *Heptandrae*, with seven stamens, as in Papaverose. Order 5. *Octandrae*, with eight stamens, as in *Doronicum*. Order 6. *Decandrae*, with ten stamens, as in the Sweet Pea (fig. 547), Vetch, and many other Papilionaceous. Order 7. *Deodandrae*, with twelve to nineteen stamens, as in Mallow (fig. 544) and St. John's-wort (fig. 549). In the 19th Class, Symmocae, we have five orders the names and characteristics of which are as follows: Order 1. *Polygonae*, where the flowers of the capitula are all perfect or hermaphrodite, as in Lettuce, Chicory, and Lobelia. Order 2. *Polygonae superflua*, where the flowers of the disk or ray are perfect or hermaphrodite, while those of the ray or of the margin pistillate, as in the Daisy, Eucampium, and Chamomile. Order 3. *Polygonae imperfecta*, where the flowers of the disk are hermaphrodite, while those of the ray are neuter, and there is only Bitter genus which pre- sents this structure. Order 4. *Polygonae neosimilis*, where the flowers of the disk are perfect or hermaphrodite, while those of the ray are pistillate, as in the Marigold. LINNÉAN SYSTEM.—ORDERS. Order 5. Polypogonae segregatae, where each flower or floret of the plant is distinct as an individual, so as to be a separate Globe-thistle, and last two orders are included in any British plant. The Orders of this Class, and 2nd Class are founded on the number and union of the stamens ; as such characters are not taken into consideration in the definition of these Classes. Order 1. Monandria, with one stamen, as in the genus Orchis and many other Orchidaceous plants. Order 2. Disandria, with two stamens, as in the Venus' Slipper. Order 3. Triandria, with three stamens, as in the plants of the genus Viola. Order 4. Tetrandria, with four stamens, as in the Box, Alder. Order 5. Pentandria, with five stamens, as in the common Hog and Bryony. Order 6. Hexandria, with six stamens, as in the Birthwort and Black Bryony. Order 7. Gonandria, with eight stamens, as in the Poppy. Order 8. Eunandria, with nine stamens, as in Mercurialis and Hyphostoma. Order 9. Decandria, with ten stamens. Order 10. Dodecandria, with twelve stamens, as in Stratiotes. Order 11. Polyandria, with numerous stamens, as in Petiveria and Spathularia. Order 12. Monadelpha, with the stamens united into one bundle, as in the Cuckoo-bush. Order 13. Polydelpha, with the stamens in several bundles, as in the Carrot Oil Plant. The Orders of the Class Polypogonae segregatae are three, namely : Order 1. Monandria, with staminated pistillate and hermaphrodite flowers on the same plant, as in Arctopus, the only British genus comprized in this Class. Order 2. Disandria, with staminated pistillate flowers on one plant, and staminated and pistillate flowers on another plant of the same species. Order 3. Tricoria, when one plant bears hermaphrodite, another staminated, and a third pistillate flowers. The Orders of the Class Cryptogamae segregatae are several, and will be described under respective heads in treating of the Natural System. These orders have been already referred to under that head. The following table of the Classes and Orders of the Linnean System will show at a glance their distinctive peculiarities.
TABLEAL VIEW OF THE LINNEAN ARTIFICIAL SYSTEM.
Class Order Suborder
Class Order Suborder
Class Order Suborder
Class Order Suborder
Class Order Suborder
Class Order Suborder
Class Order Suborder
Class Order Suborder
Class Order Suborder
Class Order Suborder
Class Order Suborder
Class Order Suborder
Class Order Suborder
Class Order Suborder
Class Order Suborder
Class Order Suborder
Class Order Suborder
Class Order Suborder
Class Order Suborder
By these authors - - IN STRIGICEREA - - IN STRIGICEREA - - IN STRIGICEREA - - IN STRIGICEREA - - IN STRIGICEREA - - IN STRIGICEREA - - IN STRIGICEREA - - IN STRIGICEREA - - IN STRIGICEREA - - IN STRIGICEREA - - IN STRIGICEREA - - IN STRIGICEREA - - IN STRIGICEREA - - IN STRIGICEREA - - IN STRIGICEREA - - IN STRIGICEREA - - IN STRIGICEREA - - IN STRIGICEREA - - IN STRIGICEREA - - IN STRIGICEREA - - IN STRIGICEREA - - IN STRIGICEREA - - IN STRIGICEREA - - IN STRIGICEREA - - IN STRIGICEREA - - IN STRIGICEREA - - IN STRIGICEREA - - IN STRIGICEREA - - IN STRIGICEREA - - IN STRIGICEREA - - IN STRIGICEREA - - IN STRIGICEREA
Pattern of damage observed in this field 26. OXYTHORAX
On leaf area index 25. MUSONIA
On leaf surface (area) 25. MUSONIA
To estimate damage 25. PSEUDOMELA
Stem and leaf damage (area) (100% = total stem and leaf area affected by the insect) 26. CLEPTOPHAGA
Plants with region of mycological control or absence shown RESEARCH NOTE 410 NATURAL SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION. Section 2. NATURAL SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION. The object of all natural systems, as already noticed (page 400), is to group together those plants which correspond in the greatest number of important characters, and to separate those that are least similar. The method by which this can be accomplished, to be carried out varies according to the particular views of botanists as to the relative value of the characters furnished by the different organs of the plant. Some botanists consider that those who desire to arrange plants according to their natural affinities, that is, according to the characters which indicate the relations in which the organs of the highest value, and those least liable to change, are especially relied on in the determination of the affinities of plants. Taking these principles as our guide, we should regard the organs of reproduction as being of the first importance; but we find accordingly that while some plants have flowers with evident sexes, others have no flowers, and their sexual organs are more or less concealed. We may then include under one class Monocotyledons or Phanerogamous, and the latter Cryptogamous. The androecium and gynaeceum are the most important organs in the reproductive organs, because they are essential to the formation of the seed of flowering plants; while the androecia and archeonia may be absent in some cases, and yet produce seeds in other cases among flowerless plants. The structure of the embryo is also of primary importance, as it contains within itself a rudimentary condition all the parts of which it consists. According to its presence or absence, we separate plants into two great divi- sions called Embryophyta and Embryophytes. The former being propagated by true seed, in which the embryo possesses one or more cotyledons, a radicle, and a plumule; while the latter are propagated by spores, and possess no embryo at all. This dis- tinction is partly due to the fact that in some cases there are two classes--those possessing one cotyledon being called Monocotyledonous, and those with two Dicotyledonous. Next in importance is the presence or absence of an ovary, as such a difference is accompanied by essential structural and functional differences between the two great divisions of Angiospermous and Gymnospermous plants. Next in value is the growth and internal structure of the axis. These characters are often combined with other charac- teristics furnishing us with three characters, called respectively Heterostylous, Isostylous, and Isomerous. The internal structure of the stem also supplies us with three well- marked characters, called Aerenchymatous, Endodermis, and Ecor- eous; and these three plant characters are seen when viewed Thallogenous.
Section 2. NATURAL SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION.
The object of all natural systems, as already noticed (page 400), is to group together those plants which correspond in the greatest number of important characters, and to separate those that are least similar. The method by which this can be accomplished, to be carried out varies according to the particular views of botanists as to the relative value of the characters furnished by the different organs of the plant. Some botanists consider that those who desire to arrange plants according to their natural affinities, that is, according to the characters which indicate the relations in which the organs of the highest value, and those least liable to change, are especially relied on in the determination of the affinities of plants.
Taking these principles as our guide, we should regard the organs of reproduction as being of the first importance; but we find accordingly that while some plants have flowers with evident sexes, others have no flowers, and their sexual organs are more or less concealed. We may then include under one class Monocotyledons or Phanerogamous, and the latter Cryptogamous. The androecium and gynaeceum are the most important organs in the reproductive organs, because they are essential to the formation of the seed of flowering plants; while the androecia and archeonia may be absent in some cases, and yet produce seeds in other cases among flowerless plants. The structure of the embryo is also of primary importance, as it contains within itself a rudimentary condition all the parts of which it consists. According to its presence or absence, we separate plants into two great divi- sions called Embryophyta and Embryophytes. The former being propagated by true seed, in which the embryo possesses one or more cotyledons, a radicle, and a plumule; while the latter are propagated by spores, and possess no embryo at all. This dis- tinction is partly due to the fact that in some cases there are two classes--those possessing one cotyledon being called Monocotyledonous, and those with two Dicotyledonous.
Next in importance is the presence or absence of an ovary, as such a difference is accompanied by essential structural and functional differences between the two great divisions of Angiospermous and Gymnospermous plants.
Next in value is the growth and internal structure of the axis. These characters are often combined with other charac- teristics furnishing us with three characters, called respectively Heterostylous, Isostylous, and Isomerous. The internal structure of the stem also supplies us with three well- marked characters, called Aerenchymatous, Endodermis, and Ecor- eous; and these three plant characters are seen when viewed Thallogenous.
NATURAL SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION. 411 Next to the axis we place the leaf, which, as regards venation, presents those two different conditions which are common to all plants; those of Endogenous plants are parallel-venated; while those of Exogenous plants are reticulate-venated. The former, being demesless plants have no true leaves, but produce a flattened cellular expansion or thallus, which is venined. Next to the leaf we place the floral envelope, which, as regards the number of their parts, are usually ternary in Monocotyledons and quinary in Dicotyledons, and in Polyploidyous plants. Lindley remarks, that "the floral envelopes seem to be unconnected with functions of a high order, and to be de- signed merely for the purpose of giving variety to the aspect of the vegetal world; and, conse- quently, they may be considered as accidental appendages." This statement is true only in a general, regularity or irregularity, are of low and doubtful value, except for specific distinction. There seems, indeed, reason to expect that every plant has some such arrangement of its parts within itself all the variations above alluded to." The next point is that of the plant as regards its appear- ance and general arrangement; and the characters derived from the different modes of inflorescence are, even less of value than those derived from the structure of the flower. The flower is, therefore, as occupying the lowest place in our series of the relative values of natural characters. This is evident. Such are the general principles which should be attended to by those who arrange plants according to their natural affinities; but it is impossible to suppose that in any one natural system there must be (at least at present), much that is artificial. For example, it is impossible to say that any thing expresses, as far as is possible only, the arrangement of plants according to their natural affinities. (See page 406.) This imperfection arises from our want of complete knowledge of existing plants; for our acquaintance with any species is always imperfect. We can never be sure that it can be modified or changed, and even supposing plants be ever so naturally arranged, we should still be unable to place them in a line or series. It is necessary to consider these points at several different points, and must be considered as alliances con- nected with each other by means of intermediate forms. By no means easy to fix the limits of groups. There are constantly aberrant orders, genera, and species, which form links between the great groups or classes into which they are placed. In this, as in all departments of natural science, there are no sud- den and absolute changes from one class into another. Hence exact and rigid definitions cannot be carried out. In every natural system there must be a certain latitude given to the character of the group; and likewise 412 412 RAY'S NATURAL SYSTEM. must be made for constant anomalies, in so far as man's defini- tions are concerned.¹ NATURAL SYSTEMS.—We now proceed to give an abstract of the more important natural systems, but at first attempt at arranging plants according to their natural affinities was by our celebrated countryman, John Ray, in the year 1682; and imperfect though his arrangement may have been, yet he laid down the principle that when the number of plants known was very limited, still his arrangements must be its leading directions correct, and has formed the foundation of all succeeding systems. His divided plants thus :- 1. Flowerless. 2. Flowering; these being again subdivided into a. Dioecious. b. Monoeccious. Ray still further grouped plants together into genera, which were equivalent to our natural orders, many of which indicated a true knowledge of the nature of the plant, and many which are recognized at the present day by such natural orders as the Fungi, Musci, Filices, Coniferæ, Labiate, Compositae, Umbelliferae, and Lepu- tines. Next in order was the scheme propounded by the celebrated author and physician Linnaeus (1707-78), who, in 1735, gave the arrangement of plants, namely, Linnaeus, who, about the year 1751, drew up a sketch of the natural affinities of plants under the name of Species. The genera and species proposed by Linnaeus are identical with natural orders as at present defined, among which we find the following: - Angiospermae, or flowering plants nearly; Umbelliferae, Asperifoliae, Papilionaceae, Filices, Musci, and Fungi. JOINTED NATURAL SYSTEM.—To Antoine Laurent de Jussieu, however, belongs the great merit of having first devised a com- prehensive system of classification for plants which he published in the year 1789. It was founded upon the systems of Ray and Tourneslot; to which he made some important additions, more especially in respect to the flowers and the stems with respect to the ovary. The following table, which requires no explanations, represents his arrangement.
A diagram showing a flowchart or decision tree. JUSSERÉ'S NATURAL SYSTEM. 413
Aecydeleona Class. 1. Aecydeleona.
Monocotyledona Stamens hypogynous. 2. Monochypogynae.
Stamens perigynous. 3. Monoperigyne.
Stamens hypogynous. 4. Epistaminee.
Stamens perigynous. 5. Peristaminee.
6. Peristaminee.
Apecalea 7. Hypocorolla.
Corolla hypogynous. 8. Hypocorolla.
Corolla perigynous. 9. Periodicula.
10. Anthera: Syntharethra: anthare (anthera coherent).
Corolla epigynous. 11. Anthare: Co- rintharethra (an- thare distinct).
Monopetalea Petales hypogynous. 12. Epipetale.
Petales hypogynous. 13. Hypoepetale.
Petales perigynous. 14. Periptetale.
Diliniae irregularum 15. Diliniae irregularum.
Under these fifteen classes Jussé arranged 100 natural orders or families. This was the first natural arrangement in which an attempt was made to assign characters to natural orders, but it has been found that this system is not applicable on the basis of all succeeding systematists. Indeed, the limits of a natural order are not always identical with those of the present day. De CANDOLLE'S NATURAL SYSTEM.--The next system of note is that of De Candolle, published in his "Flora Europaea," which was first promulgated in 1813. This system, modified several times since, is one of the most important, and it is most in use at the present day, and which, generally, in its essential divisions, we shall adopt in this volume. In the first place, he divided the plant kingdom into two great divisions, called Vasculariares or Corticolares, and Cellulariae or Aecydeleona, the characters of which are as follows: Division 1.--Vasculariares: that is, plants possessing both cellular (parenchymatous) tissues and vessels ; and having an embryo with one or more cotyledons. Division 2.--Corticolares: that is, plants composed of cellular (parenchymatous) tissue only ; and whose embryo is not furnished with cotyledons. The former division was again divided into two classes, called Engenae or Dicotyledones, and Euphylleae or Monocotyledones; the essential characters of which may be thus stated 414 DE CANDOLLE'S NATURAL SYSTEM. Class 1. Eucorme, or Decocorme; that is, plants whose vessels are arranged in concentric layers of which the youngest is on the outside, and having an embryo with opposite or whorled cotyledons. Class 2. Endocorme, or Monococorme; that is, plants whose vessels are arranged in bundles, the youngest being in the middle, and having an embryo with solitary or alternate cotyledons. These classes were again divided into sub-classes or groups. Thus, under the first class, there are placed two large groups, named Thunbergia, and Calyptraeum; Coriolifera, and Monocotyledon. Under the Monocotyledonous two groups were placed, called Phanerogamia, and Cryptogamia. The former group was further included the younger Cryptogamia, was placed under Monocotyledonous from a study showing that the plants included in it possesed no embryo of a somewhat similar nature to those of monocotyledonous plants. The Aroidyledon were also divided into two classes. The following is a tabular view of De Candolle's system. Sub-kingdom I. VASCULARS, or COTYLEDONEA. Class 1. Eucorme, or Decocorme. Sub-class 1. Thunbergiæformis Petals distinct, inserted with the stamens on the thalamus. 2. Calyptriformis Petals distinct or more or less united, and inserted on the calyx. 3. Corioliformis Petals united, and inserted on the thalamus. 4. Monocotyledonæ Having a single circle of floral envelopes, or none. Class 2. Endocorme, or Monococorme. Sub-class 1. Phanerogamia Fruittification visible, regular. 2. Cryptogamia Fruittification hidden, unknown, irregular. Sub-kingdom II. CELLULARES, or ACOTYLEDONEA. Sub-class 1. Foliaræ Having leaf-like expansions, and known sexes. 2. Aphylleæ Having leaf-like expansions, and no known sexes. ENLIDCHER'S NATURAL SYSTEM. 418 Under these sub-classes De Candolle arranged 161 Natural Orders. The enumeration of these is unnecessary in an ele- mentary work on botany, but may be given without any thing, a few only, as examples of the different groups. Thus, as examples of Calyptogena--Rosaceae, Umbelliferae, Compositae, and Corolla- forme--Convolvulaceae, Solanaceae, and Lactucaceae; of Monochlamy- des--Poaceae, Gramineae; of Asclepiadaceae--Orchideae, Iridaceae, and Graminaceae of Cyperoideae--Filices, Equisetaceae, and Lycopodiaceae; of Poaceae--Ferulae and Hepatica; and of the rest, as in the Algae. In this system it will be observed that De Candolle adopted the principle of the natural arrangement of the parts instead of their arrangement; or instead of commencing with Aecytonides, and passing through Monocotyledons to Dicotyledons, he began with the Algae, and proceeded to the Filices and Aecyto- lides. Since the appearance of De Candolle's system numerous other arrangements have been proposed by botanists, as those of Agarist, Perleb, Dumortier, Bartling, Lindley, Schultze, Endlicher, and others. But all these arrangements are so imperfect that the orders of those of Lindley and Endlicher, were never much used, and we see no reason why they should be revived. Moreover, it will be unnecessary for us to allude to them further. But the latter having been used in important systematic works, it will be well to give a brief account of their principal characters. ENLIDCHER'S NATURAL SYSTEM. The system of Endlicher is adopted in his Genera Floraundum, published between the years 1836-1840. The following is a sketch of this system. He first divided the plant kingdom into two great classes, which he denominated Regiona, and named Thallophyta and Cormophyta. These were again divided into three Orders or Sub-orders, as follows: Regiona 1. Thallophyta. Plants with alternation of stem and root; with no vessels and no sexual organs; and with germinating spores lengthening in all direc- tions. Section 1. Protophyta. Plants developed without soil; draw- ing their nourishment from the air; having no roots; they grow; and having a ragged fructification; as in Algae and Lechene. Section 2. Hypophyta. Plants formed on land or decaying organisms; nourished from a matrix; all the vessels developing in one direction; and perishing in a mature state; as in Fungi. Regiona 2. CORMOPHYTA. Plants with stem and root in opposite directions; spiral vessels and sexual organs distinct in the more perfect. 418 **ENDLICHER'S NATURAL SYSTEM.** Section 3. *Acerophyta*. Stem growing at the point only, the lower part being unchanged, and only used for support. Cohort 1. *Anaphyla*. Having no spore-vessels; both sexes perfect; spores free in spore-cases. Examples, *Euphorbia*, *Ranunculus*. Cohort 2. *Protophyta*. Having vacuolar bundles more or less perfect; male sex absent; Spores free in spore-cases. Examples, *Filipendula*, *Equisetum*. Cohort 3. *Monophyta*. Both sexes perfect; sexual organs; seeds without an embryo, polypospous; parasitic. Example, *Rhizanthemum*. Section 4. *Asphylpha*. Stem growing at the circumference. Examples, *Lilium*, *Lilium*, *Iris*, *Orchis*, *Dacne*, and *Palmae*. Section 5. *Accelera*. Stems growing at both the apex and circumference. Cohort 1. *Gymnopernma*. Ovules naked, receiving impregnation immediately by the microspore; as in *Umbilicus*. Cohort 2. *Aedule*. Calyx absent, radiculary, or simple, with one or two lobes; stamens attached to the ovary. Examples, *Cupulifer*, *Urocarpus*, and *Polygonum*. Cohort 3. *Corypha*. Both floral envelopes present, the outer calyce, the inner corolla; the latter being monopetalous rarely abortive. Examples, *Lobelia*, *Laburnum*, *Helleborus*, and *Ericaceae*. Cohort 4. *Hypoclaena*. Both floral envelopes present, the outer being monopetalous or polypospous, free or united to the ovary; calyces of several kinds; stamens attached to the ovary with distinct petals, or rarely cohering by means of a common base; style filiform or filiform-papillose, perigynous, or hypogynous insertion ; rarely abortive. Examples, *Umbelliferae*, *Ranunculaceae*, *Carpyphylleae*, Rosaceae, and Leguminosae. Under these divisions Endlicher included 277 Natural Orders. After Jussieu, he divided them into three classes; but gradually proceeded to the more complicated, placing those of the Leguminosea at the highest point of the series. Later botanists have generally especially belonged to the merit of having been the first botanist who made any serious
Section 3. *Acerophyta* Stem growing at the point only, the lower part being unchanged, and only used for support.
Cohort 1. *Anaphyla* Having no spore-vessels; both sexes perfect; spores free in spore-cases. Examples,
Cohort 2. *Protophyta* Having vacuolar bundles more or less perfect; male sex absent; Spores free in spore-cases. Examples,
Cohort 3. *Monophyta* Both sexes perfect; sexual organs; seeds without an embryo, polypospous; parasitic.
Section 4. *Asphylpha* Stem growing at the circumference.
Section 5. *Accelera* Stems growing at both the apex and circumference.
Cohort 1. *Gymnopernma* Ovules naked, receiving impregnation immediately by the microspore;
Cohort 2. *Aedule* Calyx absent, radiculary, or simple,
Cohort 3. *Corypha* Both floral envelopes present, the outer calyce, the inner corolla;
Cohort 4. *Hypoclaena* The latter being monopetalous rarely abortive.
Section 3.*Acerophyta*Stem growing at the point only, the lower part being unchanged, and only used for support.
Cohort 1.*Anaphyla*Having no spore-vessels; both sexes perfect; spores free in spore-cases. Examples,
Cohort 2.*Protophyta*Having vacuolar bundles more or less perfect;
Cohort 3.*Monophyta*Male sex absent; Spores free in spore-cases. Examples,
Section 4.*Asphylpha*Both sexes perfect; sexual organs;
Cohort 1.*Gymnopernma*Sprouts without an embryo, polypospous;
Cohort 2.*Aedule*Polypospous; parasitic. Example,
Cohort 3.*Corypha*Rhizanthemum*.
Section 5.*Accelera*Stems growing at both the apex and circumference.
Cohort 1.*Gymnopernma*Ovules naked, receiving impregnation immediately by the microspore;
Cohort 2.*Aedule*Calyx absent, radiculary, or simple,
Cohort 3.*Corypha*Both floral envelopes present;
Cohort 4.*Hypoclaena*The outer calyce, the inner corolla;
Section 3.*Acerophyta*Stem growing at the point only, the lower part being unchanged, and only used for support.
Cohort 1.*Anaphyla*Having no spore-vessels; both sexes perfect;
Cohort 2.*Protophyta*Spores free in spore-cases. Examples,
Cohort 3.*Monophyta*Vacuolar bundles more or less perfect;
Section 4.*Asphylpha*Male sex absent; Spores free in spore-cases. Examples,
Cohort 1.*Gymnopernma*Euphorbia*, *Ranunculus*.
Cohort 2.*Aedule*Vacuolar bundles more or less perfect;
Cohort 3.*Corypha*Male sex absent; Spores free in spore-cases. Examples,
Section 5.*Accelera*Equisetum*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*., Filioxus*.*, Rhizanthemum*. LINDLEY'S NATURAL SYSTEM. 417 attempt to introduce a natural arrangement of plants into use in this country. The first system proposed by him in 1830 was his "Natural System of Botany," but this system was made in this system to form minor groups or divisions of the tertiary order, which he called "Tribes." He arranged the natural orders in groups subordinate to the higher divisions, which were called Nixus (tendens). These primary divisions were again divided into sub-divisions, which he called Nixus or groups of nearly allied Natural Orders. In 1858, Lindley again altered his system, and published a new one in 1860, and finally, in the year 1864, further modified his views, and adopted the following scheme, which is that adopted by him in his great work on "The Vegetable Kingdom." **LINDLEY'S NATURAL SYSTEM.** 1. AXUAL, OR FLOWERLESS PLANTS. Stem and leaves indistinguishable. Class 1. Thallogena. Stem and leaves distinguishable. Class 2. Aegyema. 2. SEEDAL, OR FLOWERING PLANTS. Fructification arising from a thallus. Class 3. Rhizogena. Fructification arising from a stem. Class 4. Endogena. Wood of stem youngest in the centre. Class 5. Eucalyptus. Leaves parallel veined, permanent; wood of the stem always confined. Class 6. Endogena. Leaves net-veined, deciduous; wood of the stem always perennial, arranged in a circle with a central pith. Class 7. Diatogena. Wood of stem nearest at the circumference, always concentric; co- lumbiae, always concentric. Seeds quite naked. Class 8. Gymnoma. Seeds enclosed in seed vessels. Class 9. Aegyema. The exogens were further divided into four sub-clauses thus:— Sub-class 1. Diclinis Aegyema, or those with unisexual flowers, and those with hermaphrodite flowers to form hermaphrodite flowers. Sub-class 2. Hymenoptera Eucalyptus, or those with hermaphrodite flowers, and those with hermaphrodite flowers free from the calyx and corolla. Sub-class 3. Perigynia Eucalyptus, or those with hermaphrodite flowers or polygamous flowers, and with the stamens A page from Lindley's Natural System. 418 BENTHAM AND HOOKER'S SYSTEM. growing to the side of either the calyx or corolla ; ovary superior, or nearly so. Sub-class 4. Euphorbiae. Flowers with the stamens hypomorphoid or polygonous flowers, and with the stamens growing from the base of the calyx or corolla ; calyx or corolla ; ovary inferior, or nearly so. Neither of the other classes are divided into sub-classes, but Bentham and Hooker have arranged them under three heads : 1. Flowers glaucous (that is to say, composed of bracts not collected in true whorls, but consisting of imbricated leaves) colourless. 2. Flowers glaucous, or furnished with a true calyx or corolla, or both, or abnormally naked ; unisexual (that is, having either calyx or corolla only), or hermaphrodite (with half-formed rudiments of the absent sex being present). 3. Flowers furnished with a true calyx and corolla ; adherent to one another. 4. Flowers furnished with a true calyx and corolla, free from one another. Under the above classes Lindley includes 303 Natural Orders, which are arranged in fifty-six groups subordinate to the sections, sub-clases, and classes, and which are termed Alliances. **BENTHAM AND HOOKER'S SYSTEM.—A new Genera Plantarum,** by Bentham and Hooker, is now in course of publication, on which arrangement is adopted. Its essential features are as follows : Sub-kingdom 1. PHANEROMONAE. This is subdivided into two classes and other divisions thus :— Class 1. Dicoryceae. Sub-class 1. Asparagaceae. Division 1. Polypodales. Series 1. Thalidomorphae ; 2. Diaci- daceae. Division 2. Monopetalae. Series 1. Epigynae ; 2. Hypo- gynae. Division 3. Apatales. Series 1. Hypogynae ; 2. Epigynae ; v. Perigynae. Sub-class 2. Gymnospermae. Class 2. MONOCOTYLEDONEAE. Series 1. Epigynae ; 2. Corona- ries ; 3. Nudiflorae ; 4. Glumales. This includes two classes as follows :— Class 3. ACROSTHEAE. Class 4. THALLOGENS. NATURAL SYSTEM OF THIS MANUAL. 418 The only division in the above system which requires special explanation is the series *Diocle* (or, this includes all polytomous *Pycnothecium*), in which the stamens are inserted on a hypogynous gland or hypogynous disk, upon or between which the stamens are placed. The system is fully explained in the English edition of Le Maire's "Flora Brasiliensis," 1835-1840, in which it is edited by Hooker. The Monocotyledonae are arranged as ex- plained in the "Systema Vegetabilium," by Linnæus, and in "Monocotyléo- donia," published in the "Journal of the Linnean Society" for No- vember 1876. Besides, in the above systems, other are now much used in Ger- many, as that of A. Braun of the Phanerogamia; and that of Johannes Müller, in his "Botanical Dictionary," and in Sachs's "Text Book of Botany," translated by Bennett and Dyer. NATURAL SYSTEM ADOPED IN THIS MANUAL.—The natural arrangement adopted in this volume, which is founded upon the system of Linnæus, is as follows: The Phanerogamia is divided into two sub-king- doms, namely—Phanerogamia, Flowering ; or Coptodendra; and Cryptogamia, Fleshy ; or Anemophytae. Sub-kingdom I. Flowering plants, which include plants which have evident flowers ; and which are propagated by seeds con- taining endosperm. Sub-kingdom II. Coptodendra, contains those plants which have no flowers ; and which are propagated by spores, and are therefore called Cryptogamic. The Phanerogamia is divided into two classes, and other sub-divisions, thus : Class I. Angiosperms, in which the ovules are diplotenonous ; the germination exoblastal ; the stem exogenous ; the leaves pinnate or palmate ; and the flowers with a quinary or quaternary arrangement. In this class we have two divisions. Division I. Angiosperms, in which the ovules are enclosed in an ovary, and are usually distinguished by the action of the pollen on the stigma. In this divi- sion— Sub-class 1. Monocotyledoneae, that is, plants with flowers usually furnished with both a calyx and corolla, and with three petals ; one of these petals inserted on the thalamus ; stamens hypogynous, or adherent to the sides of the ovary, or inserted on the outside of a hypogynous disk. Sub-class 2. Coleopterae, plants having usually a calyx and corolla; the latter mostly with stamens n = 2 419 **430** NATURAL SYSTEM OF THIS MANEAL. petals, and inserted on the calyx ; stamens either perigynous or epigynous. This sub- class has two sub-divisions : 1. Perigynous, in which the calyx is free, or nearly so ; the stamens usually perigynous ; and the ovary superior. 2. Epigynous, in which the calyx is more or less adherent ; and the ovary inferior. Sub-class 1. Coriiflorae. — Flowers having both a calyx and corolla ; the latter with united petals ; the sepals free from each other, or united at the base, or free arising from the thalamus. Of this sub-class we have three sub-divisions : 1. Epigynous, in which the corolla is adherent ; and the ovary superior. 2. Hypogynous, in which the stamens are inserted on the corolla, and the calyx is free from it ; and the ovary superior. 3. Epigynous, in which the corolla arises from the thalamus, and has the stamens attached to it ; and the ovary superior. Sub-class 2. Gynoecium simple or Incompletum. — Flowers either having a calyx only, or with- out both calyx and corolla. Division 2. Gymnosperms. — The flowers are naked or not enclosed in an ovary, and are fertilized directly by the action of the pollen. Class 2. Monocotyledons, in which the embryo is monoc- tyledonous ; that is, it has but one seed-leaf ; the stem endogenous ; the leaves usually with a parallel ven- talesse ; and the flower with a perfect or imperfect arrangement. In this class we have two sub-clases : Sub-class 1. Petaloideae or Florideae. — Leaves with a parallel venatalese ; flowers perfect or imperfect ; seeds, or occasionally deciduous ; floral envelopes (pe- rianth) verticillate and usually coloured, rarely naked or without petals. This sub-class has three sub-divisions : 1. Epigeum, in which the flowers are usually herma- phrodite ; the perianth adnate to the ovary inferior. 2. Hypogynous, in which the flowers are usually hermaphro- dite ; dithe ; the perianth free ; and the ovary superior. 3. Didiscus, in which the flowers are usually unisexual ; and have a perianth either adnate or consisting of a few scales. 430 NATURAL SYSTEM OF THIS MANUAL. 421 Sub-class 2. Glumaceae or Glumiferae.—Leaves parallel- veined, persistent; flowers glumaceous, but having no proper perianth, but im- bricated bracts instead. The Cryptogamia constitute a class by itself, thus — Class 3. ACOTYLEDONAE.—are those plants which are propagated by seeds, and whose seeds have an indefinite or vague (heteroclinal) germination; the stem is present or absent, in the former case, when woody, in the latter case, when herbaceous; whether absent or present, in which latter case the veins are commonly parallel; they have no true flowers. This has two sub-clauses. Sub-class 1. Aecoporeae or Cormophytae.—Plants with the stems and leaves distinguishable; and pos- sessing true flowers. Sub-class 2. Thalloporeae or Thallophytae.—Plants with no distinction of stems and leaves ; stomata a single. The following is a tabular arrangement of the above system.— VEGETABLE KINGDOM. Sub-kingdom 1. Phanerogamia. Cytyledonae, or Flowering Plants. Class 1. Dicotyledoneae. Division 1. Angiospermae. Sub-class 1. Thalianoidea. 2. Calyciflorae. a. Epigynate. b. Epigynous. 3. Monocotyledoneae. a. Monochlamydaceae, Apetalae, or Incomplete. Division 2. Gymnospermae. Class 2. Monocotyledoneae. Sub-class 1. Petaliferae or Floridae. 1. Epigynate. a. Hypogynate. b. Epigynous. 2. Glumaceae or Glumiferae. 422 DICOTYLEDONES.---THALAMIFLORE. Sub-kingdom 2. Cryptogamia, Acoetyledones, or Flowerless Plants. Class 3. ACOTYLEDONIA. Sub-class 1. Arrogenea or Cormophyta. 2. Thallogena or Thallophyta. CHAPTER 3. ARRANGEMENT, CHARACTERS, DISTRIBUTION, PROPERTIES, AND USE OF THE NATURAL ORDERS. HAVING now given a general sketch of the most important Natural Systems of Botany, we proceed to describe those we propose to follow in this volume --- and described the characters of its divi- sions --- we proceed to the description of the various natural orders as arranged by us --- by which means we hope to be chiefly directed to the principal orders, and especial importance will be given to the characters and properties of which which are necessary for their distinction. In our nodue of the natural systems, we have seen that some authors, as Ray, Linnaeus, and Linnell, have arranged them from the simple plant, and end with the most complicated; while others, as Ray, De Candolle, and Linnell, have proceeded from the most highly developed plants to the simplest. We have adopted the latter plan here, because the more highly developed plants are more easily distinguished from lower organisms, and are of more general interest to the majority of our readers. SUB-KINGDOM I. PHANEROGRAMA. COTYLEDONES, OR FLOWERING PLANTS. CLASS I. DICOTYLEDONIA. Division I. ANGIOSPERMAE. Natural Order 1. RANUNCULACEAE, THE CUCKOO-BUSHES OR BUTTER- CUP ORDER --- a large order of plants with climbing stems, with an acid watery colourless juice. Leaves alternate or opposite; generally simple (as in Ranunculus), compound (as in Ranunculus), or sometimes with usually dissected and clasping leaves. Stipules generally absent; but if present usually united to the base of the petiole (as in Ranunculus). Flowers regular (as in Ranunculus) or irregular (as in Ranunculus). Sepals usually 5 (as in Ranunculus), rarely 3 (as in Ranunculus). Petals usually 5 (as in Ranunculus), rarely 3 (as in Ranunculus). Stamens usually 5 (as in Ranunculus), rarely 3 (as in Ranunculus). Stigmas usually 5 (as in Ranunculus), rarely 3 (as in Ranunculus). Fruits usually a capsule (as in Ranunculus), rarely a berry (as in Ranunculus). Sub-class 1. Thaliamifora. A small illustration of a plant with simple leaves and yellow flowers. RANUNCULACEAE. A diagram of the flower of a species of Ranunculus. Fig. 806. Diagram of the flower of a species of Ranunculus.—Fig. 806. Corolla of *Ranunculus* alismoides Linn., subsp. *alismoides*.—Fig. 807. *Anthera* of *Ranunculus* alismoides Linn., subsp. *alismoides*.—Fig. 808. *Anthera* of *Ranunculus* alismoides Linn., subsp. *alismoides*.—Fig. 809. *Anthera* of *Ranunculus* alismoides Linn., subsp. *alismoides*.—Fig. 810. *Anthera* of *Ranunculus* alismoides Linn., subsp. *alismoides*.—Fig. 811. *Anthera* of *Ranunculus* alismoides Linn., subsp. *alismoides*.—Fig. 812. *Anthera* of *Ranunculus* alismoides Linn., subsp. *alismoides*.—Fig. 813. *Anthera* of *Ranunculus* alismoides Linn., subsp. *alismoides*.—Fig. 814. *Anthera* of *Ranunculus* alismoides Linn., subsp. *alismoides*.—Fig. 815. *Anthera* of *Ranunculus* alismoides Linn., subsp. *alismoides*.—Fig. 816. *Anthera* of *Ranunculus* alismoides Linn., subsp. *alismoides*.—Fig. 817. *Anthera* of *Ranunculus* alismoides Linn., subsp. *alismoides*.—Fig. 818. *Anthera* of *Ranunculus* alismoides Linn., subsp. *alismoides*.—Fig. 819. *Anthera* of *Ranunculus* alismoides Linn., subsp. *alismoides*.—Fig. 820. *Anthera* of *Ranunculus* alismoides Linn., subsp. *alismoides*.—Fig. 821. *Anthera* of *Ranunculus* alismoides Linn., subsp. *alismoides*.—Fig. 822. *Anthera* of *Ranunculus* alismoides Linn., subsp. *alismoides*.—Fig. 823. *Anthera* of *Ranunculus* alismoides Linn., subsp. *alismoides*.—Fig. 824. 42 **Salix**.—Herbs or shrubs, with simple leaves, often alternate, entire, or pinnately lobed; stipules persistent; flowers perfect or imperfect; calyx persistent; corolla regular; stamens numerous; anthers adnate; filaments free; stigma sessile; fruit a capsule, dehiscent by valves, or a berry, indehiscent by valves; seeds with homogeneous horny albumen, anatropial. The order may be divided into five tribes as follows: **Tribe I.—Salicaceae**. Diagnosis.—Herbs or rarely shrubs, with a colourless waxery pubescence on the upper surface of the leaves; stipules persistent; corolla regular; stamens numerous; anthers adnate; filaments free; stigma sessile; fruit a capsule, dehiscent by valves, or a berry, indehiscent by valves; seeds with homogeneous horny albumen, anatropial. **Tribe II.—Oleaceae**. Diagnosis.—Herbs or rarely shrubs, with a yellowish pubescence on the upper surface of the leaves; stipules persistent; corolla regular; stamens numerous; anthers adnate; filaments free; stigma sessile; fruit a capsule, dehiscent by valves, or a berry, indehiscent by valves; seeds with homogeneous Horny albumen, anatropial. **Tribe III.—Lauraceae**. Diagnosis.—Herbs or rarely shrubs, with a yellowish pubescence on the upper surface of the leaves; stipules persistent; corolla regular; stamens numerous; anthers adnate; filaments free; stigma sessile; fruit a capsule, dehiscent by valves, or a berry, indehiscent by valves; seeds with homogeneous horny albumen, anatropial. **Tribe IV.—Araliaceae**. Diagnosis.—Herbs or rarely shrubs, with a yellowish pubescence on the upper surface of the leaves; stipules persistent; corolla regular; stamens numerous; anthers adnate; filaments free; stigma sessile; fruit a capsule, dehiscent by valves, or a berry, indehiscent by valves; seeds with homogeneous Horny albumen, anatropial. **Tribe V.—Berberidaceae**. Diagnosis.—Herbs or rarely shrubs, with a yellowish pubescence on the upper surface of the leaves; stipules persistent; corolla regular; stamens numerous; anthers adnate; filaments free; stigma sessile; fruit a capsule, dehiscent by valves, or a berry, indehiscent by valves; seeds with homogeneous Horny albumen, anatropial. **Tribe VI.—Menispermaceae**. Diagnosis.—Herbs or rarely shrubs, with a yellowish pubescence on the upper surface of the leaves; stipules persistent; corolla regular; stamens numerous; anthers adnate; filaments free; stigma sessile; fruit a capsule, dehiscent by valves, or a berry, indehiscent by valves; seeds with homogeneous Horny albumen, anatropial. **Tribe VII.—Celastraceae**. Diagnosis.—Herbs or rarely shrubs, with a yellowish pubescence on the upper surface of the leaves; stipules persistent; corolla regular; stamens numerous; anthers adnate; filaments free; stigma sessile; fruit a capsule, dehiscent by valves, or a berry, indehiscent by valves; seeds with homogeneous horny albumen, anatropial. **Tribe VIII.—Euphorbiaceae**. Diagnosis.—Herbs or rarely shrubs, with a yellowish pubescence on the upper surface of the leaves; stipules persistent; corolla regular; stamens numerous; anthers adnate; filaments free; stigma sessile; fruit a capsule, dehiscent by valves, or a berry, indehiscent by valves; seeds with homogeneous horny albumen, anatropial. **Tribe IX.—Caryophyllaceae**. Diagnosis.—Herbs or rarely shrubs, with a yellowish pubescence on the upper surface of the leaves; stipules persistent; corolla regular; stamens numerous; anthers adnate; filaments free; stigma sessile; fruit a capsule, dehiscent by valves, or a berry, indehiscent by valves; seeds with homogeneous horny albumen, anatropial. **Tribe X.—Caryophyllaceae**. Diagnosis.—Herbs or rarely shrubs, with a yellowish pubescence on the upper surface of the leaves; stipules persistent; corolla regular; stamens numerous; anthers adnate; filaments free; stigma sessile; fruit a capsule, dehiscent by valves, or a berry, indehiscent by valves; seeds with homogeneous horny albumen, anatropial. **Tribe XI.—Caryophyllaceae**. Diagnosis.—Herbs or rarely shrubs, with a yellowish pubescence on the upper surface of the leaves; stipules persistent; corolla regular; stamens numerous; anthers adnate; filaments free; stigma sessile; fruit a capsule, dehiscent by valves, or a berry, indehiscent by valves; seeds with homogeneous horny albumen, anatropial. **Tribe XII.—Caryophyllaceae**. Diagnosis.—Herbs or rarely shrubs, with a yellowish pubescence on the upper surface of the leaves; stipules persistent; corolla regular; stamens numerous; anthers adnate; filaments free; stigma sessile; fruit a capsule, dehiscent by valves, or a berry, indehiscent by valves; seeds with homogeneous horny albumen, anatropial. **Tribe XIII.—Caryophyllaceae**. Diagnosis.—Herbs or rarely shrubs, with a yellowish pubescence on the upper surface of the leaves; stipules persistent; corolla regular; stamens numerous; anthers adnate; filaments free; stigma sessile; fruit a capsule, dehiscent by valves, or a berry, indehiscent by valves; seeds with homogeneous horny albumen, anatropial. **Tribe XIV.—Caryophyllaceae**. Diagnosis.—Herbs or rarely shrubs, with a yellowish pubescence on the upper surface of the leaves; 43 424 **BANUNCULACEAE.** Tribus 1. *Cleomaceae.* Calyx valvate or induplicate. Fruit consisting of a number of scales. Seed pendulous. Example: **—Chloris.** Tribus 2. *Annesseae.* Calyx imbricated, usually coloured. Fruit consisting of a number of scales. Seed pendulous. Ex- ample: **—Annesseae.** Tribus 3. *Banunculaceae.* Calyx imbricated. Fruit consisting of a number of scales. Seed pendulous. Example: *Astragalus*. Tribus 4. *Helboreae.* Calyx imbricated. Petals irregular or none. Fruit consisting of a number of many-seeded follicles. Example: *Helbora*, *Acnistus*. Tribus 5. *Acteae* of Lindley. Calyx coloured, imbricated. Fruit pendulous, pendulous, or one or many scaled. Example: **—Actea.** **Description and Numbers.—These plants occur chiefly in cold damp places, and are generally found in the woods and on mountains. The order includes about 600 species.** **Properties and Uses.—The plants are generally abundant in an aerial principle, which in some is even vaesent. This acidity is however, very variable, so that in most cases it is disputed whether they are really poisonous or not; but they are sometimes in cold water; it varies also in different parts of the same plant, and in different species of the same plant; some plants contain in addition a narcotic principle, and when these principles are in excess they are virulent poisons. Gener- ally they are not dangerous to man, excepted with suspicion, although some are simply bitter and toxic. **Actaea.—Some species of this genus are very virulent poisons. The dead root of the European species is said to be more poisonous than the whole plant; the root of the American species has been usually considered to be the seat of its poison, but the leaves and flowers are also very poisonous, especially from Aegopodium, A. europaeum, A. palustre, and probably others...** Some species of this genus have been used by the natives as a narcotic at the official place of the British Pharmacopoeia. The leaves, flowering tops, and roots (especially the latter) have been used by the natives as narcotic drugs; these they are salutary, ameliorative, and diuretic. Several fatal cases of poisoning have occurred among the natives from eating these plants; but no case has ever been recorded among Europeans from eating them. The other European species are almost inert. The properties of the flowers and leaves of *Aegopodium* have been described as aromatic and nauseous. The official remedy is a mixture of these flowers and leaves with a little salt water; it is used externally in chronic and chronic ulcers, and also occasionally internally as a purgative; it is also used as a stimulant for internal use. Other species have similar properties as for instance, the species which is known under the name of *Aegopodium* by J.F. Fournier. These roots contain a very powerful alkaloid named *japonicin*. It is said to be more poisonous than strychnine; it is used as an emetic and local poison. The American form contains the largest amount of japonicin; it is also used as an emetic and local poison but has no poisonous properties; it is official in the Pharmacopoeia of India under the name of *Aegopodium* as an emetic and antispasmodic medicine. It is known in the Indian bazaras as *Aeg* or *Ame*. **EANUNCULACER.** 435 Actaea.—The rhizome with the attached roots of Actaea (Cimicifuga) racemosa has been long used in the United States as a remedy in acute cholangitis, chloasma, and various morbid forms of chronic disease. It has been found to possess properties similar to those of the drug, but not so similar in degree. In the form of a lotion it is also reputed to be a valuable remedy in chronic catarrh. As a tea it is said to be far more efficacious than turmeric of America. It is supposed to be far more efficacious than turmeric of America. It is the source of the active principle of the drug, which is called "actaeine." The leaves of Actaea spinosa, Buxberry, as shown by the author, is a frequent adulteration of the American species. The root of this plant is also used in Europe. Clematis.—The leaves of this plant have been used as a remedy in chronic catarrh, and as a stimulant. They possess numerous properties. *Catha*.—The root of Catha edulis, Goldthorn, which is a native of North America, is a potent and powerful bitter, and is used as a stimulant and purgative. It is also employed in the treatment of melancholy and insanity. This root is found in the bazaars of India, and is official in the Indian Pharmacopoeia. It is also used in China under the name of Maitrana. It is intensely and powerfully bitter, and is a valuable tonic. *Cephalanthus*.—The leaves are used as a stimulant. *Deplinanthus*.—The seeds of this plant were formerly em- ployed as a stimulant. The leaves are used as a stimulant. Their violent action has led to their abuse. They are commonly known under the name of "Cocklebur," because they resemble that plant in shape and constitution.—Dr. Conklin.—The root and seeds contain deplinanthine, a very powerful stimulant. *Helleborus*.—The rhizomes and roots of Helleborus officinalis constitute the Black Hellebore or "Deadly Nightshade" (see page 60). It is a drastic purgative preparatory. *Helleborus niger* is the Black Hellebore or "Black Nightshade." It is also used as a purgative preparatory. Its virtues are similar to those of *Helleborus officinalis*, but its effects are more violent. The Medicines in the United States under the names of Hellebore and *H. niger* are not identical with these plants, but are preparations made from North American plants having similar qualities. Yellow Root and Golden Seal are used in the United States for their bitter properties, and for their use in chronic catarrh and other morbid conditions. Their action is due to the presence of berberine and its derivatives. Berberine, which occurs in great abundance in the Medicines in the United States under the names of Hellebore and *H. niger*, is obtained from the roots of *Berberis vulgaris*, which grows wild in many parts of North America, to give various shades of yellow. *Ginger*.—This plant is used as a stimulant instead of pepper. They are used in India as a cathartic. It is supposed that these seeds, when ground into powder, will cause death; hence they are not sold in the Black Cumin of Scripture (which xxviii. 25, 27), which pro- perty is also possessed to a certain extent by many other species.—Dr. Fowler.—The root contains an alkaloid which causes death when they have been used over a few days. *Glaucium flavum*.—This plant does not have a pure bitter taste, and possesses well-marked tonic properties. It is also official in the Indians southern parts of North America, where it is used as an emetic. Many plants of the order Ranunculaceae cultivated in our gardens; various species of Clematis, Anemone, Ranunculus, Echinacaea (Winter Ag A small illustration showing a plant with white flowers. 438 DILLENIACEAE. MAGNOLIACEAE. *nil*, Holdern (*Christmas Rose*), *Aquilegia* (*Columbine*), *Duboisia* (*Lathyrus*), *Amanthus* (*Mimulus*), *Femoa* (*Pennyroyal*), *Hemiaspis* (*Bee Balm*). Species of this order are very numerous, and remarkable for its very large showy flowers, and for the number of its species; thus, Fortune's "Flora of the Northern neighbourhood of Shanghai" which partly proceed from 300 to 400 flowers. Natural Order 2. DILLENIAE.---The Dillenia Order.--- Characters of the Order.---The leaves are simple, entire, or al- ternate, very rarely opposite, generally petiolate. Sepals 5, persistent, in two rows. Petals 5, deciduous, hypogynous, im- pressed; stamens 5, filiform, inserted on the base of the petals, 1, more or less distinct. Fruit formed from 2—3 distinct or ad- hensive sepals, and from 5—6 petals, or from 5—6 petals and ovule, anatropal, arilose; albumen homogeneous, fluidy ; embryo minute. *Dillenia*. *Stipulae* absent, except in rare cases. Sepals and petals 5 each, hypogynous, the former persistent in two rows, the latter deciduous. Stamens 5—6, filiform; ovules few or less distinct. Seeds numerous, arilose; albumen fluidy, homo- geneous. *Distribution*. Examples and Numbers.—The plants of this order occur chiefly in Australia, India, and equatorial America ; a few species are found in Europe. The genus *Dillenia* is found in Europe. *Examples of the Genera*. ---Dillenia, Canadilla, Tetracera. There are nearly 200 species belonging to this order. *Properties and Uses*.---The plants of this order have generally margined leaves; they are used medicinally for their tannins and for tanning in Brazil. The young calyces of some species of *Dillenia* have an acid taste, and are employed as an ingredient of curries. The fruit of *Canadilla* and *Tetracera* grows to a large size and form hard durable timber. Most of the species of this order are remarkable not only for their overgrown foliage, but also for the beauty of their flowers. They are sometimes cultivated as trees or shrubs in gardens. Natural Order 3. MAGNOLIACEAE.---The Magnolia Order. Characters of the Order.---With serrate or dentate leaflets (figs. (38), 39) and with usually large involucreal stipules that en- close the leaf-bud and fall off at its expansion. Sepals usually three to five; petals five; stamens five; ovary free or united into two or more rows. Stamens numerous; hypogynous (fig. 409, c). *Carpea* several, one-celled, often arranged upon an elon- gated pedicel; ovary free or united into two or more rows; ovules numerous or double; placenta axile; fruit a berry or succulent, dehiscent (figs. 662) or indiscisant carpea; distinct or united; embryo minute; albumen homogeneous or fluidy; seed without an aril, solitary or several; often suspended from the fruit by a long suspensor (figs. 662); embryo minute; albumen fluidy, homogeneous. A flower diagram showing the structure of a magnoliaceous flower. **MAGNOLIACEAE.** 437 **Fagaceae.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, leathery. Stipules usually large, persistent, large and sheathing the leaf- bud, deciduous. Sepals and petals often forming a compound of their parts, hygrophyte, the former deciduous, the latter with an involucre of bracts. Carpels distinct or coherent at the base. Althumenum homogamous. **Divisions.** —The Order. Examples of the Genera.—The order may be divided into two tribes. Tribe 1. Magnoliaceae.—Carpels distinct, arranged upon an elongate axis, which is often prolonged and not doted or scarcey so. *Examples.*—Liriodendron, Magnolia. Tribe 2. Fagaceae.—Carpels united at the base, and forming but one leaf. *Examples.*—Beech, Fagus; *Eucam*—plums; *Druyes*, Illiumus. **Subtribes.** —Subtribes. Members.—The majority of the genera are found in North America. Some also occur in the West Indies, Japan, China, South America, Australia, and New Zea- land. Some have been introduced into Europe by shipping islands, or in Europe. The order contains about 170 species. Properties.—The leaves of these trees are chiefly remarkable for bitter, tonic, and aromatic properties. **Droemy Winteri.—The bark, which was formerly known under the name of Winter's bark, has tonic, aromatic, antiseptic and emollient properties. It is used in the treatment of chronic bronchitis, and has been termed Spurine Winter's Bark. It was formerly much employed in this country in the treatment of consumption. The bark of Droemy Winteri, as now found in commerce, is commonly obtained from Cinnamomum Winteri (L.) Blume, a tree growing in Java and Sumatra, with similar properties. **Magnolia acuminata,** Star Anise.—The whole plant, particularly the fruit, has the flavour and odour of the European Aniseed plant (*Pimpinella anisum*). It is used in India to flavour various dishes and confections, and also as a spice. A large portion of the Oil of Anise of commerce is now obtained from this tree. The oil is obtained by distillation with steam, and is generally regarded as an inferior oil that obtained in Europe from that of the European Aniseed plant. The oil is used principally in the saleable botanical oils of Anise oil. The species of Illinois which grow on Java are not identical with those grown in India; but more generally it is included by botanists under *L. ilicifolia*. Hillebrandt **Magnolia officinalis,** White Magnolia.—This tree is extensively cultivated therein distributing. The trunks are occasionally imported; they have a false leaves or canopies, but are entirely devoid of the characteristic musaceous taste and odour of the true Magnolia officinalis (L.) Mill., and are distinguished from it by its abscence of fruits; and the recent observations of Goussard and others have shown that they are allied to *M. grandiflora* (L.) Mill., a tree growing from the seeds. This oil is used in Japan as a cheap lighting material and **Liriodendron tulipifera,** Tulip-tree.—The bark possesses bitter and tonic properties. **Magnolia m., plenae,** Sweet Sassafras or Beaver Tree. The bark is used in Europe as a stimulant and expectorant; but it differs from that of other species, as *Mopium Fraseri* and *M. acuminata*, have similar properties. A stylized illustration of a magnolia flower. 428 **ANGONACEAE.** Michelia champaca—The flowers of this plant, which is a native of India, yield a fragrant oil, known by the name of Tamanassu aromaticum. The fruit is used in New Holland as a substitute for pepper. The plants of this order are also remarkable for the fragrance and beauty of their flowers, and for the great variety of their fruits. They are found in this country, either as hardy plants, such as several Magnolias and the Tulip-tree, or as stove or greenhouse plants, such as species of Oleaceae. **Magnolia acuminata.**—Magnolia acuminata Linn. Tree. Character.—Tree or shrub. Leaves alternate, simple, exstipulate. Cotyledon three sepals, generally united at the base, per- sistent. Petiole short. Flowers regular, bisexual, usually solitary. Sepa- ria usually variegated, hypogynous, rarely united, or more rarely altogether absent; petals usually numerous, and inserted on a large hypogynous thalamus; stamens numerous; pistil distinct; anthers adnate. Carpels usually numerous, distinct or united, with one or two loculi; ovules few to many; style short; number of dry or ascendent carpels, which are distinct, or united so as to form a flaky mass. Seed one or more, anatropal; embryo minute or large. **Diagnosis.**—Tree or shrub. Leaves alternate. No stipules. Cotyledon three sepals, generally united at the base, persistent. Petiole short. Flowers regular, bisexual, usually solitary. Sepa- ria usually variegated, hypogynous, rarely united, or more rarely altogether absent; petals usually numerous, and inserted on a large hypogynous thalamus; stamens numerous; pistil distinct; anthers adnate, with an enlarged 4-corned connective. Albumen ruminate. **Dodecatheon meadia.**—Wood-sorrel. Flowers. The plants of this order are almost entirely confined to the tropical regions of Asia, Africa, and America. There are about thirty species in Europe. Ex- amples of the Genera.—Xylopa, Amanoa, Monoceros. There are nearly 300 species in this order. **Propriety and Uses.—Generally aromatic and fragrant in all their parts.** *Amen* equinoxalis and *A. mucronata* yield the delicious mescaline fruits of the New World genus *Amen*. The fruit of the latter plant is called Sweet-cay; that of *A.mucronata*, Sour-cay. Other species are also used as stimulants by the natives of South America. Quin- taria-apples, and *Chrysophyllum cainito*, which produces the Chirimoye of Peru. Another species of *Chrysophyllum* is called the "Cay," because its wood, so called from its elasticity and lightness; the fruit is termed the "Cay," but inasmuch as the presence of a narcotic principle it is not eaten. *Chloroxylon swietenia.*—The wood of this tree yields a beautiful yellow colouring which is much used in dyeing purposes; it is also employed in making paper; owing to a course property it is also a topical remedy of great repute in the treat- ment of leprosy and other diseases. It contains Berberine, which in its medicinal virtues are probably due. *Chloroxylon gigas.*—This is another species of *Chloroxylon*, which is known under the names of Pong-dang-dang, Atalapana, Olow Uwana, and Green Apple-bark. The wood is very similar to that of *C.swinthii*, but it is a Ceylon oil distilled with the flowers of Michelia Champaca (see Michelia) and Chrysophyllum and obtained yellow by means of turmeric. **Digestive quinine.** According to Schomburgk, the strong elastic wood LARDIZABALACEA. SCHIZANDRACEA. 429 called Lance-wood, chiefly used by coachmakers, is furnished by this plant, which is also known under the name of "Lance-wood." **Mandragora** *Meyr.* The Calabash Nutmeg, is somewhat similar as to its foliage and fruit, but the leaves of this nutmeg are also commonly known as Ananas or American mistingins. **Umbellularia** *Gray*—The Umbelliferous Wood, is a tree which is called as a tributary by the Indians on the Orinoco; according to Miers, it is a native of the West Indies. **Xylophaga** *Linn.*—*X. aromatica* (Hedleyana aromatica), D.C., is commonly known as the "Clove," and is a native of the West Indies. It contains the most of its stimulant and carminative effects, and also as a condiment, and is extensively cultivated in the West Indies, and also in the West India Islands, which has some properties. The fruits of X. aromatica are used as a bleaching throughout the valley of the Orinoco. Natural Order 6. LARDIZABALACEA.---The Lardizabalacean Order.--Flowers unisexual, compound. Flowers unisexual. Berries flower.--(Calpe and corolla with a terminal arrangement of their parts, on one side of the axis.)--Flowers unisexual, usually monadelphous, sometimes distinct.--Fruiting organs usually compound, but larger, hypogynous.--Semenes 6, very imperfect and sterile.--Carpels dimorphic, generally 3-valved; ovules 1, situated on the surface of the ovary. Fruit baccate; seeds usually follicular. Seed white; embryo in a large quantity of homogeneous albumen. **Diapensia.---Twining shrub. Leaves alternate, stipulate, simple, often dotted. Flowers unisexual. Berries flower.--(Calpe and corolla with a terminal arrangement of their parts, on one side of the axis.)--Flowers unisexual, usually monadelphous, sometimes distinct.--Fruiting organs usually compound, but larger, hypogynous.--Semenes 6, very imperfect and sterile.--Carpels dimorphic, generally 3-valved; ovules 1, situated on the surface of the ovary. Fruit baccate; seeds usually follicular. Seed white; embryo in a large quantity of homogeneous albumen. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.--There are about 15 species belonging to this order. According to Lindley, two species only are found in our country; but this is a typical form, and the remainder are from the temperate parts of China and Japan. Properties and Uses.--The plants of this order appear to be without any active property. Some have edible fruits, but they are not much esteemed by our people. Natural Order 7. SCHIZANDRACEA.---The Schizandra Order.--Character.--Trailing shrubs. Leaves alternate, stipulate, simple, often dotted. Flowers unisexual. Calpe and corolla with a terminal arrangement of their parts, on one side of the axis.)--Flowers unisexual, usually monadelphous, sometimes distinct.--Fruiting organs usually compound, but larger, hypogynous.--Semenes 6, very imperfect and sterile.--Carpels dimorphic, generally 3-valved; ovules 1, situated on the surface of the ovary. Fruit baccate; seeds usually follicular. Seed white; embryo in a large quantity of homogeneous albumen; embryo very minute. | **LARDIZABALACEA** | **SCHIZANDRACEA** | |---------------------|------------------| | **429** | |
LARDIZABALACEA SCHIZANDRACEA
429
**430** **MENISPERMACEAE.** **Diagnosis.—Trailing shrubs. Leaves alternate, stipulate, simple. Flowers usually solitary. Stamens numerous, hypogynous. Ovules pendulous; embryo very minute, with abundant homogeneous albumen.** *Order.* Menispermaceae. The order contains 12 species. They occur in India, Japan, and the northern parts of America. *Examples of the Genera* — Schizandra, Hoptonia. **Properties and Use.—These plants of this order are insipid and ruminal, and have no value.* **Natural Order 7. MENISPERMACEAE.**—The Moon-Seed Order. *Characters.* Shrubs, or small trees, often herbaceous, simple, stipulate, usually entire. Flowers generally dioecious, but sometimes imperfectly uniocular, rarely perfect or polygamous. Stamens numerous, hypogynous; the primary arrangement of their parts, generally in two whorls, imbricate or valvate; ovules pendulous; embryo minute or wanting. Carpels rudimentary or wanting. *Fertile flowers.* —Sepals and petals usually resembling those of the barren flower. Stamens imperfectly uniocular or polygamous; stamens 6-8 in number; filaments united into a synandrium, distinct, 1-celled. Cells in each callus, curved so as to assume the form of that cell; embryo curved—clavate or cylindrical—showing a small or minute amount, and then homogeneous or somewhat reticulate. *Remarks.*—There is probably no family so completely heteromorphic as this one; the leaves may be simple or compound, the flowers regular or irregular; the calyx may be entire or lobed; the corolla may be regular or irregular; the stamens may be perfect or imperfect; the carpels may be united into a synandrium or separate; the fruit may be a berry or a nut; and the seeds may be smooth or roughened. The extremes and abstract features at variance with its normal structure. Hence it is great difficulty in drawing up a satisfactory key of this order. **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—The plants of this order are found in Asia and America. They occur in parts of Asia and America. None occur in Europe. *Examples of the Genera.* —Coccoloba, Jatropha. Menispermum. There are about 500 species. **Properties and Use.—These plants are chiefly remarkable for their medicinal properties; they are used as purgatives and emetics. When the narcotic principle is in excess they are very poisonous. Some are valuable tonics.* *Admonition.*—The fruit of this plant, which is known as Coccolo- ba indica, is poisonous. It has been extensively employed for a long BERBERIDACEAE. perfed as a poison for taking fish and game, which it destroys. It is also reputed to be used to cause a great extent (chiefly by physicians) to impart a bitter taste to food, but this is not true. The leaves are poisonous, but it must be admitted that we have no very satisfactory evidence on this point. The average dose of the leaves is 30 grains, but the quantity of the drug varies according to the species. For instance, in the case of *Berberis trifoliata* Linn., a quantity, is said, sufficient to drug 150,000 tons of tea. It has been known to produce death in dogs and horses, and it is a common skin disease. In its active properties it is a poisonous neutral principle containing a base of the nature of quinine, and it contains also two amionic alkaloids in minute quantity, which have been named *Mepacrine* and *Mepacrinic acid*. The leaves are used in medicine. Chamomile-root amorphous. The root of this plant, which is a native of France, is used in medicine as a stimulant and diuretic. The name of the drug on which its reputation was founded, (the Chamomile.) The stem is covered with white woolly hairs, and the leaves are sessile, opposite, and sessile with the root. *Parsley* bears contain an alkaloid which has been named *Parasine*, and which is similar to berberine. It is also identical with berberine, the active principle of berberine bark. (See *Nardostachys*.) The leaves contain a base of the nature of quinine, and they are used in medicine as a diuretic. The leaves of *Corydalis** are used in medicine as a diuretic. The leaves of *Berberis* are used in medicine as a diuretic. The leaves of *Berberis* are derived from Alba rubra, which yields *Alba Berberine*. *Parsley* from *Alba* rubra; *Fiber* from *Parsley* roots; and also from other plants. Chamomile-flower amorphous. The stems have been imported into this country from Ceylon and sold under the name of "chamomile." They are now known to be *Corydalis** flavescens and *Corydalis** flavescens var. flavescens. These two species are not, however, sufficiently different to be considered as distinct species. The leaves are sessile and opposite. The leaves contain a base of the nature of quinine, and they are used in medicine as a diuretic. The leaves of *Berberis* are used in medicine as a diuretic. The leaves of *Berberis* are derived from Alba rubra, which yields *Alba Berberine*. *Parsley* from *Alba* rubra; *Fiber* from *Parsley* roots; and also from other plants. Mepacrine. Yellow Parilla (Berberis trifoliata) is a shrub growing wild in India and China. Its leaves yield mepacrine (Berberine), which is reputed to be alterative, tonic, laxative, diuretic, and antiseptic; but it is not known whether it is euphagogic or emetic. This drug has also been sold in the United States under the name of Texas Nermarite. Mepacrinic acid. This acid is obtained from the Phassa species of India, and so known under the name of Cokinazol; they possess well-marked physiological properties. Natural Order X. BERBERIDACEAE.—The Barberry Order— Chamaecrista—Shrubs or herbaceous perennial plants. Leaves alternate (q.v., 378), compound usually exstipulate. The leaves are free-veined or pinnate-veined; the leaflets are serrate. It will be admitted that the blade is articulated to the petiole, which is evi- dence of their compound nature. The stems are generally free from hair or pubescent; but when pubescent they are glandular, but it is often spiny (q.v., 378). These spines are nothing more than the hardened veins of some of the leaves between which 431 432 BERBERIDACEAE. The parenchyma is not developed. *Scopule* 3, 4, or 6, deciduous, in two whorls (fig. 864). *Petala* equal to the sepals in number and opposite to them, or twice as many, hypogynous. *Stamens* hypogynous, 3, 4, or 6, in two whorls (fig. 865), filiform, and opposite to them (fig. 864); anthers 2-celled, each opening by a valve from the bottom to the top (fig. 865), except in *Joplinia* where they are 4-celled (fig. 867). *Stigmas* sessile (fig. 860); style smooth longitudinal (fig. 865); stigma orbicular (fig. 860) or conical (fig. 861); stigmatic surface with a minute embryo (fig. 860 and 865). Fruit baccae, or dry and capulare. *Seeds* (fig. 867), usually with a minute embryo ; albumen between fleshly and horny. Diagnose.-Leaves alternate, very often spiny. Sepals 3, 4, or 6, deciduous, in two whorls (fig. 864). *Petala* equal to them in number. *Stamens* definite, hypogynous, opposite to the petals : anthers 2-celled, each opening by a valve from the bottom to the top (fig. 865). Style smooth longitudinal. Carpel solitary : placenta sutural ; ovules anatropal. Seeds with albumen. Figs. 864 & 865. Fig. 864. Fig. 865. Fig. 864. Diagram of the flower of *Berberis* (Berberidaceae). Fig. 865. Section of the flower of *Berberis* (Berberidaceae). Vertical section of the flower of *Berberis* (Berberidaceae). Vertical section of the seed of *Berberis* (Berberidaceae). Section of the axis surrounded by albumen. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.--They are found in the temperate parts of Europe, America, and Asia. They are very common in the mountainous parts of the North of India. Examples: *Berberis*, *Aruncus*, *Epimedium*, *Lecitium*. The order includes about 100 species. Properties and Uses.--These plants are generally said, 9/22 CAROMACEAE. NYMPHACEAE. 433 astringent, and bitter; but some are purgative. Their acid properties are due to the presence of oxalic acid. Balsam, Balsamum, and Balsamum officinale, of this and other species are acid and astringent, and form a refreshing preserve. Its bark is used in medicine, and its leaves are employed in the preparation of a yellow dye. The common Barberry bark is sometimes employed as an antispasmodic, and is said to be emetic. The American Barberry, Pharmanocea, and is said to be toxic in small doses, and cathartic in large doses. The American Barberry is also employed as a stimulant. Lycium, B. rotundifolius, and B. arborescens, form Indian Barberry bark. This bark, when chewed, is said to be emetic; it has stimulant, diaphoretic and purgative properties; and its extracts, under the name of "Indian Balsam," are employed in medicine for the treatment of affections of the eyes. The properties of Indian Barberry bark are especially due to its oxalic acid content. Caulophyllum thalictroides. Blue Cohosh. The root (chimene) has a reputation among the early settlers of New England as a stimulant drug; and among the Indians it was regarded as a stimulating tea and also as a narcotic. The leaves are used by the Indians as a stimulant; from it is reputed to be antispasmodic, alterative, tonic, diuretic and vesicant. Jefferson's Blue Cohosh (chimene) is popularly known as rhizoma chamaelirii. Among the United States medicinal plants, the Blue Cohosh is commonly said to resemble winged rock in its action, and to possess emetic, tonic and diaphoretic properties. Podophyllum peltatum. May apple. The rhizome and roots possess properties similar to those of the Blue Cohosh; they are emetic, and are frequently termed more properly podophylline. The rhizome and roots are used in medicine for the treatment of certain affections which are most frequent in this country. Natural Order 5. CAROINACEAE. - The Water-Shield Order. - Characeae. Aquatic plants, with floating pellate leaves. Sepals and petals 3 or 4 alternating with each other. Stamens indefinite or distinct; filaments united into a tube. Corolla 2 or more, distinct. Fruit indistinct. Seeds few ; embryo minute, enclosed in a vitellus, and outside of abundant fleshly albumen. Diagnosis.-The only order likely to be confounded with this group is that of the Nymphaeaceae; but the differences between them being so great that the two orders cannot be distinguished from one another without close examination. Distribution. Examples, and Names.-There are but 3 spe- cies belonging to this order in North America; viz., the water-lily, Australia, and India. Cabomba and Hydrophyllum are the only genera. Properties.-The water-lily possesses many important properties. Hydrophyllum purpureum is said to be nutritious. Natural Order 10. NYMPHACEAE. - The Water-Lily Order. - Characeae. Aquatic plants, with floating pellate leaves or cor- date. Flowers solitary, large and showy. Sepals usually 4 434 NYMPHACEAE. (♂p. 446, c. c. c.), or rarely 5 (♂p. 868), persistent, generally petiolate on their inner side; filaments numerous, (♂p. 446, p. p.), pedicellate, often passing by gradual transition into the stamens (♂p. 446, p. p.), in the same way as the sepals pass into the petals; stamens numerous, inserted upon the ovary, (♂p. 817). Stigmas numerous, placed upon the thalamus ; filaments pedicellate, often passing by gradual transition into the stamens; anthers opening by a disk-like expansion more or less surrounding the ovary, and having inserted upon it the petals and stamens (♂p. 802). Carpsels numerous, attached all over the ovary; style absent; stigma absent (♂p. 798); every many-celled (♂p. 780) ; style absent ; stigma radiating on the top (♂p. 617 and 609), and alternate with the dissepiments. Fig. 868. Fig. 869. Fig. 870. Fig. 868. 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EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE **NELUMBIACEAE. SARRACENIACEAE.** 435 Victoria regis.—This plant is a native of Equatorial America, and has been introduced into this country, where it has raised much interest, both from its beauty and from the manner in which it is constructed. The leaves, when fully expanded are more than a foot in diameter, and are composed of several leaflets, each from four to eight feet in diameter. The plant is commonly known in this country by the name of "the water-lily," but it is not a true water-lily, as the water is used for food, for which purpose they are very suitable, and can be obtained with great facility, without any difficulty or search. Natural Order 11. NELUMBIACEAE.—The Water-Bean Order. —Claytonia, or aquatic herb. *Solea* petalata, rising above the water. Flowers large and showy. Sepals of 5. Petals numerous, white or yellowish-white. Stamens numerous, in several whorls; *filaments* elongated. Thalamus very large, flattened at the top, and excavated so as to present a number of cavities, each of which contains a single seed. Fruit a berry, consisting of the ripened nut-like capsules, which are half-buried in the soil; the outer coverings being thin and without albumen; embryo large, enclosed in a membrane, with two flatly orthotyledonous and much-developed plumule. *Oophyllum* (Linn.)—The Water-Bean. *Thalamus* very large, flattened at the top, and excavated so as to present a number of cavities; each cavity containing a single seed; the whole enclosed in the large honeycomb-shaped thalamus. Fruit of numerous, usually 1-seeded nut-like bodies. Albumen none; thalamus very large. *Pistia* (Linn.)—The Water-Plant. *Pistia* is a common water-plant; these plants are natives of stagnant or quiet waters of temperate and tropical regions; they are found in all parts of India, but most abundant in the East Indies. There is but 1 genus, *Pistia*, which includes 3 species. Proprietary Names. The nut-like fruits of all the species are edible, as well as their rhizomes, which contain starch like those of the Nymphaea. Nelumbium spinosum Linn.—The fruit of this plant is commonly considered to have been the Egyptian Bean of Pythagoras; and the flower seems to have been the lotus of Egypt. It is now generally believed that the lotus plant, however, is no longer found in Egypt, but it is common in India. *Pistia* (Linn.)—The Water-Plant. *Pistia* is a common water-plant; these, when extracted, are used for water, which on great and sudden occasions are burnt in the lamps of the Hindus placed before the shrines of their gods. Natural Order 12. SARRACENIACEAE.—The Sarraceniaeae, Water-Pitcher or Side-Saddle-Flower Order—Charactar—*Persooniaceae*. Plants with tuberous roots; flowers solitary or few together; which are pitcher or trumpet-shaped (figs. 386 and 387). Sepals 3—5—6; petals 3—5—6; stamens numerous; ovary 3-celled or unilocular; anthers adnate; 2-celled. Carpels 3—5—6 united so as to form a compound 3—5-celled ovary; seeds mucronate; placenta axile. F F 436 PAPAVERACEAE. simple and truncate, or expanded at its top into a large shield-like angular process with one stigma beneath each of its angles. Stipules usually 2, sometimes 3, or more. Leaves numerous, attached to large xylem placenta; stipules abundant. **Papaver,** the poppy, is the type genus of this family. Leaves alternate, simple, or compound; stipules often present. Calyx persistent, imbricated. Carpels united so as to form a compound ovary, and a 3-5-celled dehiscing fruit, which is either dry or fleshy. Distribution. Examples, and Numbers.--There are 8 species, of which 7 are native to North America. The only one in Guiana, the other species is found in California. *Examples* of the Genera.--Sarsonium, Heliamphora. **Properties.** The leaves of the poppies are lined by glandular hairy appendages; these secrete a peculiar fluid which dissolves any impurities in the stomach and intestines. The solution thus formed is ultimately absorbed, and appears to be necessary for the healthy condition of these plants. Sarsonium is a plant whose leaves of Sarsonium are green, and are commonly variegated as a specific in many parts, but from extensive trials it has been found that the leaves of this plant cannot be entirely used.--S. serotinum and S. flavum are reputed to be diuretic and mild purgative; they are used in strychnia, headache, &c. The proportion, however, of all the species is very small. Natural Order 13. PAPAVERACEAE.--The Poppy Order.--Character.--Herbs or shrubs, usually with a milky juice (white) Foto 871. Foto 872. Foto 873. Fot. 871. Diagram of the flower of the Poppy, with two sepals four stamens and two pistils placentae.--Fig. 872. Flower of Cistusinae (Chelidonium majus).--Fig. 873. Flower of Papaveraceae (Papaver rhoeas).--Fig. 874. Diagram of the flowers of post-germinated capsules (varieties of Cistusinae). Leaves alternate, exstipulate. *Sepals* usually 2 (Fig. 871), or rarely 3, caducous (Fig. 460). Petals 4 (figs. 871 and 872). Stamens usually 4 ; filaments free or nearly wanting ; usually crumpled in vestation (fig. 871), hypogynous. | | | |---|---| | **Simple and truncate**, or expanded at its top into a large shield-like angular process with one stigma beneath each of its angles. Stipules usually 2, sometimes 3, or more. Leaves numerous, attached to large xylem placenta; stipules abundant.** | **Papaver,** the poppy, is the type genus of this family. Leaves alternate, simple, or compound; stipules often present. Calyx persistent, imbricated. Carpels united so as to form a compound ovary, and a 3-5-celled dehiscing fruit, which is either dry or fleshy.** | | **Distribution.** Examples, and Numbers.--There are 8 species, of which 7 are native to North America. The only one in Guiana, the other species is found in California. *Examples* of the Genera.--Sarsonium, Heliamphora.** | | **Properties.** The leaves of the poppies are lined by glandular hairy appendages; these secrete a peculiar fluid which dissolves any impurities in the stomach and intestines. The solution thus formed is ultimately absorbed, and appears to be necessary for the healthy condition of these plants.** | | Sarsonium is a plant whose leaves of Sarsonium are green, and are commonly variegated as a specific in many parts, but from extensive trials it has been found that the leaves of this plant cannot be entirely used.--S. serotinum and S. flavum are reputed to be diuretic and mild purgative; they are used in strychnia, headache, &c. The proportion, however, of all the species is very small.| | Natural Order 13. PAPAVERACEAE.--The Poppy Order.--Character.--Herbs or shrubs, usually with a milky juice (white) Foto 871. Foto 872. Foto 873. Fot. 871. Diagram of the flower of the Poppy, with two sepals four stamens and two pistils placentae.--Fig. 872. Flower of Cistusinae (Chelidonium majus).--Fig. 873. Flower of Papaveraceae (Papaver rhoeas).--Fig. 874. Diagram of the flowers of post-germinated capsules (varieties of Cistusinae). Leaves alternate, exstipulate. *Sepals* usually 2 (Fig. 871), or rarely 3, caducous (Fig. 460). Petals 4 (figs. 871 and 872). Stamens usually 4 ; filaments free or nearly wanting ; usually crumpled in vestation (fig. 871), hypogynous. 436 **PAFAVERACEAE.** 437 *Stamens* generally numerous (figs. 871 and 872), hypogynous (figs. 301 and 873) ; anthers 2-celled, innate (fig. 31). *Ovary* and *placentae* usually numerous, sessile, or placentate, which project more or less from the walls into its cavity, and in some cases (fig. 301) are very short, or very long (fig. 301), or very short; stigmae 2 (figs. 872, a6), or many (figs. 301, a1), alternate with the placentae, and opposite the imperfect dissepiments (or when numerous, alternate with them); ovary usually inferior, of the ovary (fig. 301); corolla numerous (fig. 618). *Fruit* 1-celled, or rather pellucid, or sometimes dehiscent; seeds numerous, or together with several placentae; deliquing by valves (figs. 873), or pores, or sometimes indeterminate. *Seeds* usually numerous; embryo in hyaline albumen (figs. 705). *Diagnosis.*—Usually herbae with a milky juice. Leaves alterno-ternate, simple, entire, or lobed; stipules none; petiole regular and symmetrical. Calyx and corolla with a binary or ternary arrangement of their parts, deciduous, hypogynous. Stamens numerous; anthers 2-celled; ovary inferior; fruit a pellucid, 1-celled, with persistent placenta; stigmae alternate to the placenta; seeds numerous; embryo in hyaline albumen. *Distribution.* *Examples,* and *Numbers.*—Nearly two-thirds of the plants of this order are natives of Europe, and are mostly annuals. The remainder are mostly perennials, and are but sparingly distributed out of Europe in a wild condition. Examples: *Amaranthus*, *Baccharis*, *Caltha*, *Chelidonium*, *Echidnolita*. The order includes about 100 species. *Properties and Uses.*—The plants of this order are in almost all cases diuretic and purgative; but some are emetic; others are acid, while others are purgative. In a medicinal point of view, the order is not important in the Vegetable Kingdom, from its yielding Opium, undoubtedly the most valuable drug of the Materia Medica. *Amaranthus*.—The leaves have narcotic-odorous properties. As all may be obtained from them by expression or decoction, they are used medicinally as a remedy in disorders. In the West Indies, the seeds are also used as a stimulant. The leaves of *Baccharis* have been said to be of little value employed as an external application in certain diseases. *Caltha*.—The flowers of this plant grow in the meadows of country, growing in the neighbourhood of villages. It has an orange-garnished main stem of about three feet high; it is used as a remedy for the cure of warts, and has been used successfully as opiate of the coma. It has also been administered internally, and is reputed apertus, diuretic, and stimulant. *Chelidonium*.—The leaves of this plant are just obtained from the surface of the cup-shaped cells of the plant; they are used by persons addicted to Hippocampus, Diaperia, and Diminutum. Various kinds of opium have been obtained from the roots of *Chelidonium majus*, a plant native of Persia, European India, China, and elsewhere; one opium which is produced in Asia Minor, is that commonly used in this country. Its consumption is largely on the increase; thus, it is the 428 FUMARICEA. quantity imported into Great Britain was 41,000, and in 1802, 116,000 pounds, which is to be compared with the quantity exported from the several countries. The annual exports of quinine from Senyra alone are now probably more than 300,000 pounds. The quantity of quinine produced annually is nearly 32,000,000 pounds. Of this amount, about 25,000,000 pounds are consumed in Europe, and consumed in China, representing a market value of about as many pounds sterling. The remainder is used for medicinal purposes. It is known that in a marked degree the narcotic properties of the plants of the order from which it is derived are increased by the presence of quinine. This is also regarded as specific, anodyne, and antispasmodic. Its properties are chiefly due to its alkaloid, quinine, but it contains also cinchonine and cinchonidine. And its properties are also due, to some extent at least, to other peculiar substances contained in the plant. In addition to these three alkaloids possessing such active properties, the seeds are bland and wholesome. They yieldly extractable tannin and gum. The leaves contain a bitter principle which may be a substitute for tannic acid and for other purposes. It is one of the oils employed in the manufacture of perfumes and scents. The bark contains a substance which may be used for fattening cattle. The dark-coloured seeds are known as "blue seeds" and are used in the preparation of "blue cakes." Used for them—Papaver rhoeas, the common Red or Corn Poppy, has scarlet or red petals; Papaver flavum, the yellow Poppy, has yellow petals; and as a colouring ingredient in the medical practitioner. The fresh petals are used in medicine. **Sanguisorba officinalis,** Puccinum.—The rhizomes and roots of this plant, which is commonly called St John's Wort, have been long in use in commerce as a stimulant, diaphoretic, and expectorant. It is also said by Eberle to cure dropsy and rheumatism. When applied externally it has been stated to have well-marked antiseptic properties. It is supposed that the use of this plant in this country has been proved to be valuable for such purposes. Many varieties of this plant are cultivated in our gardens, as Papaver, **Lysimachia**, **Rutgera**, **Platycodon**, **Echinacea**, etc. **Natural Order 14: FUMARIACEAE—The Fumariiflorae Family—Order—Chamomile Order—Chamomile Family** The genus Fumaria comprises herbaceous plants with alternate leaves, much divided, stipulateate. Sepals (5) (6), 7(8), deciduous. Petals 4 or 5, irregular, in two whorls (figs. 874). One on each side of the calyx (figs. 875-876), and the two inner frequently united at the apex. Stamens hypogynous; filaments free; anthers sessile; anther-sacs opposite the outer petals, and containing an equal number of stamens (figs. 874 and 875); the middle bundle of each bundle having a single anther (figs. 874 and 875); lateral bundles having two anthers (figs. 874 and 875); one anther (figs. 874-876); one anther (figs. 874-876); one anther (figs. 874-876); one anther (figs. 874-876); one anther (figs. 874-876); one anther (figs. 874-876); one anther (figs. 874-876); one anther (figs. 874-876); one anther (figs. 874-876); one anther (figs. 874-876); one anther (figs. 874-876); one anther (figs. 874-876); one anther (figs. 874-876); one anther (figs. 874-876); one anther (figs. 874-876); one anther (figs. 874-876); one anther (figs. 874-876); one anther (figs. 874-876); one anther (figs. 874-876); one anther (figs. 874-876); one anther (figs. 874-876); one anther (figs. 874-876); one anther (figs. 874-876); one anther (figs. 874-876); one anther (figs. 874-876); one anther (figs. 874-876); one anther (figs. 874-876); one anther (figs. 874-876); one anther (figs. 874-876); one anther (figs. 874-876); one anther (figs. 874-876); one anther (figs. 874-876); one anther (figs. 874-876); one anther (figs. 874-876); one anther (figs. 874-876); one anther (figs. 874-876); one anther (figs. 874-876); one anther (figs. 874-876); one anther (figs. 874-876); one anther (figs. 874-876); one anther (figs. 874-876); one anther (figs. 874- CRUCIFERAE. 439 containing a number of seeds. Seeds shining, crested ; embryo abaxial, minute (fig. 877); albumen fleshy. Fig. 874. Fig. 875. Fig. 876. Fig. 877. Diagnose. Smooth herbs, with a watery juice, and alternate exstipulate much-divided leaves. Flowers very irregular and symmetrical, usually 4, rarely 5, or 6, but sometimes 3 ; sepals 5- deciduous. Stamens hypogynous, usually 6, diadelphous, or 4, distinct, always opposite to the petals. Ovary superior with several loculi, or rarely simple. Fruit a capsule. Seed very minute, abaxial, in fleshy albumen. Diagnosis. - Plants of the order principally occur in thickets and waste places in the temperate latitudes of the northern hemisphere. Examples of the order are : - Cruciferae, Brassicaceae, and Lactucaceae. Properties and Uses.-These plants possess slightly bitter, astringent, and stimulant properties. The rhizomes or tubers of *Dorobaea* (Corollaea) formosus are the source of orpibinum, which is used by the eudocite practitioners as a remedy for dropsy, jaundice, and gout; *Cochlearia*, &c.; but the properties of this and other plants of the order appear to be so slight that they are not often used in our gardens and greenhouses. The most important of these is *Dolostrea* (Dolophora) spectabilis, which has very showy flowers, but its medicinal properties are unknown. Natural Order 15. CRUCIFERAEE OR BRASSICACEAE.--The Cruciferae are herbaceous plants of the order Cruciferae, very rarely shrubby plants. Leaves alternate, exstipulate. Flowers usually yellow or white, rarely purple, or some mixture of these colours; corolla regular; stamens numerous; style usually ebracteated. Sepals 4 (fig. 877), deciduous ; insertion imbricate. A diagram of the flower of Corollaea with two sepals, four petals in two whorls, and three stamens. A vertical section of the flower of Diophragma. A vertical section of the seed of Corollaea. 449 CRUCIFER. or rarely valvate. Petals (figs. 24, p., and 875), hypogynous, arranged in the form of a Maltese cross, alternate with the sepals, double ones. Stamen: 3, intrastigmatic (fig. 800, o.). Fig. 875. Fig. 801. Fig. 876. A diagram of a Cruciferan flower. The diagram shows the structure of the flower, including the petals, sepals, stamens, and pistil. The petals are arranged in a cross-like pattern, with three on each side of the central stamen. The sepals are also arranged in a cross-like pattern, with three on each side of the central stamen. The stamens are located at the base of the petals and sepals, and the pistil is located at the center of the flower. Fig. 860. Fig. 883. Fig. 882. Fig. 883. Fig. 884. Fig. 885. A diagram of a Cruciferan flower. The diagram shows the structure of the flower, including the petals, sepals, stamens, and pistil. The petals are arranged in a cross-like pattern, with three on each side of the central stamen. The sepals are also arranged in a cross-like pattern, with three on each side of the central stamen. The stamens are located at the base of the petals and sepals, and the pistil is located at the center of the flower. Fig. 879. Diagram of a Cruciferan flower.—Fig. 879. Portion of the flower-stalk showing the arrangement of the petals (Chlorophytum).—Fig. 880. Portion of the flower-stalk showing the arrangement of the sepals (Chlorophytum).—Fig. 881. Portion of the flower-stalk showing the arrangement of the stamens (Chlorophytum).—Fig. 882. Portion of the flower-stalk showing the arrangement of the pistil (Chlorophytum).—Fig. 883. The ultimate of Chlorophytum's flower (Chlorophytum).—Portion of a flower-stalk showing the arrangement of the stamens (Chlorophytum).—Portion of a flower-stalk showing the arrangement of the pistil (Chlorophytum).—1. Undivided; 2. Horizontal section; 3. Radicle; 4. Capitulum. **CRUCIFERæ.** 441 hypogynous. *Thalamae* furnished with small green glands (figs. 800, 801) placed between the stamens. *Onyra* superior (figs. 800, 801), or usually placed between the stamens, 610 and 611, or usually more centrally placed (figs. 872). *Spermatia* (figs. 873, 874) situated on the upper side of the calyx (figs. 880); *signum* 2 (figs. 871), opposite the place of fruit. Fruit a silique (figs. 677 and 681), or silicula (figs. 882 and 883), 1 or 2-seeded ; the latter sometimes furnished with a radicle (figs. 884, 885). *Cochlearia* (figs. 881 and 882), embryo with the radicles variously folded upon the cotyledons (figs. 706, 707, 708, 884, and 886); *oblenus* unknown. *Diapomum.*—Generally characterized herbae. Sepals and petals a double layer of cells, which are closely united together to produce the placenta. Stamens tetraspermous. Fruit a silique or silicula. Seeds stalked, without albumen, and with the radicle variably folded upon the cotyledons (figs. 893, 894). The embryo is now found with this or ordinary care be taken, as tetrapernous sta- ments are rare in the order, and a very few species belonging to the natural order Cupressaceæ. Division of the Order and Examples of the Genera.—This large and intricate order has been divided into two parts according to its relation to the nature of the fruit, and also as to the mode in which the embryo is folded. The latter is the only satisfactory arrange- ment. The sub-orders founded on the nature of the fruit are as follows: Sub-order I. *Siliqueae.*—Fruit a silique (figs. 677 and 681), opening by valves longitudinally (fig. 677). *Examples*— *Chirantus*, *Bremia*. Sub-order II. *Siliculae intestatae.*—Fruit a silicula opening by valves; the septum in its broader diameter (fig. 683). *Ex- amples*—*Brassica*, *Sinapis*. Sub-order III. *Siliculae angustatae.*—Fruit a silicula opening by valves; or splitting in its narrower diameter (fig. 687). *Examples*—*Brassica*, *Sinapis*. Sub-order IV. *Nucemulatae.*—Fruit an indubehant silicula; or a silicula, owing to the absence of the septum. *Examples*— *Isatis*. Sub-order V. *Sepulatae.*—The valves of the fruit opening longi- tudinally at maturity, but closing transversely before seed ripening. No examples among British plants. Sub-order VI. *Siliceae.*—A silique or silicula, dividing transversely into 1-seeded portions, the true silique sometimes barren; the base placed above it containing one or two seeds. *Examples*—*Brassica*, *Sinapis*, etc. The sub-orders founded on the mode in which the embryo is folded are as follows— ,
443 **CUCURBITACEAE** Sub-order 1. *Fleurochizae* (♀♂) (fig. 768).—*Cotyledons* acuminate, flat; radicle lateral. *Examples.*—*Chirantus*, *Arabica.* Sub-order 2. *Notorhizae* (♀♂) (fig. 767).—*Cotyledons* incurvate, flat; radicle sub-erect. *Examples.*—*Cucurbita*, *Caulophyllum.* Sub-order 3. *Orthoplocheae* (♀♂) (fig. 880).—*Cotyledons* conuplicate, longitudinally folded in the middle; radicle dorsal, within the cotyledonary sheath. Sub-order 4. *Sporochoae* (♀♂) (figs. 766 and 884).—*Cotyledons* twins folded, linear, incurvate. *Examples.*—*Bumias*, *Kraussii.* Sub-order 5. *Diplochizae* (♀♂) (fig. 811).—*Cotyledons* thrice folded, linear, incurvate. *Examples.*—*Cucurbita*, *Caulophyllum.* Distribution and Numbers.—The plants of this order chiefly inhabit temperate climates. A large number are also found in the tropical regions of the world, but they are not so numerous. The order includes about 1,000 species. Properties.—The plants of this order are generally characterized by antisepticic and pungent properties, frequently combined with astringity; it is one of the most natural in the Vegetable Kingdom to be used as a medicine for the stomach. The seeds frequently contain a fixed oil. Many of our commonest culinary vegetables are derived from this order. Amaranthus, genus Amaranthus, which is found wild in the deserts of Egypt and Syria, is remarkable for its hygroscopic properties. It is said that when a man who was suffering from dryness and without it, contracted and cut up his skin, so as to secure the form of a leaf, he was cured of his complaint. The leaves are used in salads, and if he is then exposed to moisture, it uncurls, and the branches expand again at once; hence the name "amaryllis," which means "to uncurl." The seeds which it has to bear first bloomed on Christmas Eve to set its third of the leaves in motion, and thus to bring back moisture to the parched earth, something expanded till Easter." In Palestine it is termed "Kaf Mazar," Mary's Tomb. Brassica.—This genus contains several species which are commonly cultivated for their edible leaves or flowers. The common *Brassica*, or cabbage, is probably a hybrid between Brassica oleracea and *Brassica rapa*. The seeds are very small and are often used for making cakes. *B. rapa.*—Napa yields rape, Colza, or Cudrana seed, from which may be extracted a valuable oil; it is also used for making cakes and for the purpose of burning and other purposes. The cake left after the expression of the oil is called "cabbage cake." The seeds of *B. chinensis* yield Shanghaie Oil—also, the Wild Cabbage, in Europe and America; it is used for making cakes and for cooking purposes; all the varieties of Kohlrabi, Kohl-rabi, Green, Broccoli, and Cauliflower are derived from this plant. The seeds are very small; they grow down into a deep hole, resembling a turpial. Bread and Cauliflowers are produced from them. *Cucurbita.*—Gourd Family. The seeds are stated to be valuable as food for dogs. *Caulophyllum.*—Gourd Family. Cutleaf cucumber. The flowers were formerly much used for their stimulant and diaphoretic properties, and have been long a popular remedy for epilepsy in children. A diagram showing the structure of a seedling. CRUCIFERAE. 443 Cuckoeboræ.—C. americana (Arumaceæ racemosæ).—The root is the com- mon Horsemint, so much used as a condiment. Several fatal cases of poisoning by this plant have been recorded. The root is a very good stimulant root for that of Horsemint, which it is supposed to resemble. From Horse- mint, it differs in its greater bitterness, its more pungent taste, and its less irritant, rubefacient, and vesicant, as a stimulant, diuretic, and antispasmodic properties. It is also said to possess a similar quantity of volatile oil, under the influence of water, from the supposed presence of the same principle in the leaves of the same plant (see Sassafras). Horsemint's root should always be used in a fresh state.—C. Cuckoeboræ.—C. americana (Arumaceæ racemosæ).—The root is the com- mon Horsemint, so much used as a condiment. Several fatal cases of poisoning by this plant have been recorded. The root is a very good stimulant root for that of Horsemint, which it is supposed to resemble. From Horse- mint, it differs in its greater bitterness, its more pungent taste, and its less irritant, rubefacient, and vesicant, as a stimulant, diuretic, and antispasmodic properties. It is also said to possess a similar quantity of volatile oil, under the influence of water, from the supposed presence of the same principle in the leaves of the same plant (see Sassafras). Horsemint's root should always be used in a fresh state.—C. Cuckoeboræ.—C. americana (Arumaceæ racemosæ).—The root is the com- mon Horsemint, so much used as a condiment. Several fatal cases of poisoning by this plant have been recorded. The root is a very good stimulant root for that of Horsemint, which it is supposed to resemble. From Horse- mint, it differs in its greater bitterness, its more pungent taste, and its less irritant, rubefacient, and vesicant, as a stimulant, diuretic, and antispasmodic properties. It is also said to possess a similar quantity of volatile oil, under the influence of water, from the supposed presence of the same principle in the leaves of the same plant (see Sassafras). Horsemint's root should always be used in a fresh state.—C. Cuckoeboræ.—C. americana (Arumaceæ racemosæ).—The root is the com- mon Horsemint, so much used as a condiment. Several fatal cases of poisoning by this plant have been recorded. The root is a very good stimulant root for that of Horsemint, which it is supposed to resemble. From Horse- mint, it differs in its greater bitterness, its more pungent taste, and its less irritant, rubefacient, and vesicant, as a stimulant, diuretic, and antispasmodic properties. It is also said to possess a similar quantity of volatile oil, under the influence of water, from the supposed presence of the same principle in the leaves of the same plant (see Sassafras). Horsemint's root should always be used in a fresh state.—C. Cuckoeboræ.—C. americana (Arumaceæ racemosæ).—The root is the com- mon Horsemint, so much used as a condiment. Several fatal cases of poisoning by this plant have been recorded. The root is a very good stimulant root for that of Horsemint, which it is supposed to resemble. From Horse- mint, it differs in its greater bitterness, its more pungent taste, and its less irritant, rubefacient, and vesicant, as a stimulant, diuretic, and antispasmodic properties. It is also said to possess a similar quantity of volatile oil, under the influence of water, from the supposed presence of the same principle in the leaves of the same plant (see Sassafras). Horsemint's root should always be used in a fresh state.—C. Cuckoeboræ.—C. americana (Arumaceæ racemosæ).—The root is the com- mon Horsemint, so much used as a condiment. Several fatal cases of poisoning by this plant have been recorded. The root is a very good stimulant root for that of Horsemint, which it is supposed to resemble. From Horse- mint, it differs in its greater bitterness, its more pungent taste, and its less irritant, rubefacient, and vesicant, as a stimulant, diuretic, and antispasmodic properties. It is also said to possess a similar quantity of volatile oil, under the influence of water, from the supposed presence of the same principle in the leaves of the same plant (see Sassafras). Horsemint's root should always be used in a fresh state.—C. Cuckoeboræ.—C. americana (Arumaceæ racemosæ).—The root is the com- mon Horsemint, so much used as a condiment. Several fatal cases of poisoning by this plant have been recorded. The root is a very good stimulant root for that of Horsemint, which it is supposed to resemble. From Horse- mint, it differs in its greater bitterness, its more pungent taste, and its less irritant, rubefacient, and vesicant, as a stimulant, diuretic, and antispasmodic properties. It is also said to possess a similar quantity of volatile oil, under the influence of water, from the supposed presence of the same principle in the leaves of the same plant (see Sassafras). Horsemint's root should always be used in a fresh state.—C. Cuckoeboræ.—C. americana (Arumaceæ racemosæ).—The root is the com- mon Horsemint, so much used as a condiment. Several fatal cases of poisoning by this plant have been recorded. The root is a very good stimulant root for that of Horsemint, which it is supposed to resemble. From Horse- mint, it differs in its greater bitterness, its more pungent taste, and its less irritant, rubefacient, and vesicant, as a stimulant, diuretic, and antispasmodic properties. It is also said to possess a similar quantity of volatile oil, under the influence of water, from the supposed presence 446 **CAPPARIDACEAE.** *seeds of *Sesamum indicum*, a native of India, possess similar properties to those of *Pimpinella anisum*. The seeds of *Capparis spinosa* are used in the Pharmacopoeia of India, under the name of *Bansap* indus. Many species of this family are employed as stimulants and aphrodisiacs, such as the Stocks (Matthiola), Wallflowers (Chrysanthemum Chrysanthemum), Candytuft (Heraea odoratissima), Honey* (Lavandula sancta), etc. **Natural Order 17. CAPPARIDACEAE.—The Caper Order.—Characterized by the presence of a single seed, stipulate or stipulate-like, exstipulate or rarely with stipule stipulate appendages. Sepals 4 (fig. 651, col.), sometimes cohering more or less; stamens infundibuliform, rarely 3, rarely 2, rarely 1 (fig. 651, col.), coriaceous, imbricate, generally unequal and unguiculate, rarely 4; filaments usually united into a tube, rarely free; anthers, if very rarely tetradynamous, placed usually upon a prolonged thalamus or stalk by which they are raised above the calyx and corolla (fig. 651, col.), or on a short stalk; ovary 1-celled or sessile, 1-celled; placentae 2 or more, parietal; style filiform or wanting; stigma terminal; fruit a capsule, rarely a berry; seeds usually many-seeded, very rarely 1-seeded, either pod-shaped and dehiscent, or basate and indehiscent. Seeds generally reniform, rarely ovoid or oblong. Fruit indehiscent.**—Diagnosis. —Herbs, shrubs, or trees, with alternate leaves. Sepals usually 4 (fig. 651, col.), rarely 3 or 2; petals usually unequal. Stamens usually numerous, very rarely tetradynamous, generally inserted on a stalk, which raises them above the calyx and corolla (fig. 651, col.), or on a short stalk; ovary 1-celled or sessile and 1-celled. Seeds generally reniform; embryo curved; style filiform. **Division of the Order and Examples of the Genera.**—The order is divided, according to the nature of the fruit, as follows:— Sub-order A. Chrysanthemum. Fruit capitate and dehiscent. **Euxam** —Chrysanthemum. Sub-order B. Capreseae. —Fruit basate and indehiscent. **Euxam** —Capreseae. **Distribution and Numbers.—The plants of the order are found in tropical and subtropical regions of the globe. In Africa they are especially abundant. The common Caper (Capre* spinosa) grows wild in the Mediterranean region; in North of Europe, is the only European species, and also that one which is found in the United States. It is used as a stimulant. **Properties and Use.—In their properties these plants resemble in many respects the Cruciferae, being generally pungent, stimu- lant, and anthelmintic; but they are much more powerful than any anthelmintic. In some plants the pungent principle is highly concentrated; in others it is very dilute; so that those in which it is found are very poisonous. *Codium indicum.*—The root is reputed to be aperient and anthelmintic. A botanical illustration showing the structure of a flower from the Capparidaceae family. **REEDACEAE. CISTACEAE.** 445 Cyperus.—The flower-buds of various species of this genus are used to form the white flowers of the "carnation," a plant which is cultivated in the south of Europe. C. flavescens is familiar, and C. esculentum in Italy. *Cyperus rotundus.*—This is a common weed in the fields and roadsides. Its leaves are commonly elongate, aristate, and appressed. *C. Sylvestris* has a more free-standing habit than the other species, and is a very useful article of food in some parts of Africa. The fruit of one species, said to be allied to *C. esculentum*, which is found in the neighbourhood of Cartagena, is extremely poisonous. *Cyperus* species are very pungent, and are used as medicines like our mustard. *Camassia scilloides.*—A bulbous plant, native of North America, is called a stemless and tonic. The root of *C. camassia*, the giant Fava, is said to be emollient. *Gymnadenia conopsea.*—Native of India, it reputedly is antiseptic. *Helenium autumnale.*—This is a common weed in the fields, and its seeds are used as substitutes for mustard, but like mustard seed, contain 4 kinds of oil. *Pulsatilla.*—Some species of this genus are also employed like mustard. The use of *Cyperus* is not so well known as that of *Allium*, and externally as a salutatory, &c. Natural Order 17. **BENZEALES.**—The Magnomette Order— Character.—Herbs, or rarely small shrubs. Leaves alternate, entire or divided, exstipulate, or with minute glabrous stipules, with glabrous or pubescent petioles; stipules usually 3-4 mm. long; stipules 4-7 divaricants. Petals 2-7, lacertoid (figs. 694), unequal. Disk hyaline; anther filiform; stamens 2-5; ovary 1-celled; style 1-3; stigma sessile; ovule solitary or several on each side of the disk. Ovary sessile; placenta central; placenta simple or compound; placenta parietal; placenta axile; placenta basal. Diagnosis.—Usually herbs, with alternate leaves and unynam- metrical flowers. Disk large, hypogynous, one-styled. Stamen definite or indeterminate. Petals 2-7, lacertoid (figs. 694). Style 1-3; stigma sessile. Fruit usually opening early at its apex. Seeds generally numerous. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—They are chiefly natives of Europe and the adjoining parts of Africa and Asia. A few occur in America (e.g., *Corydalis*, *Fumaria*, *Hepatica*, *Californica*. Examples of the Genera—*Benzea*, Asterocarpa. There are no subgenera. Properties and Uses.—But little is known of their properties. The plants are generally somewhat acid, and were formerly supposed to be poisonous. *Benzea*—*Reeds* adjoins the Magnomette plant, which is so much esteemed for the fragrance of its flowers.—*Reeds* adjoins a common plant which was formerly supposed to be poisonous. Natural Order 18. **CISTACEAE.**—The Rock-Rose Order— Character.—Shrubs or herbs, often viscid. Leaves opposite A small image showing a plant with narrow leaves and small flowers.
446 BREACER OR FLACOURTIACEAE.
or alternate, entire, stipulate or exstipulate. Flowers showy.
Sepals usually united, rarely free, imbricate or valvate; corolla :
rotation of the three inner united.
Petals usually 0 (fig. 886), very rarely 3, caducous, hypogynous, frequently corrugated in the bud and often with a glandular base; stamens (fig. 886), distinct, hypogynous, definite or indefinite.
Ovary: 1-5-celled, sessile or pedicellate; style simple.
Fruit capsular, usually 1-celled, with 3--5, or rarely 10 valves; or imperfectly 3--5--10-celled; placenta parietal (fig. 886).
Fig. 886. Fig. 887. Fig. 886. Segment of the flower of a species of *Blechnanthus* (fig. 887). Section of the fruit of *Blechnanthus* showing the seeds. Seeds definite or numerous, albuminous (fig. 887); embryo curved or spiral, with the radicle remote from the hilum. **Diagnose:** Leaves entire. Sepals and petals with a ternary or quinary arrangement, twisted in rotation; the former percurrent, the latter free and imbricate; ovary with partial placentae; style simple; stigma simple. Fruit capsular. Seeds with many albumen; embryo inverted, curved or spiral. **Distribution,** Examples, and Numbers.--These plants are mostly American, but some are found in South Africa. Some few are found in other parts of the globe. *Examples of the Genera:* Cistus, Heliotropium. There are about 200 species. **Properties and Uses.--** These plants have generally resinous and balsamic properties. Some are regarded as stimulant and emollient. **Cistus cineraceus.--The fragrant resinous substance called Ladanum or Labdanum is obtained from this plant in the Levant and also from C. lacteus and C. creticus. The resin is used medicinally as a stimulant and expectorant; it is still employed, however, by the Arabs as a perfume, and for fumigation. **Natural Order** **19. BREACER OR FLACOURTIACEAE.--** The Annuato or Arnatto Order.--Character.--Shrubs or small trees. **BIXACEAE OR FLACOURTIACEAE. VIOLEACEAE.** 447 Leaves alternate, stipulate, usually entire and leathery, and very often dotted. Folium simple, distinct, equal in number to the axils and alternate with them, or sometimes absent. Stipules hypogynous, elongated or linear, or sometimes reduced to a pair of glands. Ovary 1-celled or more-celled, sessile or slightly stalked; placenta 2 or more, parietal, sometimes branched as to form a network; ovary superior or inferior; style filiform; stigma terminal. Fruit a berry, unilocular, or rarely bivalved by the withered pith; albumen fleshy- or embryo straight; axilloid; radicle turned to the hilum. *Flacourtia indica*, a tree, with alternate stipulate leaves. Flowers polyadelphous or petalous; petals hypogynous. *Flacourtia jujuba*, a tree, with alternate stipulate leaves multiple of them. Fruit dehiscent or indehiscent; placenta parietal. Seeds numerous, albuminous; embryo-axial, straight; radicle bent. Distribution. Examples and Numbers—The plants of this order are found in tropical America, Africa, Asia, and West Indies, and India. Examples of the Genera—*Bixa*, *Flacourti*, etc. There are about 100 species. Properties—The seeds of some of the order are feebly bitter and astrigent, and have been used as stomachic; others are said to be poisonous. The oil of the seeds of some of the *Flacourtiaceae* are edible and wholesome; but those of some other plants are poisonous. The seeds of some species are used as dye-stuffs. *Bixa orellana*. The seeds of this plant are covered by a reddish pulp, from which Aratico or Anisato is made. This is used as a red dye, and for cooking dishes. The oil is used in medicine as a vermifuge, antiseptic, antifungal, and antiseptic. *Chlorophytum comosum*. According to Ryley, the trunk of this plant yields the gum Kusuma, which in the Northern Provinces of India is used as a remedy for scurvy. *Euphorbia obesa*. The seeds which are officinal in the Phosphoraceae of India, are also found in the *Euphorbiaceae* of China, Japan, or China. They yield by expression a fixed oil in which their proper- ties are preserved. The oil is used in medicine as a vermifuge and hypo- tennally with success in India, in leprosy, scrofula, skin diseases, and in constipation. The oil is also employed in medicine in this country in similar diseases. The oil and seeds in the form of a cord are also used as vermifuges and antiseptics for various skin diseases, etc. *Piper longum*. The seeds of H. Wightiana, Bl., and H. reversa, Gérin., both of which species were formerly confounded together under the name of *H. longum*, are employed in medicine as vermifuges and hypo- tenals, and are used both externally and internally in similar cases to the seed of *Cayratia clematidea*. H. reversa is poisonous, and is employed in Ceylon for poisoning fish. **Natural Order 20. VIOLEACEA.—The Violet Order.—Charac** A purple flower from the Violet Order. 448 VIOLACEAE. ter.—Herbs or shrubs. Leaves simple, stipulate (fig. 37), with an involute venation, alternate, sessile, or petiolate. Fol. 868. Fig. 869. 5 (fig. 787), persistent, imbricate, usually prolonged at the base. Flowers regular, hypogynous, symmetrical, equal or unequal, one usually symmetrical, the other asymmetrical, humer to the petals (fig. 787), and usually alternate with them, or involute with them, or hypogynous disk, often unequal (fig. 888). Calyx: sepals united (fig. 888), introse; filaments short and broad (fig. 868), and longer than the corolla beyond the anthers (fig. 522); when the sepals are united, the filaments of the anthers are apressed at the base (fig. 988). Corolla: 1-celled (fig. 32), or 2-celled (fig. 307). Petiole: simple, usually decline (fig. 37); stipules: capitate, obliquely numerous (fig. 32, o, o). Flower: cupular, 3-valved, dehiscence loculical; placentae partial, on the middle of the valves (figs. 70), short-ovate, or long-ovate; stamens emarge straight, erect, in the axis of the flower allumen (fig. 889). Diagnosis.—Herbs or shrubs, with regular flowers, and without with involute venation. Sepals, petals, and stamina 5 each, hypogynous. Stamina all perfect ; anthers introrse with the filaments inserted at the base of the petals; filaments often cur- like appendages below. Ovary 1-celled, with 3 pentalar pla- centae; style and stigma terminal. There are about 300 species in this order. The order has been divided as follows— Sub-order I. Violaceae.—Having irregular flowers and appended anthers. Entomophylloides. Sub-order II. Aladoides.—With regular flowers, and anthers not furnished with spurred appendages. Examples—Aladonae, Pentasleae. Distribution and Number.—The herbaceous plants of the sub-order Violaceae are chiefly natives of Europe, Siberia, and North America; but some are found in South America also. The Aladonae are exclusively natives of South America, Africa, and Malacca. There are about 300 species in this sub-order. Properties and Uses.—The plants of this order are chiefly remarkable for emetic and purgative properties. A few also are SAGUAGREACEAE. DROSERACEAE. 449 mucilaginous, and others have been reputed to be anodyne. The astringent property is due to a peculiar aldehyde named mordax, which produces a disagreeable taste. The leaves contain also a volatile principle of the true Puccinum root. (See Cephalic.) This principle is present in the leaves of all the species of the genus, but not in North American species, but it also occurs, to some extent at least, in many of the herbaceous European species. The genus Drosera is very widely distributed, but is in the Falk- land Islands of Brazil; it is employed as an emetic in that country. Other species of this genus, however, are not emetics, and possess similar properties. The roots of 2. parviflora (F. microphylla, Hook., and Dec.), constitute a medicine called Cacique, which much used in Tupi and Guarani for cinchonism. The leaves of Drosera rotundifolia and D. rotundifolia var. angustifolia have been very highly esteemed for their fragrance. An infusion of either of these plants is a useful remedial agent. An infusion of the leaves of Drosera rotundifolia is used on account of its odour and odourless chiefly as a laxative for very young children. The leaves of Drosera rotundifolia are used by the natives of New South Wales as a remedy for toothache, and seeds have been also reputed to be emetic and purgative. They are also employed by the natives of New Zealand as a diuretic. Drosera rotundifolia is not identical with, except in a pedate, a native of North America, and differs from it in having the leaves sessile, the flowers white, and the fruiting peduncle long. It is similar to *Ceratophyllum* - Fossiensis, the Drag Violet, said to be efficacious in certain affections of the stomach and bowels. The leaves are also used in certain of our cultivated varieties of *Pansies* or Hortensia. The Violet gen- era are also used medicinally. Natural Order 21. SAGUAGREACEAE. - The Sauvagesie Order. Character.--This order is by some botanists considered as a sub-order of the Rosaceae; but it is distinguished from that family by its plants having either 5 perfect stamens alternate with 5 sterile stamens, or numerous stamens. If there are only 6 stamens, those are usually arranged in two whorls; if there are more than 6 stamens, and have no appendages. The fruit also bursts septicidally, i.e., by means of a dehiscence. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.--They are natives chiefly of South America and the West Indies. Examples of the Gentianaceae are found among them; but they do not include any species. Properties and Uses.--But little is known of the properties of the plants belonging to this order; but they are supposed to be a source of mucilageous matter, and has been used internally as a diu- reic, and in infusions of the bowels, and also externally in discharges. Natural Order 22. DROSERACEAE.--The Sundew Order.-- Characters.--Plants with leaves sessile or nearly so; usually place, frequently glandular. Leaves alternate, fringed at their margins (Fig. 30), and with a circinate venation. Inflorescence very simple; racemes or panicles; flowers solitary or fascicled; corolla persistent. Stamens numerous as many as the petals and alternate with them; or twice, three times as many as petals; corolla white, hypogynous; anthers extreme. Ovary ovoided, with a 650 **FRANKINACEAE.** parietal placentaion, superior; *syloa* 3–5, distinct or connected at the base, ovate-ovoid, 1–2 cm long. Fruit capulare, 1-celled, bursting by 3 or 5 valves, which bear the placentas in their middle or at their base; hence the dichotomy is loculocarinal. Seed numerous, ellipsoid to ovoid, with a large embryo, at the base of abundant fleshly albumen. Drosera rotundifolia—Drosera linearis—Drosera linearis var. linearis—Drosera linearis var. longifolia—Drosera linearis var. longifolia subsp. longifolia—Drosera linearis var. longifolia subsp. longifolia var. longifolia—Drosera linearis var. longifolia subsp. longifolia var. longifolia var. longifolia—Drosera linearis var. longifolia subsp. longifolia var. longifolia var. longifolia var. longifolia—Drosera linearis var. longifolia subsp. longifolia var. longifolia var. longifolia var. longifolia—Drosera linearis var. longifolia subsp. longifolia var. longifolia var. longifolia var. longifolia—Drosera linearis var. longifolia subsp. longifolia var. longifolia var. longifolia var. longifolia—Drosera linearis var. longifolia subsp. longifolia var. longifolia var. longifolia var. longifolia—Drosera linearis var. longifolia subsp. longifolia var. longifolia var. longifolia var. longifolia—Drosera linearis var. longifolia subsp. longifolia var. longifolia var. longifolia var. longifolia—Drosera linearis var. longifolia subsp. longifolia var. longifolia var. longifolia var. longifolia—Drosera linearis var. longifolia subsp. longifolia var. longifolia var. longifolia var. longifolia—Drosera linearis var. Drosera rotundifolia —Drosera linearis—Drosera linearis var. Drosera linearis var. Drosera linearis longifolia—Drosera linearis Drosera linearis var. Drosera linearis longifolia Drosera linearis subsp. Drosera linearis longifolia Drosera linearis var. Drosera linearis longifolia Drosera linearis var. Drosera linearis longifolia Drosera linearis subsp. Drosera linearis longifolia Drosera linearis var. Drosera linearis longifolia Drosera linearis subsp. Drosera linearis longifolia Drosera linearis var. Drosera linearis longifolia Drosera linearis subsp. Drosera linearis longifolia Drosera linearis var. Drosera linearis longifolia Drosera linearis subsp. Drosera linearis longifolia Drosera linearis var. Drosera linearis longifolia Drosera linearis subsp. Drosera linearis longifolia Drosera linearis var. Drosera linearis longifolia Drosera linearis subsp. Drosera linearis longifolia Drosera linearis var. Drosera linearis longifolia Droder A droterum plant with leaves and flowers. TAMARIACEAE. ELATINACEAE. CARYOPHYLLACEAE. 451 **Introduction, Examples, and Numbers.**—The plants of this order are scattered over the globe, except in tropical India and North Africa. Examples of the Genera:—Fraxinella, Fraxinus, Balsamodendron, Balsamodendron. **Properties and Uses.**—Unimportant. They have been reputed mucilaginous and slightly aromatic. The leaves of a species of *Balsamodendron* are used in medicine. **Natural Order 26. TAMARIACEAE.—The Tamariak Order.** Diagnom.—Shrubs or herbs, with alternate entire scale-like leaves, sessile, stipulate, and petiolate; flowers axillary, imbricate, persistent. Petals distinct, atrocalyceous, at the calyx, without petals; stamens numerous, filiform; style terminal; ovary superior, with 3 distinct styles. *Oxyria*—Fruit 1-celled, dehiscent locally by 3 valves; seeds numerous, conicous, without albu- men, on a short stalk; embryo large; endosperm thick; hila hilum. **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.**—The plants of this order usually grow to the sea-side, or sometimes on the margins of rivers or lakes. They are most abundant in the basin of the Mediterranean Sea, and in the islands of the Southern hemisphere of the Old World. Examples of the Genera:— Tamaria (43), *Balsamodendron* (43). **Properties and Uses.**—The bark of these plants is astrigent, slightly bitter, and tonic. The ashes of some species of *Tamaria* contain muriatic acid. *Tamaria*—T. massuephora produces a mucilageous substance, which is known under the name of Mount Sinai Manna. This is considered by Noahites to be a miraculous gift from God; but it is probable that this plant—T. gallica, T. crenulata, and some other species of *Tamaria*, are liable to be mistaken for *Galium*. The leaves of these galla are astrigent, and are sometimes used in medicine, and as dying agents. **Natural Order 25. ELATINACEAE.—The Water-Piper Order.** Diagnom.—Little annual plants, with hollow creeping stems, and opposite simple leaves; flowers axillary; sepals and petals 3–5—the latter, as well as the stamens, being distinct and hypogynous. Ovary superior; style terminal; ovules few; fruit 1-celled; placenta axile; dehiscence loculical. Seeds nu- merous; embryo large. **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.**—The plants of this small order are scattered all over the world. Examples of the Genera:— Elatine (43), *Sagina* (43), *Cerastium* (43), *Lysimachia* (43). **Properties and Uses.**—They are generally considered acrid, hence they are used medicinally. **Natural Order 25. CARYOPHYLLACEAE.—The Pink or Clover- wort Order—Character.—Herbs. Membranous at the joints. Leaves opposite, entire, exstipulate, often connate at their base. 432 CARYOPHYLLACEAE. Inflorescence various, cymeous (figs. 429). Flowers generally her- maphrodite, or rarely unisexual (figs. 430), solitary, or coenose or coherent into a tube (fig. 450), persistent. Petals equal in number to the sepalae (fig. 890), hypogynous, unguiculate (fig. 670), often with a short claw (fig. 891). Stamens fre- quently raised above the calyx on a stalk (figs. 891, 892). Stamina usually in two series, one above the other, either alternate or oppo- site to them, or usually twice as numerous (figs. 890 and 892), or rarely fewer, frequently attached with the petals on a stalk above the flower (fig. 893). Pistil sessile, or at times united at the base, subulate ; anthers immafe. Ovary Fig. 890. Fig. 891. Stamens (figs. 890, 891) usually with the petals and stamens on a short synophore (figs. 457, g, and 891) - called generally (Agera and Sideroxylon) a "staminal tube" (figs. 457, g, and 891); or a long peduncle (fig. 890) to 5 (figs. 628 and 629) papillae upon their inner surface (figs. 890 and 629). The pistil is sessile or stigmatic, or few or numerous (figs. 628 and 629, p.), anphi- tropal. Fruit a 1-celled capsule, opening by 2—5 valves (fig. 890), by a single valve (figs. 628 and 629, p.), or by a free central placenta (figs. 628 and 629, p.), or rarely 2—5-valved with a loculical columnar, and with the placenta slightly attached to the dissepiments. Seeds usually numerous, newly Fig. 892. Fig. 893. Fig. 890. Diagram of the flower of a species of Sideroxylon. Fig. 891. Vertical section of the flower of the same plant. Fig. 892. A flower of Sideroxylon, showing in a vertical section of the flower-stalk the position of the stamens. Fig. 893. Vertical section of the flower of a species of the genus Chrysocoma (Sideroxylon). sepalae (figs. 890, 892), or supported with the petals and stamens on a short synophore (figs. 457, g, and 891) - called generally (Agera and Sideroxylon) a "staminal tube" (figs. 457, g, and 891); or a long peduncle (fig. 890) to 5 (figs. 628 and 629) papillae upon their inner surface (figs. 890 and 629). The pistil is sessile or stigmatic, or few or numerous (figs. 628 and 629, p.), anphi- tropal. Fruit a 1-celled capsule, opening by 2—5 valves (fig. 890), by a single valve (figs. 628 and 629, p.), or by a free central placenta (figs. 628 and 629, p.), or rarely 2—5-valved with a loculical columnar, and with the placenta slightly attached to the dissepiments. Seeds usually numerous, newly CARYOPHYLLACEE. 435 few; embryo curved round the albumen (figs. 772 and 804), which is of a mealy character. **Japonicae.** Herbs with stems erect or ascending, the joints opposite, and opposite entire exstipulate leaves. Flowers usually hermaphrodite. Sepals, petals, and stamens with a quaternary or quintuple arrangement of cells; the sepals and petals monosymous hypogynous; anthers imbricate. Ovary commonly 1-celled, styles 2-5, the upper one free, the lower one basally connate to the discampose. Seeds with the embryo curved round mealy albumen. **Division of the Order and Examples of the Genera.** The order has been divided into three sub-orders as follows: Sub-order 1. **Alaeae.** Herbs with 2-5 sepals—Sepals disarticulate at their bases when the latter are equal to them in number. Examples—Alaeae, Stellaria. Sub-order 2. **Lycideae.** Herbs with 3-5 sepals entering into a tube, and opposite the stamens when the latter are equal to them in number. Examples—Lycium, Dicentra, Lythrum. Sub-order 3. **Medulles.** Herbs with 3-5 sepals distinct or nearly so, and alternate with the stamens when the latter are equal to them in number; or the sepals are fewer than the sepals, they are then alternate with the carpels. Examples—Melodis, Celandine. **Distribution of the Order.** These are natives chiefly of temperate and cold climates. When found in tropical regions they are generally on the sides and summits of mountains, commonly reaching a height of 6000 feet above sea-level; but they contain about 1,000 species. **Properties of Saponin.—The plants of this order possess no im-portant properties. They are almost always insipid. Some of the wild species are eaten as food by small animals, and some have been used as a substitute for soap; but none are poisonous to man. This is supposed to be the case more particularly with saponin, which is a principle common to all members of this phyllo-um; it contains a peculiar principle called saponin. This prin-ciple has also been found in species of *Lycium*, *Silene*, *Celandine*, and *Melodis*. It is supposed that this substance is formed in plant it communicates well-marked sapogenous properties; hence it is supposed that all plants belonging to this order in which saponin is found also possess, to some extent, similar proportions. Saponin is reputed to be poisonous in its nature. Some of these plants are cultivated for their flowers—species of *Dendranthema*, *Silene*, and *Lychnis*; but they are generally insignifi-ant weeds, except *Dendranthema* which was introduced by William of our garden. D. plumosa is the parent of all its cultivated varieties of Pink; and D. Carpathicum, the Clove Pink, is the origin of the Carnation and its cultivared 434 **VITIANACEAE. MALVACEAE.** *Varieties, which are known commonly as Picotees, Bizarres, and Flax.* **Natural Order 27. VIVIANACEAE.** The Viviania Order. **Diagnosis.—These plants are readily known among the Thal- mifera by their leaves alternate, entire, and simple; flowers with 10-ribbed calyx, peramnent withering twisted petals, 10 hypo- gnous stamens with distinct filaments, 5-lobed anthers with integumentary appendages; ovary with 5-lobed placentae, unilocular with biconical dehiscence, and albinous seeds with a curved enolysis and a long embryo. **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—They inhabit Chili and South Brazil.** *Examples of the Genera* —Cassava, Viviania. These are: *Properties and Uses.—Unimportant.* **Natural Order 28. MALLOWACEAE.** The Mallow Order. *Character.—Herbs, shrubs, or trees. Leaves alternate, more or less divided in a palmarinate manner (figs. 319), stipulate. Flowers regular, imbricated in a corolla tube (figs. 320), or in a corolla or epicalyx (figs. 465 and 498). Sepals usually 5 (figs. 466 and 498), rarely 3 (figs. 467 and 499); petals usually 5 (figs. 465 and 498), with valvate or some form of circular arrangement (figs. 496). Petals hypognous equal in number to the divisions of the calyx (figs. 466 and 498), or unequal (figs. 467 and 499); corolla united by the united stamens (figs. 300) or free. Spermatophytes; seeds albinous, with a curved enolysis ( figs. 300); anthers 1-celled, reniform, with a transverse dehiscence (fig. 300). *Order consisting of several genera* (figs. 300 and 301), which differ in the following points: *Leaves*—as to form a compound ovary with as many cells as there are carpels; *petals*—united to the ventral surfaces when the carpels are epacrousous (figs. 301); *stamens*—as to number; *style*—equaling the carpels in number (fig. 301), united or dis- tinct. *Fruits*—as to number of cells; *seeds*—as to number of 1-celled, indelible (figs. 300 and 498), or 1-many seeded carpels; or a capsule with biconical (figs. 301) or epacrousous dehiscence; *seeds*—as to number or in quantity; *embryo*—as to shape; *seeds* none or in small quantity; *embryo*—curved; *cotyledons* much larger than the embryo. **Diagnosis.—Leaves alternate, simple, stipulate. Flowers** regular: Calyx with valvate or some form of circular arrangement. Petals: Regular: Corolla tube united by the united stamens; carpels: anthers: one-celled, reniform, opening transversely; filaments united so as to form a corolla tube; stamens: as to number; style: equaling the carpels in number (fig. 301), united or dis- tinct. *Division of the Order and Examples of the Genera.*—This order may be represented by: Tribe I. Malaceae.—Flowers furnished with an involucre or epi- calyx (fig. 498). Fruit consisting of separate carpels (apocar- poas) (fig. 498). *Examples.*—Malva, Athusa. A diagram showing the structure of a flower in the Mallow Order. MALVACEAE. 485 Tribe 2. Hibiscus. —Flowers furnished with an involucre (fig. 465). Fruit formed by the union of several carpels (synnar- yons) (fig. 466). Tribe 3. Sidae. —Flowers without an involucre. Fruit apocar- pus or syncarpous. Example : Sida. Distribution of the Natives. —These plants are chiefly natives of the tropics and the warmest parts of temperate regions. They diminish gradually as we approach the north, and are altogether absent in the frigid zones. There are more than 1,000 species. Fig. 895. Fig. 896. Fig. 897. Fig. 898. Fig. 895. Diagram of the flower of a species of Sidae. The three external leaves represent the sepals, the two inner ones the petals. Vertical section of the flower of a Mallow—(fig. 897). Portion of the most expanded petal showing the stamens and pistil. c. Embody with twisted cotyledon. c. Embody with twisted cotyledon. Properties and Uses.—No plant of this order possesses any deleterious properties. The order is generally characterized by usefulness to man, especially in agriculture, for which many species strong and tough fibres are obtained, and the hairs cover- ing the seeds of certain species constitute cotton. Mentioned in the Bible under the name of article of diet, the botan flowers being used in Brazil as a vegetable. dihora.—The root and leaves of A. officinale, the Marsh-mallow plant, 655 MALVACEAE. abund in manilage, particularly the root, and hence all preparations from these parts are desolating, and useful in diseases of the mucous membranes, etc. As a remedy for the same, the root of the plant is very effectual. Not. In France, Manilal is in such great request than in this country, that it is sold at 300 francs per pound. The root of this plant is a kind of bean-gum made with the mastic of Attica root, gum-nutable, and other gums. The leaves are also used in the same manner, and have similar properties, and the flowers are on that account official in Greece. From the leaves a decoction is prepared, which is said to be a good remedy for the dropsy. The bark of the tree is also used in the same manner. Gossypium. Several species and varieties of this genus furnish cotton, which is the fairest and most valuable of all the vegetable fibres. There appear, now and then, new species especially, from which some of them are known. It is obtained, namely, C. arborescens, C. bengalense, C. bengalense var. indicum, C. bengalense var. indica, C. bengalense var. indica var. indicum, and the cultivated variety of G. stenocarpum, a native of India, and of Persia and China. The cotton of India is by far the finest and most valuable of all the cottons. The cotton of Bengal is called "White Cotton," and is remarkable for its yellowish-brown colour, which colour was formerly thought to be artificial, but proved to be natural. The cotton of China is called "Black Cotton." C. bengalense is the species which yields at the best long staple cotton of con- siderable value. It is found in several varieties, one of which is called "White Cotton," and another "Black Cotton." Both these are grown in India. C. bengalense var. indica is also the New Orleans, Georgian, and other cottons derived from the United States of America. The cottons of Egypt are also grown in India. Cotton is also grown in many other countries, but none are so valuable or advantageous, probably a variety of the latter, furnishing the South American cottons, being more valuable than any other kind. Another species, Gossypium arborescens, or Tree-Cotton of India, which yields a white fibre much finer than that of the ordinary cotton, is used by the natives of India for making turbans. The amount of cotton employed for manufacture in this country has been greatly increased during recent years, the supply was much interfered with by the late American war, since when the periodical increase has been arrested; but it appears that this short- yielding it has occupied serious attention of the government in this and other countries. In 1847, 1848, 1849, 1850, 1851, 1852, 1853, 1854, 1855, Egypt, etc. The amount of cotton, however, produced in the United States during the same period was 200 million bales (about 200 million bales), and that imported into this country was 200 million bales (about 200 million bales). In 1856, 1857, 1858, 1859, 1860, 1861, 1862, 1863, 1864, 1865, the amount of cotton imported was 200 million bales (about 200 million bales), and that produced in this country was about 200 million bales (about 200 million bales). In 1866, 1867, 1868, 1869, 1870, 1871, 1872, 1873, 1874, the amount of cotton imported was about 200 million bales (about 200 million bales), and that produced in this country was about 200 million bales (about 200 million bales). In 1875 and subsequent years it has been estimated that about two-thirds of all the cotton imported into this country has been manufactured here. The average weight per bale varies from about 35 lbs., to about 45 lbs., when manufactured into cotton fabrics; about three times that amount, or about 45 lbs., when manufactured into flax or hemp; about four times that amount when manufactured into woolen fabrics; about five times that amount when manufactured into worsted fabrics; about six times that amount when manufactured into silk fabrics; and about seven times that amount when manufactured into cotton fabrics; about eight times that amount when manufactured into woollen fabrics; about nine times that amount when manufactured into worsted fabrics; about ten times that amount when manufactured into silk fabrics; about eleven times that amount when manufactured into flax or hemp; and about twelve times that amount when manufactured into woolen fabrics; about fifteen times that amount when manufactured into worsted fabrics; about twenty-five times that amount when manufactured into silk fabrics; and about thirty times that amount when manufactured into flax or hemp. The average weight per bale varies from about 35 lbs., to about 45 lbs., when manufactured into cotton fabrics; about three times that amount, or about 45 lbs., when manufactured into flax or hemp; about four times that amount when manufactured into woolen fabrics; about five times that amount when manufactured into worsted fabrics; about six times that amount when manufactured into silk fabrics; about seven times that amount when manufactured into flax or hemp; and about eight times that amount when manufactured into woolen fabrics; about nine times that amount when manufactured into worsted fabrics; about ten times that amount when manufactured into silk fabrics; about eleven times that amount when manufactured into flax or hemp; and about twelve times that amount when manufactured into woolen fabrics; about fifteen times that amount when manufactured into worsted fabrics; about twenty-five times that amount when manufactured into silk fabrics; and about thirty times that amount when manufactured into flax or hemp. Cotton is official in the British Pharmacopoeia for the purpose of pre- paring gauze dressings for wounds and ulcers. It is also used as a poultice, and as a poultice for bruises and burns; also as a poultice for erysipelas; also as a poultice for scalds. Extract MALVACEE. 437 also a useful application to burns and inflamed surfaces. It acts by ex- tubating the matter which is in the surface of the skin, and by stimulating the cells. The seeds of the Cinchona-plant, after the cotton has been obtained from them, are used in the preparation of a liquid called quinine, which is em- ployed for burning in lamps, and for other purposes. From 80,000 to 100,000 pounds of cinchona are annually imported into this country. The leaves of olive oil for edible purposes, and for making soap. The cake left after the expression of the oil is employed in making cattle. A decoction of cotton seed is employed in the United States in treating certain diseases. The leaves of the Indian mulberry are regarded in the Southern States of America as an excellent emmenagogue. Himalaya—the unutilized leaves of the Himalaya tree under the name of Gomphrena globosa Linn., are used, on account of the abundance of the medicinal constituents, to thicken soaps, to add to the flavor of food, and to make a beverage similar to that made from the leaves of the Cucurbita pepo Linn. It also possesses valuable medicinal properties, and may be em- ployed in the treatment of certain diseases such as rheumatism, and in the Pharmacopoeia of India. The roasted seeds have been used as a stimulants and as a remedy for indigestion. The leaves are employed for salads for adults and other persons who drink olive oil. The use of the leaves is also wholesome for children. The leaves are also employed for salads for this purpose, and the plant has been introduced into Algeria. The paper prepared from these leaves is very durable, and is used for writing on specific names from the mucus mode of its seeds, which are regarded as a mild stimulant. The leaves of the Indian mulberry (Morus indica Linn.) are also em- ployed as a perfume. The powdered with steam in rum or other spirituous liquors, they are used in perfumery. The leaves of Sambucus nigra Linn., known under the name of Sannes or Black elder, are employed in perfumery. They are also used as a substitute for true Hemp. It is sometimes termed Samm Hemp, but imperfectly so, as the true Hemp is not found in India. The leaves are also employed for Laguninum. (See Conradin.) From the leaves a Sack oil is obtained by boiling them with water; it is said to be more efficacious than oil obtained by means of the seeds. The leaves are also employed for salads for adults and children, and for making a beverage similar to that made from the leaves of the figs. (See Figus.) Hidaka's Rose-mallow has antiseptic powers, which are employed in medicine. The leaves are also employed for salads for adults and children. The expressed fresh juice of these plants is said to form a good substitute for fresh milk in infants. Various other species of Hidaka are, in He. Freud's opinion, emmenagogues; but their use is not recommended by physi- cians or for paper-making. The leaves are reputed to be anti-syphilisic, and are employed for each purpose in Panama. The leaves of the Indian Mulberry Plant, have similar properties to the Marsh-mallow. (See Dibek.) Its bark also yields strong diuretic. Medicinal uses have been attributed to it; but it does not yield a black dye. Cotton—dyeing.—The material known as Cotton, now largely used by gardeners for tying up plants, is prepared from the linen of this tree. It is also used in making thread and yarns for making cigars. Cotton derives its name from its specific name from its supposed dicotic pro- perty, for which purpose it is used in Europe. The cotton plant is cultivated in India to supply fibers useful in the manu- facture of cloth. Articulate sticks are also obtained from the stems of C. cotton; they are employed as a substitute for flax; they possess medicinal properties.—S. Amadula has a very bitter root, which is reputed to be a valuable remedy; but it is not considered safe to be held in esteem by the natives of India in the treatment of rheumatism. A page from a book with text about Malvaceae. 458 **Sterculiaceae.** Many plants of this order have showy flowers, and are cultivated in our gardens, among them the *Malva* (Malva sylvestris), *Thunbergia* (Thunbergia), *Hibiscus*, *Sida*, etc. The *Hibiscus semiserratus* is remarkable for the changing colour of its flowers, which vary in a single day from a cream-coloured rose to a rich pink or even a pink crimson. **Natural Order 29. Sterculiaceae.—The Silk-Cotton-Order.** **Character.—Tree or shrub. Leaves alternate, simple or compound, entire or serrate, often with stipules; flowers perfect, sometimes by abortion unisexual, regular or irregular, often sur-rounded by an involucre. Calyx and corolla resembling the Malvaceae; stamens united into a column, or in some cases are sometimes absent. Stamens united by their filaments into a column, or in some cases united only at the base; petals 3 or 5, either distinct or united so as to form a compound ovary, often stalked; stigmas equal in number to the carpels, distinct or united; style usually long and slender; ovary superior. Fruit either composed of a number of follicles, or capsules (fig. 701), or rarely of a single fruit (fig. 702). The leaves are either pinnate or bipinnate, the leaflets either simple or lobed; stipules either present or rolled round the plume. **Description of the Plants of this Order are at once known among the Thalidaceae by their valvate bapical calyx; twisted corolla; and by the presence of numerous stamens in a column united by their filaments into a column; and 2-celled corolla-axils. The character presented by the authors should be particularly noted in the genus *Sterculia*. It is found in both hemispheres from the Malacca and Byttnerian, which in many other respects agree with each other. The species of *Sterculia* are now frequently combined with the Sterculiaceae. It should also be observed, that the flowers of some of the Sterculiaceae are uni-sexual like those of the Malvaceae. **Distribution and Numbers.—Natives of the tropics or of very warm regions.** **Properties and Uses.—In their properties the plants of this order resemble the Malvaceæ: thus, they are generally mucilaginous, and contain much gum; but they differ from them in their seeds; and others yield useful fiber-leaves. The cotyledon covering the seed is often used as a substitute for that of the Malvaceæ. This order, are not, however, to be compared in importance to the similar products of the Malvaceæ. Some plants are reputed to be diuretic and purgative.* **Adenosmae 4. diphylea—Buckwheat-tree.—The fruit, commonly known as Monkey-bread or Ethiopian Sour-pear, has its seeds surrounded by a large juicy pulp containing much gum. The leaves are covered with a green tassel of hairs. Its acid nature is said to be due to moisture of potashness. This fruit is used as a remedy for dropsy; it is boiled and eaten with water as it is used as an acid drink, which is regarded as a specific in painful swellings and affections of the liver and spleen. All parts of the tree possess emollient and demulcent properties. Its pow- dered leaves are used by the Africans under the name of Lato, mixed STERCULIACEAE. 489 with their daily food, to check excessive perspiration. This property is owing to the presence of a certain amount of tannin in the leaves. It is very serviceable in diarrhoea, &c. The bark is said to be bitter, and its decoction is used in the treatment of dysentery. The leaves are also used in common, in the manufacture of various articles of dress, cocoa, &c. The bark is also employed in the preparation of a medicine which is said to be efficacious in cases of dropsy, and in those in which it attains, in some cases reported to be several thousand years. One use of this tree is that its leaves are used by the natives in some districts of India as a substitute for tobacco, and they have with them with evil spirits—A. Gregoria. The fruit of this tree, which is called "the fruit of the devil," is found in the South and Centre of Australia, and is similar in property to that of A. Gregoria. The leaves of the tree, and the bark of the root, are both used for the treatment of leprosy. The bark of the root is also used for stimulating action, &c. This material is called "the Virginian Balm." The leaves of this tree are used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used for making a drink which is supposed to be useful for the treatment of leprosy. The leaves are also used 400 **BTTNERIACEE.** **Natural Order 30. BTTNERIACEA.---The Chocolate Order.** **Character.---Trees, shrubs, or undershrubs, sometimes climbing.** Leaves simple, entire, or pinnate, with stipules. Calyx 5-6-leaved (valvate) (Fig. 47). Corolla absent, or having as many petals as the calyx, or wanting them, or reduced to a tubular or induplicate in estivation (Fig. 44). Stamens hypogynous, equal in number to the petals and opposite to them, or wanting them, or alternate with the petals. The stamens are more numerous than the petals some are always sterile; filo- mous some are sterile; others are fertile. Stamens in one whorl. Gynoecium sessile or stalked, compound of 4-10 carpels united round a central column; style simple; stigma equal in number to the calyx or petals; ovary inferior, sessile or stalked, with a localised dichotomy, or indistinctive, or the fruit separates into two parts at maturity; ovules few to many; placenta axile or basal manner. Embryo generally lying in a small quantity of flimsy albumen, straight or somewhat curved ; cotyledons folded or spiral. **Species.---There are about 80 genera and 1000 species included with this, are the Sterculiaceae, Malvaceae, and Tiliaceae. From the former, they differ by having the leaves simple and entire, and by the stamens being definite or, if more numerous than the petals, from some of them being always sterile. The Bttneriaceae are however distinct from the Sterculiaceae, and from the Eriocaulaceae or tribe of the Sterculiaceae. From the Malvaceae, it is known by its 3-5-lobed corolla; from the Tiliaceae by its equal in number to the petals and opposite to them, or if more numerous some of them being sterile, and also from the filaments not being united at their base. The genus Sterculia differs from it, is distinguished readily by its monadelphous stamens, and by the absence of a disk. **Distribution.---Examples, and Numbers.---They are chiefly tropical plants, but some species of the order are found scattered in temperate regions. There are about 80 genera and 1000 examples of the Genera:---Bttneriaea, Thodeaena, Guassuma. There are about 400 species. **Properties and Use.---These plants have properties resem- bling the Malvaceae and Sterculiaceae: thus, some are mucilage- ngs, as the leaves of Sterculia and Guassuma; others are stimu- lants, such as the young bark of Guassuma siminifolia, and the bark of Averna auratum. Dandelion speciosa, etc. The fruit of Guassuma simi- nifolia contains a special mucilageaginous agreeable pulp which is eaten in Brazil. **Thodeaena Chamae, the Cacao or Cocoa-Tree. This tree is by far the most im- portant plant of all tropical America; it is cultivated in Brazil and in numerous countries on the West Indies. Central America, Mauritius, &c. From its seeds Cacao or Cocoa, and Chocolate are prepared; in the matura- tion of which they are placed in a bed of hot ashes for several days before being ground, and afterwards tritiated in a mortar with an equal quantity of sugar, in which some vanilla or cinnamon is added for flavouring, and TILIACEA. 461 a small quantity of Arnatica as a colouring-agent. All the finer qualities are thus improved, and the whole of the inferior qualities are improved pro- duced by adding Arnatica nuts, crumbs, or some other similar substance. These devices are very useful, and may be employed with advantage either by grinding up the material with their tender shoots or leaves, or by boiling them in water, and then filtering off the liquor. The same effect is produced by the use of the leaves of the Cucurbitaceae, such as the cucumber, melon, or water-melon, but these plants are not so easily obtained as Arnatica. The leaves of the Cucurbitaceae are also used in India to make a decoction which is applied to the skin as a lotion, and is said to be efficacious in the preparation of a wholesome and agreeable beverage. The leaves of the Cucurbitaceae are also used in India to make a decoction which is applied to the skin as a lotion, and is said to be efficacious in the preparation of a wholesome and agreeable beverage. The leaves of the Cucurbitaceae are also used in India to make a decoction which is applied to the skin as a lotion, and is said to be efficacious in the preparation of a wholesome and agreeable beverage. The leaves of the Cucurbitaceae are also used in India to make a decoction which is applied to the skin as a lotion, and is said to be efficacious in the preparation of a wholesome and agreeable beverage. The leaves of the Cucurbitaceae are also used in India to make a decoction which is applied to the skin as a lotion, and is said to be efficacious in the preparation of a wholesome and agreeable beverage. The leaves of the Cucurbitaceae are also used in India to make a decoction which is applied to the skin as a lotion, and is said to be efficacious in the preparation of a wholesome and agreeable beverage. The leaves of the Cucurbitaceae are also used in India to make a decoction which is applied to the skin as a lotion, and is said to be efficacious in the preparation of a wholesome and agreeable beverage. The leaves of the Cucurbitaceae are also used in India to make a decoction which is applied to the skin as a lotion, and is said to be efficacious in the preparation of a wholesome and agreeable beverage. The leaves of the Cucurbitaceae are also used in India to make a decoction which is applied to the skin as a lotion, and is said to be efficacious in the preparation of a wholesome and agreeable beverage. The leaves of the Cucurbitaceae are also used in India to make a decoction which is applied to the skin as a lotion, and is said to be efficacious in the preparation of a wholesome and agreeable beverage. The leaves of the Cucurbitaceae are also used in India to make a decoction which is applied to the skin as a lotion, and is said to be efficacious in the preparation of a wholesome and agreeable beverage. The leaves of the Cucurbitaceae are also used in India to make a decoction which is applied to the skin as a lotion, and is said to be efficacious in the preparation of a wholesome and agreeable beverage. The leaves of the Cucurbitaceae are also used in India to make a decoction which is applied to the skin as a lotion, and is said to be efficacious in the preparation of a wholesome and agreeable beverage. The leaves of the Cucurbitaceae are also used in India to make a decoction which is applied to the skin as a lotion, and is said to be efficacious in the preparation of a wholesome and agreeable beverage. The leaves of the Cucurbitaceae are also used in India to make a decoction which is applied to the skin as a lotion, and is said to be efficacious in the preparation of a wholesome and agreeable beverage. The leaves of the Cucurbitaceae are also used in India to make a decoction which is applied to the skin as a lotion, and is said to be efficacious in the preparation of a wholesome and agreeable beverage. The leaves of the Cucurbitaceae are also used in India to make a decoction which is applied to the skin as a lotion, and is said to be efficacious in the preparation of a wholesome and agreeable beverage. The leaves of the Cucurbitaceae are also used in India to make a decoction which is applied to the skin as a lotion, and is said to be efficacious in the preparation of a wholesome and agreeable beverage. The leaves of the Cucurbitaceae are also used in India to make a decoction which is applied to the skin as a lotion, and is said to be efficacious in the preparation of a wholesome and agreeable beverage. The leaves of the Cucurbitaceae are also used in India to make a decoction which is applied to the skin as a lotion, and is said to be efficacious in the preparation of a wholesome and agreeable beverage. The leaves of the Cucurbitaceae are also used in India to make a decoction which is applied to the skin as a lotion, and is said to be efficacious in the preparation of a wholesome and agreeable beverage. The leaves of the Cucurbitaceae are also used in India to make a decoction which is applied to the skin as a lotion, and is said to be efficacious in the preparation of a wholesome and agreeable beverage. The leaves of the Cucurbitaceae are also used in India to make a decoction which is applied to the skin as a lotion, and is said to be efficacious in the preparation of a wholesome and agreeable beverage. The leaves of the Cucurbitaceae are also used in India to make a decoction which is applied to the skin as a lotion, and is said to be efficacious in the preparation of a wholesome and agreeable beverage. The leaves of the Cucurbitaceae are also used in India to make a decoction which is applied to the skin as a lotion, and is said to be efficacious in the preparation of a wholesome and agreeable beverage. The leaves of the Cucurbitaceae are also used in India to make a decoction which is applied to the skin as a lotion, and is said to be efficacious in the preparation of a wholesome and agreeable beverage. The leaves of the Cucurbitaceae are also used in India to make a decoction which is applied to the skin as a lotion, and is said to be efficacious in the preparation of a wholesome and agreeable beverage. The leaves of the Cucurbitaceae are also used in India to make a decoction which is applied to the skin as a lotion, and is said to be efficacious in the preparation of a wholesome and agreeable beverage. The leaves of the Cucurbitaceae are also used in India to make a decoction which is applied to the skin as a lotion, and is said to be efficacious in the preparation of a wholesome and agreeable beverage. The leaves of the Cucurbitaceae are also used in India to make a decoction which is applied to the skin as a lotion, and is said to be efficacious in the preparation of a wholesome and agreeable beverage. The leaves of 682 TILIACEAE. tinguished from them by having a glandular disk, by the stamens - not being polyandrous, and by the anthers being 2-celled. From all other Theaceae, the Tiliaceae differ in that one may be known by their alternate simple stipulate leaves; valvate estiva- tion of the flowers; sepals 3-5, petals 3-5, stamens 4 or 5-divisius; stamens either distinct or polyandrous; anthers 2-celled; hypogynous glandular disk; many-celled fruit with thin placenta; and the seeds with a thin testa and usually albumen. Description of the Order and Examples of the Genera.—The order has been divided into two tribes, as follows: Tribe 1. *Pistie*—Corylilla with entire petals, or wanting; anthers dehiscing longitudinally. Examples.—Corchorus, Tilia Tribe 2. *Eleomorpe*—Petals divided, anthers opening at the apex. Examples.—Eleocarpus, Valeriana. Distribution and Numbers.—A few are found in the northern parts of the United States and in some trees ; but the plants of this order are chiefly tropical, and are there found as herbs, shrubs, or trees. Properties and Uses.—In these properties the Tiliaceae re- semble the Malvaceae. They are altogether innocuous, and are generally used for ornament. Some of them yield fibres, which are much used for manufacturing Fig. 899. Fig. 899. Fig. 900. Fig. 900. Fig. 901. Fig. 901. Fig. 902. Diagram of the flower of the Eleomorpe. Vertical section of the flower of Eleocarpus. (See text.)—Fig. 903. Peduncle of the Eleocarpus with its bracts and a fully expanded flower. Tribe 1. *Pistie*—Corylilla with entire petals, or wanting; anthers dehiscing longitudinally. Examples.—Corchorus, Tilia Tribe 2. *Eleomorpe*—Petals divided, anthers opening at the apex. Examples.—Eleocarpus, Valeriana Distribution and Numbers.—A few are found in the northern parts of the United States and in some trees ; but the plants of this order are chiefly tropical, and are there found as herbs, shrubs, or trees. Properties and Uses.—In these properties the Tiliaceae resemble the Malvaceae. They are altogether innocuous, and are generally used for ornament. Some of them yield fibres, which are much used for manufacturing **DIPTERACEAE.** 463 purposea. Some are valuable timber-trees, and some have edible fruits. *Acerodendron.* *Mace* has edible fruits, and is from a kind of wine in New South Wales, which is given in favour of a malignant type. The flowers of the bark and the wood have been used in the manufacture of medicines. The wood is also used for making boxes, etc., and the Maka-Maka, are also eaten. Coccoloba, *Coccoloba* *cubensis*, obtained from the bark of *Coccoloba cubensis*, the Jute Plant, are commonly known under the name of *Jute of Java-bamboo*. The leaves of this plant are used in the manufacture of paper, and are exported in large quantities into this country, where it is used chiefly in the manufacture of paper. The leaves are also used in the manufacture of cotton, and are frequently mixed with silk in the manufacture of chintz fabrics; and they are also used in the manufacture of paper, and in the manufacture of chintz fabrics. It is also used as a substitute for chintz fabrics. *Chamaecrista.* *Chamaecrista* *fasciculata*, the *Broom-plant*, is a shrub, growing wild in many parts of China, and is cultivated in India. It was introduced into England about 1800, and was afterwards introduced into America. In 1825, it was grown at New York, and in 1827 at Philadelphia. It was grown at Boston in 1828, and at Baltimore in 1830. It was grown at Washington in 1831, and at Philadelphia in 1832. It was grown at New York in 1833, and at Philadelphia in 1834. It was grown at Boston in 1835, and at Philadelphia in 1836. It was grown at Washington in 1837, and at Philadelphia in 1838. It was grown at Boston in 1839, and at Philadelphia in 1840. It was grown at Washington in 1841, and at Philadelphia in 1842. It was grown at Boston in 1843, and at Philadelphia in 1844. It was grown at Washington in 1845, and at Philadelphia in 1846. It was grown at Boston in 1847, and at Philadelphia in 1848. It was grown at Washington in 1849, and at Philadelphia in 1850. It was grown at Boston in 1851, and at Philadelphia in 1852. It was grown at Washington in 1853, and at Philadelphia in 1854. It was grown at Boston in 1855, and at Philadelphia in 1856. It was grown at Washington in 1857, and at Philadelphia in 1858. It was grown at Boston in 1859, and at Philadelphia in 1860. It was grown at Washington in 1861, and at Philadelphia in 1862. It was grown at Boston in 1863, and at Philadelphia in 1864. It was grown at Washington in 1865, and at Philadelphia in 1866. It was grown at Boston in 1867, and at Philadelphia in 1868. It was grown at Washington in 1869, and at Philadelphia in 1870. It was grown at Boston in 1871, and at Philadelphia in 1872. It was grown at Washington in 1873, and at Philadelphia in 1874. It was grown at Boston in 1875, and at Philadelphia in 1876. It was grown at Washington in 1877, and at Philadelphia in 1878. It was grown at Boston in 1879, and at Philadelphia in 1879. *Chamaecrista.* *Chamaecrista* *fasciculata*, the *Broom-plant*, is a shrub, growing wild in many parts of China, and is cultivated in India. It was introduced into England about 1800, and was afterwards introduced into America. In 1825, it was grown at New York, and in 1827 at Philadelphia. It was grown at Boston in 1829, and at Philadelphia in 1830. It was grown at Washington in 1832, and at Philadelphia in 1833. It was grown at Boston in 1834, and at Philadelphia in 1835. It was grown at Washington in 1836, and at Philadelphia in 1837. It was grown at Boston in 1839, and at Philadelphia in 1840. It was grown at Washington in 1842, and at Philadelphia in 1843. It was grown at Boston in 1845, and at Philadelphia in 1846. It was grown at Washington in 1847, and at Philadelphia in 684 DIVI-TEACEAE. druca stipulae. Calyx 3-clefted, tubular, unequal, persistent, imbricated, ultimately dilated into irregularly expanded. Petals 5, hypogynous, often coherent at the base; anastomosis twisted. Numerous numerous, hypogynous, distinct or united in an irre- gular manner. Stamens numerous, distinct or united in a poly- adelphous; anthers innate, 2-celled, sessile, prolonged above or below the calyx; filaments short. Carpels 1-celled, with 1 egg- and stigma simple. Fruit 1-seeded, dehiscent or indehiscent, surrounded by the enlarged persistent calyx. Seed solitary, exalbuminous. Distribution. Examples, Examples, and Numbers.—Natives exclusively of the forests of tropical Africa. The genus is very distinct from that of the genus Lophira, which belongs to tropical Africa. The latter genus, by Endlicher and others, has been separated from the Dipterocarpaceae on account of its peculiar structure of Lophiraceae. The chief characters of distinction are, its 1-celled ovary without placenta; the seeds being attached to its inferior radicle. Examples of the Genus.—Dipterocarpus, Dicorycarpus, Dicoryclamnus. There are about 50 species belonging to this order. Properties and Uses.—These plants form very large and hand- some trees, and are much valued for their timber. To the presence of these they owe their peculiar proportion. Dipentemoraceae. The trunks of T. levis or leucodraa, and other species, natives of the East Indies, yield by incision an excellent substance, called Wood Oil. This oil is used in India for the treatment of Cancer, and is largely employed for similar purposes in India, where it is official; it is also used in China for the treatment of Cancer. It is the only oil obtained from a tree which is not known to be poisonous. Wood Oil is also used in India for painting brushes. See Fryer's "Pharmacopoeia." In India the wood of two species of Sumana and Barama. From its stem a liquid called Liquid Camphor or Camphor Oil is obtained. From the bark of two species of Camphor and Barama a resinous substance called Camphorum resinum is derived. The Liquid Camphor is obtained by making deep motions in the wood with water; the liquid thus obtained is a mixture of camphor oil, camphor, and camphene. It has been used in the preparation of medicines for many years past. It is used in favors and carvings in the interior of the trunks of the full-grown trees, and only on those which have been cut down during the rainy season. It is generally used in small pieces, but occasionally masses weighing several hundred pounds are imported into India for medicinal purposes; the ordinary official or Laurel Camphor (see Camphor). It is not known whether it contains any drug; but it is so highly esteemed by the Chinese that they will give from 50 to 100 times more than its weight in gold for a single piece; and it appears which is the kind we employ, and which is believed by us to be at least equally valuable. It is sometimes called Laurel Camphor. It is regarded as especially valuable in cases of Cancer. Hepes odorans.—This plant yields a fragrant resin, which, when pow- dered, is popularly known as "Bengal Musk." This resinous substance is a valuable timber-tree; it is a native of India, and its wood is used for building purposes. A resinous substance called Banyan resin, or brownish resin, called Dammar in Bengal, is also obtained from this CHLORACMEC. TERNOSTROMACEAE. 465 plant. It forms a substitute for the ordinary reeds of the Coniferae in the manufacture of paper. The name is derived from the Greek, chloros, green, and acme, summit. **Ferula cedon.*—This plant yields an oleacious substance, which is known by the name of "cedon," and is used in medicine. **Cedon** is used as a varnish, and for making candles. The substance called Piney oil is obtained from the seeds of this plant. The seeds are used in India for the fruit of this plant. It has been employed in India as a local applica- tion in rheumatism, &c., and some has been lately imported into this country. It is proposed to yield a portion of the Black Diamond of India (see Gourvase). Natural Order 33. CHLORACMEC. The Sarcoleae. Order— **Character.—Tree or shrub.** Leaves entire, alternate, with broad bases, and usually sessile; stipules wanting; flowers hypomec- tral, furnished with involucre; the involucre surrounding 1–2 flowers, and persistent. Sepals 3, imbricate. Petals 5, imbricate; stamens numerous; filaments slender; anthers oblong, 3-celled or rarely 1-celled ; pistillate axile. Seeds solitary or numerous, suspended ; embryo in the axis of freely albumen ; cotyledons free. **Desmopuntia.*—Readily distinguished among the Thunbergiaceae by the large leaves, and by the numerous, regular and symmetrical flowers, which are regular and asymmetrical. The calyx is imbricated, the stamens monadelphous, and the seed has a single embryo. Distribution. Examples, and Numbers.—There are but 8 species of this order in the world; one only is found in India. **Examples of the Genera.—Sarcolea, Leptocera,** etc. Properties and Uses.—Although not unknown in India, Sarcolea is little known here. **Leptocera.*—The genus Leptocera is very rare in India. **Ternostroma.*—The Ten or Camellia Order—Character.—Tree or shrub. Leaves alternate; stipules wanting; flowers regular; petals 5 or 6, imbricate; stamens numerous, distinct or united by their filaments into a tube; ovary superior, many-celled; style filiform; fruit cap- sular, 3–7-celled ; pistillate axile; dehiscence various. Seeds few or numerous, solitary or aggregated; cotyledons small quantity; embryo straight or folded ; cotyledons large and oily ; radicle long. **Desmopuntia.*—Tree or shrub, with alternate usually exstipu- les leafy leaves. Sepals and petals imbricate in estiva- tion; stamens numerous, hypogynous ; anthers versatile or adnate. Ovary superior ; stigma filiform. Seeds solitary or very few, A page from a botanical text book. 466 TERTIUMSCHIAEAE OR CAMELLIACEAE. attached to axile placentas; albumen wanting or in very small quantity. **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.**—These plants, which are mostly ornamental trees or shrubs, are chiefly natives of South America, but some are found also in China, and North America. One species only occurs in Africa. There are no European species, although a few are cultivated in Europe; these are all of the genus *Camellia*. The order is named after the plant of the genus *Camellia*. Terrestrialia. Camellia. The order, as defined by Lindley, is: **Properties and Uses.**—Generally speaking, we know but little of the properties of the plants of this order ; but some, as those from which the tea is made, are decidedly stimulant, antiseptic, and slightly soothing and sedative. **Camellia** (Thun (see Thun))—Numerous varieties of *Camellia japonica*, which is a native of Japan, are grown in many parts of Europe, and are celebrated for the beauty of their flowers and foliage. The seed of *C. sasanqua* is used in medicine as a diuretic; the fragrant flowers, which are said to be used in some districts to give flavour and colour to food, are also employed as a stimulant. **Fermenta thécales.**—The leaves of this shrub are used as a kind of tea in Japan. **Gardenia.**—The bark is antiseptic, and is therefore used in tanning, for which purpose it is called "gardenia." Kuehneanaeaeae.—The leaves of this plant, which is a native of Brazil, contain a substance which is said to be similar to quinine. **Thunia** (Thun (see Thun)).—The genus *Thunia* is now generally regarded as not really belonging to any one family. The species of this genus are now generally more frequently included under one genus, which is named *Camellia*. The leaves of this genus are used in medicine as a diuretic; they are extensively used as a beverage in this and various other countries, was prepared by the Chinese for use as a stimulant; and the seeds are used in China, namely, that from *Thunia* and *T. viridis*, and another, native of Assam. These seeds are also used in medicine as a diuretic. The species of this genus are tropical plants; their societies are only varieties of one, which is termed "the chinesse" or "Camellia." They are also used in medicine as a diuretic. **Green Tea.**—The leaves of this plant are used for making tea; they differ greatly from the leaves of other plants; but for taste, bulk, and colour have proved that they possess advantages over other kinds. The difference between such teas depending essentially upon their mode of preparation. In the first place, they are picked when young; they may be picked at any time as soon as possible until they are gathered; and then slightly beaten thereafter, after which they are dried on mats or racks; while other kinds may be picked either slightly or fully; while black tea is made from the leaves, which after being gathered, are dried on mats or racks; and then beaten thereupon; and then baked; brown tea is made from leaves which undergo a form of fermentation; after which they are dried on mats or racks; while green tea is made from leaves which do not undergo any change whatever; they are gathered at any time during their growth; then dried on mats or racks; and then beaten thereupon; and then exposed to the sun for two days or three days; after which they are dried again on mats or racks; and then baked. The leaves quickly drier after gathering, so that their colour, and other proper- ties, are preserved better than in other kinds; while the leaves dried some time after being gathered, and after they have undergone fermentation, become dark brown or black; and other important changes produced. A great part of the Green Tea which is exported from China, and consumed in this **GUTTIFERE OR CLEMACEA.** country, and in other parts of Europe and America, is coloured artificially with a mixture of prussian blue, tartrate, and gypsum. Several varieties of Blue are cultivated in England, but none of them can be compared with those we have here. Congo, Stoucheng, Pekor, Kacir, &c.; of the latter, Hyacinth, which is the most valuable. The flowers of the Clematis are a particu- larly odour somewhat resembling the flowers of the common Cowslip; this is peculiar to the species known by the name of the common or accepted Olive (Olea europaea). Other teas are scented with the dried flowers of Chrysanthemum. The cultivation of the Tussah is now being carried on with great success in India, and it has been introduced into China. The silk reared from this insect was ex- ported from Calcutta; and the yield this year (1807) is estimated at about 300000 yards. The silk produced by this insect is much esteemed in Japan and Java. China, however, is the great re-producing country; for that country produces more than 500000 yards annually, and this is alone, and the total annual produce, at the present time, is probably not less than 600000 yards. The silk produced by this insect is a very expensive article of commerce. Tea has very much increased in these years. Thus in 1804, it was only 16000 pounds per annum; in 1805, 22500 pounds; in 1806, 32500 pounds; in 1807, 42500 pounds; in 1808, 52500 pounds; in 1809, 62500 pounds; in 1810, 72500 pounds; in 1811, 82500 pounds; in 1812, 92500 pounds; in 1813, 112500 pounds; in 1814, 122500 pounds; in 1815, 132500 pounds; in 1816, 142500 pounds; in 1817, 152500 pounds; in 1818, 162500 pounds; in 1819, 172500 pounds; in 1820, 182500 pounds; in 1821, 192500 pounds; in 1822, 202500 pounds; in 1823, 212500 pounds; in 1824, 222500 pounds; in 1825, 232500 pounds; in 1826, 242500 pounds; in 1827, 252500 pounds; in 1828, 262500 pounds; in 1829, 272500 pounds; in 1830, 282500 pounds; in 1831, 337599 pounds. Tea owes its chief propensity to the presence of a volatile oil, ten- tive acid and a certain amount of sugar. This oil is found in the leaves of Kudzu-tana (see Burellia), and also in the seeds of the Kudzu-tana (see Burellia), and also in the seeds of the Kudzu-tana (see Burellia), and also in the seeds of the Kudzu-tana (see Burellia), and also in the seeds of the Kudzu-tana (see Burellia), and also in the seeds of the Kudzu-tana (see Burellia), and also in the seeds of the Kudzu-tana (see Burellia), and also in the seeds of the Kudzu-tana (see Burellia), and also in the seeds of the Kudzu-tana (see Burellia), and also in the seeds of the Kudzu-tana (see Burellia), and also in the seeds of the Kudzu-tana (see Burellia), and also in the seeds of the Kudzu-tana (see Burellia), and also in the seeds of the Kudzu-tana (see Burellia), and also in the seeds of the Kudzu-tana (see Burellia), and also in the seeds of the Kudzu-tana (see Burellia), and also in the seeds of the Kudzu-tana (see Burellia), and also in the seeds of the Kudzu-tana (see Burellia), and also in the seeds of the Kudzu-tana (see Burellia), and also in the seeds of the Kudzu-tana (see Burellia), and also in the seeds of the Kudzu-tana (see Burellia), and also in the seeds of the Kudzu-tana (see Burellia), and also in the seeds of the Kudzu-tana (see Burellia), and also in the seeds of the Kudzu-tana (see Burellia), and also in the seeds of the Kudzu-tana (see Burellia), and also in the seeds of the Kudzu-tana (see Burellia), and also in the seeds of the Kudzu-tana (see Burellia), and also in the seeds of the Kudzu-tana (see Burellia), and also in the seeds of the Kudzu-tana (see Burellia), and also in the seeds of the Kudzu-tana (see Burellia), and also in the seeds of the Kudzu-tana (see Burellia), and also in the seeds of the Kudzu-tana (see Burellia), and also in the seeds of the Kudzu-tana (see Burellia), and also in the seeds of the Kudzu-tana (see Burellia), and also in the seeds of the Kudzu-tana (see Burellia), and also in the seeds of the Kudzu-tana (see Burellia), and also in the seeds of the Kudzu-tana (see Burellia), and also in the seeds of the Kudzu-tana (see Burellia), and also in the seeds of the Kudzu-tana (see Burellia), and also in 468 **GUTTIFERIA OR CLUCINACEA.** a pore or transverse slit, 2-celled, or sometimes 1-celled. Disk fleshy, or rarely with 5 lobes. *Ovary* proper, 1-membranous; 1-membranous. style, short, or long, simple or branched. *Stamens* numerous, or occasionally axile. Fruit dehiscent or indehiscent, 1- or many-celled. Seeds solitary or numerous, frequently articulate, without albumen ; embryo straight. Diagnosis.—Trees or shrubs with a resinous juice, and with opposite leaves; the flowers solitary or in cymes; the petals 5, usually having a binary arrangement of their parts ; the former introrse or exserted; the stamens numerous, the style hypogynous. Stamens almost always numerous ; anthers adnate ; without a beak, opening by a pore or transversely. Disk fleshy or lobed, with 5 lobes; the ovary 1-membranous, and axile placentaent. Seeds exalbuminous. *Didymocarpus*.—Trees. Exclusively tropical. Extremely variable, and especially occurring in moist situations. The larger proportion are natives of South America, but a few occur in Madagascar and the Andes. The following are the most important :—Chusquea, Garcinia, Monos. There are about 150 species. *Properties*.—The fruits of these trees are chiefly re- markable for yielding a yellow gum-resin of an acrid and pur- gative nature. In many cases, however, the fruits are edible, and are used as food by the natives of tropical countries. The seeds of some are oily, and others are good timber-trees. *Columbaea*.—C. Colubra is reputed to yield the resinosus substance known as "Turkish Tobacco." C. Cinnamomea is a tree of India. C. Cephalanthus and C. Cinnamomum also yield similar resins. From the seeds of C. Cinnamomum is obtained cinnamon. This is the *Bitter Ool* or *Worm-eat* of Indian commerce. It is in great repute throughout Europe and America as a stimulant and expectorant, pains in the joints, and bruises. The timber of the same plant is also used for various useful purposes. *Cinnamomum camphora*, Pine tree, furnishable valuable timber. *Coprosma*.—The *Bitter Ool* of India is a species of this genus, with those of *Musa flexuosa*, the *Nose-bone*, the *Nose-bone* of the Indians, and *Cinnamomum camphora*. The *Bitter Ool* is *Chasmanthe*. *Chasmanthe* Acrea, *C. officina*, and *C. Cinnamomum* yield a glutinous resinosus matter which is used in medicine as a poultice. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant. *Cinnamomum camphora* is used in medicine as a stimulant and expecto HYPERICACEAE. 489 various for home-work, &c. In India, a gum-rein resembling Stam- boura, but identical with it in its proper properties, is obtained from G. pterioides, which is found in several countries, and is also known under the name of "Gum of the Two vancore" or G. tremoussia. The fruit of this genus is reputed to be the most delicious of all fruits, as obtained from G. Mezopstes, a native of Malacca. This plant has produced a number of varieties, some of which have been introduced, and have been substituted, as first noticed by Bentley, in this country, for that which is indigenous. The fruit of this species is considered as one of importance in India in chemical duration, and in advanced stages of dyspepsia. G. Mezopstes is a tree growing in the East Indies, and possesses a peculiar character to the Mysoreans, although very inferior to it. The seeds of this plant are used in the preparation of a kind of tea called "Kakum Butter" or Coromandel Oil of Mangosteen. It is useful in chapped hands, and is employed in the preparation of medicines for diseases, and for other pharmaceutical purposes. Of late years a large quantity has been imported into England from Ceylon, and is extensively used, and is used in India for various purposes. The fruit of this genus is highly esteemed in the West Indies and South America. It is known under the names of the Mango Apple or the West Indian Apple, and is considered as a delicacy. A spice and a kind of wine may also be obtained from this plant—viz., from the leaves and from the fruit. Mease.—The species of this genus are remarkable for their very hard bark, which is often used for making boxes; they are also noted for their aromatic, and powerfully soothing; their leaves mucilaginous; their unripe fruits are used as a substitute for coffee; and their ripe fruits grow occur in the bazaras of India, with those of Calophyus longifolius (see Calophyus). The leaves are used by the natives as a medicine for their for their fragrance, and are also used in Bengal, as well as the leaves of the same plant are used by the natives as a medicine for their eyes, much employed for drying skin. Kukum seed was imported into England a few years ago, and was sold at 3d. per pound; it is said to be a Cure for a cin- namon brown colour, and have a very fragrant odour, sometimes reconding. Phytostemis faginata.—The fruit of this plant yields a fatty matter, which is used by the natives as a medicine. Natural Order. 56. Hypanthiumae. The St. John's Wort Order.—Character.—Herbs, shrubs, or trees. Lorices opposite or rarely alternate, exstipulate, simple, often dotted and bor- nate with glands; stipules usually absent; calyx-lobes 5 (figs. 907, 903), persistent, unequal, distinct or united at the base, imbric- ate. Petals (fig. 903), equal in number to the sepals, hypogynous; sepals usually numerous; stamens usually numerous; anthers usually numerous; filaments usually numerous; ovary usually black; glands : sectioned twisted. Stigmas usually numerous, rarely 2-3-lobed; style usually 2-3-lobed (figs. 907); stigma usually capitate or trun- cated alternating with the bundles of stamens ; filaments usually 2-3-lobed; style usually 2-3-lobed (figs. 907); stigma usually capitate or trun- cated alternating with the bundles of stamens ; filaments usually 2-3-lobed; style usually 2-3-lobed (figs. 907); stigma usually capitate or trun- cated alternating with the bundles of stamens ; filaments usually 2-3-lobed; style usually 2-3-lobed (figs. 907); stigma usually capitate or trun- cated alternating with the bundles of stamens ; filaments usually 2-3-lobed; style usually 2-3-lobed (figs. 907); stigma usually capitate or trun- cated alternating with the bundles of stamens ; filaments usually 2-3-lobed; style usually 2-3-lobed (figs. 907); stigma usually capitate or trun- cated alternating with the bundles of stamens ; filaments usually 2-3-lobed; style usually 2-3-lobed (figs. 907); stigma usually capitate or trun- cated alternating with the bundles of stamens ; filaments usually 2-3-lobed; style usually 2-3-lobed (figs. 907); stigma usually capitate or trun- cated alternating with the bundles of stamens ; filaments usually 2-3-lobed; style usually 2-3-lobed (figs. 907); stigma usually capitate or trun- cated alternating with the bundles of stamens ; filaments usually 2-3-lobed; style usually 2-3-lobed (figs. 907); stigma usually capitate or trun- cated alternating with the bundles of stamens ; filaments usually 2-3-lobed; style usually 2-3-lobed (figs. 907); stigma usually capitate or trun- cated alternating with the bundles of stamens ; filaments usually 2-3-lobed; style usually 2-3-lobed (figs. 907); stigma usually capitate or trun- cated alternating with the bundles of stamens ; filaments usually 2-3-lobed; style usually 2-3-lobed (figs. 907); stigma usually capitate or trun- cated alternating with the bundles of stamens ; filaments usually 2-3-lobed; style usually 2-3-lobed (figs. 907); stigma usually capitate or trun- cated alternating with the bundles of stamens ; filaments usually 2-3-lobed; style usually 2-3-lobed (figs. 907); stigma usually capitate or trun- cated alternating with the bundles of stamens ; filaments usually 2-3-lobed; style usually 2-3-lobed (figs. 907); stigma usually capitate or trun- cated alternating with the bundles of stamens ; filaments usually 2-3-lobed; style usually 2-3-lobed (figs. 907); stigma usually capitate or trun- cated alternating with the bundles of stamens ; filaments usually 2-3-lobed; style usually 2-3-lobed (figs. 907); stigma usually capitate or trun- cated alternating with the bundles of stamens ; filaments usual 470 REBAUMUCHACEAE. 1-celled ; *placentae* axile or parietal, dehiscence septocidal. *Seeds* minute, numerous ; *endosperm* straight or curved, exali- bunous (fig. 36). Diagnom.—Leaves simple, often dotted, stipulate. Flowers regular or irregular, usually with 5 petals; the stamens 5, in a perianthary or quinary distribution— the former with an imbricate vexation; the latter usual-axidal, commonly marked with black glands, and having a distinct central column; the ovary usually numerous and polyadelphous, rarely few, and then distinct or monadelphous; fruit a berry, rarely a capsule; Styles several. Fruit 1-celled, or 3–6-celled. *Stems* numerous, ex- albuminous. *Species*. *Examples*, *Examples*, and *Numbers*.—The plants are gene- rally distributed over the globe, inhabiting both temperate and hot regions. The following species are the most important members of the Genera—Hypericum, Vicia. There are about 380 species. Properties and Use.—They abound usually in a resinous Fig. 96. Fig. 96A. Fig. 96B. Fig. 96. Diagram of the flower of a species of St. John's Wort (Hyper- icum perforatum), showing the vertical section of the flower of the same.--Pp. 960. Vicia sativa subsp. sativa. yellow juice, which is frequently purgative, as in *Fimia* guineensis and *V. micrantha*. Other plants of the order, as *Hypericum perforatum* and *Androantherum officinale* have tonic and astrigent properties; but they are not so strong as the highly astringent and diuretic *Nahor*. See also REBAUMUCHACEAE.--The Resenmoria Order. --This small order was first instituted by Ehrenberg. The plants belonging to it do not differ in any essential characters from *Hypericum*, except that they have a glandular or glandular-scented base of the petals, and shaggy seeds with a small quantity of nearly albuminous Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—Natives of the coast of the Mediterranean and the salt plains of Northern Asia. *Examples*. Of these: *Fimia guineensis*, *Fimia micrantha*, and *Vicia sativa*. There are about 4 species. Properties and Use.—They contain much albuminous matter. A decoction of the leaves of *Boerhavia erecta* is used in MARCORAVIACEAE. RHIZOBOLACEAE. 471 ternally ; and the bruised leaves, as an external application, for the cure of the scurvy. Natural Order 36. MARCORAVIACEA.—The Marcoraviae Order. This is a small order which is generally regarded as allied to the Chrysanthemum Order, but the species of this Order are chiefly distinguished from Chrysanthemum, by their unsymmetrical flowers, vertical axis, and very numerous minute seeds. Some genera have been placed in this Order, but peculiar bracts, which become hooded, punged, or spurred. They are distinguished from the other genera of this Order by asymmetrical flowers, equal-lobed petals, distinct stamens, and sessile stigma. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—Generally natives of equatorial America. Examples of the Genera :—Ruyachaya, Marcora, Rhizobolus. Properties and Use.—Scarcely anything is known of their properties. Marcora umbellata is reputed to be diuretic and antipyretic. Natural Order 38. RHIZOBOLACEAE.—The Sow-buttar Order. Characters.—Flowers usually symmetrical; corolla regular; calyx, if present, stipulate, exstipulate, with an articulated stem. Sepals 5 or 6, more or less united, imbricate. Petals 5 to 8, imbricate. Stamens very numerous; filaments free; anthers linear or oblong; style short; the inner shorter and often obsolete, inserted with the petals on a hypanthium; ovary 1-celled; ovules few or many. Fruit a capsule. Ovary 4, 5 or many-celled ; style short, as many as the cells of the corolla ; stigma simple ; ovules solitary, attached to the style. Fruit a capsule or nut. Example of the Genus :—Sow-buttar. Seed reniform, exalbuminous, with the funiculus ex- tended into a long stalk; cotyledons large, forming nearly the whole of the radicle ; coleoptiles very small (Fig. 701). Description.—Large trees, with opposite digitate exstipulate leaves, with an articulated stalk. Flowers regular, hypogynous. Stalks of sepals and petals long; petals with a nectary disc on a hypogynous disk. Style very short. Seed reniform, exalbuminous, with a very large radicle; and two very small coleoptiles. Distribution.—Two genera only are found in this country but 2 genera, including 8 species, all of which are large trees, natives of tropical America. Examples of the Genera :—Caryocar, Anthocleia. Properties and Use.—Some of the trees are valuable for their timber ; others yield a seed oil which is used as an emollient. Genus CARYOCAR (Palmer) Hooker & Arnott.—This tree is much esteemed for its timber, which is used in ship-building and for other purposes. The wood is light and soft ; it is used for planks, bowsprit, or Saw-mu-tu-som of commerce, the kernels of which are probably the most useful part of the tree. The oil is extracted from the seeds in this country. An excellent edible oil may also be extracted from them.—C A stylized illustration of a Caryocar tree. 473 **SAPINDACEAE.** **seriifera** also yields Sani-nuts. A concrete oil is obtained in Brazil from **C. sericea**. **Natural Order 40. SAPINDACEAE. The Sapotace Order.** **Character.** Usually large trees or twining shrubs, or rarely climbing herbs. Leaves generally compound (fig. 363), or rarely simple, alternate, entire, or pinnate, sometimes palmate or exstipulate. Flowers (figs. 906 and 907) mostly perfect and unsymmetrical, rarely symmetrical; sepals 4–5, often 5, either distinct or coherent at the base, imbricate. Fruits 4–5 (figs. 906), rarely 0, hypogynous, alternate with the sepals, imbricate, subglobose to ovoid, usually sessile; seeds 1–5 (figs. 908). Stamens 8–10, rarely 5–6–7 (fig. 909); or very rarely 20, in- termixed with the stamens; filaments free or united at the base; anthers introrse, or slightly more or less extrorse; ovules numerous, interstitial, bursting longitudinally. *Fig. 906.* Fig. 907. *Fig. 908.* Fig. 909. *Fig. 906.* Diagram of the flower of the *Lecanora stipae- conusa*. —*Fig. 907.* Vertical section of the flower.—*Fig. 908.* Ver- tical section of the fruit. more ovulate; style undivided or 2–3-cleft. Fruit either fleshy and indistinguishable; or capsule, or samarid, with 2–3 valves. Seeds usually annulate, exalbuminous; embryo rarely straight, usu- ally curved or twisted; endosperm usually abundant; cotyledons sometimes very large; endocarp next the hilum. **Species.**—The genus contains about 150 species of hypogynous. Sepals and petals 4–5, imbricate, the latter commonly with an ap- peduncle. Stamens nearly agreeing in number with the sepals and petals, inserted on a common axis; filaments free or united at the base; anthers bursting longitudinally. Fruit usually consisting of 1 seed; seeds usually albuminous, usually without wings; cotyledons usually curved or spirally twisted. **Sub-order I. LECANORINAE. The Genera.** This order may be divided into 4 sub-orders, as follows: Figures showing diagrams and sections of flowers and fruits. **SAPINDACEAE** 473 Sub order 1. *Sepidaceae.*—Leaves alternate. Ovules usually solitary. Embryo generally curved or straightening. *Examples:* *Celtis, Zizyphus.* Sub-order 2. *Hippocastaceae.*—Leaves opposite. Ovules in 2 cells, each with one embryo. Embryo curved (fig. 005), with a small radicle and large deeply consolidated cotyledons. *Examples:* *Aesculus, Pyrus.* Sub-order 3. *Dodonaceae.*—Leaves alternate. Ovules 2 or 3 in a cell. Embryo curved, with a small radicle. *Example:* *Dodonaea.* Sub-order 4. *Meliaceae.*—Leaves alternate. Flowers very irregular. Stamens 5, of which are abortive, and only 3, therefore, functional. Fruit a drupe, or a berry, or a pome, or a capsule. Fruit a drupe. Embryo folded up. *Example:* *Melicoccus.* **Distribution and Numbers.—Chiefly found in tropical regions, especially those of South America and India; some occur in temperate regions, but are rare; others are found over all parts of the globe. There are no native plants of this order in Europe. The Himalayas contain many species of the order, but it is only naturalized among us. There are nearly 400 species.* **Properties and Use.—One of the most prominent properties of the plant is its poisonous nature; the leaves are very injurious to cattle, from which its common name is derived. Many are poisonous to man also; the leaves of *Zizyphus* are said to be fatal to cattle; the root, leaves, and branches are dangerous, the poisonous juice becomes so diffused throughout their succulent fruits as to render them dangerous to cattle; the fruit of *Zizyphus* is used by the natives of desert. It sometimes happens, as in the Litchi and Longan fruits, that the seeds are poisonous; in these cases, the seeds are dangerous. Some plants of the order are aromatic and aromatic; others are diaphoretic, diuretic, and apertine; and some are valuable timber trees. **Narmon.—The bark of *Zizyphus Hippophae* is in Horticulture, as well known as any other tree for its ornamental qualities; for they have been used as an ornamental tree for centuries; the seeds have been used as food for sheep in Switzerland; the leaves have been recommended as a medicine; and the fruit has been recommended as a medicine for certain species of Spondias. This is a spontaneous plant in many parts of Europe; it grows wild in many places with a large quantity of stars, and is much used in France, instead of potatoes and other vegetables; it is supposed to be good for the stomach also; this search, which is very carefully prepared, has been used for many years as a remedy for dropsy; it is said to be good for dropsy, for wheat or potatoes. The seeds are said to be expressive a fixed oil, which has been used as an ingredient in medicines; it is used as an external application in rheumatism; and its leaves are said to be very empyreumatical. The roots, barks, and fruits of the *Zizyphus* above-mentioned, the Buckthorn or Honeysuckle tree, are used by men and animals. **Cordiaefera Holacanthum.—The root is described as diuretic, diapo-** 474 **SAPINDACEAE** *retic, and aperitif.* Its leaves, when boiled, are eaten as a vegetable in the Malacca. *Capparis (Riparia) apoda.* The distillable water of the flowers is used by many women as a remedy for the dropsy. The fruit is eaten raw, and much exported into the West Indies and elsewhere. The fruit, in which the seeds are contained, is also used as a substitute for the Aesculus fruit. A secretion of this has been used in diarrhoea. *Jodanthus (Jodanthus) corymbosus.* The fruit of this plant is carminative. Others are reputed to be slightly pungent and emetic. *Nephelium:* This genus yields the delicious fruits of China and the Indian Ocean islands. The fruit of *N. coccineum* is known as the "Litchi" in India. *Nephelium lappaceum* is known as the "Litchi" in Java. *Nephelium longan* produces the fruit, *L. longan*, the Longan, the Longan, the Longan, and the Longan. These fruits are imported into this country, and rarely seen, like the Longan. It should be noted that some of these all fruits are very bitter, and are probably poisonous. *Annona:* This genus includes several species of Annona. Bread in the preparation of a kind of food which is known as Guavana bread, Brazilian Annona, is a common article of diet in Brazil. It is rare in many of its species. Guavana bread is prepared by taking the dried mesocarp of the fruit, and mixing it with water or milk, and then baking it which afterwards made into round or oblong cakes. These cakes are used in Brazil as a substitute for bread, and are often mixed with meat, fish, and the mixture sweetened and drunk. This beverage is highly esteemed by the natives of Brazil, who consider it a delicacy, and for its stomachical, febrifuge, and aphrodisiac effect. It contains a bitter glucoside, anoxanthin. *Annona muricata* is known as "Guava" in Brazil. One of the species of this plant is used by natives to prepare a drink which they consider to be a cure for dropsy. Another species of Annona is used by natives to prepare a drink which they consider to be a cure for dropsy. Another species of Annona is used by natives to prepare a drink which they consider to be a cure for dropsy. **Sapindaceae:** The fruits of *Sapindus mukorossi*, as well as those of *S. sapindus*, are used by natives to prepare a drink which they consider to be a cure for dropsy. The fruits of *Sapindus mukorossi*, as well as those of *S. sapindus*, are used by natives to prepare a drink which they consider to be a cure for dropsy. **Sapindaceae:** The fruits of *Sapindus mukorossi*, as well as those of *S. sapindus*, are used by natives to prepare a drink which they consider to be a cure for dropsy. **Sapindaceae:** The fruits of *Sapindus mukorossi*, as well as those of *S. sapindus*, are used by natives to prepare a drink which they consider to be a cure for dropsy. **Sapindaceae:** The fruits of *Sapindus mukorossi*, as well as those of *S. sapindus*, are used by natives to prepare a drink which they consider to be a cure for dropsy. **Sapindaceae:** The fruits of *Sapindus mukorossi*, as well as those of *S. sapindus*, are used by natives to prepare a drink which they consider to be a cure for dropsy. **Sapindaceae:** The fruits of *Sapindus mukorossi*, as well as those of *S. sapindus*, are used by natives to prepare a drink which they consider to be a cure for dropsy. **Sapindaceae:** The fruits of *Sapindus mukorossi*, as well as those of *S. sapindus*, are used by natives to prepare a drink which they consider to be a cure for dropsy. **Sapindaceae:** The fruits of *Sapindus mukorossi*, as well as those of *S. sapindus*, are used by natives to prepare a drink which they consider to be a cure for dropsy. **Sapindaceae:** The fruits of *Sapindus mukorossi*, as well as those of *S. sapindus*, are used by natives to prepare a drink which they consider to be a cure for dropsy. **Sapindaceae:** The fruits of *Sapindus mukorossi*, as well as those of *S. sapindus*, are used by natives to prepare a drink which they consider to be a cure for dropsy. **Sapindaceae:** The fruits of *Sapindus mukorossi*, as well as those of *S. sapindus*, are used by natives to prepare a drink which they consider to be a cure for dropsy. **Sapindaceae:** The fruits of *Sapindus mukorossi*, as well as those of *S. sapindus*, are used by natives to prepare a drink which they consider to be a cure for dropsy. **Sapindaceae:** The fruits of *Sapindus mukorossi*, as well as those of *S. sapindus*, are used by natives to prepare a drink which they consider to be a cure for dropsy. **Sapindaceae:** The fruits of *Sapindus mukorossi*, as well as those of *S. sapindus*, are used by natives to prepare a drink which they consider to be a cure for dropsy. **Sapindaceae:** The fruits of *Sapindus mukorossi*, as well as those of *S. sapindus*, are used by natives to prepare a drink which they consider to be a cure for dropsy. **Sapindaceae:** The fruits of *Sapindus mukorossi*, as well as those of *S. sapindus*, are used by natives to prepare a drink which they consider to be a cure for dropsy. **Sapindaceae:** The fruits of *Sapindus mukorossi*, as well as those of *S. sapindus*, are used by natives to prepare a drink which they consider to be a cure for dropsy. **Sapindaceae:** The fruits of *Sapindus mukorossi*, as well as those of *S. sapindus*, are used by natives to prepare a drink which they consider to be a cure for dropsy. **Sapindaceae:** The fruits of *Sapindus mukorossi*, as well as those of *S. sapindus*, are used by natives to prepare a drink which they consider to be a cure for dropsy. **Sapindaceae:** The fruits of *Sapindus mukorossi*, as well as those of *S. sapindus*, are used by natives to prepare a drink which they consider to be a cure for dropsy. **Sapindaceae:** The fruits of *Sapindus mukorossi*, as well as those of *S. sapindus*, are used by natives to prepare a drink which they consider to be a cure for dropsy. **Sapindaceae:** The fruits of *Sapindus mukorossi*, as well as those of *S. sapindus*, are used by natives to prepare a drink which they consider to be a cure for dropsy. **Sapindaceae:** The fruits of *Sapindus mukorossi*, as well as those of *S. sapindus*, are used by natives to prepare a drink which they consider to be a cure for dropsy. **Sapindaceae:** The fruits of *Sapindus mukorossi*, as well as those of *S. sapindus*, are used by natives to prepare a drink which they consider to be a cure for dropsy. **Sapindaceae:** The fruits of *Sapindus mukorossi*, as well as those of *S. sapindus*, are used by natives to prepare a drink which they consider to be a cure for dropsy. **Sapindaceae:** The fruits of *Sapindus mukorossi*, as well as those of *S. sapindus*, are used by natives to prepare a drink which they consider to be a cure for dropsy. **Sapindaceae:** The fruits of *Sapindos mukorossi*, as well as those of *s.s.,* are used by natives to prepare a drink which they consider to be a cure for dropsy. **Ficus carica,** at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at the Cape: **Pepo capsicum**, at **POLYGALACEAE.** 475 Natural Order 41. POLYGALACEA.---The Milkwort Order.--- Character.---Perennial or heret. Leaves alternate (figs. 909 or opposite), stipulate, sessile, entire, or with simple lobes. Flowers irregular, asymmetrical (figs. 309 and 910), and ar- ranged in the terminal panicles in a manner; but here the wings behind the calyx are very large, and the petals are adhering to the corolla. Sepals 5 (fig. 910), 6, very irregular, usually dis- tinct ; of which 3 are placed externally, and of these 2 are posterior. Fig. 909. Fig. 910. Fig. 911. Fig. 912. Fig. 913. Fig. 914. Fig. 915. **Fig. 908.** A portion of the stem of the common milkwort (Polygala vulgaris Linn.), showing opposite and costate leaves, and irregular flowers. **Fig. 909.** The flower of the common milkwort (Polygala vulgaris Linn.), on its stem : a, bract ; b, p., p., posterior and anterior petals; c, sepals ; d, stamens ; e, pistil ; f, ovary ; g, style ; h, stigma. **Fig. 910.** The flower of the common milkwort (Polygala vulgaris Linn.), on its stem : a, bract ; b, p., p., posterior and anterior petals; c, sepals ; d, stamens ; e, pistil ; f, ovary ; g, style ; h, stigma. **Fig. 911.** The flower of the common milkwort (Polygala vulgaris Linn.), on its stem : a, bract ; b, p., p., posterior and anterior petals; c, sepals ; d, stamens ; e, pistil ; f, ovary ; g, style ; h, stigma. **Fig. 912.** The flower of the common milkwort (Polygala vulgaris Linn.), on its stem : a, bract ; b, p., p., posterior and anterior petals; c, sepals ; d, stamens ; e, pistil ; f, ovary ; g, style ; h, stigma. **Fig. 913.** The flower of the common milkwort (Polygala vulgaris Linn.), on its stem : a, bract ; b, p., p., posterior and anterior petals; c, sepals ; d, stamens ; e, pistil ; f, ovary ; g, style ; h, stigma. **Fig. 914.** The flower of the common milkwort (Polygala vulgaris Linn.), on its stem : a, bract ; b, p., p., posterior and anterior petals; c, sepals ; d, stamens ; e, pistil ; f, ovary ; g, style ; h, stigma. **Fig. 915.** The flower of the common milkwort (Polygala vulgaris Linn.), on its stem : a, bract ; b, p., p., posterior and anterior petals; c, sepals ; d, stamens ; e, pistil ; f, ovary ; g, style ; h, stigma. and 2 anterior; the 2 interior are usualy petaloid (figs. 909), and form the wings to the flower. *Petala hypogynous.* usually 3 , more or less united , of which 1 , forming the keel, being united with the other two petals at their base; part of the flower; the keel is either naked , crested (figs. 909) or lobed; or both united with the petals at their base; the wings and posterior sepal of the calyx , and are often united to the keel; sometimes there are 5 petals (figs. 910), and then the 2 additional ones , p., p., are of small size , and alternate with the 476 POLYGALACEAE. wings and anterior sepals. Stamens hypogynous, 8 (figs. 910, and 914), usually combined into a tube, unequal, the tube split on one side, the other closed; filaments free, 2-3-celled, one cell being frequently abortive; anther solitary or twin, suspended ; style simple (fig. 912, stp); curved, some- times horizontal; stigma sessile or shortly pedicellate. Fruit (fig. 912) varying in its nature and texture, indistinguishable or open- ing in a capsule or a dehiscent pod. Leaves opposite or subopposite. (See figs. 912, stp), smooth or hairy, with a coriacea nutus the hilmus (figs. 912, r1 and 913, c); embryo straight or nearly so, in ovoid to oblong seeds, with a short hilum (figs. 912, r1). Species of this order are mostly shrubs, with exstipulate leaves. Flow- ers irregular, asymmetrical. Sepals and petals imbricate, not commonly corresponding in number, and usually arranged in a somewhat regular manner; petals often united at the base; calyx posterior. Stamens 8, hypogynous, usually combined ; anthers free or united; style simple; stigma sessile or slightly flat- tened, usually 2-celled and 2-seeded. Seed with abundant filmy albumen, and with a coriacea nutus next the hilum. The following genera of this order are found in almost every part of the globe. The indi- vidual species vary much in their habitat and in their geographic regions, with the exception of the genus Polypogon, which is very widely distributed, being found in almost every description of station, from the Arctic to the tropics. The following species of the Genera—Polypogon, Monninae, Soulacinae. There are about 500 species. **Frequencies and Uses.—** The most general parts of this plant are the order are bitter and astringent, and their roots milky; hence they are frequently used as astringents in medicine. They are also emetic, purgative, diuretic, sudorific, or expectorant. A few species have edible fruits, and others abound in a saporous principle. **Monnina polygalaefolia** M. scottii.—The bark of the root of these plants is especially remarkable for the presence of a saporous principle; it is used medicinally as a purgative and expectorant; its juice is said to be healing silver. It is moreover reputed to be a valuable medicine in diarrhoea and dyspepsia. **Polypogon.—** Many species of this genus have bitter properties; as P. amara, P. multifida, P. viridis; but many of them are used medicinally as astringents, diaphoretics, etc.—Polypogon Sempervirens Snake-root.—The root is used medicinally as astringent and diaphoretic; it is also used in the treatment of snake-bites. Various other species of Polypogon have been reputed to possess curative properties against snake-bites; but no proof has been adduced that any of them do so. **Snake-root Snake-root is official in this country; where it is used medicinally as astringent and diaphoretic; it is also employed as an expectorant, diaphoretic, diuretic, and emmenagogue. Its principal KRAMERIAE. TREMADRACEAE. 477 virtues are due to the presence of a very astringent substance, which has been called 'Bitter Root' by the natives of Java. The root is of a brownish colour, in the form of a white or amorphous powder. P. amplexicaulis and P. purpurea, in North America, are the only species of this genus that have been hitherto known. P. amplexicaulis is a native of the Himalaya, and other species, are not so widely distributed. P. purpurea is a native of North America, and P. amplexicaulis, a native of Java, has the astringent principle in so concentrated a state as to render it poisonous. Sedumum amurensis, a native of Malacca, is intensely bitter, and is re- puted to be one of the most powerful stimulants which has been employed with very great success in cholera and puerility. Natural Order 62. KRAMERIAE. -The Rhatany Order. -Diagnosis.-This natural order comprises but the single genus Krameria, which is distinguished from all other genera by its stipulate leaves, to which it was formerly always referred; but Krameria appears certainly to possess sufficient claims to separation from that order, on account of its peculiar flowers, which differ from those of their stipulate leaves; in having hypogynous asymmetrical flowers; in their sessile calyxes; in their corolla being deeply divided into definite pendulous lobes. They are distinguished from the Polygalaceae in their flowers not presenting a pappillose arrangement; in their stamens being numerous, and in their pistils generally being 1-celled, or incompletely 2-celled; and in their exa- luminate ovary. Krameria is allied to some other botanically the genus Krameria. Krameria has been referred to Leguminosae. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.-Found in the warm and temperate regions of the Old World and New World. The order contains but one genus, which comprises 16 species. Properties and Uses.-The roots of the different species of Krameria are used internally; they are commonly known under the name of Rhatany roots. Krameria.-The root of Krameria trinandra, a native of Java, is offici- al in the British Pharmacopoeia as Krameria officinalis. It is called Bitter Rhatany. The supply of this root is uncertain, and usually its place is taken by Krameria amplexicaulis (L.) DC., a native of the Himalaya, New Guinea and Brazil, which is termed Krameria, New Guinea, or Black Rhatany. Krameria purpurea (L.) DC., a native of North America, Rhatany, which is said to be derived from A. amplexicaulis, is also occasionally employed as a substitute for Krameria officinalis. The root of Krameria is used in medicine as an astrigent, and with much effect in the treatment of such diseases. It is also employed, mixed with equal parts of cera- mentum and cinchona bark, as an emetic; and it is sometimes employed not in brandy but wine when oiling; and is used in Portugal to give rheumatism relief. Natural Order 63. TREMADRACEAE. -The Purswain Order. -Character.-Heat-like balsam, with usually glandular hairs. Leaves stipulate, alternate or whorled. Flowers axillary, solitary or fascicled; perianth deciduous; with 5 sepals united at base; corolla deciduous, and with a valvate estivation. Petals corresponding 478 ACERACEAE. in number to the sepals, deciduous, and with an involute nutation. Species: 3-5. The leaves simple, entire, or lobed; 2 being placed before one leaf; anthels 2 or 4-celled, with persistent pericarps (fig. 533). Leaves 2-celled; orders 1—3 in each leaf, pendentous; epip. 1—3. The flowers solitary, sessile, or on short peduncles, with loculicial dehiscence. Seeds pendulous, hooked at their apex ; embryo straight, in the axis of flimsy albumen ; radicle next the hilum. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—All are natives of New Holland and North America. Genera : Tectaria, Trematodes. The order includes 16 species. Properties and Uses.—Together unknown. Natural Order: Aceraceae. Sugar Maple Order.—Chær- tree.—Trees. Leaves opposite, simple, without stipules; sepals united into a cup-like calyx; petals none; stamens hypogynous. Caulis with an imbricate valvule, usually 4-partite; occasionally 4 or 5-partite. Petiole imbricate, corresponding in number to the sepals. Flowers in pairs. Seeds pendulous, with a short shoot. Stamens usually 8 inserted on or around a flimsy hypogynous disk. Flowers in pairs. Petiole imbricate, corresponding in number to the sepals. Seeds in pairs. Flower a samara, 2-celled (fig. 606). Seeds 1 or 2 in each cell, without an aril, exalbuminous ; embryo curved, with long radicle. Diagnosis.—Trees with opposite simple exstipulate leaves. Flowers usually in pairs; petals none; stamens hypogynous; the latter without any appendages on their inside. Stamens hypogynous, on a flimsy disk; anthels bursting longitudinally; ovary superior; seeds pendulous, with a short shoot. Petiole imbricate 1 or 2 cells. Seeds without an aril, exalbuminous ; embryo curved, with long radicle. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—The plants of this order are natives of the temperate parts of Europe, Asia, and North America. They are found also in South America and the southern hemisphere. Examples of the Genera : Acer, Noguina. There are two genera. Properties and Uses.—These plants are chiefly remarkable for their saccharine sap. Their light and handsome timber is also much used for furniture and other purposes; and their bark is astringent, and is employed in medicine for its power in the production of yellow, reddish-brown, and blue colours. Acer.—A. saccharum is the Sugar Maple. The Sugar Maple of America is obtained by the cultivation of this tree in the United States at the commencement of spring, and boiling down the saccharine sap which then exudes from the bark. The sugar-maple is one of the most valuable of all maple woods. Sugar maple was annually produced in North America, but the quantity has been greatly diminished by the destruction of the native forests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acer.—A. saccharum has been used in America for the preparation of ink, and as an ingredient in the manufacture of ink—A. cappadocicum and A. HIPPOCRATEACEAE. MALPIGIACEAE. Forsythia-platanus are common trees in Britain, and afford a mild timber; the leaves of these trees are very similar to those of the common Plane-tree (Platanus), and Maple. It derives the latter name from the resemblance of its leaves to those of the true Plane-tree. Its wood is also used for making charcoals. Natural Order 46. HIPPOCRATEA-CEAE. The Hippocrateae Order. **Diagnose.**—Shrubs with opposite simple leaves, and small de- ciduous or evergreen flowers, usually white or yellow, in terminal cymes or panicles with transverse dichotomous. Dorsy 3-celled ; phyllotaxis axile ; style 1. Fruit baccate, or omentum of 3-membranous capsules. Seeds dedinite, or anthelmintic. **Genus.**—Hippocratea Linn. (1753). 1 sp. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—They abound primi- tively in the Mediterranean region, and in the West Indies, and the East Indies. *Genera of the Genus.*—Hippocratea, Tontelea. There are about 90 species. **Proprietary Names.**—Very little is known generally of the plants of this order. The fruit of several Brazilian species of *Hippocratea* is employed medicinally; but the plant itself is never described as very pleasant. *Hippocratea comosa* yields nuts of an oily and sweet nature. The inner yellow bark of *Kokornia glauca* yields a drug, *Corydalis comosa*, which is diuretic, antipyretic, and as a dye. Natural Order 47. MALPIGIACEAE. The Malpighia Order. **Character.**—Trees or shrubs, often climbing. Leaves usually opposite or whorled, rarely alternate ; stipules generally short ; leaf deciduous or persistent ; stipules usually deciduous ; leaves are occasionally furnished with hairs, which are fixed by their middle, or at their base ; venation reticulate or pinnate ; flowers poly- gamous. Calyx 5-partite, persistent, frequently with glands at the base of one or all of the divisions ; stamens indefinite or rarely, usually numerous ; ovary usually compound ; style elongated convolute. Stigma usually 10, monadelphous or distinct ; con- nective free from the style. Fruit a berry or capsule. Ovary generally consisting of 3 carpels, rarely 2 or 4 partially or wholly combined ; seeds 1 in each cell, pendulous from a long stalk, or sessile on a flat disc-like placenta. Seed either drupaceous, samaroid, or a woody nut. Seed solitary, suspended, exstipulate (fig. 789); embryo straight or variably curved. **Diagnose.**—Trees or shrubs, with simple stipulate leaves. Flowers regular, hermaphrodite; calyx 5-partite ; the sepals having usually large glands at the base, and imbricate or very rarely valvate ; petals 5 ; stamens indefinite or unguiculate, anthelmintic ; ovary hypogynous, convolute. Stigma usually 10, sometimes 15, with a loosely prolonged connective. Ovary compound ; seeds 1 in each cell, pendulous from a long stalk, or sessile on a flat disc-like placenta ; embryo straight or varying in number, or being any power of the three outer whorls ; ovules
HIPPOCRATEACEAE. MALPIGIACEAE. 479
Forsythia-platanus are common trees in Britain, and afford a mild timber; the leaves of these trees are very similar to those of the common Plane-tree (Platanus), and Maple. It derives the latter name from the resemblance of its leaves to those of the true Plane-tree. Its wood is also used for making charcoals. Natural Order 46. HIPPOCRATEA-CEAE. The Hippocrateae Order.
**Diagnose.**—Shrubs with opposite simple leaves, and small de- Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—They abound primi-
ticed deciduous or evergreen flowers, usually white or yellow, tive in the Mediterranean region, and in the West Indies, and in
in terminal cymes or panicles with transverse dichotomous. the East Indies. *Genera of the Genus.*—Hippocratea, Tontelea.
Dorsy 3-celled ; phyllotaxis axile ; style 1. There are about 90 species.
Fruit baccate, or omentum of 3-membranous capsules. **Proprietary Names.**—Very little is known generally of the
Seeds dedinite, plants of this order.
or anthelmintic. The fruit of several Brazilian species of
*Hippocratea comosa* yields nuts of *Hippocratea comosa* yields nuts of an oily and sweet nature.
an oily and sweet nature. The inner yellow bark of
*Kokornia glauca* yields a drug, *Corydalis comosa*, which is diuretic,
*Corydalis comosa*, which is diuretic, antipyretic,
and as a dye. and as a dye.
Natural Order 47. MALPIGIACEAE. The Malpighia Order. **Character.**—Trees or shrubs,
often climbing. usually< td colspan="2" rowspan="2">**Diagnose.**—Trees or shrubs,
HIPPOCRATEACEAE.
MALPIGIACEAE.
HIPPOCRATEACEAE.
MALPIGIACEAE.
HIPPOCRATEACEAE.
MALPIGIACEAE.
HIPPOCRATEACEAE.
MALPIGIACEAE.
HIPPOCRATEACEAE.
MALPIGIACEAE.
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MALPIGIACEAE.
HIPPOCRATEACEAE.
MALPIGIACEAE.
HIPPOCRATEACEAE.
MALPIGIACEAE.
HIPPOCRATEACEAE.
MALPIGIACEAE.
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MALPIGIACEAE.
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MALPIGIACEAE.
480 ERETHISOXYLACEAE. solitare, pendulous from long stalks. Seeds exalbuminous, usually with a convolute embryo. *Erythroxylum coca*.—Examples of this genus: —Malpighia, Bitteroxum, *Ricino*. There are about 500 species. **Properties and Use.—An antispasmodic property appears to be the general characteristic of this order. The leaves of the edible fruits; and the seeds of which are reputed to be poisonous. *Rhamnus armeniaca*, a native of Persia, is stated to have poisonous seeds. *Rhamnus alaternus*, a native of Europe, is also poisonous. It is, how- ever, principally remarkable for its therapeutics. Thus the fruit of *B. spinace* (Sibb.) is used in the treatment of the dropsy; and the bark of *B. corylifolium* (Sibb.) is employed as an emetic to the bite of the rattlesnake; and for other purpse as when employed in the treatment of the dropsy. The leaves of *B. corylifolium* are in use for incense in Brazil. American Alcarnoque bark, which is im- portant in the treatment of dropsy, is derived from *B. corylifolium*. The fruits of *B. laurifolium*, *B. rhodopodium*, and *B. cordifolium*, are used by the natives of Mexico and Central America as fruits, which are used in the West Indies, as a dessert, under the name of Barbarossa cherries. *Nitrewood*, *Erythroxylum coca*, is a native of South America; and according to Monty, *X. tridentatum* is the true Lotus-Tree of the ancients. According to Bouchardat, it is a tree growing in the West Indies, and its wood is of a somewhat interesting nature.—N. Billiardier, a native of America. Natural Order 47. ERETHISOXYLACEAE. Order.—**Erythroxylaceae**.—This order is closely allied to Malpighi- aceae, and in some respects resembles it; but it differs from it in wanting its separation from that order. Its distinctive char- acters, according to Lindley, are as follows—the flowers arise from numerous axillary buds; the calyx is persistent; the corolla has no glans; the petals have at their base two parallel membranous plates; the stigma is sessile; and the embryo is straight. By Bentham and Hooker, this order is combined with the Lin- naean family *Celastraceae*. Distribution. Examples, and Numbers.—The plants of this order abound in tropical America; they grow on many other parts of South America; and in the West Indies; and they are distributed throughout many of the warmer regions of the globe. There is but one species in North America, namely, *Erythroxylum coca*. **Properties and Use.—Some species of Erythroxylon are tonic, others purgative, and others emetic and sedative. The wood of *Erythroxylum coca* gives off a smell which is red, and are used in the preparation of dyes of that colour. The wood of *Erythroxylum corylifolium* has a peculiar odour from this common colour of the wood the name of the genus is derived. **Erythroxylon Cocao**.—The dried leaves of this plant, under the name of Cacao or Coca, are commonly used mixed with a little lime, or wood ashes **CEDRELACEAE.** 481 formed of the burnt stems of Chamaedorea Quinoa, Corycias peltata, or other plants, which grow in Peru and some other parts of South America, as a medicinal. The leaves of the Indian tobacco, Nicotiana tabacum, are the most ratemost virtuous herbs. Persons that believe they have less desire the use of tobacco than others, will find that this herb is a very good substitute for it. Spencer says, that an Indian with a chew of Tobacco in his mouth, will not feel the least inclination to smoke it; but if he takes a leaf of this herb, will go two or three days without food, and without feeling any desire to eat. This is one of those things which are very rare among the Indians; and I am sure many of them have also given somewhat similar testimony as to the effects of this herb. The leaves of this plant are highly esteemed by the Indians, and do not satisfy the appetite, but merely enable those who chew it to support ab- solutely without food for several days. It is said that the leaves of this herb have been used by the Indians as a substitute for tobacco; and that it has been stated to be very injurious by producing analogous effects to those of opium. The leaves of this plant are so strong as to be dangerous to the body; and yet they are not considered as poisonous by the Indians. But Tschudi says that its sedative power is rather beneficial than otherwise. He believes that it is a great remedy for all kinds of melancholy, both in itself and in others, in preventing and preventing fatigue. He states that it is a great remedy for all kinds of melancholy, both in itself and in others, in preventing and preventing fatigue. He states that it is a great remedy for all kinds of melancholy, both in itself and in others, in preventing and preventing fatigue. The experiments made recently by Davenport on the effect of this herb on the human body, show that it does not produce any effect whatever on the stomach or any part of the body. It has never been used by any person in this country. It was computed by Johnson some time ago that about 10000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 people died every year from consumption; and that its cause was introduced by about 151653753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753753754 482 **MELICERIA** Africa. **Examples of the Genera:** -Swietenia, Soymina, Chloroxylon. **Properties.** -The leaves of this order have fragrant, aromatic, tonic, astrigent, and febrifugal properties, and many of them are used medicinally. **Cedrelaceae.** -The bark of the plant of this genus is generally fragrant,-C.-fagarap., C.-Tunca, and other species, have febrifugal and astrigent barks; they have also been employed in the treatment of diseases above of Jamaica or Honduras Cedar.-C.-Tunca furnishes a wood resembling mahogany, and is extensively employed in the construction of ships imported into this country. It is termed Tunca, Tunca, Poma, or Jem Wood; and to its aromatic qualities is due its use in Chingking Wood.-C.-Sarotra produces the Red Cedar of Australia. Chloroxylons are trees with aromatic leaves. The aromatic nature is ascribed to the leaves, which are used medicinally. The wood is employed in the manufacture of furniture. The bark is also employed for making the backs of chairs and clothes-brushes, and by the natives for making a kind of tobacco. **Zizyphus** furnishes the Yellow wood of Queensland. **Sapindus** is a tree with aromatic leaves. The bark of this tree is employed in the manufacture of soap, which is officinal in the banyan trees of India, commonly known under the name of Kumbha or Kumbha. The bark of the Indian Soap-Tree (Sapindus mukorossi) is employed in the manufacture of soap. The bark of the Indian Soap-Tree (Sapindus mukorossi) is also known under the name of Kumbha or Kumbha. The bark of the Indian Soap-Tree (Sapindus mukorossi) is also known under the name of Kumbha or Kumbha. The bark of the Indian Soap-Tree (Sapindus mukorossi) is also known under the name of Kumbha or Kumbha. **Sapindus** is a tree with aromatic leaves. The bark of this tree is employed in the manufacture of soap, which is officinal in the banyan trees of India, commonly known under the name of Kumbha or Kumbha. The bark of the Indian Soap-Tree (Sapindus mukorossi) is employed in the manufacture of soap. The bark of the Indian Soap-Tree (Sapindus mukorossi) is also known under the name of Kumbha or Kumbha. **Sapindus** is a tree with aromatic leaves. The bark of this tree is employed in the manufacture of soap, which is officinal in the banyan trees of India, commonly known under the name of Kumbha or Kumbha. The bark of the Indian Soap-Tree (Sapindus mukorossi) is employed in the manufacture of soap. The bark of the Indian Soap-Tree (Sapindus mukorossi) is also known under the name of Kumbha or Kumbha. **Sapindus** is a tree with aromatic leaves. The bark of this tree is employed in the manufacture of soap, which is officinal in the banyan trees of India, commonly known under the name of Kumbha or Kumbha. The bark of the Indian Soap-Tree (Sapindus mukorossi) is employed in the manufacture of soap. The bark of the Indian Soap-Tree (Sapindus mukorossi) is also known under the name of Kumbha or Kumbha. **Sapindus** is a tree with aromatic leaves. The bark of this tree is employed in the manufacture of soap, which is officinal in the banyan trees of India, commonly known under the name of Kumbha or Kumbha. The bark of the Indian Soap-Tree (Sapindus mukorossi) is employed in the manufacture of soap. The bark of the Indian Soap-Tree (Sapindus mukorossi) is also known under the name of Kumbha or Kumbha. **Sapindus** is a tree with aromatic leaves. The bark of this tree is employed in the manufacture of soap, which is officinal in the banyan trees of India, commonly known under the name of Kumbha or Kumbha. The bark of the Indian Soap-Tree (Sapindus mukorossi) is employed in the manufacture of soap. The bark of the Indian Soap-Tree (Sapindus mukorossi) is also known under the name of Kumbha or Kumbha. **Sapindus** is a tree with aromatic leaves. The bark of this tree is employed in the manufacture of soap, which is officinal in the banyan trees of India, commonly known under the name of Kumbha or Kumbha. The bark of the Indian Soap-Tree (Sapindus mukorossi) is employed in the manufacture of soap. The bark of the Indian Soap-Tree (Sapindus mukorossi) is also known under the name of Kumbha or Kumbha. **Sapindus** is a tree with aromatic leaves. The bark of this tree is employed in the manufacture of soap, which is officinal in the banyan trees of India, commonly known under the name of Kumbha or Kumbha. The bark of the Indian Soap-Tree (Sapindus mukorossi) is employed in the manufacture of soap. The bark of the Indian Soap-Tree (Sapindus mukorossi) is also known under the name of Kumbha or Kumbha. **Sapindus** is a tree with aromatic leaves. The bark of this tree is employed in the manufacture of soap, which is officinal in the banyan trees of India, commonly known under the name of Kumbha or Kumbha. The bark of the Indian Soap-Tree (Sapindus mukorossi) is employed in the manufacture of soap. The bark of the Indian Soap-Tree (Sapindus mukorossi) is also known under the name of Kumbha or Kumbha. **Sapindus** is a tree with aromatic leaves. The bark of this tree is employed in the manufacture of soap, which is officinal in the banyan trees of India, commonly known under the name of Kumbha or Kumbha. The bark Natural Order 49. **Meliceria.—The Meliceria Order—Charac- te-r.—Trees with aromatic leaves; almost always fragrant; sometimes simple, simple or pinnate, exstipulate; Flowers occasionally bisexual by abortion; Calyx 5-, 6-, or 7-partite; Petals equal in number to sepals; Stamens equal to petals; Pistil united at base; imbricate or valvate; Stamens twice as many as petals; Style filiform; Ovary sessile; Fruits enclosed within thalliums; Seeds numerous; Seed-coat thin and fibrous; Fruit usually indehiscent; Fruit often succulent; Fruit often succulent; Fruit usually indehiscent; Fruit often succulent; Fruit usually indehiscent; Fruit often succulent; Fruit usually indehiscent; Fruit often succulent; Fruit usually indehiscent; Fruit often succulent; Fruit usually indehiscent; Fruit often succulent; Fruit usually indehiscent; Fruit often succulent; Fruit usually indehiscent; Fruit often succulent; Fruit usually indehiscent; Fruit often succulent; Fruit usually indehiscent; Fruit often succulent; Fruit usually indehiscent; Fruit often succulent; Fruit usually indehiscent; Fruit often succulent; Fruit usually indehiscent; Fruit often succulent; Fruit usually indehiscent; Fruit often succulent; Fruit usually indehiscent; Fruit often succulent; Fruit usually indehiscent; Fruit often succulent; Fruit usually indehiscent; Fruit often succulent; Fruit usually indehiscent; Fruit often succulent; Fruit usually indehiscent; Fruit often succulent; Fruit usually indehiscent; Fruit often succulent; Fruit usually indehiscent; Fruit often succulent; Fruit usually indehiscent; Fruit often succulent; Fruit usually indehiscent; Fruit often succulent; Fruit usually indehiscent; Fruit often succulent; Fruit usually indehiscent; Fruit often succulent; Fruit usually indehiscent; Fruit often succulent; Fruit usually indehiscent; Fruit often succulent; Fruit usually indehiscent; Fruit often succulent; Fruit usually indehiscent; Fruit often succulent; Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—They are found more | Example | Description | |---|---| | Swietenia | A genus comprising several trees with aromatic leaves and fragrant wood | | Soymina | A genus comprising several trees with aromatic leaves and fragrant wood | | Chloroxylon | A genus comprising several trees with aromatic leaves and fragrant wood | | Cedrelaceae | A family comprising several trees with aromatic leaves and fragrant wood | | Zizyphus | A genus comprising several trees with aromatic leaves and fragrant wood | | Sapindus | A genus comprising several trees with aromatic leaves and fragrant wood | A diagram showing relationships between genera and families. **AURANTIACEAE.** 485 or less in all the tropical parts of the globe; but are said to be more common in America and Asia than in Africa. A few are extremely poisonous, and are fatal to man, as are also, Aglaia, Euphorbia. There are about 150 species. **Properties.** The fruits of these plants are generally remarkable for bitter, tonic, and astringent properties. Others are powerful purgatives and emetics, as Guarea Audubii, G. trachyloides, G. coriacea, and G. corymbosa; while some are diuretics, and all require much caution in their administration, and in some cases are reputed poisons. A few species have edible fruits. **Aurantiaca.** The flowers are sometimes used to give a perfume to certain varieties of tobacco. **Corylopsis.** This genus C. persseae is an African species, yield by ex- traction a volatile oil of a bitter taste, which is used medicinally, and anthelmintic; it is also adapted for burning in lungs, and for other pur- poses. Another species C. pinnata is a native of India, and has been imported under the name of *margos*. The fruit of C. persseae is a very agreeable fruit, rich in sugar, which possesses analgesic properties. The bark of these species possesses bittersolubilizing properties. **Javanese.—This is a genus of plants inhabiting the East Indian Archi- pelago. The leaves are large, and the flowers are white or yellow; the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the name of Langsat (Lamot), Amei, or Javanesa is derived from the The bark contains a volatile oil with a bitter taste; it has also been used medicinally as a stimulant and as a diuretic; it has also been used medicinally as a stimulant and as a diuretic; it has also been used medicinally as a stimulant and as a diuretic; it has also been used medicinally as a stimulant and as a diuretic; it has also been used medicinally as a stimulant and as a diuretic; it has also been used medicinally as a stimulant and as a diuretic; it has also been used medicinally as a stimulant and as a diuretic; it has also been used medicinally as a stimulant and as a diuretic; it has also been used medicinally as a stimulant and as a diuretic; it has also been used medicinally as a stimulant and as a diuretic; it has also been used medicinally as a stimulant and as a diuretic; it has also been used medicinally as a stimulant and as a diuretic; it has also been used medicinally as a stimulant and as a diuretic; it has also been used medicinally as a stimulant and as a diuretic; it has also been used medicinally as a stimulant and as a diuretic; it has also been used medicinally as a stimulant and as a diuretic; it has also been used medicinally as a stimulant and as a diuretic; it has also been used medicinally as a stimulant and as a diuretic; it has also been used medicinally as a stimulant and as a diuretic; it has also been used medicinally as a stimulant and as a diuretic; it has also been used medicinally as a stimulant and as a diuretic; it has also been used medicinally as a stimulant and as a diuretic; it has also been used medicinally as a stimulant and as a diuretic; it has also been used medicinally as a stimulant and as a diuretic; it has also been used medicinally as a stimulant and as a diuretic; it has also been used medicinally as a stimulant and as a diuretic; it has also been used medicinally as a stimulant and as a diuretic; it has also been used medicinally as a stimulant and as a diuretic; it has also been used medicinally as a stimulant and as a diuretic; it has also been used medicinally as a stimulant and as a diuretic; it has also been used medicinally as a stimulant and as a diuretic; it has also been used medicinally as a stimulant and as a diuretic; it has also been used medicinally as a stimulant and as a diuretic; it has also been used medicinally as a stimulant and as a diuretic; it has also been used medicinally as a stimulant and as a diuretic; it has also been used medicinally as a stimulant and as a diuretic; it has also been used medicinally as a stimulant and as a diuretic; it has also been used medicinally as a stimulant and as a diuretic; it has also been used medicinally as a stimulant and as a diuretic; it has also been used medicinally as a stimulant and as a diuretic; it has also been used medicinally as a stimulant and as a diuretic; it has also been used medicinally as a stimulant and as a diuretic; it has also been used medicinally as a stimulant and as a diuretic; it has also been used medicinally as a stimulant and as a diuretic; it has also been used medicinally as a stimulant and as a diuretic; it has also been used medicinally as **Natural Order 50. Aurantiaceae.—The Orange Order.** **Character.—Tree or shrub.** Leaves alternate, exstipulate, entireedulous at base. Flowers regular. Fragrant. Calyx short (<9 mm.), urn-shaped or campanulate (<3 cm.). Petals 5—6(7) in number. Stamens equal in number to petals. Anthers linear-oblong to oblong-elliptic. Style slender. Ovary sessile. **Species.** *Aurantiacus.*—This plant grows wild in India. The leaves are large, and those on young plants are greenish-yellow when they first appear. The flowers are white with yellow staminodes. The fruit resembles that 112 484 AURANTIACEAE. or numerous. *Fruit* indehiscent, constituting what has been termed an *hypocarpeum* (fig. 307); *placentae* axile (figs. 707 and 916). *Stems* dicotyledonous or monothecious, sometimes bearing more Fig. 915. Fig. 916. Fig. 917. Fig. 915. Diagram of the flower of the Orange (*Citrus Aurantium*). Fig. 916. Vertical section of the pistil, showing a portion of the disk at the base of the ovary, with the style and stigma below, and the calyx: the petals and stamens have been removed. than one embryo; the raphe and chalaza generally very evident. exalbuminous. *Endosperm* eutrachyous, with thick fibrous cotyledons, and a short radicle. Diagnostes.—Trees or shrubs with alternate dotted exstipulate leaves, having the blade articulated to the petiole. Flowers regular. Calyx usually persistent, often deciduous, or rather slightly imbricate and deciduous. Stamens hypogynous, equal in number to the petals, or exceeding them by one or two filaments, which are either distinct or slightly coherent into one or more bundles. Dark hygroscopic, and bearing the petals and stamens. Fruit indehiscent, or rarely dehiscent. Fruits indehiscent. Seed solitary or numerous, exalbuminous; embryo straight; radicle short. This order is by some authors combined with the Rutaceae. Distribution. *Examples*, and *Numbers*.—The plants of this order are found in all parts of the world; but many species are generally distributed by the agency of man throughout the warmer regions of the globe. The genus *Ferula* (Genus—*Ferula*, *Eple*, *Citrus*. There are about 100 species. Properties and Uses.—These plants abound in glands containing essential oils, which are used in perfumery; also in medicine; such oils are useful in perfumery, and for flavouring, and other pur- poses. They are also employed in medicine; they are in the leaves, the petals, and the rind of the fruit. The latter also contains a bitter tonic principle. The pulp of the fruit has an acid or some- what acrid taste; and the wood is always hard, and of a compact nature. A diagram of the flower of Citrus Aurantium. A vertical section of the pistil showing a portion of the disk at the base of the ovary with the style and stigma below, and the calyx: the petals and stamens have been removed. **AURANTIACEAE.** 485 **Ery's Marmalade, Indian Beal.—The half-cake fruit is a favourite remedy, and is much used in the East Indies, where it is called "the apple of India." In a dried state it is now official in the British Pharmacopoeia, but it appears that this mode of preparation has been adopted by the Chinese, and has been utilised for it is in this country, as first noticed by the author of the "Pharmacopoeia," who found it to possess some of the most striking properties. Its leaves are also reputed to be useful in rheumatic complaints. The fruit is said to be rich in vitamin C, and the pulp is described as being very nutritious and most pleasant to the taste ; it contains, moreover, a good deal of sugar. **Cannabis sativa.—The fruit is said by Seamen to be delicious, and also to induce sleep.** **Citrus.—This is by far the most important genus of the order; the fruits of which are used for culinary purposes, for flavouring, for medicine, and other purposes. The Orange, Lemon, Lime, Saffron-bush, Pomelo-nosee, Fruiting-pear, and many others are grown in this country. Of the species from wht h they are derived not all are known well defined—some are only known by their seeds. There are about 300 species of Citrus. Of these there are many varieties; the most important of which are the Sweet Orange (Citrus sinensis), the Bitter Orange (Citrus aurantium), the Michigan Orange, the Valencia Orange, and the Satsuma Orange. The Satsuma Orange is remarkable for the enormous number of fruits it is capable of yielding ; thus one tree will bear 1000 fruits. The Sweet Orange is one of the largest fruits of this species, as well as those of the Bitter Orange; form what are termed "narrow" and "broad" varieties. The "narrow" variety is considered by all botanists as the ordinary one seen on the plamiers. The Sweet Orange is a native of China; it was introduced into Europe by the Bitter Orange, by distillation with water, yield a volatile oil, which is used in perfumery. The Bitter Orange is a native of China; its oil can be obtained from the bitter orange is considered to be of the finest quality. A similar oil may be obtained from the bitter orange; but this oil is not so valuable as that obtained from the sweet orange. The oil of sweet orange is produced, which is known as Eucalyptus Oil or Eucalyptus Oil. It is used in perfumery and medicine. The oil of bitter orange is used in medicine as well as in perfumery. The oil of bitter orange is used in medicine as well as in perfumery. The oil of bitter orange is used in medicine as well as in perfumery. The Bitter Orange is generally prepared from the flowers of the Bitter Orange; as it is com- monly used for medicinal purposes, it is often called bitter orange juice. The juice of bitter orange juice is very stimulant and stimulating; its juice is also very extensively used as a medicine. The juice of bitter orange juice is very stimulant and stimulating; its juice is also very extensively used as a medicine. The Bitter Orange is a native of China; it is grown in Europe for the Bitter or Sweet Orange. The Bitter Orange is a native of China; it is grown in Europe for the Bitter or Sweet Orange. The Bitter Orange is a native of China; it is grown in Europe for the Bitter or Sweet Orange. The Bitter Orange is a native of China; it is grown in Europe for the Bitter or Sweet Orange. The Bitter Orange is a native of China; it is grown in Europe for the Bitter or Sweet Orange. The Bitter Orange is a native of China; it is grown in Europe for the Bitter or Sweet Orange. The Bitter Orange is a native of China; it is grown in Europe for the Bitter or Sweet Orange. The Bitter Orange is a native of China; it is grown in Europe for the Bitter or Sweet Orange. The Bitter Orange is a native of China; it is grown in Europe for the Bitter or Sweet Orange. The Bitter Orange is a native of China; it is grown in Europe for the Bitter or Sweet Orange. The Bitter Orange is a native of China; it is grown in Europe for the Bitter or Sweet Orange. The Bitter Orange is a native of China; it is grown in Europe for the Bitter or Sweet Orange. The Bitter Orange is a native of China; it is grown in Europe for the Bitter or Sweet Orange. The Bitter Orange is a native of China; it is grown in Europe for the Bitter or Sweet Orange. The Bitter Orange is a native of China; it is grown in Europe for the Bitter or Sweet Orange. The Bitter Orange is a native of China; it is grown in Europe for the Bitter or Sweet Orange. The Bitter Orange is a native of China; it is grown in Europe for the Bitter or Sweet Orange. The Bitter Orange is a native of China; it is grown in Europe for the Bitter or Sweet Orange. The Bitter Orange is a native of China; it is grown in Europe for the Bitter or Sweet Orange. The Bitter Orange is a native of China; it is grown in Europe for the Bitter or Sweet Orange. The Bitter Orange is a native of China; it is grown in Europe for the Bitter or Sweet Orange. The Bitter Orange 486 **VITACRE OR AMPELIDACEE.** The juice is employed in medicine, and for other purposes; the former as a stimulant and demulcent, and the latter as an agreeable and refreshing beverage, and also for its refrigerant and antiseptic effects. The juice of the fruit is employed in cookery, and also for its sweet taste; and the leaves are employed in cookery, and as a dessert. The concentrated juice of Lemon-Apple is used in the preparation of lemonade, and used in the preparation of citric acid. The rind contains a large quan- tity of tannin, which is extracted by boiling with water, and by what is termed the crock or crock process, or sometimes by distillation ; it is comminuted with water, and the juice is extracted by boiling, and then filtered. It is distinguished by *Examen de Girose* as the "Lemon-Apple," but it is not so much esteemed as the Lemon Fruit. This is sometimes imported into this country in a preserved state, and in the form of a syrup, which is very popular. It is also im- ported and largely employed with that of Lemon in the preparation of the "Lemonade" or "Lemonade Syrup." The juice of the Rhamnus or Berberis species, of Europe, from the following, but still simply and without any addition to it. This juice is called *Examen* or *Examen de Berberis*, which is largely used in per- sonally, and in the preparation of tinctures. The leaves are also em- ployed in cookery. This is supposed to be the Hebrew Tepuach, which is translated by *Tepuach* in the Bible; but it is not so well known as the Lemon, but it may be employed, as well as that of the Lime, for souring sauces, and for making preserves. It is also employed in the nearly ripe fruit by the crock or crock process. It is chiefly used in cookery, and for making preserves; but it is also employed in medicine by having a more closely adherent rind, by more prolonged form, and by having a more delicate taste than that of the Lemon Fruit. In India Berberis has the above fruits obtained from the green leaves; we have also the Berberis Fruticosa (or Berberis Fruticosa), which has been introduced into this country. The Forbidden Fruit and the Pomegranate are both of which, as sold in the London market, are considered to be superior to those of the Lemon, and some persons consider them to be superior to those of the Lime. Cedrilla (Citrus) aurantium Linn., which is much esteemed in the islands of the Indian Archipelago, and in China. Fruit-bearing trees are found throughout India; and one kind of gum exudes from its stem, which likewise resembles Gum Arabic. The juice of this tree is employed in medicine for its stimulant and antiseptic effects. The urtica fruit is also employed in medicine for its stimulant and antiseptic effects. This fruit is commonly known under the name of the Elephant or Wood- Apple. **Notes on Citrus Aurantium Linn.** The leaves are employed by the native practitioners in India for their tonic and stimulant properties. Natural Order 51. VITACRE OR AMPELIDACEE.—The Vine Order—Character.—Unusual climbing shrub (fig. 223) with a watery juice; leaves alternate; stipules wanting; flowers white or yellow. Leaves simple (fig. 223) or compound; opposite below, alternate above; stipules or stipulate; Petals regular; small, green, stalked at base; stamens numerous; ovary inferior; style long, with the limb generally wanting. Petals 4 or 5, sometimes VITACEAE OR AMPELIDACEA. 487 united at the base; stamens induplicate; inserted on a disk which surrounds the ovary; the perianth corresponding in number to the petals and opposite to them, also inserted on the disk (fig. 513). *Alismatis distinctus* or *scorosum* united at the base, with a disk (fig. 514). *Cissus* (fig. 515). Ovary superior. 2—6-celled, usually 2; style very short, simple; stigma simple or 2-lobed. The fruit is a berry, or sometimes termed a muciolum, usually 2-celled. Seed erect, few, usually 2 in each cell; leafy body: *albida* hard; *endrophi* erect, with an inferior seed. *Droshia*. Shrubby plant, with simple or compound leaves, which are deciduous in the spring; flowers small, regular. Petals and stamens corresponding in number, 4 or 5, the latter opposite to the petals, both inserted on a hypogynous disk. Stamens numerous; filaments slender, versatile, opening longitudinally. Ovary superior, with a very short style; fruit a berry; seeds few, usually 2-celled. *Solanum*. Seeds few; testa bony; hypocotyl erect in the albumen; radicle interior. *Zucullia*. Examples, and Numbers.—The plants of this order are found in warm and tropical regions of the globe. Note some of those which are cultivated in Europe. The *Cerasus* is now completely naturalised in the South of Europe, and is cultivated nearly all over the globe where the temperature does not rise too high. The *Cerasus* is one of the most beautiful trees of the Caucasic. *Examples of the Genera.*—*Cerasus*, Vitae, Ampe- lum. **Characters.**—The leaves, stems, and umbels fructify, especially the latter, of the plants of this order abound more or less in an acid taste. The fruits are often sweet or sour; the presence of tartaric and malic acid, and said tartarate of potash. As the fruit ripens, it becomes sweet, owing to the formation of Glucose or Sugar. **Amplea edulis.** Virginia Creeper.—The leaves of the leaves and other parts is to possess poisonous properties. *Glycine*. This plant is used as a vegetable, as *semen*, C. cordata, &c., are toxic. A blue dye is obtained in Brazil from the leaves and fruit of this plant. *Vine empois*. This very valuable plant, which is commonly known as the *Vine Empeis*, is found in all warm countries round about the globe where the climate is at all adapted to its growth. The varieties under the name of *Grapes*, are well known to feed any particular description of animals that live on their fruits; especially for the making of wine, vinegar, honey, and other fermented liquors. Grapes are also used by many people for medicinal purposes; being commu- nary affections. Grapes when dried are called *sacra*, which are largely consumed at Christmas time. The *Sulphur* is a very useful commercial variety, the most important of which are Violets, Muscatels, and Sultans. The Sultans are remarkable for their absence of scent. Raisins
Page Number 487
Description VITACEAE OR AMPELIDACEA.
Details united at the base; stamens induplicate; inserted on a disk which surrounds the ovary; the perianth corresponding in number to the petals and opposite to them, also inserted on the disk (fig. 513). *Alismatis distinctus* or *scorosum* united at the base, with a disk (fig. 514). *Cissus* (fig. 515).
Details Ovary superior. 2—6-celled, usually 2; style very short, simple; stigma simple or 2-lobed. The fruit is a berry, or sometimes termed a muciolum, usually 2-celled. Seed erect, few, usually 2 in each cell; leafy body: *albida* hard; *endrophi* erect, with an inferior seed.
Details *Droshia*. Shrubby plant, with simple or compound leaves, which are deciduous in the spring; flowers small, regular. Petals and stamens corresponding in number, 4 or 5, the latter opposite to the petals, both inserted on a hypogynous disk. Stamens numerous; filaments slender, versatile, opening longitudinally. Ovary superior, with a very short style; fruit a berry; seeds few, usually 2-celled. *Solanum*. Seeds few; testa bony; hypocotyl erect in the albumen; radicle interior.
Details *Zucullia*. Examples, and Numbers.—The plants of this order are found in warm and tropical regions of the globe.
Details Note some of those which are cultivated in Europe.
Details The *Cerasus* is now completely naturalised in the South of Europe,
Details and is cultivated nearly all over the globe where the temperature does not rise too high.
Details The *Cerasus* is one of the most beautiful trees of the Caucasic.
Details *Examples of the Genera.*—*Cerasus*, Vitae, Ampe- lum.
Details Characters.
Details The leaves, stems, and umbels fructify,
Details especially the latter, of the plants of this order abound more or less in an acid taste.
Details The fruits are often sweet or sour;
Details The presence of tartaric and malic acid,
Details and said tartarate of potash.
Details As the fruit ripens,
Details it becomes sweet,
Details owing to the formation of Glucose or Sugar.
Details *Glycine*. This very valuable plant,
Details which is commonly known as the *Vine Empeis*, is found in all warm countries round about the globe where the climate is at all adapted to its growth.
Details The varieties under the name of *Grapes*, are well known to feed any particular description of animals that live on their fruits;
Details especially for the making of wine,
Details vinegar,
Details honey,
Details and other fermented liquors.
458 PITTOSPORACEAE. CAMELLIACEAE. posesa doméstico and slightly repulsive properties, but they are primi- tively employed in medicine for favoring purposes. Besides the above kinds, there is a species of Pittosporum, which is called by the name of the name of Currant. This name is a corruption of Curtin, where they were originally grown, and is supposed to have been given to the plant because it was used in the treatment of the leaves and fruits of the Vine are astrigent, and have been used as a remedy for the same purpose. It has been employed in France to cure gout, gouty affections, &c. It is also employed in England in cases of varicose ulcers. Fruits edible. J. Loderan. The following species are natives of Australia, and are very useful in their properties, to those of the common Grapes. Natural Order 52. PITTOSPORUM—The Pittosporum Order. —Diapensia, or Pittosporum, a genus of aromatic shrubs and herbaceous leaves. Flowers regular. Sepals and petals or 5, hypogynous, individually sessile, or with short stalks; corolla regular; stamens equal with the petals; anthers 2-celled. Corolla superior; style simple; stam- ens equal in number to the placenta, which are 2 or more, and either sessile or on short stalks; fruit a berry or a loculicidal capsule. Seeds numerous, with a minute endosperm. Distribution. Examples, and Numbers.—They are chiefly Aus- tralian plants; but are occasionally found in Africa and some other parts of Asia. They are cultivated in many parts of Europe and America. Examples of the Genera.—Pittosporum, Chiridopsis. The order includes about 300 species. Properties and Uses.—These plants are chiefly remarkable for their resinous properties. Some have edible fruits, as certain species of Pittosporum, which grow wild in various countries on account of their flowers, as Soltis, Billardiera, &c. Natural Order 53. CAMELLIA—The Camellia Order. Dooming.—The Camellia is placed in Camellia, by others in Melaleuca. The Camellia is a genus of evergreen shrubs and trees, with opposite leaves; alternate leaves; longitudinal dehiscence of anthers; absence of disk; presence of a style; and albuminous seeds ; and from the Melaleuca, which is placed in that genus by some botanists; presence of petals; absence of disk; and horny bulbous. Number of Species.—This natural order contains 3 species. They are natives of the West Indies and continent of America. Properties and Uses.—These plants have aromatic, stimulant, and tonic properties. Camellia. The Laurel-leaved Camellia or Wild Camellia.—The latter kind of Camellia is native to the Canals of the British Pharmacopoeia. It has been confirmed, as already noticed, with Winter's Bark, and hence has been included under that name. Its medicinal properties are it is a warm aromatic stimulant and tonic. In America it has been employed for the treatment of gouty affections. In India it is used as a stimulant. Europe it is used as a tonic. It has an odour intermediate between cloves and linseed oil. It is sometimes used in tinctures or infusions, and is sometimes mixed with, or substituted for, Oil of Chervil. A small illustration showing a plant with green leaves and small white flowers. **BREXIACEAE. OLACACEAE. ICACINACEAE.** 489 *Cassumourea*—C. *arillo*, a native of Brazil, and *C. cerifera*, a native of Jamaica, &c., have aromatic barks, which possess similar (see) properties to those of the *Buxus* species, and are sometimes called *Winter's Bark*, as now commonly found in commerce. (See *Brewia*) **Natural Order 64. BREXIACEAE—The Brestia Order.** *Disco-* genium—A genus of trees, shrubs, and herbs, with alternate, simple, deciduous stipules. Flowers green, in axillary umbels. Calyx tubular, 5-toothed; corolla white, with a purple spot at the base; stamens hypogynous, equal in number to the petals and alter- nate with them, arising from a toothed disk ; anthers 2-celled, with 2 free pollen-sacs; ovary 3-celled; style 1; fruit a berry. order numerous ; pinnate axile ; style 1. *Fruit* drupaceous, 5- crowned ; seeds numerous, horizontal ; embryo straight. **Distribution,** *Examples,* and *Numbers.*—Principally natives of the West Indies, Brazil, and Mexico; also in South Africa, Abyssinian. There are 6 species, according to Landry. **Natural Order 65. OLACACEAE—The Olacaceae. The Glass Order. Diagnosic.** Trees or shrubs, with alternate simple entire exstipulate leaves. Flowers white or yellowish-white, in terminal racemes or panicles, generally enlarging so as to cover the fruit; stamens imbricate. Fruit a berry or drupe; seeds numerous, horizontal ; embryo definite, partly sterile and partly fertile ; the latter opposite to the petals, inserted upon or outside of a conspicuous disk ; anthers 2-celled, horizontal ; style 1; fruit a berry or drupe. **Distribution,** *Examples,* and *Numbers.*—Natives of tropical or temperate regions; some of them are cultivated in the West-Indies, Louisiana. The number of species is doubtful. **Natural Order 66. ICACINACEAE—The Icacinaceae. The Fragrant Trees.** The genus *Ximenesia americana* is eaten in Senegal. The leaves of *Olea europaea* are used by the Cigalees in their curries, &c., and the bark of *Icacinum* is used by the natives of the West-Indies as considered by some to furnish the Partridge-wood of cabinet- makers and cabinet-makers. **Natural Order 67. ICACINACEAE—The Icacinum Order. Dis- gnosic.—This is an order of plants consisting of evergreen trees and shrubs with alternate simple entire leaves; when young, but, as shown by Miura, they are clearly distinguished from that order, as follows.—They differ most essentially in the corolla being always white or yellowish-white; the calyx being in- creasing with the growth of the fruit; the stamens being always shorter than the petals; the ovary usually sessile or nearly sessile; the flowers never fixed on the margin of the conspicuous cup-shaped disk ; the ovary is normally plurilocular with axile placentation, and when unilocular, this happens only from the abortion of the A small illustration showing a plant with white flowers and green leaves. 490 CYRILLACEAE. HUMIRIACEAE. RUTACEAE. other cells, the trachea of which are always discernible, never completely unicellular at the summit, and pluricellular at base, with free ends, and with a central cavity. The cells are suspended below the summit of the cell in pairs superimposed by cup-shaped podosporae; only one of these becomes per- fected, and the other remains in a state of degeneration. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.--They are natives of tropical and temperate regions. In North America, Africa, and South America, a single species being found each in New Holland, Norfolk Island, and New Zealand. Examples of the Genera.--Cyrilla, Rutaceae. Properties and Uses.--Unknown. Natural Order. Rutaceae. The Cyrtilla Order.--Diagnose.--Evergreen shrubs, with alternate exstipulate leaves, nearly related to Oleaceae, but chiefly distinguished by their inarticulate stipules, which are inserted on the axils of the leaves in their inside, and by the stamens being all fertile, and, if equal in number, perfect. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.--They are all natives of North or Tropical America. Examples of the Genus.--Cyrtilla, Myrcianthes. Properties and Uses.--Unknown. Natural Order. Rutaceae. The Humirium Order.--Diagnose.--Trees or shrubs with a balsamic juice. Leaves alter- nate, simple, coriaceous, exstipulate. Calyx 5-parted, imbricate. Petals 3; stamens numerous; filaments filiform; anthers oblong- phallos; anthers 2-celled; connective elongated beyond the anther- lobe. Ovary 2-celled; style simple; stigma 5-foliate. Fruit a berry; 1 celled or 2 in each cell; suspendul; style simple; stigma 5-foliate. Fruit bacciferous; 5-celled, or fewer or fewer by abortion. Seed with a balsamic juice. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.--Natives of tropical America. Examples of the Genera.--Humirium, Vataniopsis. There are 18 species. Properties and Uses.--A balsamic yellow oily liquid, called Balsam of Peru (Vataniopsis), is obtained from the bark of Vataniopsis cordifolia (Humirium). This is reputed to resemble Camphor in its proper- ties. The bark of Vataniopsis is also used medicinally. Other species are also said to yield useful balsamic liquids. The so-called balsamic liquid found in plants of this order is probably not a true balsamic liquid; it is a resinous secretion from the bark of Vataniopsis cordifolia. Natural Order. Rutaceae.--The Rutaceae Order.--Character.--Tree, shrub, or herbaceous plant; leaves alternate or opposite; stipules usually pinnate, stipulate. Flowers regular (figs. 573), regular or irregular. Calyx having 4--5 segments (figs. 273 and 274); petals usually 4--5 (figs. 573 and 574) or wanting; rarely combined so as to form a monopetalous corolla ; stamens usually twisted, rarely valvate. Stigmata equal in number, or
490 CYRILLACEAE. HUMIRIACEAE. RUTACEAE.
other cells, the trachea of which are always discernible, never completely unicellular at the summit, and pluricellular at base,
with free ends, and with a central cavity. The cells are suspended below the summit of the cell in pairs superimposed by cup-shaped podosporae;
only one of these becomes perfected,
and the other remains in a state of degeneration.
Distribution,
Examples,
and Numbers.--They are natives of
tropical and temperate regions.
In North America,
Africa,
and South America,
a single species being found each in New
Holland,
Norfolk Island,
and New Zealand.
Examples of the Genera.--Cyrtilla,
Myrcianthes.
Properties and Uses.--Unknown.
Natural Order.
Rutaceae.
The Cyrtilla Order.--Diagnose.--Evergreen shrubs,
with alternate exstipulate leaves,
nearly related to Oleaceae,
but chiefly distinguished by their
inarticulate stipules,
which are inserted on the axils of the leaves in their inside,
and by the stamens being all fertile,
and if equal in number,
perfect.
481 RUTACEAE. twice (figs. 573 and 606) or thrice as many as the petals, or rarely fewer by insertion, but scattered on the outside of a cup-shaped calyx (fig. 573), or on the upper side of a tube-like calyx (fig. 606) or supported on a stalk (fig. 619, g); it is Fig. 918. composed of from 2 to 5 carpels, which are either distinct or united into one, and having as many cells as there are component carpels ; each cell contains a single ovule (fig. 573). The fruit is a berry, or an aggregate of several berries, or a compound fruit, such as a compound umbel (fig. 244), or rarely more, in each cell. Fruit capitate, its carpels either united or more or less distinct. Seeds flat, oblong-ovate, or ovoid, with a smooth surface, or sometimes superior (fig. 918). **Description of the Family Rutaceae.** **Order I. Rutales.**—The leaves are simple, entire, ovate, elliptic, oblong, lanceolate, or linear-lanceolate; flowers perfect. Calyx and corolla with a quadrilateral or quinary distribution of their parts; the former with five lobes, the latter with five petals; stamens equal in number, and sometimes wanting. Stamens equal in number, and sometimes wanting. Stamina equal in number, and sometimes wanting. Stamens equal in number, and sometimes wanting. Stamens equal in number, and sometimes wanting. Stamens equal in number, and sometimes wanting. Stamens equal in number, and sometimes wanting. Stamens equal in number, and sometimes wanting. Stamens equal in number, and sometimes wanting. Stamens equal in number, and sometimes wanting. Stamens equal in number, and sometimes wanting. Stamens equal in number, and sometimes wanting. Stamens equal in number, and sometimes wanting. Stamens equal in number, and sometimes wanting. Stamens equal in number, and sometimes wanting. Stamens equal in number, and sometimes wanting. Stamens equal in number, and sometimes wanting. Stamens equal in number, and sometimes wanting. Stamens equal in number, and sometimes wanting. Stamens equal in number, and sometimes wanting. Stamens equal in number, and sometimes wanting. Stamens equal in number, and sometimes wanting. Stamens equal in number, and sometimes wanting. Stamens equal in number, and sometimes wanting. Stamens equal in number, and sometimes wanting. Stamens equal in number, and sometimes wanting. Stamens equal in number, and sometimes wanting. Stamens equal in number, and sometimes wanting. Stamens equal in number, and sometimes wanting. Stamens equal in number, and sometimes wanting. Stamens equal in number, and sometimes wanting. Stamens equal in number, and sometimes wanting. Stamens equal in number, and sometimes wanting. Stamens equal in number, and sometimes wanting. Stamens equal in number, and sometimes wanting. Stamens equal in number, and sometimes wanting. Stamens equal in number, and sometimes wanting. Stamens equal in number, and sometimes wanting. Stamens equal in number, and sometimes wanting. Stamens equal in number, and sometimes wanting. Stamens equal in number, and sometimes wanting. Stamens equal in number, and sometimes wanting. Stamens equal in number, and sometimes wanting. Stamens equal in number, and sometimes wanting. **Sub-order I.—Rutales.—Seeds containing albumen... Fruit with the mesocarp and endocarp combined... Example... Rutaceae. Sub-order II.—Barreales.—Fruit without the mesocarp separating from the endocarp when ripe... Example... Barreales. These sub-orders are by no means well established... As already stated the former Rutaceae is sometimes regarded as a tribe of the Rutaceae. **Description of the Sub-order Rutales.—The Rutaceae are found chiefly in the southern part of the temperate zone; the genera *Diosma*, *Barroa*, &c., abound at the Cape of Good Hope; other genera are found at various points on the coast of South Africa. There are about 400 species. **Properties of the leaves of plants of this order are generally characterised by a powerful penetrating odour; but bitter taste. In medicine they are employed as antispasmodics; tonics; febrifuges; diuretics. *Barreales.*—The leaves of several species which are commonly known as *Banksia* trees are used in medicine for their aromatic stimulants; anti-spasmodics; diuretics; emetics; expectorants; sedatives; specific remedies against the ordinary ills of man; the plants yielding them are natives of the United States of America. They contain abundant quantities of powerfully scented volatile oils; they also contain abundance of mucilage; and according to Linnæus a peculiar bitter principle called *acumina* or *alumina.* A diagram showing the structure of a flower from Rutaceae family. **492** **XANTHOXYLACEAE.** The official species of the British Pharmacopoeia are B. betulina, B. creticaus, B. nervosa, and other species—the leaves are sometimes employed as a substitute for the true B. betulina. **Dichrostachys cinerea Linn.** False Ditteytree.—The root was formerly much used in medicine, but is now rarely or ever employed. The leaves are aromatic, ame- no-wood, and emmenagogue properties, but at is now rarely or ever employed. The leaves are aromatic, ame- no-wood, and emmenagogue properties, but at is now rarely or ever employed. The leaves are aromatic, ame- no-wood, and emmenagogue properties, but at is now rarely or ever employed. The leaves are aromatic, ame- no-wood, and emmenagogue properties, but at is now rarely or ever employed. The leaves are aromatic, ame- no-wood, and emmenagogue properties, but at is now rarely or ever employed. The leaves are aromatic, ame- no-wood, and emmenagogue properties, but at is now rarely or ever employed. The leaves are aromatic, ame- no-wood, and emmenagogue properties, but at is now rarely or ever employed. The leaves are aromatic, ame- no-wood, and emmenagogue properties, but at is now rarely or ever employed. The leaves are aromatic, ame- no-wood, and emmenagogue properties, but at is now rarely or ever employed. The leaves are aromatic, ame- no-wood, and emmenagogue properties, but at is now rarely or ever employed. The leaves are aromatic, ame- no-wood, and emmenagogue properties, but at is now rarely or ever employed. The leaves are aromatic, ame- no-wood, and emmenagogue properties, but at is now rarely or ever employed. The leaves are aromatic, ame- no-wood, and emmenagogue properties, but at is now rarely or ever employed. The leaves are aromatic, ame- no-wood, and emmenagogue properties, but at is now rarely or ever employed. The leaves are aromatic, ame- no-wood, and emmenagogue properties, but at is now rarely or ever employed. The leaves are aromatic, ame- no-wood, and emmenagogue properties, but at is now rarely or ever employed. The leaves are aromatic, ame- no-wood, and emmenagogue properties, but at is now rarely or ever employed. The leaves are aromatic, ame- no-wood, and emmenagogue properties, but at is now rarely or ever employed. The leaves are aromatic, ame- no-wood, and emmenagogue properties, but at is now rarely or ever employed. The leaves are aromatic, ame- no-wood, and emmenagogue properties, but at is now rarely or ever employed. The leaves are aromatic, ame- no-wood, and emmenagogue properties, but at is now rarely or ever employed. The leaves are aromatic, ame- no-wood, and emmenagogue properties, but at is now rarely or ever employed. The leaves are aromatic, ame- no-wood, and emmenagogue properties, but at is now rarely or ever employed. The leaves are aromatic, ame- no-wood, and emmenagogue properties, but at is now rarely or ever employed. The leaves are aromatic, ame- no-wood, and emmenagogue properties, but at is now rarely or ever employed. The leaves are aromatic, ame- no-wood, and emmenagogue properties, but at is now rarely or ever employed. The leaves are aromatic, ame- no-wood, and emmenagogue properties, but at is now rarely or ever employed. The leaves are aromatic, ame- no-wood, and emmenagogue properties, but at is now rarely or ever employed. The leaves are aromatic, ame- no-wood, and emmenagogue properties, but at is now rarely or ever employed. The leaves are aromatic, ame- no-wood, and emmenagogue properties, but at is now rarely or ever employed. The leaves are aromatic, ame- no-wood, and emmenagogue properties, but at is now rarely or ever employed. The leaves are aromatic, ameno-wood, and emmenagogic properties, but at is now rarely or ever employed. The leaves are aromatic, ameno-wood, and emmenagogic properties, but at is now rarely or ever employed. The leaves are aromatic, ameno-wood, and emmenagogic properties, but at is now rarely or ever employed. The leaves are aromatic, ameno-wood, and emmenagogic properties, but at is now rarely or ever **Eucalyptus globulus**—The bark is extensively used by the Japanese; both internally and externally. **Aesculus hippocastanum,** a native of South America has a fibrous bark, which when dried forms a material similar to that of the bark of the **Mescal** to be mentioned subsequently of the official **Aquifolium Bark** in the United States Pharmacopoeia. **Golium Cupressi**—This species is the source of the official **Cupressus** Bark in the United States Pharmacopoeia. **Aquifolium Bark**—This bark is imported directly or indirectly from South America. It has been used in medicine since ancient times for its stimulant qualities; it has fallen into disfavour in the Continent; in consequence of which it has become for it formerly a very poisonous bark derived from **Streptocarpus** Nau- **Aquifolium Bark**—This bark was introduced into Europe from South America in 1730; it was first used in medicine in 1750; it was then found to be poisonous; it was finally abandoned as a stimulant which is never met with although it occurred in Dublin about thirty years ago. **Piperaceae—Piperaceae,**—The leaves and young shoots of this plant, which is a native of South America have been used in medicine for ages under the name of **Piper officinale**, a name known under the Latin name **Piper betle**, a name given to it because of its energetic diaphoretic and antispasmodic qualities which have been long intended to be medicinal; it has been used as a medicinal plant for a remedial agent as new emerging investigations— **Dichrostachys cinerea Linn.,**—The plant has been used in medicine as an antispasmodic; it has also been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; it has been used as an aphrodisiac; **Aquifolium Bark,**—This bark which is a native of South America, has a very powerful disagreeable peculiar odour which is owing to the presence of a volatile oil contained in the bark itself. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal virtues which have made its use in medicine. It possesses many medicinal vertices which have made its use in medicine OCHRAEAE. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers. — These plants are found both in temperate and tropical regions of the globe; they are, however, almost entirely confined to the tropics, especially in the American Antartides. Examples of the Genera—Xanthobryon, Tod- dalia, Ptelea. There are about 110 species included in this sub- order. Properties and Uses. — These plants are almost universally cha- racterized by their bitter taste, which is often accompanied by bitterness. In medicine, they have been employed as stimulants, antidotes, febrifuges, tonics, diaphoretics, and emmenagogues. Foliation. — The leaves of these plants are simple, entire, and alternate in the United States of America as a rule to minute and intermittent leaves; but in some of the American Antartides they are used as a substitute for Hope, while the young green shoots are reputed to possess antiseptic properties. Toddaia amandina. — The bark of the root is official in the Pharmacopoeia British Empire. It is used in India as a stimulant and expectorant, and was formerly known in Europe under the name of Lepre root, and used as a remedy for coughs and asthma. Xanthobryon (Chrysanthemum). — The species of this genus possess a remarkable degree of medicinal value. They are used as remedies pre- dominantly in Europe, but also in their native countries. In America they are used as a stimulant and expectorant. The fruit of X. piperita is employed by the Chinese and Japanese as a condiment, and as an aromatic flavoring agent. The aromatic property possessed by this plant is attributed to the presence of an essential oil contained in its leaves. This oil is obtained by distillation from its leaves, an oil and a solution; the former is a pure hydrocarbon, to which the name of "camphor" has been given; the latter is a body consisting of two hydrocarbons, one of which is very similar to camphor, but whose name has been called "xanthol." This oil contains a resinous substance which is known as "xanthol resin." The flowers of Xanthobryon and X. Barbeyae have similar properties. The seeds and fruit of the former plant are used as a stimulant; those of the latter as a diuretic. The seeds of X. Barbeyae are used in China and Bengal (as Lemon pesti), and in India (as "Bhutana") for the treatment of dropsy and other affec- tions. The root of X. Barbeyae is used as a sedative, stimulant, diuretic, and expectorant. It is official in the United States Pharmacopoeia under the name of Prickly Ash Bark. It is chiefly employed as a stimulant; but it is also used as a diuretic and remedy as a mucative; in toothache; before the flesh is also known as "Prickly Ash Root." The bark of other species, such as X. Chave-Herculesia, Lime, and of X. sem- enovum (which is official), are used as stimulants; that of X. fruticose as diuretic. Natural Order 61. OCHRAEAE. — The Order— Chrysaceae.—Underbrakes or smooth trees with a watery juice. Leaves simple, stipulate, alternate. Petiole pointed in the middle. Stem usually simple or branched; nodes distinct; internodes definite, sometimes twice as many as the sepalts, deciduous. Bracts sessile equal in number to the sepalts and opposite them; or sometimes only one pair present; bractlets persistent; inserted on a hypogynous disk ; authors 2-celled, with 494 CORIARIACEAE. SIMARUBACEAE. longitudinal or porous dehiscence. *Corolla* corresponding in number to the petals, inserted on a large hypogynous disk, with sepals large or small, sometimes entire, sometimes lobed, in each carpel, erect or pendulous; *Fruit* consisting of several indehiscent, somewhat drypennate seeds, which are usually sessile or nearly so; -- embryo straight; radicle towards the hilum. Distribution. *Examples*, and Numbers.--Native chiefly of the Genera:--Gomphira, Ochna. There are about 80 species. Properties. The genus *Coriaria* is remarkable for its bitter-tasting leaves. Some have been employed as tonics and astringents; others, as Gomphira parvifolia, yield oil, which is used in medicine; and the seeds of *Ochna* are very poisonous. The Ochnaceae much resemble the Simaroubaceae. Natural Order 63. SIMARUBACEAE. The *Queens* or Coriaria Order.--Diagnota.--This name is given to an order which includes but 1 genus, and some plants. Its affinities are by no means understood; but it appears to be related to the *Simaroubaceae*. The leaves of *C. serrata* are sessile, and placed on an enlarged disk; but those of *C. trifida* are petiolate, and opposite leaves; sometimes polygonous flowers; persistent fibrous petals; absence of style; and long linear distinct stigmas. Distributio. Australia, New Zealand, Chile, Peru, New Zealand, and Nepal. Properties. The leaves of this order are generally to be regarded with suspicion, as they have sometimes produced poisonous effects. The fruits of some, however, are edible, as *Coriaria serrata*, which is cultivated in China; and the leaves of *C. serrata*, a native of New Zealand; in the latter case the pericarp is edible. The fruits of *C. trifida* and *C. trianae* from *C. serrata* and *C. trianae* are very poisonous; these plants have been employed by dyers in the production of a black dye. The leaves of *C. trifida* are said to be poisonous on the Continent to adulterate Semra; this is a most serious adultera- tion, as the leaves contain a substance which is poisonous proper to a glucoside called cora-morine. They may be at once distinguished from Semra leaves by their two sides being cymaloid or cymose, while those of Semra are unifoliate or monopetalous. Classically they are also known from Semra by their infusion producing a very abundant blue precipitate on the addition of perchlorate of potassium. Natural Order 63. SIMARUBACEAE.--The Queens or Simarubae Order.--The flowers are regular or irregular; the calyx often double, alternate, compound or sometimes simple, stipulate. Flowers regular and simple; sepals 5 or more; petals 5 or more; stamens by abortion. Calyx imbricate, in 5 or 6 divisions. Petals equal in number to the divisions of the calyx, with an imbricated adaxial margin; stamens equal to the petals or exceeding them in number as many as the petals, each inserted on a hypogynous scale; andres SIMARUBACEAE. with longitudinal dehiscence. Ovary stalked, 4 or 5-lobed, 4 or 5-lobed, each cell with 1 suspended ovule; style simple; stigma 3-lobed. Stamens numerous, filiform, inserted at base of ovary or on its lobes; anthers free, 2-celled, dehiscent by 2 valves; pollen monosulcate. Fruit a capsule, ex- albuminous ; rudicle superior, retracted within thick cotyledons. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.--With the exception of one species (S. angustifolia), all the members of this family are tropical parts of India, America, and Africa. Examples of the Ge- nera are: S. angustifolia (India); S. alba (Africa); S. alba (India); S. alba (Africa); S. alba (India); S. alba (Africa); S. alba (India); S. alba (Africa); S. alba (India); S. alba (Africa); S. alba (India); S. alba (Africa); S. alba (India); S. alba (Africa); S. alba (India); S. alba (Africa); S. alba (India); S. alba (Africa); S. alba (India); S. alba (Africa); S. alba (India); S. alba (Africa); S. alba (India); S. alba (Africa); S. alba (India); S. alba (Africa); S. alba (India); S. alba (Africa); S. alba (India); S. alba (Africa); S. alba (India); S. alba (Africa); S. alba (India); S. alba (Africa); S. alba (India); S. alba (Africa); S. alba (India); S. alba (Africa); S. alba (India); S. alba (Africa); S. alba (India); S. alba (Africa); S. alba (India); S. alba (Africa); S. alba (India); S. alba (Africa); S. alba (India); S. alba (Africa); S. alba (India); S. alba (Africa); S. alba (India); S. alba (Africa); S. alba (India); S. alba (Africa); S. alba (India); S. alba (Africa); S. alba (India); S. alba (Africa); S. Properties and Uses.--A bitter principle is the main remarkable characteristic of the order; hence many of them are tonic and diuretic. *Adansonia.*--The bark of A. ecorum is regarded in India as a tonic and diuretic. It may be used as a substitute for Quassia. The bark of A. 495 is employed in dentistry, and is in use in the East Indies. The leaves of A. 495 are used in India as a diuretic. The roots is largely used in China as a remedy in dysentery. From the roots of A. 495 is obtained a very bitter root, which forms a good substitute for Quassia. From the roots of A. 495 on the Western Coast of Africa has edible seeds, from which kind of food, called kiba or Udika balls, is prepared. The seeds are also used as a stimulant in the treatment of truncal affections. *Cordia.*--This genus yields our official Quassia Wood. (See Quassia.) It is much used as a tonic, antispasmodic, and stimulant, and also possesses an- tiseptic properties. The wood is employed in medicine to act as a powerful narcotic poison on fish and other animals; hence it is used in the treatment of snake-bites and other poisonous wounds, to prevent animal matters from decay. It is largely used by bakers as a sweetener; and it is employed in the manufacture of an intensely bitter crystalline melissen, called Quassia. In Jamaica this wood is used as a stimulant to the appetite. In South America it was used a few years since in the manufacture of meal gomita. (See Gomita.) Quassia amara.--The wood is intensely bitter. It is native of Surinam and Brazil. It is widely cultivated in India and other countries where it is also stomatonic. It is the original Quassia of the shop; but it is no longer used for that purpose because it has been found that the quassia being derived from *Pierrea amara*, a native of Jamaica &c.; hence the latter plant has become the principal source of supply. It is, however, still official in some of the Continental pharmacopoeias. (See Phytographie.) *Santalum acuminatum.*--The bark is used in some parts of India as a febrifuge; and in China as a stimulant to the appetite; while the leaves internally are emetic. Both bark and seeds contain a principle, called Santalol. *Santalum crebriflorum.*--The seeds are highly emetic throughout Central America and Mexico; but they are not considered dangerous and are thought to be specific against the bilious of venous stomachs and other affections of the liver; but they have not been proved to be so powerful, but without any sensible effect. The active principle has been named *Samaruca* (*Simaruba*) amara is a native of Northern Brazil and Guiana 496 ZYGOPHYLLACEAE. and some of the West Indian islands. In Jamaica and the West Indies generally, Zygophyllum is represented by two species, of which one known under the name of Mountain Daisies. This latter plant has often been confused with the genus *Daisia*, but this is a different genus, official in the United States Pharmacopoeia. It possesses both properties, and the herb is used in the same way as *Zygophyllum*. Its name Quassia, the same principle which has been found in *Quassia amara*. Natural Order 64. ZYGOPHYLLACEAE.—The Bean-Caper or Guaiacum Order.—Character.—Herbs, shrubs, or trees. Leaves opposite, simple, entire, or pinnate; stipules absent or rarely simple. Flowers perfect, regular, and symmetrical. Calyx 4 or 5-parted, corolla 4-lobed, or 5-lobed; stamens hypogynous, usually arising from the back of small scales; filaments glabrous at base; anthers free; ovary 1-celled; style 1 or 2-celled; stigma terminal or a toothed disk; style simple ; anther or more in each cell (figs. 604 and 605), pendulous or nearly erect; placenta axile. Fruit capsule or berry; seeds few to many, sometimes developing into coconuts, 4- or 5-celled, and presenting externally as many angles or pits as there are cells in the fruit. Seeds few, allinuminous except in *Tribulus* and *Kallidium* ; embryo green; radicle superior ; cotyledons foliaceous. Species of this order are mostly tropical, with opposite stipulate leaves below. Calyx and corolla with a quaternary or quinary division of the lobes; stamens hypogynous, the latter with unguiculate petals and imbricate. Stamina 8–10, hypogynous, normally arising from the back of scales. Ovary 4-lobed; fruit a capsule; seeds few to many; cotyledons few, with little or no albumen; radicle superior ; cotyledons foliaceous. Distribution. Examples. and Numbers.—They are generally distributed throughout the warm regions of the globe, but chiefly between the tropics and temperate zones. The following are included in this order: Zygophyllum, Guaiacum. There are about 100 species. Mili- margis is a new genus described by Dr. Hildebrandt from Brazil, and taken as the type of a new order, to which the name Mali- anthus has been applied. Properties and Uses.—Some of the plants are resinous, and possess stimulant, alterative, and diaphoretic properties ; others are anthelmintic and emmenagogue. Some ornamental species is re- markable for its hardness and durability. Guaiacum.—The wood, and the resin obtained from G. officinale are offered for sale under the name of "Guaiacum Wood," "Guaiacum Resin." The resin is generally produced by burn- ing up to 300 pounds of the wood per day. The resin is obtained in large quantities from the central island portion of a caskish or some other suitable vessel ; it is collected when the tree is cut or wounded in any way. Both the wood and resin have been used medicinally, and occasionally, chiefly in goats and rheumatism, but also in syphilis and various cutaneous LINACEAE. 497 efficiency. The wood is known to be more or less lignum vitae. It is remark- able for its hardness, toughness, and durability, which qualify it readily as very valuable for many purposes. The leaves are also used in the West Indies as a substitute for tobacco, and are employed in the preparation of medicinal flowers.—G. succulent has similar medicinal properties to the above, and viable as a substitute for tobacco. The flowers of this species are very beautiful. The wood of G. succulent is also remarkable for having an odorous resem- bling camomile; hence it is commonly known as the Camomile Plant. The Natives of the West Indies use the leaves in their medicine, with good effect in rheumatic affections. For the most part, the flowers of this species contain a large amount of sarcinaria matter, which is used for food by the natives of the Cape of Good Hope. The seeds are also used in medicine. **Pogonatum Hornstedt.—In India the seeds are reputed to be diuretic, en- hancing the power of the kidneys; they are also said to be emollient and also in the preparation of red dye; these dye are, however, not of a very per- manent nature. **Tridax.—T. erecta is a prickly plant, which is abundant in dry bar- ren places in South Africa. The leaves are used in medicine. See also Heli- cius, vii., and Helix, vi. 8. The fruit of T. longispinae is much esteemed in South Africa as a stimulant; it is also used as a substitute for Capernutum. **Euphorbia Furfurosa.—Bane-Caper—T. furfurosa its common name from the fact that it resembles the caper plant (Capparis spinosa), which is used as a substitute for Capernutum. It is also reputed to possess antiseptic properties. Natural Order 6. LINACEAE.—The Flax Order.—Charac- ter.—Herbs or rarely shrubs. Leaves alternate or opposite, or Fig. 918.Fig. 920.Fig. 921. Fig. 918. Diagram of the flower of the Flax Plant (Linum sativum).—Fig. 919. Semicircular section of the same, showing the monopetalous structure of the corolla; the stamens are represented with distal styles and cupular stigma. rarely verticillate, entire or pinnate-lobed; **Plumeria regularis** (see, 919), unifoliate or trifoliate; **Calycanthus floridus** (see, 919), very showy; **Calycanthus floridus** (see, 919), unifoliate; **Calycanthus floridus** (see, 3, 4, or 5 sepals (fig. 919), persistent; **Petrea 3**, 4, or 5 (fig. 919), unifoliate or trifoliate; **Petrea 3**, 4, or 5, united at the base so as to form a hypo- gynous ring (fig. 920), from which proceed 5 tooth-like processes a. s. 498 LINACEE. (abrotive stamens) which alternate with the fertile stamens, and are opposite to the petals - authors insane (Ap. 920). Ovary compound (Ap. 613 et 915), its cells usually corresponding in number to the stamens, but sometimes more numerous (Ap. 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920, 920). Fruit capsular; many-seeded; each cell more or less perfectly divided into two by a sporadic disjunction proceeding from the base of the ovary; the seeds are either free or united in each division. Seed with very little or no albumen; ensheathed straightly or spirally. **Dioctes.** Herbs or very rarely shrubs; with exstipulate simple entire leaves. Flowers hypogynous; regular; symmetrical. Stamens numerous; filaments slender; anthers linear or persistent and imbricate; the petals flagellate and twisted in aestivation; without appendages. Fruit capsular; many-seeded; having little tooth-like abortive stamens alternating with them. Ovary $3-5$-celled; style distinct; stigma capitate. Fruit capsular; many-seeded; with a single seed in each cell; the seeds in each division containing one seed. Seeds with little or no albumen. **Distribution,** **Examples,** and **Numbers.** Chiefly natives of the South of Europe and the North of Africa; but more or less distributed over the whole world. Species of the *Genus* Linum. -Liniun. Radiacei. There are about $6$ species. **Properties.** The flowers of Linum radiacei are generally remarkable for the tenacity of their fiber fibers; and also for the mucilage and oil contained in their seeds; hence the latter are esteemed as a valuable medicinal drug. **Linum.-The Linum of Linnæus radiacei,** when prepared in the manner described under *Linum* (Ap. p. $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$, $174$), yield a quantity of water equal to that of the dried seeds. The seeds contain from $\frac{3}{5}$ to $\frac{3}{5}$ of their weight of oil. This oil is used in medicine for its emollient properties and for its antiseptic action on wounds and ulcers. It is also employed in perfumes and in the preparation of soap. The seeds are used medicinally for their mucilaginous properties and for their emollient action on the skin and on the mucous membranes. They are also employed in medicine as a diuretic and as a vermifuge. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The oil is employed medicinally for its antiseptic and emollient properties. The油是被用来在医学上作为其抗生性和保湿性。 油是被用来在医学上作为其抗生性和保湿性。 油是被用来在医学上作为其抗生性和保湿性。 油是被用来在医学上作为其抗生性和保湿性。 油是被用来在医学上作为其抗生性和保湿性。 油是被用来在医学上作为其抗生性和保湿性。 油是被用来在医学上作为其抗生性和保湿性。 油是被用来在医学上作为其抗生性和保湿性。 油是被用来在医学上作为其抗生性和保湿性。 油是被用来在医学上作为其抗生性和保湿性。 油是被用来在医学上作为其抗生性和保湿性。 油是被用来在医学上作为其抗生性和保湿性。 油是被用来在医学上作为其抗生性和保湿性。 油是被用来在医学上作为其抗生性和保湿性。 油是被用来在医学上作为其抗生性和保湿性。 油是被用来在医学上作为其抗生性和保湿性。 油是被用来在医学上作为其抗生性和保湿性。 油是被用来在医学上作为其抗生性和保湿性。 油是被用来在医学上作为其抗生性和保湿性。 油是被用来在医学上作为其抗生性和保湿性。 油是被用来在医学上作为其抗生性和保湿性。 油是被用来在医学上作为其抗生性和保湿性。 油是被用来在医学上作为其抗生性和保湿性。 油是被用来在医学上作为其抗生性和保湿性。 油是被用来在医学上作为其抗生性和保湿性。 油是被用来在医学上作为其抗生性和保湿性。 油是被用来在医学上作为其抗生性和保湿性。 油是被用来在医学上作为其抗生性和保湿性。 油是被用来在医学上作为其抗生性和保湿性。 油是被用来在医学上作为其抗生性和保湿性。 OXALIDACEAE. 479 employed in the Carros Iron-Foundry. Some patents were taken out some years ago on the subject of a process for making a material similar to wood, which it was believed could be used in the manufacture of fabrics in the same way as cotton, but it has been found that this material is not so suitable for manufacturing the common fine-dresses as a minute amount of division, by first steaming the material with steam and then cutting it into very thin strips (Fig. 923), and that the matter (which is called "Laxus" or "Laxus" and "Laxus" is not answered.--Laxus austriacus, popularly termed Purging Furze--is not only a very useful material for making fabrics, but also a proper tion, and might be much more employed as a medicine than it is at present. Laxus austriacus, a Peruvian species, is reputed to be bitter and spearmint. Natural Order 66. OXALIDACEAE.--The Wood-Sorrel Order. Character.--Herbs, or rarely shrubs or trees, generally with an acrid taste; leaves alternate, simple or compound; flowers regular, com- pound or occasionally simple; generally with stipules, or rarely without them; corolla usually regular; stamens numerous (Fig. 925). (See 925), persistent, imbricate, occasionally somewhat united at their Figs. 923. Diagram of the flower of Oxalis. Fig. 923. Vertical section of the flower of the same. Fig. 924. Vertical sections of the seed. base. Petals 5 (Fig. 925), hypogynous (Fig. 925), unguiculate, rarely free (Fig. 925); stamens numerous (Fig. 925), in two rows alter- nating with each other, the inner row longer than the outer (Fig. 925); filaments free (Fig. 925) or united (Fig. 925); anthers some- times monadelphous (Fig. 643); anthers 2-celled, immae. Ovary epigynous or hypogynous; style long; stigma capitate or sometimes bifid. Fruit usually capsular and 3-celled, or 8-10-valved, occasionally drooping (Fig. 925). Seeds few ; sometimes provided with a fleshy integument, which bursts out when ripe (Fig. 925). Fruit often covered with spines or prickles ; antherse (Fig. 925) straight, in cartilaginous fibrous albumen ; antherse long, and turned towards the hilum ; cotyledon flat ; endosperm abundant. Dioecious plants; flowers solitary or in cymes; leaves simple with compound exstipulate leaves. Stems continuous and not separa- a x 7 500 BALAMINACEAE. able at the nodes. Flowers hypogynous, regular, symmetrical. Sepals, petals, and stamens in opposite distribution; the sepals persistent and imbricate; the petals twisted in rotation; the stamens commonly somewhat monadelphous, with Swellend (Fig. 789) at the base of each filament; the anther solitary, without a beak. Seeds few, with abundant albumen, a straight embryo, long radicle turned towards the hilum, and flat cotyledons. Distribution. Eucalyptus and Umbrella pines are generally distributed in Australia, but some representatives of the region are shrubby species, however, confined to the temperate regions of the world. The genus Eucalyptus is found in South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South Africa, South America. Eucalyptus of the Genus Eucalyptus. Eucalyptus of the Genus Eucalyptus. Acerola. Acerola is a small tree native to Brazil. It is used in the production of vitamin C supplements and is also used in the production of fruit juice. The fruit is red and has a sour taste. It is often used in smoothies and other beverages. Acerola is a small tree native to Brazil. It is used in the production of vitamin C supplements and is also used in the production of fruit juice. The fruit is red and has a sour taste. It is often used in smoothies and other beverages. Acerola is a small tree native to Brazil. It is used in the production of vitamin C supplements and is also used in the production of fruit juice. The fruit is red and has a sour taste. It is often used in smoothies and other beverages. Acerola is a small tree native to Brazil. It is used in the production of vitamin C supplements and is also used in the production of fruit juice. The fruit is red and has a sour taste. It is often used in smoothies and other beverages. Acerola is a small tree native to Brazil. It is used in the production of vitamin C supplements and is also used in the production of fruit juice. The fruit is red and has a sour taste. It is often used in smoothies and other beverages. Acerola is a small tree native to Brazil. It is used in the production of vitamin C supplements and is also used in the production of fruit juice. The fruit is red and has a sour taste. It is often used in smoothies and other beverages. Acerola is a small tree native to Brazil. It is used in the production of vitamin C supplements and is also used in the production of fruit juice. The fruit is red and has a sour taste. It is often used in smoothies and other beverages. Acerola is a small tree native to Brazil. It is used in the production of vitamin C supplements and is also used in the production of fruit juice. The fruit is red and has a sour taste. It is often used in smoothies and other beverages. Acerola is a small tree native to Brazil. It is used in the production of vitamin C supplements and is also used in the production of fruit juice. The fruit is red and has a sour taste. It is often used in smoothies and other beverages. Acerola is a small tree native to Brazil. It is used in the production of vitamin C supplements and is also used in the production of fruit juice. The fruit is red and has a sour taste. It is often used in smoothies and other beverages. Acerola is a small tree native to Brazil. It is used in the production of vitamin C supplements and is also used in the production of fruit juice. The fruit is red and has a sour taste. It is often used in smoothies and other beverages. Acerola is a small tree native to Brazil. It is used in the production of vitamin C supplements and is also used in the production of fruit juice. The fruit is red and has a sour taste. It is often used in smoothies and other beverages. Acerola is a small tree native to Brazil. It is used in the production of vitamin C supplements and is also used in the production of fruit juice. The fruit is red and has a sour taste. It is often used in smoothies and other beverages. Acerola is a small tree native to Brazil. It is used in the production of vitamin C supplements and is also used in the production of fruit juice. The fruit is red and has a sour taste. It is often used in smoothies and other beverages. Acerola is a small tree native to Brazil. It is used in the production of vitamin C supplements and is also used in the production of fruit juice. The fruit is red and has a sour taste. It is often used in smoothies and other beverages. Acerola is a small tree native to Brazil. It is used in the production of vitamin C supplements and is also used in the production of fruit juice. The fruit is red and has a sour taste. It is often used in smoothies and other beverages. Acerola is a small tree native to Brazil. It is used in the production of vitamin C supplements and is also used in the production of fruit juice. The fruit is red and has a sour taste. It is often used in smoothies and other beverages. Acerola is a small tree native to Brazil. It is used in the production of vitamin C supplements and is also used in the production of fruit juice. The fruit is red and has a sour taste. It is often used in smoothies and other beverages. Acerola GERANIACEAE. 591 **ulent and indolent. Seed solitary or numerous, suspended, exalbuminous — embryo straight.** **Description.**—A genus of herbaceous plants, with simple stipulate leaves. Stems continuos and not separable at the nodes. **Flowers hypogynous, perigynous, or epigynous.** Seeds 3-5. Petals usually 4; both irregular and deciduous, or one petal persistent, the other three deciduous of the petals convolute. Stamens 5. Ovary 5-celled; style simple. Fruit b-celled, usually burrying, or a capsule, rarely a berry, often pendulous, suspended, exalbuminous. This order is by some botanists considered only as a tribe of the Genera Geranium. **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—A few new genera have been recently described. These are chiefly natives of the Indies, growing generally in damp shady places and where the temperature is low. The following are the Genera—Impatiens. There are about 110 species.** **Properties and Uses.—They are said by De Candolle to be diuretic, but their properties are generally unimportant.** **Natural Order—Geraniaceae.** **Character.—Herbs or shrubs, with articulated swollen joints** Fig. 926. Fig. 927. Fig. 928. Fig. 929. Fig. 930. A portion of the flowering stem of *Geranium gerardii*. Fig. 931. The flowers of this plant are usually solitary and sessile on the peduncle which is partially membranous, surrounded by the persistent calyx. Fig. 932. Transverse section of a flower. (nodes). Leaves simple, opposite or alternate, with membraneous stipules. Sepals (Fig. 930), persistent, more or less unequal; anther filiform; stamens usually two (Fig. 931) or three as many as the petals, some or however, frequently abortive; hypanthium twisted (Fig. 930). 591 502 TROP.-POLAC.E.M. and generally somewhat monadelphous (fig. 927), the alternate one shorter and occasionally barren. Carpels 6, arranged around its stem, which is usually much elongated, and bearing the flowers in number to the carpels, and adhering to the carpophore. Fruit consisting of two or three mericarps, each mericarp being formed from the carpophore from below upwards by the curling up of the styles, which remain adherent at the summit (fig. 830). Seeds without embryo, with a single cotyledon (fig. 929). Diagnos. - Herba or shrub, with simple leaves, membranous stipules, and a perianth of 6 sepals, which are usually symmetrical. Sepals 5, imbricate. Petals twisted in maturation. Stamens generally somewhat monadelphous. Fruit consisting of 3 mericarps, each mericarp being formed from the carpophore or carpophore, from which they separate when ripe from below upwards by the curling up of the styles, which remain adherent at the summit (fig. 830). Seeds in each carpel, exalbuminous ; embryos convoluted. Distribution. Examples, and Numbers. - Some are distributed over various parts of the world; others are confined to a few Caps of Good Hope. Examples of the Genera : - Brocium, Geranium, Pelargonium. Properties. - Uses. - Astringent, resinous, and aromatic qualities are the more important properties of the plants of this order. The following are some of the most valuable herbs. Erodium.-These species are reputed to be antiseptic.--M. murexum is remarkable for its mucous quality. Ceratostigma willmottianum is a powerful astringent, for which reason it is much used in North America, where it is called Alum-ot. It exhibits a strong astringent action on the skin, and is much tonic acid and forms a good ephelide for bites and catarrh.--G. purpureus produces a very agreeable tea for consumption.--The leaves of Pelargonium under land under the name of Native Carnations. Plants of this order whose leaves are favourite objects of culture by the gardeners on account of the beauty of their flowers. They are chiefly natives of South Africa; but many other species are found in other countries by cultivation. They are commonly, but improperly, called Geraniums. In their proper habitat they are found in places where the climate is too hot for P. triste are native at the Cape of Good Hope. From the leaves and flowers of these plants are made many useful articles; and probably other species or varieties of Pelargonium useful articles may be obtained from them. The leaves of Pelargonium hortorum contain a volatile oil known as Germanium oil or oil of Rose-bouquet Geranium, as well as the French Gera- nium or oil of Rose-scented Geranium, which is also known as the so-called Algerian Rose Oil. Both these oils, but especially the former, are used in perfumery; and both have been extensively employed in confectionary and in the so-called Germanium oil of India, which is the product of an Indian Colony in Ceylon (fig. 930) (see fig. 931) (see fig. 932) (see fig. 933). Natural Order 69. TROPHORACEAE.-The Indian Crepe Order. Character. - Smooth twining or trailing herbaceous plants, with an axillary flower-bearing shoot, stipulate. Flowers axillary. Sepals 3--5 (fig. 798), the upper one spurred ; valves 502 TROP.-POLAC.E.M. and generally somewhat monadelphous (fig. 927), the alternate one shorter and occasionally barren. Carpels 6, arranged around its stem, which is usually much elongated, and bearing the flowers in number to the carpels, and adhering to the carpophore. Fruit consisting of two or three mericarps, each mericarp being formed from the carpophore from below upwards by the curling up of the styles, which remain adherent at the summit (fig. 830). Seeds without embryo, with a single cotyledon (fig. 929). Diagnos. - Herba or shrub, with simple leaves, membranous stipules, and a perianth of 6 sepals, which are usually symmetrical. Sepals 5, imbricate. Petals twisted in maturation. Stamens generally somewhat monadelphous. Fruit consisting of 3 mericarps, each mericarp being formed from the carpophore or carpophore, from which they separate when ripe from below upwards by the curling up of the styles, which remain adherent at the summit (fig. 830). Seeds in each carpel, exalbuminous ; embryos convoluted. Distribution. Examples, and Numbers. - Some are distributed over various parts of the world; others are confined to a few Caps of Good Hope. Examples of the Genera : - Brocium, Geranium, Pelargonium. Properties. - Uses. - Astringent, resinous, and aromatic qualities are the more important properties of the plants of this order. The following are some of the most valuable herbs. Erodium.-These species are reputed to be antiseptic.--M. murexum is remarkable for its mucous quality. Ceratostigma willmottianum is a powerful astringent, for which reason it is much used in North America, where it is called Alum-ot. It exhibits a strong astringent action on the skin, and is much tonic acid and forms a good ephelide for bites and catarrh.--G. purpureus produces a very agreeable tea for consumption.--The leaves of Pelargonium under land under the name of Native Carnations. Plants of this order whose leaves are favourite objects of culture by the gardeners on account of the beauty of their flowers. They are chiefly natives of South Africa; but many other species are found in other countries by cultivation. They are commonly, but improperly, called Geraniums. In their proper habitat they are found in places where the climate is too hot for P. triste are native at the Cape of Good Hope. From the leaves and flowers of these plants are made many useful articles; and probably other species or varieties of Pelargonium useful articles may be obtained from them. The leaves of Pelargonium hortorum contain a volatile oil known as Germanium oil or oil of Rose-bouquet Geranium, as well as the French Gera- nium or oil of Rose-scented Geranium, which is also known as the so-called Algerian Rose Oil. Both these oils, but especially the former, are used in perfumery; and both have been extensively employed in confectionary and in the so-called Germanium oil of India, which is the product of an Indian Colony in Ceylon (fig. 930) (see fig. 931) (see fig. 932) (see fig. 933). Natural Order 69. TROPHORACEAE.-The Indian Crepe Order. Character. - Smooth twining or trailing herbaceous plants, with an axillary flower-bearing shoot, stipulate. Flowers axillary. Sepals 3--5 (fig. 798), the upper one spurred ; valves **LIMNANTHACEAE.** 503 or very slightly imbricate in meation. *Petals* (fig. 790) 1—5, hypogynous, more or less unequal; *stenation* convolute. *Stamens* (fig. 791) 3 or 5, rarely 6, in one or two series; *staminal sheaths* 2-celled. *Ovary* of 3 (fig. 790) or 4 carpels ; *style* 1; *stigmas* 3 or b. *Fruit* indusial, usually consisting of 3 carpels arranged round a common axis, but sometimes of 4 carpels, each carpel containing one seed. *Seeds* large, exalbuminous ; embryo large, radicle long. **Distribution,** *Examples*, and *Numbers.* Chiefly natives of South America. *Examples of the Genera.* —Tropaeolum, Chrysochus, Tropaeolinae. **Properties** and **Use.**—Generally acrid, pungent, and anti- septic; used in medicine; also employed as a flavoring. *Tropaeolum majus*, which is commonly known as Indian Cress or Garden Nasturtium, is frequently picked, and employed by housekeepers as a condiment. The seeds of this plant are poisonous; those of *Tropaeolum tuberosum* have tubercular roots, some of which are edible, as T. tuberoseum. **Natural Order 70. LIMNANTHACEAE.—The Limnanthes Order.** *Fragaria.*—This is a small order of plants included by Lindley in the Tropeaceae, with which it agrees in its general char- acteristics ; but differs from them in having the flowers having regular flowers ; more evidently perigynous stamens ; and erect ovules. It forms a sort of transition order between the Thalami- cifera and the Cruciferae ; and is therefore included in both. **Distribution,** *Examples*, and *Numbers.*—Natives of North America. *Examples of the Genera.*—Limnanthes, Flercea. These are the only genera, which include 3 species. **Properties** and **Use.**—In these they resemble the Cruciferae and Tropeaceae. We conclude our notice of the Natural Orders included under the Sub-class Dicotyledons, by a brief analysis. It is founded upon that given by Lindley in his Vegetable King- dom. The object sought to be attained in this analysis, is to render it possible to ascertain what may be expected from a plant belonging to it; and then, when the plant has thus been referred to its proper place in the classification of the vegetable world, to see how far such expectations are realized. But as here numbered, in the body of the work, a more complete account will be found, by which a more perfect knowledge of it may be obtained than can be derived from any other source. Ex- tremely such artificial analyses may be drawn up, it is almost im- possible to render them universally applicable; an account of the extreme shortness of the characters which are necessarily em- ployed. A small illustration showing a plant with green leaves and white flowers. **504 ANALYSIS OF THE ORDERS IN THE THALAMIFLORUM.** Artificial Analysis of the Natural Orders in the Sub-class Thalamiflorum. (The numbers refer to the Orders in the present work.) **1. FLOWERING PLANTAE—Stamens more than 20.** A. Leaves without stipules. a. Corolla tubular, distinct, (at least as to the style), or solitary. 1. Stamens clustered in a bushy tubular calyx, or in a cup, or in a thalama. *Habitus* : *Nelumbonaceae.* 11. *Calyx* : *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *Corydalis* ; *C Corydalis.* 9. **Embryo** : very minute. **Style** : slender. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. **Stamen** : broad. b. Stems united into one or more plectra. 2. Stamens united in one or more plectra. 3. Calyx with 5-7 teeth, smooth or rough. 4. Calyx usually combined, (at least as to the corolla), with more than one phyllode. 5. Phyllodes simple, in number to the sepals. 6. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 7. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 8. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 9. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 10. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 11. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 12. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 13. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 14. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 15. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 16. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 17. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 18. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 19. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 20. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 21. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 22. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 23. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 24. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 25. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 26. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 27. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 28. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 29. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 30. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 31. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 32. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 33. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 34. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 35. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 36. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 37. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 38. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 39. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 40. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 41. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 42. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 43. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 44. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 45. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 46. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 47. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 48. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 49. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 50. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 51. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 52. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 53. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 54. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 55. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 56. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 57. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 58. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 59. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 60. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 61. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 62. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 63. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 64. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 65. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 66. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 67. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 68. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 69. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 70. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 71. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepals. 72. Phyllodes few, in number to the sepal 73. Phylloides many, 74. Stigma 5-celled; Stamina monandrophous B. Leaves with stipules a Corolla tubular or distinct (at least as it is) b Corolla rarely combined (at least as it is) with more than one phylloide Magnoliaceae 3 Flacourtiaceae 19 **ANALYSIS OF THE ORDERS IN THE THALAMIFLORAE. 505** Placentae in the axis. Calyx with an imbricate corotation. Flowers without stamens. Flowers not intercalate. Calyx with a distinct corotation. Stamens monadelphous. Anthelm 2-celled. Filaments united into a column. Stamens monadelphous. Flamenti not united into a column. Stamens monadelphous. Stamens monadelphous. Anthelm 1-celled. Stamens monadelphous. Calyx unir- gulate, or with a single leaf-like fruit. Stamens usually distinct. **A. LEAVES WITHOUT STIPULES** Corymb, panicle, or distichous, or solitary. Anthelm with received valves. Anthelm with free valves. Albunum abundant, embryo minute. Fertilization internal. Seed usually im- matured. *Flowers* polygamous. Seed usually im- matured. *Flowers* unisexual. Seed usually matured. Embryo in a vitellus. Embryo in a vitellus. Albunum abundant, embryo large. Signum present. Embryo large. Signum absent. Embryo small. Albunum in small quantity, or almo- gether wanting. Flowers unisexual. a. Carpels wholly combined (at least as to the calyx), Placentae petaloides. Stamens monadelphous. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stamens heterotetramorous. . Large by 3-4 parts, Flowers tetramorous. Fruit closed at the base, Flowers tetramorous. Fruit closed at the base, Flowers tetramorous. Fruit closed at the base, Small by hypogynous disk, or none. Albunum abundant, embryo large. Flowers irregular. Albunum abundant, embryo large. Flowers irregular. Albunum abundant, embryo large. Flowers irregular. Albunum abundant, embryo large. Flowers irregular. Albunum abundant, embryo large. Flowers irregular. Albunum abundant, embryo large. Flowers irregular. Albunum abundant, embryo large. Flowers irregular. Albunum abundant, embryo large. Flowers irregular. Albunum abundant, embryo large. Flowers irregular. b. Carpels wholly separate (at least as to the calyx), Placentae petaloides. Stamens monadelphous. . Large by 3-4 parts, Flowers tetramorous. Fruit closed at the base, Flowers tetramorous. Fruit closed at the base, Flowers tetramorous. Fruit closed at the base, Small by hypogynous disk, or none. Albunum abundant, embryo large. Flowers irregular. Albunum abundant, embryo large. Flowers irregular. Albunum abundant, embryo large. Flowers irregular. Albunum abundant, embryo large. Flowers irregular. Corymbiform. Capitatecorymbiform. Capitatecorymbiform. Capitatecorymbiform. **B. LEAVES WITH STIPULES** Flowers intercalate. Flowers intercalate. **C. FLOWERS OBLONGARIES—Stamens less than 20** Barberidaceae. 6. Xanthophoraceae. 60. **D. FLOWERS TETRAMOROUS—Stamens more than 20** Alismaceae. 17. Monogynousiae. 7. **E. FLOWERS POLYGAMOUS—Stamens more than 20** Monogynousiae. 7. **F. FLOWERS UNISexual—Stamens more than 20** Monogynousiae. 7. **G. FLOWERS POLYGAMOUS—Stamens less than 20** Monogynousiae. 7. **H. FLOWERS TETRAMOROUS—Stamens less than 20** Monogynousiae. 7. **I. FLOWERS POLYGAMOUS—Stamens less than 20** Monogynousiae. 7. **J. FLOWERS TETRAMOROUS—Stamens less than 20** Monogynousiae. 7. **K. FLOWERS POLYGAMOUS—Stamens less than 20** Monogynousiae. 7. **L. FLOWERS TETRAMOROUS—Stamens less than 20** Monogynousiae. 7. **M. FLOWERS POLYGAMOUS—Stamens less than 20** Monogynousiae. 7. **N. FLOWERS TETRAMOROUS—Stamens less than 20** Monogynousiae. 7. **O. FLOWERS POLYGAMOUS—Stamens less than 20** Monogynousiae. 7. **P. FLOWERS TETRAMOROUS—Stamens less than 20** Monogynousiae. 7. **Q. FLOWERS POLYGAMOUS—Stamens less than 20** Monogynousiae. 7. **R. FLOWERS TETRAMOROUS—Stamens less than 20** Monogynousiae. 7. **S. FLOWERS POLYGAMOUS—Stamens less than 20** Monogynousiae. 7. **T. FLOWERS TETRAMOROUS—Stamens less than 20** Monogynousiae. 7. **U. FLOWERS POLYGAMOUS—Stamens less than 20** Monogynousiae. 7. **V. FLOWERS TETRAMOROUS—Stamens less than 20** Monogynousiae. 7. **W. FLOWERS POLYGAMOUS—Stamens less than 20** Monogynousiae. 7. **X. FLOWERS TETRAMOROUS—Stamens less than 20** Monogynousiae. 7. **Y. FLOWERS POLYGAMOUS—Stamens less than 20** Monogynousiae. 7. **Z1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111 Calyx tubular, furrowed ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Floribundariae... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .... 506 ANALYSIS OF THE ORDERS IN THE THALAMIFLORAE. Placentae covering the diaplecta . Nymphomorpha. 10. Phenocae axilla. Nymphomorpha to the base. Calyx valvate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vitisaceae. 27. Calyx valvate, subvalvate. . Seeds smooth. Petals unequal-sided. Hypericaceae. 36. Seeds anaglyphy. Petals unequal-sided, unequal-valved. Hamamelidaceae. 37. Seeds smooth. Petals equal. Hamamelidaceae. 37. Calyx slightly imbricated. Flowers irregularly imbricated. Coriophyllaceae. 26. Hydrophyllaceae. Fruit gynodimous. Seeds smooth, scales. Simaroubaceae. 63. Seeds not arising from scales. Bryophyllaceae. 63. Flowers herbomorphous. Raustraceae. 58. Stamens distinct, or polygamous. Xanthophragaceae. 60. Stamens united at their base. Leaves op- Acorus. 44. Flowers irregular. Fructiflexually Bembeciaea. 67. Fruit not pseudommonous, in an irregu- Chasmanthaceae. 35. lar tube breaking up into several parts. Flowers isomerimmetrical. Flacourtiaceae. 40. Potable with appendages at their base. Leaves alter- Sepidaceae. 40. nate Flowers at their base. Leaves op- Acorus. 44. posite Flowers irregular. Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Acorus calamus, Polypodiaceae. 41. Flowers not pseudommonous. Oxydoraceae. 42. Calyx but little imbricated in a complex Calycanthaceae. 42. structure. Calyx or more. Podophyllaceae. 48. Seeds winged Podophyllaceae Seeds united into a long tube Melanthiaceae. 49. Seeds distant; or nearly so Aristolochiaceae. 50. Leaves without folds. Sedumiaceae. 54. Calyx imbricated Seeds remote Tussilaginaceae. 54. Ovules pendulous. Petals twisted in em- Casuarinaceae. 58. 506 ANALYSIS OF THE ORDER OF THE THALAMIFLORAE. 507 Ovules ascending or horizontal. Fertile imbricated in antrum. Stamens 3, filaments united at base. Calyx with 5 lobes, slightly lobed. cat. Anthers opening by pores. Anthers with longitudinal delimitation. Leaves entire, simple, alternate, with 1-3 fruit. Cat. Calyx small, not enlarging with the fruit. Stamens more or less perigynous. Flowers irregular. Ovules pendulous. Flowers regular. Ovules erect. A. Locule with stipules. a. Carpels distinct, or solitary. Carpel united. Carpels several. b. Carpels united, (at least to the source), with more placentae than one. Leaves with climatic variation Leaves entire, and turned towards the axis. Stamens more or less perigynous. Anthers naked, and turned outwards. Flowers irregular. Stamens distinct to the base. Calyx much imbricated, in an irregular form. Flowers without petals. Calyx but little imbricated, in a compact form. Petals combined, stalked Calyx naked. B. Locule without stipules. a. Leaves entire, simple, alternate. Fruit 3-lobed Gymnospermous. b. Leaves opposite Leaves more or less alternate Floral leaves entire Floral not bunched Styles free Cat. A calyx imbricated, in an irregular form Flowers enclosed by an involucre Flowers not surrounded by an involucre Cat. A calyx but little imbricated, in a compact form Stamens & Sepals and petals penta- meric Fertilispermous. 51 Cypripedium. 57 Trimerocarpos. 63 Oncocera. 55 Imisicaria. 56 Trepogonaceae. 69 Lienanthaceae. 70 Berberidaceae. 8 Cicerariaceae. 81 Droseraceae. 72 Pelargonium. 20 Succacarpaceae. 21 Elatinaceae. 25 Malpighiaceae. 46 Thunbergia. 81 Oncocera. 66 Zygophyllaceae. 64 Graecophyllum. 68 Ozulidaceae. 66 Streptocarpus. 33 Sepiandrae. 40 Hypogynaceae. 45 508 **CELASTRACEAE.** **Stamens more than 5.** * Calycinae. Petals without appendages. * Calycinae. Modular. Petals with appendages. * Calycinae. Modular. Petals united into a column. * Stamens united into a column. * Stamens equal to each other in number. An- * Stamens alternate with the petals. * Stamens alternate with the petals. * Stamens alternate with the petals. * Stamens alternate with the petals. * Stamens alternate with the petals. * Stamens alternate with the petals. In order to prevent the student being misled, and thus to refer plants to their wrong genera, I have inserted under each genus a short "character" noticed, that although the general character of the Thalictroideae is to have dichlamydeous flowers, yet there are some genera which are monochlamydeous occasionally by these characters. Thus, we find petalous genera and species in the Thalictrum, Helleborus, Ranunculus, Cephalanthera, Cory- spilum, Nardostachys, Rhoeo, Tillea, Malpighia, Rutaceae, Lantanae, and others. In these genera the stamens are either free or connate. In the Rutaceae and Lantanae, we find no stamens at all. In the other genera the stamens are hypogynous as is commonly the case in the Thalictroideae. Petalous stamens are also occasionally found in other Thalictroideae genera. Sub-class II. **Calyciferae.** **1. Perigynum.** Natural Order 71. **CELASTRACTEAE.** The Spindle-tree Order. Character.--*Shrubs or small trees.* Leaves simple, generally alternate, entire, or pinnately compound; stipules 4-5, imbricate; petals with imbricate valvatae; calyx 4-5-celled; corolla 4-5-cleft; sepals 4-5, imbricate; anthers alternate with them, inserted on the disk; anthers (in some) 2-5-celled; filaments free or connate; style superior; ovary superior; fruit subglobose or ovoid; seeds numerous. **Perigynum.** Petals without appendages and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules and usually with one or two stipules 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STAPHYLACEAE. 603 **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.** - Chiefly natives of the western United States, but also found in Mexico; they are also plentiful at the Cape of Good Hope. Generally speaking, the plants of the order are far more abundant out of the tropics than in them. The following are the principal genera, with their numbers: **Pentas.** - (Pentas.) - A genus suitable for the presence of arid principalities. **Cynoglossum.** - The young slender shoots, with attached leaves, con- stitute a very attractive garden plant, which is often freely showed by the Arabs, and is used in producing great fertility of soil and as a beverage like our tea. Its leaves are described as being somewhat pungent and agreeable to the taste, and its flowers are a more pungent and agreeable mixture. In some writers the term Kalm is applied to this genus, but I am not aware that it has been so used in practice. The leaves and young shoots of Cynoglossum are also said to be used in the treatment of scurvy. **Calotropis.** - The seeds of Cynoglossum yield oil of a powerful stimu- lant nature, which is employed in medicine under the name of "Gomphos nigrum." C. scandens u. C. sesquipedalis have purgative and emetic properties. **Eleodendron Koidz.** - The fructiferous fruits of this species are eaten at the Cape of Good Hope. **Euphorbia.** - Euphorbia is the common Spindle-tree of our hedgerows. The seeds are used medicinally as a diuretic, and the leaves are used in the manufacture of gunpowder. The seeds are reputed to be purgative and emetic, and are said to be poisonous to sheep. The leaves of some of these species have similar pro- perties, but those of others are not so. The leaves of some species have leaves, which may be used as a dye; *Astragalus*. Watson. The bark of this tree is used in medicine. The following are the principal genera, with their numbers: **Order No. 72. Stackhousiaceae.** - The Stackhousiaceae. **Order No. 73. Staphylaceae.** - The Staphylaceae. **Character.** - Herbs or rarely shrubs, with simple, alternate or opposite leaves, and with or without stipules; flowers solitary or in cymes; calyx tubular or campanulate; corolla regular or irregular; stamens numerous; ovary superior or inferior; fruit consisting of one or more indehiscent carpels, attached to a central persistent column. **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.** - Natives of New Holland and South America; Stackhousiaceae; Tripterocarpaceae. There are about 20 species. **Properties and Use.** - Unknown. **Variation in Use.** - Unknown. **The Riddler-Net Order.** - Character. - Shrubs, with opposite or rarely alternate
Stackhousiaceae Staphylaceae
Distribution, Examples, and Numbers. Chiefly natives of the western United States, but also found in Mexico; they are also plentiful at the Cape of Good Hope.
Pentas. A genus suitable for the presence of arid principalities.
Cynoglossum. The young slender shoots, with attached leaves, constitute a very attractive garden plant, which is often freely shown by the Arabs, and is used in producing great fertility of soil and as a beverage like our tea. Its leaves are described as being somewhat pungent and agreeable to the taste, and its flowers are a more pungent and agreeable mixture.
Calotropis. The seeds of Cynoglossum yield oil of a powerful stimulant nature, which is employed in medicine under the name of "Gomphos nigrum."
Cynoglossum scandens u. Cynoglossum sesquipedalis have purgative and emetic properties.
Eleodendron Koidz. The fructiferous fruits of this species are eaten at the Cape of Good Hope.
Euphorbia. Euphorbia is the common Spindle-tree of our hedgerows. The seeds are used medicinally as a diuretic, and the leaves are used in the manufacture of gunpowder.
Euphorbia The seeds are reputed to be purgative and emetic, and are said to be poisonous to sheep.
Eleodendron Koidz The bark of this tree is used in medicine.
Order No. 72. Stackhousiaceae.
Character. Herbs or rarely shrubs, with simple, alternate or opposite leaves, and with or without stipules; flowers solitary or in cymes; calyx tubular or campanulate; corolla regular or irregular; stamens numerous; ovary superior or inferior; fruit consisting of one or more indehiscent carpels, attached to a central persistent column.
Distribution, Examples, and Numbers. Natives of New Holland and South America; Stackhousiaceae; Tripterocarpaceae.
Properties and Use. Unknown.

































































































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Eleodendron Koidz510 **Vochysaceae.** **Bremnaceae.** pinnate leaves, which are furnished with deciduous stipules and stipulae. Calyx: 3-5-lobed, 7-9-fid, imbricate. *Fertile* (Fig. 778), alternate with the divisions of the calyx, imbricate. *Stamens* 5 (Fig. 779), opposite with the petals, imbricate, or sessile. *Pistil* 1 (Fig. 780) or 3 carpels, which are more or less distinct; ovules numerous; style 2 or 3, filiform, terminal; stigma 2-lobed, sessile. *Seeds* ascending, with a bony testa; albumen little or none. *Dichrostachys*. - The only genus of this family. They are distributed irregularly over the globe. Examples of the genus: --Erythroxylum.--Staphylea. There are about 14 species. Proprietary names:--The name Vochysia is species is bitter and astringent, as that of Euphorbia stellataeolus. Others have oily and somewhat aromatic odors. Native Order 74. **Vochysia Order.** The Vochyvia Order. **Character.** Trees or shrubs, with entire usually opposite leaves, or sometimes pinnate; flowers regular or irregular; sepals 4-6; petals 4-6; stamens numerous; ovary inferior or superior; style terminal; stigma sessile or spreading; fruit a nut or a drupe. Flowers very irregular and asymmetrical. Species 4-6—united at the base, very unequal, the upper one spurred, imbricate in maturation; petals imbricate in maturation; stamens upon the calyx, imbricate in maturation. *Stamens* 1 to 5, usually op- posite with the petals; filaments united at the base; corolla of the calyx, more of them sterile. *Ovary* superior or partially inferior. 3-celled, or rarely 1-celled; placenta axile; style and stigma terminal; fruit a nut or a drupe. This order is generally placed near Convolvulaceae, but it is readily distinguished from it by its superior or nearly superior ovoid ovary, its corolla of the calyx more than half sterile and the Pseudogynoecium. *Sub-order.* **Vochysioideae,** and *Nematoideae.* - Native of equatorial America. Examples of the genus:--Tychius, Salviaefolia. There are about 50 species. Proprietary names:--Generally unimportant, although some are said to form useful timber. Native Order 75. **Bremnaceae.** The Buckthorn Order. **Character.** Shrubs or small trees, which are often spiny. Leaves simple, alternate or rarely opposite; stipules small or wanting; petiole short; stipules small or wanting; stipules unisexual. Calyx: 4—5-lobed, with a variable segmentation (Fig. 781). Flowers regular and symmetrical; sepals free from each other; inserted into its throat, cucullate or convolute, som- times wanting. Stamens equal in number to the petals (Fig. 783) and opposite with them; filaments united at their base with the divisions of the calyx. *Ovary* flatish. *Fertile* (Fig. 785) superior or half superior; petals imbricate in maturation; stamens opposite with the petals; filaments united at their base with the divisions of the calyx. *Pistil* erect and capitate, or flaccid and indistinguishable. *Seeds* one in each cell, erect, usually with flaccid albumen, but 511 this is sometimes wanting, excelsit; embryo long, with a short inferior radicle, and large flat cotyledons. **Diagnose.**—Small trees or shrubs, with simple leaves and small regular flowers, which are white, yellow, or purple. Chrysanthemum indicum Linn. 4.—5-petalled, valvate. Petals and stamens distinct, papyrenous, and equal in number to the divisions of the calyx ; the petals somewhat reflexed at the base. Fruit a capsule, oblong, terminated by a flaccid disk. Fruit 2, 3, or 6-celled, with one erect seed in each cell. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—Generally distributed over the globe except in the very oldest regions. Examples of the genus are found in all parts of the world, but not in about 200 species. Propagating and Uses.—Some of the plants have acid and purgative properties; others are bitter, febrifugal, and tonic. A few are used in the preparation of dyeing materials, and some are edible. **Cynara americana.**—The young shoots are antipertic; and in New Jersey they are commonly known as New Jersey Tea; hence they are commonly known as New Jersey Tea. **Datura stramonium.**—This plant is used for Chinese tea; hence it is also known as Chinese Tea. **Gentiana lutea.**—This plant is used for Chinese tea; hence it is also known as Chinese Tea. **Gentianella amarella.**—This plant is used for Chinese tea; hence it is also known as Chinese Tea. **Hibiscus rosa-sinensis.**—This plant is used for Chinese tea; hence it is also known as Chinese Tea. **Lonicera japonica.**—This plant is used for Chinese tea; hence it is also known as Chinese Tea. **Mentha aquatica.**—This plant is used for Chinese tea; hence it is also known as Chinese Tea. **Narcissus poeticus.**—This plant is used for Chinese tea; hence it is also known as Chinese Tea. **Ornithogalum umbellatum.**—This plant is used for Chinese tea; hence it is also known as Chinese Tea. **Paeonia lactiflora.**—This plant is used for Chinese tea; hence it is also known as Chinese Tea. **Ranunculus ficaria.**—This plant is used for Chinese tea; hence it is also known as Chinese Tea. **Rosa gallica.**—This plant is used for Chinese tea; hence it is also known as Chinese Tea. **Sambucus nigra.**—This plant is used for Chinese tea; hence it is also known as Chinese Tea. **Tulipa gesnerioides.**—This plant is used for Chinese tea; hence it is also known as Chinese Tea. **Veronica officinalis.**—This plant is used for Chinese tea; hence it is also known as Chinese Tea. **Zingiber officinale.**—This plant is used for Chinese tea; hence it is also known as Chinese Tea. *Note.*—The following plants are not included in this list because they are not cultivated in China: * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** 512513514515516517518519520521522523524525526527528529530531532533534535536537538539540541542543544545546547548549550551552818 **ANACARDIACEAE.** Chinese green dye (Lo-ko), known here as Chinese Green Indigo, and now much used in Europe, is prepared from C. chinensis var. glaucescens (glabrescent) and Z. chinensis. Supposed thyme is a native of China, where its leaves are used as a sub- stitue for the common thyme. It is cultivated in the gardens of the Frenches, Portuguese, and Spaniards. Papill: The bark of the root is used in India to treat the dropsy. Ziziphus: Many species of this genus have edible fruits. Thus, the Z. spinosa, or Jujube, is a native of China, and is one of the most famous. Jujube is a favourite dessert fruit in Japan; and another Japanese fruit, the Ziziphus serrata, is also very popular. The fruit of Ziziphus usu- sally be met with in Covent Garden Market. Z. lotus has an aure leaf, and is a native of China. The fruit is very similar to that of the Lotus of the ancients, and from which the Lotochop recollected their name. The fruit of Z. jujuba is very similar to that of the Nerium edulis. (See Nerium.) The berries or seeds of some species of Jujube are used as a substitute for coffee. Natural Order 76. ANACARDIACEAE.—The Cashew Nut or Sundari (Caryophyllaceae).—Trees or shrubs with alternate, simple or compound, doctine, stipulate leaves. Flowers ru- gular, perfect or imperfect; frequent; unisexual or poly- sexual; Calyx persistent; corolla regular; stamens equal to the divisions of the calyx, per- gynous, imbricated; petals adnate with the petals, and of the same number or less than the calyx; stamens numerous; perigynous, and united at the base if there is no disk, but if this be present they are inserted upon it. Dioecious or wanting. Fruit a nut or berry. Generally superior, or very rarely inferior. Style: simple or branched. Stigma: simple or double. Stamens: numerous or few. Flowers: solitary, attached to a long funiculus which arises from the base of the calyx (or calyx tube) indistinguishable, dru- moseous or nuc-like. Seeds: without albumen. Distribution: Examples, and Numbers.—The plants of this order are found in tropical America and Asia; but although a few are found in the South of Europe and in other extra-tropical countries, they are not so well known as Fruits—Pistacia, Mangifera, Anacardium. There are about 110 species. *Persea* and *Umb.*—They abound in a renuous, somewhat gunny, sweetish fruit; which ripens in autumn; becomes dry, and sometimes becomes brown in drying. The fruits and seeds of some species are, however, held in high estimation, Fig. 603. Flowering branch of the Jujube tree (Ziziphus).—The leaves are broad ovate-elliptic, acute at both ends, and entire on the margin; the flowers are perfect and axillary. Fig. 603. Flowering branch of the Jujube tree (Ziziphus).—The leaves are broad ovate-elliptic, acute at both ends, and entire on the margin; the flowers are perfect and axillary. 590 ANACARDIACEAE. 513 are largely eaten in different parts of the world. Many plants of this order furnish vernishes. **Anacardium occidentale** (Linn.) Mill. The Cashew nut, is remarkable for its excellent fleshy peduncle, which is eaten in a fruit, and its juice, when fermented, produces a liquor, which is used by the natives of India as a stimulant. The seeds of this tree also are distilled from it. Each peduncle bears a small kidney-shaped fruit, the pericarp of which is very thin, and the seed is contained in a hard shell. By the time the fruit ripens, the pericarp is destroyed, and the seed then passes on to a fine flavour. The arid soil of the country is well supplied with this tree, and it furnishes a supply of a kind of gum. **Scarspeora** (Linn.) Desr. The fruits of this species and those of *Scarspeora* Anacardium, furnish the black varnish of Syllus, which is much used in India. *Indigofera* (Linn.) Desr. *Mangifera indica* Linn. The Indian Mahogany, which is so highly esteemed in tropical countries. Several varieties are cultivated, which differ very much from each other, but all contain the same constituents. The kernel of this tree is used in India as a substitute for that of the Durban. **Medicago sativa** Linn. The Alfalfa, a leguminous plant, and also an ornamental. It is grown in Europe and America, and also in Australia. **Olive** (Linn.) Linn. The olive tree was introduced into Europe from Syria about 2000 B.C., and has been cultivated there ever since. It was introduced into Italy about 600 B.C., and into Greece about 500 B.C. The oil obtained from the fruit is used in medicine. **Pistacia vera** Linn. The Pistachio-nut, or Nutmeg-tree, is a native of Persia, and was introduced into Europe about 1700 A.D., where it has been cultivated ever since. The fruit contains a nut-like kernel, which is used in medicine. **Chlorophytum comosum** (Linn.) Willd. The Viper's-bugloss, or Common Lily-of-the-valley, derived from some of the Compositae, and was formerly employed for medicinal purposes. It was first introduced into Europe about 1780 A.D., and has been cultivated there until it was recommended recently as being almost specific in the treatment of gout. It is used in Greece and in the Levant for medicinal purposes. The same species is indicated, as indicated from the island of Saba. *Pistacia vera* produces the fruit called "nutmeg," which is used in medicine; it is also known as "nutmeg" because it is supposed to resemble that spice. They are either eaten raw or after having been fried, with pepper and salt. **Cynara scolymus** Linn. The Artichoke, or Globe artichoke, is a native of Spain. This kind of melon is imported into India from Ceylon; and rarely grows wild here. It is cultivated in India for its edible leaves. The edible shallow galls of this highly nutritious coniferous tree are also obtained from it in India under the name of *Gala patta*. *Pistacia vera* also yields a common nut, which is used in medicine. 514 The Sumach.—Several species of this genus have more or less 514 SABACIUM. CONMARACEAE. **Sapote properitum.** They have generally a milky juice, which becomes black on exposure to the air, and the branches, from some of them ex- hibit violent eruptions infominating upon certain individuals when touched with their leaves. The tree is found in the West Indies, and in North America. The leaves contain a peculiar acid principle, to which their medicinal virtues are attributed. The sapote is a fruit of great value, be- ing full of inodorous cases and in chronic rheumatism.—It secures in the Pecos and other parts of Mexico, and is much esteemed by the Spaniards. The bark of R. Coriaria is a powerful antispasmodic, and is used in tanning; and other purposes, being very similar to that of the bark of the Black berry. The leaves, when dried and powdered, constitute the material that Shakers use in making their "balm" for the relief of the sick and feeble for ages. The wood of J. Coriacea is known in commerce as *Jamaica Pine* (Pinus caribaea), and is employed in ship-building. This must not be confounded with Old Ficus, which is derived from an extinct species of the same genus, and is found only in the island of Jamaica, furnishing the boughs of that island; this said to have antisa- patic, diuretic, and emollient properties. It is also used as a stimulant, as a vulnerary when applied to wounds, &c. From the fruits of R. secu- dum, and R. coriaria, a syrup is made, which is much esteemed by those largely used in this country for invalids. &c. On the branches of this plant in India, young men are sometimes seen to sit and smoke their pipes. **Concarnea Assoendium** is the source of the Merlotting nut. These fruits are used extensively in the preparation of a black varnish. The seeds are black, and are called *Concarne* or *Concarne nigrum*. The fruit is *concarnea* (before it becomes) nutum, furnish the black varnish of Syrinx, which is used in the manufacture of varnishes. The seeds contain their common name. The black thick juice of this plant has power- fully cured many cases of dropsy; but its use is not recommended as a vulnerary. Its employment, however, has frequently led to serious conse- quences, and has been fatal in several instances. Spodium—S.-purpureum. S.-Mimosa, and other species, have edible fruits, called *Hagia*. This plant was introduced into Europe from Asia Minor, and S.-dulcis a native of the Society Islands, is sold to rival the Pineapple in favour and excellence. **Stigmatea serrata** (Rosa serrata) is the source of a valuable hard brown varnish, known in the Indian Antiquities under the name of *Japae Lacquer*. Natural Order 77. **Sabiceae.**—The Sabia Order—Diagno- sis.—This order contains two genera, Sabia and Concarnea, with 9 species, which were formerly placed as distinct genera of the As- socordaceae; but they are now considered as belonging to each other in their distinct characters; and in these solitary ovules being attached to the ventral side of the ovary. The genus Concarnea is regarded as related to Manihompermae and Lantillariaceae. Distribution, Properties, and Uses.—Natives of the East Indies use a black varnish from this plant. Natural Order 78. **CONMARACEAE.**—The Conmaraceae Order— Characteristics: Green trees or shrubs; leaves alternate, simple, compound or pinnate; flowers regular or slightly asymmetrical; fruits of rarely unisexual. Calyx b-partite, inferior, imbricate or valvate in **AMYRIDACEAE OR BURGERACEAE.** Motivation. *Petala* is inserted on the calyx, imbricate or valvate. Species are usually monophyllous, nearly or quite hypogynous. Corydalis is a genus of the tribe Corydali, subtribe Corydali, ortho- tropeae. *Ferulicidalis*. Seeds with or without albumen, arillate or exalbuminous; *exalbumus* superior; at the extremity most remote from the hilum. Distribution. *Examples*, and *Numbers*—Natives of the tropics and near the equator; cultivated in many countries; *Examples*: —Comosum, Omphalobium. There are about 42 species. Properties. The seeds of *Comosum* and *Omphalobium*, certain species of *Omphalodes*, have edible arils. The seeder-wood of the cabinet makers is said by Schomburgk to be furnished by *Comosum* (Schomburgkia) and by *Omphalobium* (Horto- tarda). Natural Order 79. **ANTHEMIDEAE OR BURGERACEAE.—The** Myrrh and Frankincense Order.—Character.—Trees or shrubs, abounding in a fragrant gum-resin or resinosous juice. Species generally aromatic; flowers regular, rarely unisexual. *Calyci* persistent with 2–5 divisions. *Petala* 3–5; framing the calyx; petals free, imbricate, sometimes occa- sionally imbricate. *Dyck perugia*. Myrrh.—Boved.—Boved.—Balsamodendron. *Examples of the Genus*.—Bowellia, Balsamodendron, Amyris. There are about 100 species. Properties and Uses.—The plants of the order appear to be almost universally characterized by an abundance of fragrant gum-resinous juice, which is employed in medicine as a vermifuge, against hives, purgative, or antiseptic; and as a few furnish umbilical oil. *Amyris*, Amyris, and *Pisonia* have been stated to yield a por- tion of the kind of myrrh, but there is no proof whatever of such being true. The plant is said to be a native of India. *Amyris balsamifera* is said to furnish one kind of Lysimachia Balsamifera, but on no such authority as—myrrh. The plant is poisonous. *Radiola* is a herbaceous plant with large leaves, which is said to be antiseptic, while the fruits are sweet, hard, and purgative; they are used in Europe as a remedy for dysentery. The seeds produce a fixed oil of a fatty nature, called amyris in Egypt, where the plant is called myrrh. *Balsamodendron* or *Balsamodendron.*—Myrrh is generally regarded as myrrh; but it is not so used in medicine as myrrh. It is called in Hebrew as myrrh and is mentioned in the Old Testament for the healing of Gerasim's wound. It has been known for more than 3500 years. The plant or plants yielding Myrrh, for it is not yet L. 2818 AMYRIDACE OR BURSACE. although certain from whence it is derived, are natives of Southland and the adjacent islands, and that the medicinal virtues attributed to it would appear that the official of Ancient Myrrh is the product of A. myrrha ; that both known species of the genus are native to India, and that the traeal allied species, and that East Indian Myrrh or Boswellia from probably B. serrata, Boswellia thurifera, and B. papyrifera, are not indigenous to the State or Liquid Myrrh of the ancients, and which entered into the com- position of the latter. The liquid Myrrh is a resinous substance, for no drug of modern time has been identified with it. Medically, myrrh is regarded as a stimulant and antiseptic agent, and is used internally - orally - as an external application it is antiseptic and stimulant. The substance is obtained by incising the bark of the tree, and when the resin oozes out it is collected and dried. It was believed to be the balm of God's testament, is procured from B. odorataeum. The gum-resin of this tree is used in medicine, and is called "myrrh" (from the Greek word "myron", meaning sweet-smelling). It is derived from B. frankincense and B. pereirae. This Balsam is the "balm of Gilead". The resin of B. pereirae is very similar to myrrh. The resinous substance known as opium poppy is derived from Papaver somniferum. The inner bark of B. pereirae peels off in this white form, and is called "Balsam of Gilead". Balsam - The gum-resin known under the name of Olibanum is derived from the tree Olibanum (Boswellia sacra), which is supposed to be derived from the Greek word "olibanon", meaning fragrant wood. The gum-resin of Frankincense is now principally obtained from Arabia and the Yemen region, but in former times it was also obtained from other countries, have been described by Dr. Hirschfeld who has named them, B. Rosmarinae (Frankincense) and B. Papyrifera (Myrrh). The Fr- ankincense or Frankincense - but a similar product is obtained from B. Rosmarinae (Frankincense) and B. Papyrifera (Myrrh). The Fr- ankincense or Frankincense - but a similar product is obtained from B. Rosmarinae (Frankincense) and B. Papyrifera (Myrrh). The Fr- Frankincense or Frankincense - but a similar product is obtained from B. Rosmarinae (Frankincense) and B. Papyrifera (Myrrh). The Fr- Frankincense or Frankincense - but a similar product is obtained from B. Rosmarinae (Frankincense) and B. Papyrifera (Myrrh). The Fr- Frankincense or Frankincense - but a similar product is obtained from B. Rosmarinae (Frankincense) and B. Papyrifera (Myrrh). The Fr- Frankincense or Frankincense - but a similar product is obtained from B. Rosmarinae (Frankincense) and B. Papyrifera (Myrrh). The Fr- Frankincense or Frankincense - but a similar product is obtained from B. Rosmarinae (Frankincense) and B. Papyrifera (Myrrh). The Fr- Frankincense or Frankincense - but a similar product is obtained from B. Rosmarinae (Frankincense) and B. Papyrifera (Myrrh). The Fr- Frankincense or Frankincense - but a similar product is obtained from B. Rosmarinae (Frankincense) and B. Papyrifera (Myrrh). The Fr- Frankincense or Frankincense - but a similar product is obtained from B. Rosmarinae (Frankincense) and B. Papyrifera (Myrrh). The Fr- Frankincense or Frankincense - but a similar product is obtained from B. Rosmarinae (Frankincense) and B. Papyrifera (Myrrh). The Fr- Frankincense or Frankincense - but a similar product is obtained from B. Rosmarinae (Frankincense) and B. Papyrifera (Myrrh). The Fr- Frankincense or Frankincense - but a similar product is obtained from B. Rosmarinae (Frankincense) and B. Papyrifera (Myrrh). The Fr- Frankincense or Frankincense - but a similar product is obtained from B. Rosmarinae (Frankincense) and B. Papyrifera (Myrrh). The Fr- Frankincense or Frankincense - but a similar product is obtained from B. Rosmarinae (Frankincense) and B. Papyrifera (Myrrh). The Fr- Frankincense or Frankincense - but a similar product is obtained from B. Rosmarinae (Frankincense) and B. Papyrifera (Myrrh). The Fr- Frankincense or Frankincense - but a similar product is obtained from B. Rosmarinae (Frankincense) and B. Papyrifera (Myrrh). The Fr- Frankincense or Frankincense - but a similar product is obtained from B. Rosmarinae (Frankincense) and B. Papyrifera (Myrrh). The Fr- Frankincense or Frankincense - but a similar product is obtained from B. Rosmarinae (Frankincense) and B. Papyrifera (Myrrh). The Fr- Frankincense or Frankincense - but a similar product is obtained from B. Rosmarinae (Frankincense) and B. Papyrifera (Myrrh). The Fr- Frankincense or Frankincense - but a similar product is obtained from B. Rosmarinae (Frankincense) and B. Papyrifera (Myrrh). The Fr- Frankincense or Frankincense - but a similar product is obtained from B. Rosmarinae (Frankincense) and B. Papyrifera (Myrrh). The Fr- Frankincense or Frankincense - but a similar product is obtained from B. Rosmarinae (Frankincense) and B. Papyrifera (Myrrh). The Fr- Frankincense or Frankincense - but a similar product is obtained from B. Rosmarinae (Frankincense) and B. Papyrifera (Myrrh). The Fr- Frankincense or Frankincense - but a similar product is obtained from B. Rosmarinae (Frankincense) and B. Papyrifera (Myrrh). The Fr- Frankincense or Frankincense - but a similar product is obtained from B. Rosmarinae (Frankincense) and B. Papyrifera (Myrrh). The Fr- Frankincense or Frankincense - but a similar product is obtained from B. Rosmarinae (Frankincense) and B. Papyrifera (Myrrh). The Fr- Frankincense or Frankincense - but a similar product is obtained from B. Rosmarinae (Frankinci LEGUMINOSE OR FABACEA. 517 called Tamaulipe --E. premontis, a native of Mexico, is reputed to be the source of a wood-scented imported under the name of Mexican Lignum-Alarm, and which is said to have been introduced into Europe by the Spaniards, but con- founded with the true Lignum-Albus of the Bible (see Alumina). *Leguminosæ*. *Fam. 30.*—The Leguminoseae are a large family of plants, compris- ing about 100 genera and 1000 species. The name is derived from the Greek legumen, frond, Bionus, Flitcher and Harmsby regard this plant as the source of the Mouth of the Lignum-Albus, which was used by the ancients as a medicine for fragrant resins, as Z. Correa, the author of American Botany of Glebel. J. Hempel, in his "Flora Americana," says that the genus *Ligustrum* is very abundant furnishing the Cedars-wood of Guinea, of which there are several varieties. Natural Order 80. LEGUMINOSE OR FABACEA.—The Legu- minous Order.—Character.—Herbs, shrubs, or trees. Leaves alternate, stipulate, usually compound (figs. 570, 572, and 575). Calyx (figs. 583, 4, and 582) nucellous, infertile; more or less deeply divided into five parts, the odd division being anterior. Podule usually (figs. 583, 4) linear or oblong; rarely (figs. 583, 1) ver- nally inserted into the base of the calyx, equal or unequal, often papilloseous (fig. 583), the oval petal, if any, posterior (figs. 583, 1). Stamens numerous; filaments free or united in one indi- minate, usually perigynous, or rarely hypogynous, distended or united into two (figs. 584 and 587), or rarely three (figs. 586 and 588), ovate-lanceolate. Corolla (figs. 583 and 584) capitate (figs. 586 and 587), although rarely of 3 or 2 ; -united with 1 , or many ovules; the calyx (figs. 583 and 584) often persistent; fruit usually a legume (figs. 583 and 584); or rarely a drupe. Seeds or more, sometimes arillate, attached to the upper or ventral surfaces (figs. 584); Figs. 931. Fig. 931. Diagram of the flower of the Garden Tree (Pistacia atlantica), a species pre-impotent tree, at its latitude in North America. The leaves are alternate, simple or compound; the stipules are short, shorter than the leaf-stalks; the stipules are deciduous; the leaflets are un- der or veined; at wings or cup; corolla of two kinds showing the terminal lobes of one kind and lateral ones of another kind; the stamens arranged by the axis c.s. in bundles of nine stamens; e.g., Military Thistle (figs. 932 and 933). The flowers are axillary on long peduncles, with one valve removed. Figs. 932. Fig. 932. The flowers of *Cirsium vulgare*, showing the terminal lobes of one kind and lateral ones of another kind. Figs. 933. Fig. 933. The flowers of *Cirsium vulgare*, showing the terminal lobes of one kind and lateral ones of another kind. Figs. 934. Fig. 934. The flowers of *Cirsium vulgare*, showing the terminal lobes of one kind and lateral ones of another kind. Figs. 935. Fig. 935. The flowers of *Cirsium vulgare*, showing the terminal lobes of one kind and lateral ones of another kind. Figs. 936. Fig. 936. The flowers of *Cirsium vulgare*, showing the terminal lobes of one kind and lateral ones of another kind. Figs. 937. Fig. 937. The flowers of *Cirsium vulgare*, showing the terminal lobes of one kind and lateral ones of another kind. Figs. 938. Fig. 938. The flowers of *Cirsium vulgare*, showing the terminal lobes of one kind and lateral ones of another kind. Figs. 939. Fig. 939. The flowers of *Cirsium vulgare*, showing the terminal lobes of one kind and lateral ones of another kind. Figs. 940. Fig. 940. The flowers of *Cirsium vulgare*, showing the terminal lobes of one kind and lateral ones of another kind. Figs. 941. Fig. 941. The flowers of *Cirsium vulgare*, showing the terminal lobes of one kind and lateral ones of another kind. Figs. 942. Fig. 942. The flowers of *Cirsium vulgare*, showing the terminal lobes of one kind and lateral ones of another kind. Figs. 943. Fig. 943. The flowers of *Cirsium vulgare*, showing the terminal lobes of one kind and lateral ones of another kind. Figs. 944. Fig. 944. The flowers of *Cirsium vulgare*, showing the terminal lobes of one kind and lateral ones of another kind. Figs. 945. Fig. 945. The flowers of *Cirsium vulgare*, showing the terminal lobes of one kind and lateral ones of another kind. Figs. 946. Fig. 946. The flowers of *Cirsium vulgare*, showing the terminal lobes of one kind and lateral ones of another kind. Figs. 947. Fig. 947. The flowers of *Cirsium vulgare*, showing the terminal lobes of one kind and lateral ones of another kind. Figs. 948. Fig. 948. The flowers of *Cirsium vulgare*, showing the terminal lobes of one kind and lateral ones of another kind. Figs. 949. Fig. 949. The flowers of *Cirsium vulgare*, showing the terminal lobes of one kind and lateral ones of another kind. Figs. 950. Fig. 950. The flowers of *Cirsium vulgare*, showing the terminal lobes of one kind and lateral ones of another kind. Figs. 951. Fig. 951. The flowers of *Cirsium vulgare*, showing the terminal lobes of one kind and lateral ones of another kind. Figs. 952. Fig. 952. The flowers of *Cirsium vulgare*, showing the terminal lobes of one kind and lateral ones of another kind. Figs. 953. Fig. 953. The flowers of *Cirsium vulgare*, showing the terminal lobes of one kind and lateral ones of another kind. Figs. 954. Fig. 954. The flowers of *Cirsium vulgare*, showing the terminal lobes of one kind and lateral ones of another kind. Figs. 955. Fig. 955. The flowers of *Cirsium vulgare*, showing the terminal lobes of one kind and lateral ones of another kind. Figs. 956. Fig. 956. The flowers of *Cirsium vulgare*, showing the terminal lobes of one kind and lateral ones of another kind. Figs. 957. Fig. 957. The flowers of *Cirsium vulgare*, showing the terminal lobes of one kind and lateral ones of another kind. Figs. 958. Fig. 958. The flowers of *Cirsium vulgare*, showing the terminal lobes of one kind and lateral ones of another kind. Figs. 959. Fig. 959. The flowers of *Cirsium vulgare*, showing the terminal lobes of one kind and lateral ones of another kind. Figs. 960. Fig. 960. The flowers of *Cirsium vulgare*, showing the terminal lobes of one kind and lateral ones [END OF DOCUMENT] 518 **LEGUMINOSE OR FABACEE.** *albume* absent or present; *embryo* (fig. 14) straight or with the radicle folded upon the cotyledon; *cotyledon* bony or flaky, and without a central cavity. **Diagnosis.** - Herbs, shrubs, or trees. Leaves nearly always alternate, simple, or pinnate; rachis usually regular or irregular. Calyx, 5-cleft, 0-5-parted; odd division anterior. Petals 5, and then often forming a papilionaceous corolla; or fewer by 3-4, and then often forming a corolla papilionaceous, posterior. Stamens distinct, or united into one or more bundles. Varying superiors, simple or lobed; style simple, proceeding from the ventral sinus of the corolla; stamens 5, or 3-4, sometimes a lomentum, and rarely a drupe. Seed1 a mori, with or without albumen. The fruit is either a drupe, or characterized by having papilionaceous corolla or leguminous fruit. **Division of the Order and Examples of the Genera.** - The order has been divided into two sub-orders. Sub-order I. **PAPILIONACEAE.** - Petals solitary so as to form a papilionaceous corolla; stamens 5, or 3-4, united at the upper or odd petal exterior. Examples of the Genus.-Ulica, Tridium, Astragalus, Vicia, Ornithopus, Onobrychis. Sub-order II. **LEGUMINOSAE.** - Petals arranged in a papiionaceous manner, imbricated in insertion, and the upper or odd petal exterior free. Examples of the Genera.-Cassiaopsis, Cassia, Tamarindus. Sub-order III. **Mimosaceae.** - Petals oval, valvate in insertion. Examples of the Genus.-Acacia. **Distributions and Numbers.** - This is very extensive order, and has some 600 genera and about 10000 species distributed. A considerable number of the genera are, however, confined within certain geographical limits, while others have a wide range. As a general rule the Leguminosae are widely distributed, although most abundant in warm regions ; while the Cassiopeae and Mimoseae are more restricted in their distribution. The majority of the latter are also to be found in Australia. There are above 7000 species in this order. **Properties of Leguminosae.** - The properties and uses of the plants of this order are exceedingly variable. Lindley remarks that "the Leguminosae are among the most useful of all the plants that are known, but also one of the most important to man, whether we consider the beauty of the numerous species, which are amongst us almost daily; their value as food for animals of every region; or their applicability to a thousand useful purp- poses." The Leguminosae are represented by many very repre- sident with its myrtoid of purple flowers ; the Acacia, not has values for its airy foliage and elegant blossoms than for its hard wood ; the Sophora for its ornamental foliage ; the Rose- woods of commerce ; the Laburnum ; the classical Cytisus ; the Fume and the Broom ; from the pride of the olive-tree ; the beas, the Foa, the Velich, the Clover, the **LEGUMINOSAE—PAFFILIONACEAE** Trefolil, the Lucerne, all staple articles of culture by the farmer, are so many Leguminous species. The genus is valuable and numerous, and its members are of great importance to agriculture. It is not easy to mention Indigo, the most useful of all dyes, are products of other species; and these may be taken as a general indication of the power of the Leguminous plants to be applied. There is thus, however, to be borne in mind, in regarding the cultivation of any one of these plants, that the whole it must be considered poisonous, and that those species which are used for food by man or animals are excep- tions to this rule. The Leguminous plants are not only under the name of poison, but they are also under such names as being in such instances sufficiently concentrated to prove in- jurious to man or animal, though they may be used by either sugar or starch. In alluding to the properties and uses of the more important plants of this order, we shall take them under three heads. Sub-order I. **PAFFILIONACEAE.—In this sub-order we have included a number of plants which are used as medicinal food by many other animals than man. These include the common Lucerne (Medicago sativa), the common Vetches (Vicia) and Fava (Vicia faba), and the common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris). The seeds of these plants are used by man for food, and under the name of poison, but they are also under such names as being in such instances sufficiently concentrated to prove injurious to man or animal, though they may be used by either sugar or starch. In alluding to the properties and uses of the more important plants of this order, we shall take them under three heads. Sub-order I. **PAFFILIONACEAE.—In this sub-order we have included a number of plants which are used as medicinal food by many other animals than man. These include the common Lucerne (Medicago sativa), the common Vetches (Vicia) and Fava (Vicia faba), and the common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris). The seeds of these plants are used by man for food, and under the name of poison, but they are also under such names as being in such instances sufficiently concentrated to prove injurious to man or animal, though they may be used by either sugar or starch. In alluding to the properties and uses of the more important plants of this order, we shall take them under three heads. Sub-order I. **PAFFILIONACEAE.—In this sub-order we have included a number of plants which are used as medicinal food by many other animals than man. These include the common Lucerne (Medicago sativa), the common Vetches (Vicia) and Fava (Vicia faba), and the common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris). The seeds of these plants are used by man for food, and under the name of poison, but they are also under such names as being in such instances sufficiently concentrated to prove injurious to man or animal, though they may be used by either sugar or starch. In alluding to the properties and uses of the more important plants of this order, we shall take them under three heads. Sub-order I. **PAFFILIONACEAE.—In this sub-order we have included a number of plants which are used as medicinal food by many other animals than man. These include the common Lucerne (Medicago sativa), the common Vetches (Vicia) and Fava (Vicia faba), and the common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris). The seeds of these plants are used by man for food, and under the name of poison, but they are also under such names as being in such instances sufficiently concentrated to prove injurious to man or animal, though they may be used by either sugar or starch. In alluding to the properties and uses of the more important plants of this order, we shall take them under three heads. Sub-order I. **PAFFILIONACEAE.—In this sub-order we have included a number of plants which are used as medicinal food by many other animals than man. These include the common Lucerne (Medicago sativa), the common Vetches (Vicia) and Fava (Vicia faba), and the common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris). The seeds of these plants are used by man for food, and under the name of poison, but they are also under such names as being in such instances sufficiently concentrated to prove injurious to man or animal, though they may be used by either sugar or starch. In alluding to the properties and uses of the more important plants of this order, we shall take them under three heads. Sub-order I. **PAFFILIONACEAE.—In this sub-order we have included a number of plants which are used as medicinal food by many other animals than man. These include the common Lucerne (Medicago sativa), the common Vetches (Vicia) and Fava (Vicia faba), and the common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris). The seeds of these plants are used by man for food, and under the name of poison, but they are also under such names as being in such instances sufficiently concentrated to prove injurious to man or animal, though they may be used by either sugar or starch. In alluding to the properties and uses of the more important plants of this order, we shall take them under three heads. Sub-order I. **PAFFILIONACEAE.—In this sub-order we have included a number of plants which are used as medicinal food by many other animals than man. These include the common Lucerne (Medicago sativa), the common Vetches (Vicia) and Fava (Vicia faba), and the common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris). The seeds of these plants are used by man for food, and under the name of poison, but they are also under such names as being in such instances sufficiently concentrated to prove injurious to man or animal, though they may be used by either sugar or starch. In alluding to the properties and uses of the more important plants of this order, we shall take them under three heads. Sub-order I. **PAFFILIONACEAE.—In this sub-order we have included a number of plants which are used as medicinal food by many other animals than man. These include the common Lucerne (Medicago sativa), the common Vetches (Vicia) and Fava (Vicia faba), and the common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris). The seeds of these plants are used by man for food, and under the name of poison, but they are also under such names as being in such instances sufficiently concentrated to prove injurious to man or animal, though they may be used by either sugar or starch. In alluding to the properties and uses of the more important plants of this order, we shall take them under three heads. Sub-order I. **PAFFILIONACEAE.—In this sub-order we have included a number of plants which are used as medicinal food by many other animals than man. These include the common Lucerne (Medicago sativa), the common Vetches (Vicia) and Fava (Vicia faba), and the common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris). The seeds of these plants are used by man for food, and under the name of poison, but they are also under such names as being in such instances sufficiently concentrated to prove injurious to man or animal, though they may be used by either sugar or starch. In alluding to the properties and uses of the more important plants of this order, we shall take them under three heads. Sub-order I. **PAFFILIONACEAE.—In this sub-order we have included a number of plants which are used as medicinal food by many other animals than man. These include the common Lucerne (Medicago sativa), the common Vetches (Vicia) and Fava (Vicia faba), and the common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris). The seeds of these plants are used by man for food, and under the name of poison, but they are also under such names as being in such instances sufficiently concentrated to prove injurious to man or animal, though they may be used by either sugar or starch. In alluding to the properties and uses of the more important plants of this order, we shall take them under three heads. Sub-order I. **PAFFILIONACEAE.—In this sub-order we have included a number of plants which are used as medicinal food by many other animals than man. These include the common Lucerne (Medicago sativa), the common Vetches (Vicia) and Fava (Vicia faba), and the common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris). The seeds of these plants are used by man for food, and under 530 **LEGUMINOSE—PAPILIONACEE.** upon which the Indians were fed in the wilderness, but such an idea is un- doubtedly erroneous. The *Larix* (the Larix) is a tree of the genus *Larix*, known as Cabbage-bark or Worm- bark, was formerly much used as a medicine by the Indians. The bark, however, is not so efficacious as its large leaves, which are emu- sides, and which has been largely used in later times in cutaneous diseases under the name of *Gum Powder*, also derived from a species of *Larix*, which is not to be confounded with similar plants to that of the former species, if it is known under the name of *Sour Barberry*. *Arbuscra Appacha*. This plant is remarkable for its vigorous growth, under the influence of the sun, and for its great capacity for storing food *Neel*. The seeds are used as food in various parts of the world, and are occa- sionally employed as a medicine. It is mentioned in the *Encyclopaedia* as an article of desert in this country. In the United States the roots are used as a vegetable, and for other purposes. *Tunon* has been advanced groundnuts for the萌ling of seeds, and for other purposes. The seeds yield a good expression of food, and are very extensively used in India for cooking. *Ame* is called *Ame* seed oil, and is used in India for cooking. *Ame* is called *Ame* seed oil, and is used in India for cooking. The oil is extracted from the seeds, and is known commonly as groundnut or seed oil. It is a very useful oil, being rich in fatty acids, and containing albumin and other substances. It is also used for burning and other purposes. It forms a good and cheap substitute for animal fat. **Astragalus—Astragalus.** Aperient, a decoction, and several other species, for- med by the root of this plant, are employed as medicines. The root is generally shredded in the steam upon copper. It is used by manufacturers for effec- tive crops. It is also employed as a medicine. It is also employed as a medicine and as a vehicle for the exhibition of more active substances. Trigonacum contains carotinoids, which are valuable in promoting health. The leaves of this aloë-peonineous plant. The gum which is imported into Bombay from the Persian Gulf is called "Persian Gum." The gum which is obtained from the species of *Astragalus* of Germany. **Baptisia Tinctoria.** This plant is the Wild Indigo of the United States. It contains a substance which gives it its characteristic color. This dyeing although it is of far inferior quality to that substance. The roots and other parts are employed as medicines. The root yields an extract which is emu- sides as indicated by this plant, with that of one or more species of *Bryophyllum* (Mallow-like), to form the American Aver- sion of *Bryophyllum*. The leaves of this plant, which is native of Brazil, are emu- sides as indicated by this plant, with that of one or more species of *Bryophyllum* (Mallow-like), to form the American Aver- sion of *Bryophyllum*. The leaves of this plant, which is native of Brazil, are emu- sides as indicated by this plant, with that of one or more species of *Bryophyllum* (Mallow-like), to form the American Aver- sion of *Bryophyllum*. The leaves of this plant, which is native of Brazil, are emu- sides as indicated by this plant, with that of one or more species of *Bryophyllum* (Mallow-like), to form the American Aver- sion of *Bryophyllum*. The leaves of this plant, which is native of Brazil, are emu- sides as indicated by this plant, with that of one or more species of *Bryophyllum* (Mallow-like), to form the American Aver- sion of *Bryophyllum*. The leaves of this plant, which is native of Brazil, are emu- sides as indicated by this plant, with that of one or more species of *Bryophyllum* (Mallow-like), to form the American Aver- sion of *Bryophyllum*. The leaves of this plant, which is native of Brazil, are emu- sides as indicated by this plant, with that of one or more species of *Bryophyllum* (Mallow-like), to form the American Aver- sion of *Bryophyllum*. The leaves of this plant, which is native of Brazil, are emu- sides as indicated by this plant, with that of one or more species of *Bryophyllum* (Mallow-like), to form the American Aver- sion of *Bryophyllum*. The leaves of this plant, which is native of Brazil, are emu- sides as indicated by this plant, with that of one or more species of *Bryophyllum* (Mallow-like), to form the American Aver- sion of *Bryophyllum*. The leaves of this plant, which is native of Brazil, are emu- sides as indicated by this plant, with that of one or more species of *Bryophyllum* (Mallow-like), to form the American Aver- sion of *Bryophyllum*. The leaves of this plant, which is native of Brazil, are emu- sides as indicated by this plant, with that of one or more species of *Bryophyllum* (Mallow-like), to form the American Aver- sion of *Bryophyllum*. The leaves of this plant, which is native of Brazil, are emu- sides as indicated by this plant, with that of one or more species of *Bryophyllum* (Mallow-like), to form the American Aver- sion of *Bryophyllum*. The leaves of this plant, which is native of Brazil, are emu- sides as indicated by this plant, with that of one or more species of *Bryophyllum* (Mallow-like), to form the American Aver- sion of *Bryophyllum*. The leaves of this plant, which is native of Brazil, are emu- sides as indicated by this plant, with that of one or more species of *Bryophyllum* (Mallow-like), to form the American Aver- sion of *Bryophyllum*. The leaves of this plant, which is native of Brazil, are emu- sides as indicated by this plant, with that of one or more species of *Bryophyllum* (Mallow-like), to form the American Aver- sion of *Bryophyllum*. The leaves of this plant, which is native of Brazil, are emu- sides as indicated by this plant, with that of one or more species of *Bryophyllum* (Mallow-like), to form the American Aver- sion of *Bryophyllum*. The leaves of this plant, which is native of Brazil, are emu- sides as indicated by this plant, with that of one or more species of *Bryophyllum* (Mallow-like), to form the American Aver- sion 530 LEGUMINOSE - PAPILIONACEAE. 521 known under the name of Pales ovovide. The seeds of the same plant are also highly esteemed as a vermifuge in India; and from these seeds the oil known as "Palm Oil" is prepared. The leaves are used in the preparation of the medicine called "Bengal Oil," which is obtained by boiling the leaves with water. The substance known as "sudan" is also derived from the tree, and is used in the preparation of medicines. The leaves are also used in the preparation of medicinal oils, and the leaves are employed in the preparation of medicinal oils, and in dyeing. A common name for this plant is "Cassia." It is a very valuable plant, and is much cultivated in India. Bay Chastetree. Chick Peas - Bengali Gram. The seeds are very largely used in India as food for cattle, etc. An seed liquid caudus from the tree is used in the preparation of medicines. The leaves are used in the countries of India. Indian Chastetree. The seeds of this Indian chaste have been used with success as a purgative. Cassia - Cassia officinalis. The leaves have been employed on the Continent to adulate Alexandrian Scents. They are at once dis- tinguished by their peculiar odour, and by their appearance. Cassia Eucalyptus has aromatic leaves. They have been used to adulterate Sassafras, and to give a false impression of the quality of French Sassafras. Candlaria jamaica is an Indian plant which furnishes a coarse fibre called Nane, Sea, Shrewn, Tong, Hemp, Hemp, etc. In Bombay and Madras it is grown for its fibre, which is used for making rope (see "Cannabis sativa"). Another Indian plant, now grown extensively in Europe (see "Cannabis sativa"), is known as "Candlaria jamaica." Cuphea. The leaves of some species of this genus are used as salutati- tive (see "Cuphea hyssopifolia"). Cuphea hyssopifolia is a very fine flower. Cupua - Tucum and Bubu Tucum. According to Henry C. Greenough and others, these plants are used in the preparation of medicines. They are also employed as stimulants. Daleppera - Several species of this genus are good timber trees. The wood is very light and soft, and is used for making boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes, boxes. Diospyros - The seeds of D. obovata a native of Guinea have a very powerful odour; they are used for making perfumes and medicines. They are used for making scenting oils and perfume; and are commonly employed in the preparation of medicines. The leaves are also present in other plants of this sub-order; as to the seeds and flowers of Melodendron (see "Melodendron") and to those of Diospyros (see "Diospyros"). Diospyros - These are the Diospyros of the Monocotyledonous Plants; they yield a Garden Nettles. The Dyer's Broom yields a good yellow dye; or when used with other substances it yields a brown dye; see "Garden Nettles." Giraffa sericea - G. giraffa; and other species; hence plants which yield a yellow dye; see "Giraffa sericea." Glycine - Glycine officinalis; and other species; hence plants which yield a yellow dye; see "Glycine officinalis." Glycine officinalis - This plant yields a yellow dye; see "Glycine officinalis." Glycine officinalis - This plant yields a yellow dye; see "Glycine officinalis." Glycine officinalis - This plant yields a yellow dye; see "Glycine officinalis." Glycine officinalis - This plant yields a yellow dye; see "Glycine officinalis." Glycine officinalis - This plant yields a yellow dye; see "Glycine officinalis." Glycine officinalis - This plant yields a yellow dye; see "Glycine officinalis." Glycine officinalis - This plant yields a yellow dye; see "Glycine officinalis." Glycine officinalis - This plant yields a yellow dye; see "Glycine officinalis." Glycine officinalis - This plant yields a yellow dye; see "Glycine officinalis." Glycine officinalis - This plant yields a yellow dye; see "Glycine officinalis." Glycine officinalis - This plant yields a yellow dye; see "Glycine officinalis." Glycine officinalis - This plant yields a yellow dye; see "Glycine officinalis." Glycine officinalis - This plant yields a yellow dye; see "Glycine officinalis." Glycine officinalis - This plant yields a yellow dye; see "Glycine officinalis." Glycine officinalis - This plant yields a yellow dye; see "Glycine officinalis." Glycine officinalis - This plant yields a yellow dye; see "Glycine officinalis." Glycine officinalis - This plant yields a yellow dye; see "Glycine officinalis." Glycine officinalis - This plant yields a yellow dye; see "Glycine officinalis." Glycine officinalis - This plant yields a yellow dye; see "Glycine officinalis." Glycine officinalis - This plant yields a yellow dye; see "Glycine officinalis." Glycine officinalis - This plant yields a yellow dye; see "Glycine officinalis." Glycine officinalis - This plant yields a yellow dye; see "Glycine officinalis." Glycine officinalis - This plant yields a yellow dye; see "Glycine officinalis." Glycine officinalis - This plant yields a yellow dye; see "Glycine officinalis." Glycine officinalis - This plant yields a yellow dye; see "Glycine officinalis." Glycine officinalis - This plant yields a yellow dye; see "Glycine officinalis." Glycine officinalis - This plant yields a yellow dye; see "Glycine officina 322 LEGUMINOSAE—PAPILIONACEAE. obtained. The Spanish jute is prepared from G. platyos, the Italian from G. italicus, and the Chinese from G. chinensis. All these plants abound in flavonoid substances, and for their delicious and excellent properties. Veratrum album, a plant of the lily family, is also used under the name of jute liquorice. Paeonia lactiflora, species of hawthorn, and Sambucus nigra, are employed in gouty affections, but its value in such diseases is by no means well established. **Lecocarpus arborescens** —The seeds are commonly known under the name of Lecocarpus, which have been collected during the earlier periods on account of their supposed medicinal virtues. It is probable that some of these seeds may be to be the source of the infirmity of the same name (Lecocarpus and Tridacnus). **Mimosa pudica** —The flowers and seeds of this and other species possess a peculiar fragrant virtue, which is due to the presence of Camphor. They are employed in the treatment of neuralgia, and are also used for greting. **Moringa oleifera** —The leaves containing the Legume of M. oleifera or M. pterocarpa, a native of the East and West Indies, are sometimes used as a medicinal stimulant, but they are not generally employed in this country. The use of this root of M. oleifera has been also employed in India as a remedy for cholera. The common black bean (Vicia faba) is a vegetable belonging to the stem legume family Fabaceae. **Myoporum laetum** —Bulbosa of Tobago is obtained from the stem of Myoporum Tuberiforme (Tuberosa Bulbosa), by incision. It possesses a stimulant effect upon the nervous system, and is employed in neuralgic affections. It is also employed in perfumery, and as an ingredient in some liquors. **Nerium oleander** —A native of the Indian Coast of the State of San Salvador, in Central America, this plant is employed in perfumery. The leaves of the bark have been first beaten and chewed by the application of lighted tobacco or tobacco smoke, and then applied to the affected parts. The Persea has similar properties in Halimod of Tobo, but it is far less frequently employed than the other two plants mentioned above. **Oenothera biennis** —This plant is a native of North America, and is one of the most beautiful flowers in Europe. The seeds are occasionally eaten in the Highlands of Scotland. **Papaver somniferum** —Calabar Bean—the seeds of this plant have been known to be used as a narcotic for many ages; but they have been taken from their use in this country for trial by ordeal. They are very poisonous, acting as a narcotic on the brain and nerves. The seeds have been introduced into the British Pharmacopoeia, and in the form of an extract, which is employed as a local application to the eye to cause contraction of the pupil. The **LEGUMINOSAE — PAPILIOIDEACEAE** *seeds, fr., have also been administered internally in tetanus, chorea, and some other nervous affections; and also in the treatment of strychnosis.* *The seeds of the genus *Papilionum*, which is commonly named *P. cyaneum*, do not differ in any very important characters from *P. vulgaris*. The two species are, however, distinctly distinct. Both kinds of seeds are found in the Calabria State of commerce. *Papilionum* is a favourite plant in India in therapeutics, and several cutaneous dis- eases—*Papulose*—are treated with it. The leaves are used in China as a substitute for *Perilla frutescens*. *Papilionum*—*Moringa* is the source of our official *Kina*. This is a kind of tree which grows wild in the East Indies, and is cultivated in the ships on Sumatra. It is a valuable and powerful astringent.—*P. eri- coides* is a native of the East Indies, and is used in India for the same purpose as *Moringa*. *P. odoratissimum*, or *Sweet Scented Wood*, is obtained from *P. odorata*. *P. odorata* is a native of the East Indies, and is used in India for the same purpose as *Moringa*. *P. odorata* is obtained from *P. odorata*. It is used in medicine to a considerable extent, and is employed for the production of red and scarlet dye. It contains a peculiar stimulating matter, which has been supposed to be the cause of its odour. *P. odorata* and the *Andaman Red Wood* are both obtained from *P. odorata*. It is a valuable timber tree, and is also used as a dye-wood. The wood of this tree is used by the Chinese for making yellow—*P. jamaica* is one of the plants from which the Dragon's Blood of commerce is obtained. It is a native of Jamaica, and is called the Lion Dragon. The true Dragon's blood is yielded by species of *Astrau- m*. *Reddish Pseudocarpea* is the North American Locust-tree. It is fre- quently cut down for its timber, which is hard, strong, durable, and durable wood. *Sambucus*, s.-species of *Cephalia acerina*, is the common broom ; the seeds and twigs in small doses are diuretic and laxative, and in large doses are purgative; but they are not so powerful as those from the Spanish Broom, which have similar properties. The flowers have also been used medicinally; but they are not so efficacious as those from a species of clove (of which see under that head). The flowers are also used as a source of colouring matter. *Spike Laurel* or *Cyperus Giganteus*. The seeds are chiefly used in China. In Japan, however, they are employed as food; and in Europe they are used, and by us as known as *Jop*. The seeds are also consumed in immense quantities in South America. *Naphria japonica*. The dried flower-buds are extensively used in China for the treatment of tetanus. *Tetrapodium Apodinum* and *T. meconium* are used in Africa for the prepara- tion of a medicine against tetanus; but these plants are not, certi- tually *T. meconium*, as employed at such points. They strip up the fish, which they eat alive; and it appears that their diet may be so good, that T. meconium would act on the human system like Digitalis, and hence be useful as an emetic; but it does not appear that this plant can be a native. The leaves of T. Apodinum are sometimes employed as a remedy for tetanus; but I am not aware that it has really dis- tinguished from Senna because of their silky or silvery appearance, and by being employed as an emetic. *Tropaeolum Goweri*. The powdered seeds of this plant are used in treatment of tetanus; but I am not aware that it has ever been employed as an ingredient of curry powder; and for the flavoing, as it seems con- siderable quantities of it are employed in India for medicinal purposes both as food and medicine ; whilst the fresh plant is consumed as a vegetable. A small image of a plant.524 LEGUMINOSE—CERALPINIEN. Tropaeolum. The true Rowood of cabinet-makers, which is imported from Brazil, is a species of Tropaeolum, but this is now said to be derived from a species of *Aristolochia*. It is called *Rowood* by the Portuguese, and *Fraduim* by the French. The seeds of this plant resemble those of the *Anchus* hypocynus being black, round and catenate at their base. Their native name in Siam is *Godee*. Sulphur-wood (Bauhinia). This tree is very remarkable for its purgative properties. Many important dyspepsia cases have been cured by its use, and it is also used in the treatment of leprosy. The leaves and seeds are both emetic and purgative, and many persons have evident improvement after taking them. **Bauhinia** stipulata, a native of Sierra Leone and other parts of Africa, furnishes the wood known under the name of *Bauhinia* or *Camwood*. This wood produces a brilliant red colour. **Bauhinia** purpurea, a native of India, which is used as making ropes. **B. retusa** produces a kind of gum. **B. serrata**, a native of China, produces a beautiful yellow wood, and **B. thunbergii**, a native of Japan, produces a beautiful yellow and drying leather. The buds and dried flowers of all these trees are also medicinal, but the leaves are not so much used as the species of *Bauhinia* grown in Brazil for their medicinal properties. **Ceratonia** siliqua (L.) Medlar. This tree is very useful in medicine. Its fruits are very bitter and are used in the treatment of dyspepsia; but they are very inferior to them; they are called *Pappus*. The powdered bark is used in the treatment of dyspepsia, as well as in that of jaundice, as a stimulant and antiperiodic. **C. siliqua** furnishes the Pappus, Buckwheat, or Buckwheat-leaves. **Corylus** avellana (L.) Hazel. The bark of this tree is used in medicine, under the name of Yellow wood and Sappan Wood. The leaves are used in medicine under the name of Hazel-leaves. The bark contains tannin, which is used in medicine as a purgative; but it is also a useful analgesic, notwithstanding Rowood in its effects is chiefly employed for Laxatives. **Corylus** cornuta (L.) grows wild in the north-eastern part of Europe; it is used in medicine under the name of Hazel-leaves; it produces a yellow dye, from which Brazil-wood is made; it is also employed as a dyeing yellow; rose-wood, which produces red wood and orange colour; the exact species for which it is used cannot be determined with certainty; but it has been sometimes mistaken for *Corylus* avellana. **Castanea** sativa. The leaves of this genus are generally characterized by purgative properties. The leaves of several species furnish the different varieties of Rowood; but the most valuable variety is that furnished by the British Phosphoreum, which is derived from Castanea dulcis Linn., or Chestnut-tree. This tree is found in Europe and Asia Minor; it was introduced into England about 1600 A.D., and was cultivated there by the Romans; it was afterwards much adulterated with the leaves, galls, &c., of other plants. The Common Chestnut (Castanea Mill.) grows wild in Europe and Asia Minor; it was introduced into England about 1600 A.D., and was cultivated there by the Romans; it was afterwards much adulterated with the leaves, galls, &c., of other plants. The Common Chestnut (Castanea Mill.) grows wild in Europe and Asia Minor; it was introduced into England about 1600 A.D., and was cultivated there by the Romans; it was afterwards much adulterated with the leaves, galls, &c., of other plants. The Common Chestnut (Castanea Mill.) grows wild in Europe and Asia Minor; it was introduced into England about 1600 A.D., and was cultivated there by the Romans; it was afterwards much adulterated with the leaves, galls, &c., of other plants. The Common Chestnut (Castanea Mill.) grows wild in Europe and Asia Minor; it was introduced into England about 1600 A.D., and was cultivated there by the Romans; it was afterwards much adulterated with the leaves, galls, &c., of other plants. The Common Chestnut (Castanea Mill.) grows wild in Europe and Asia Minor; it was introduced into England about 1600 A.D., and was cultivated there by the Romans; it was afterwards much adulterated with the leaves, galls, &c., of other plants. The Common Chestnut (Castanea Mill.) grows wild in Europe and Asia Minor; it was introduced into England about 1600 A.D., and was cultivated there by the Romans; it was afterwards much adulterated with the leaves, galls, &c., of other plants. The Common Chestnut (Castanea Mill.) grows wild in Europe and Asia Minor; it was introduced into England about 1600 A.D., and was cultivated there by the Romans; it was afterwards much adulterated with the leaves, galls, &c., of other plants. The Common Chestnut (Castanea Mill.) grows wild in Europe and Asia Minor; it was introduced into England about 1600 A.D., and was cultivated there by the Romans; it was afterwards much adulterated with the leaves, galls, &c., of other plants. The Common Chestnut (Castanea Mill.) grows wild in Europe and Asia Minor; it was introduced into England about 1600 A.D., and was cultivated there by the Romans; it was afterwards much adulterated with the leaves, galls, &c., of other plants. The Common Chestnut (Castanea Mill.) grows wild in Europe and Asia Minor; it was introduced into England about 1600 A.D., and was cultivated there by the Romans; it was afterwards much adulterated with the leaves, galls, &c., of other plants. The Common Chestnut (Castanea Mill.) grows wild in Europe and Asia Minor; it was introduced into England about 1600 A.D., and was cultivated there by the Romans; it was afterwards much adulterated with the leaves, galls, &c., of other plants. The Common Chestnut (Castanea Mill.) grows wild in Europe and Asia Minor; it was introduced into England about 1600 A.D., and was cultivated there by the Romans; it was afterwards much adulterated with the leaves, galls, &c., of other plants. The Common Chestnut (Castanea Mill.) grows wild in Europe and Asia Minor; it was introduced into England about 1600 A.D., and was cultivated there by the Romans; it was afterwards much adulterated with the leaves, galls, &c., of other plants. The Common Chestnut (Castanea Mill.) grows wild in Europe and Asia Minor; it was introduced into England about 1600 A.D., and was cultivated there by the Romans; it was afterwards much adulterated with the leaves, galls, &c., of other plants. The Common Chestnut (Castanea Mill.) grows wild in Europe and Asia Minor; it was introduced into England about 1600 A.D., and was cultivated there by the Romans; it was afterwards much adulterated with the leaves, galls, &c., of other plants. The Common Chestnut (Castanea Mill.) grows wild in Europe and Asia Minor; it was introduced into England about 1600 A.D., and was cultivated there by the Romans; it was afterwards much adulterated with the leaves, galls, &c., of other plants. The Common Chestnut (Castanea Mill.) grows wild in Europe and Asia Minor; it was introduced into England about 1600 A.D., and was cultivated there by the Romans; it was afterwards much adulterated with the leaves, galls, &c., of other plants. The Common Chestnut (Castanea Mill.) grows wild in Europe and Asia Minor; it was introduced into England about 1600 A.D., and was cultivated there by the Romans; it was afterwards much adulterated with the leaves, galls, &c., of other plants. The Common Chestnut (Castanea Mill.) grows wild in Europe and Asia Minor; it was introduced into England about 1600 A.D., and was cultivated there by the Romans; it was afterwards much adulterated with the leaves, galls, &c., of other plants. The Common Chestnut (Castanea Mill.) grows wild in Europe and Asia Minor; it was introduced into England about 1600 A.D., and was cultivated there by the Romans; it was afterwards much adulterated with the leaves, galls, &c., of other plants. The Common Chestnut (Castanea Mill.) grows wild in Europe and Asia Minor; it was introduced into England about 1600 A.D., and was cultivated there by the Romans; it was afterwards much adulterated with the leaves, galls, &c., of other plants. The Common Chestnut (Castanea Mill.) grows wild in Europe and Asia Minor; it was introduced into England about 1600 A.D., and was cultivated there by the Romans; it was afterwards much adulterated with the leaves, galls, &c., of other plants. The Common Chestnut (Castanea Mill.) grows wild in Europe and Asia Minor; it was introduced into England about 1600 A.D., and was cultivated there by the Romans; it was afterwards much adulterated with the leaves, galls, &c., of other plants. The Common Chestnut (Castanea Mill.) grows wild in Europe and Asia Minor; it **LEBENIMONE—CERALPININE.** 815 815 horseshoe (C. prunoides) has a larger, longer, and rougher fruit, which also possesses a more bitter taste than the common fruit. It is native to Persia, and is known as Horse Cassia. The fruit of C. montana is the small domestic Cassia, which is used in the same way as the common fruit. The small pod has similar properties to the two former, but is much morestringent. The bark of C. montana is used in medicine, and is employed in the preparation of tincture of tannin. The leaves are used in the preparation of tanning leather. It has also been used instead of oak bark in the preparation of tincture of tannin. The seeds are used in medicine, and are employed for ap- plication in certain forms of ophthalmia. The flowers are also used for dye- ing yellow cloth. The leaves of C. monosperma are used in Egypt as a remedy in ophthalmia. They are also employed for the similar purpose in India, and are said to be very efficacious. The leaves in the East Indies and elsewhere have a local application in skin diseases; and they are also employed for the treatment of leprosy. The fruit has no apparent similar properties. The ripe fruit is known under the names of Cassia, Lucus, etc., by John's River. Its pulp has a very sweet taste, and is sup- posed to be a remedy for scurvy. The seeds contain about 3 per cent. of sugar, while a dried fruit, and upwards of 1 per cent. of tannin. The leaves contain about 0-7 per cent. of sugar, and 1 per cent. of oil. Hence it is especially adapted for fattening purposes, and may be considered as a valuable food stuff. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) Benth. Cassia odorata (L.) 815815815815815815815815815815815815815815815815815815815815815815815815815815815815815815815815815815815815815815815815 Dulichium indica Linné fruit called the Tamarind Fruit, the pulp of which contains a large quantity of sugar, somewhat resembling that of the common Tamarind. [See Dulichium.] Gomphrena globosa Linné is a plant with very bitter, and possessant taste and antiseptic properties. There are official uses for this plant in medicine, and it is employed as an anti- malarious fever, &c. The seeds are also used for mastics, resins, &c. The leaf is used as a diuretic. Hemipteris compressa Willd.—The heart wood is employed in dying, and the bark is used as a diuretic. Hemipteris compressa Willd.—The heart wood is employed in dying, and the bark is used as a diuretic. Hemipteris compressa Willd.—The heart wood is employed in dying, and the bark is used as a diuretic. Hemipteris compressa Willd.—The heart wood is employed in dying, and the bark is used as a diuretic. Hemipteris compressa Willd.—The heart wood is employed in dying, and the bark is used as a diuretic. Hemipteris compressa Willd.—The heart wood is employed in dying, and the bark is used as a diuretic. Hemipteris compressa Willd.—The heart wood is employed in dying, and the bark is used as a diuretic. Hemipteris compressa Willd.—The heart wood is employed in dying, and the bark is used as a diuretic. Hemipteris compressa Willd.—The heart wood is employed in dying, and the bark is used as a diuretic. Hemipteris compressa Willd.—The heart wood is employed in dying, and the bark is used as a diuretic. Hemipteris compressa Willd.—The heart wood is employed in dying, and the bark is used as a diuretic. Hemipteris compressa Willd.—The heart wood is employed in dying, and the bark is used as a diuretic. Hemipteris compressa Willd.—The heart wood is employed in dying, and the bark is used as a diuretic. Hemipteris compressa Willd.—The heart wood is employed in dying, and the bark is used as a diuretic. Hemipteris compressa Willd.—The heart wood is employed in dying, and the bark is used as a diuretic. Hemipteris compressa Willd.—The heart wood is employed in dying, and the bark is used as a diuretic. Hemipteris compressa Willd.—The heart wood is employed in dying, and the bark is used as a diuretic. Hemipteris compressa Willd.—The heart wood is employed in dying, and the bark is used as a diuretic. Hemipteris compressa Willd.—The heart wood is employed in dying, and the bark is used as a diuretic. Hemipteris compressa Willd.—The heart wood is employed in dying, and the bark is used as a diuretic. Hemipteris compressa Willd.—The heart wood is employed in dying, and the bark is used as a diuretic. Hemipteris compressa Willd.—The heart wood is employed in dying, and the bark is used as a diuretic. Hemipteris compressa Willd.—The heart wood is employed in dying, and the bark is used as a diuretic. Hemipteris compressa Willd.—The heart wood is employed in dying, and the bark is used as a diuretic. Hemipteris compressa Willd.—The heart wood is employed in dying, and the bark is used as a diuretic. Hemipteris compressa Willd.—The heart wood is employed in dying, and the bark is used as a diuretic. Hemipteris compressa Willd.—The heart wood is employed in dying, and the bark is used as a diuretic. Hemipteris compressa Willd.—The heart wood is employed in dying, and the bark is used as a diuretic. Hemipteris compressa Willd.—The heart wood is employed in dying, and the bark is used as a diuretic. Hemipteris compressa Willd.—The heart wood is employed in dying, and the bark is used as a diuretic. Hemipteris compressa Willd.—The heart wood is employed in dying, and the bark is used as a diuretic. Hemipteris compressa Willd.—The heart wood is employed in dying, and the bark is used as a diuretic. Hemipteris compressa Willd.—The heart wood is employed in dying, and the bark is used as a diuretic. Hemipteris compressa Willd.—The heart wood is employed in dying, and the bark is used as a diuretic. Hemipteris compressa Willd.—The heart wood is employed in dying, and the bark is used as a diuretic. Hemipteris compressa Willd.—The heart wood is employed in dying, and the bark is used as a diuretic. Hemipteris compressa Willd.—The heart wood is employed in dying, and the bark is used as a diuretic. Hemipteris compressa Willd.—The heart wood is employed in dying, and the bark is used as a diuretic. Hemipteris compressa Willd.—The heart wood is employed in dying, and the bark 580 **LEBOMINORUS—MIMOCRUS** Some of the East Indian Copaí is, however, probably obtained from H. me- naceus; Mexican Copaí (Copaifera mexicana) is derived from a species of Hemaceae. (See Coniferae and Podophyllaceae.) The inner bark of H. Copaifera is used by the natives of the West Indies for making a kind of plantain seed, which is applied to the skin in cases of scurvy. The outer plant is employed in a merely substanial, which is sweet and pleasant in the taste, and is used by the natives of the West Indies as a substitute for water, and subsequently allowed to undergo fermentation, an intoxicating beverage, which is called "Copaí" or "Copaí de Cura." The inner bark, under the name of Locust-wood, is used by ship-carpenters. Many species of Copaí are cultivated in India, but none of the native of Guinea furnishes the Wood most employed largely for ship-building. The bark is separated from the wood by the Portuguese. Pterocarpus sellowianus—Useful trees are obtained from the stems of this plant. *Pterocarpus sellowianus.*—The roots are said to be tonic, and the leaves to be purgative. In South America, the Bull-tree, a native of Guiana, yields a hard and tough wood, which is employed in ship-building. *Tamarindus indica.*—The fruit is the well-known Tamarind. It con- tains an albuminous substance, which when preserved in sugar, or in its pure state, is employed medicinally in the pre- paration of tamarind tea. (See Tamarind.) Podophyllum peltatum.—Kirby has shown that P. mimosoides in the botanical sense is identical with P. peltatum. This plant is known as "the Tree Coal." He also believes that the Coal known in the English market as "Anilite" is really a variety of this plant. *Pterocarpus indicus.*—This tree furnishes a wood which is supposed to be the produce of extinct forests but probably derived originally from the same parent stock as that of the Copaí. The wood of this tree was brought to England by Sir Thomas Cavendish on his voyage round the world in 1587. It was introduced into Brazil about 1630. The wood of this tree is very similar to that of Copaí. *Pterocarpus indicus.*—The wood of this tree is very similar to that of Copaí. *Pterocarpus indicus.*—The wood of this tree is very similar to that of Copaí. *Pterocarpus indicus.*—The wood of this tree is very similar to that of Copaí. *Pterocarpus indicus.*—The wood of this tree is very similar to that of Copaí. *Pterocarpus indicus.*—The wood of this tree is very similar to that of Copaí. *Pterocarpus indicus.*—The wood of this tree is very similar to that of Copaí. *Pterocarpus indicus.*—The wood of this tree is very similar to that of Copaí. *Pterocarpus indicus.*—The wood of this tree is very similar to that of Copaí. *Pterocarpus indicus.*—The wood of this tree is very similar to that of Copaí. *Pterocarpus indicus.*—The wood of this tree is very similar to that of Copaí. *Pterocarpus indicus.*—The wood of this tree is very similar to that of Copaí. *Pterocarpus indicus.*—The wood of this tree is very similar to that of Copaí. *Pterocarpus indicus.*—The wood of this tree is very similar to that of Copaí. *Pterocarpus indicus.*—The wood of this tree is very similar to that of Copaí. *Pterocarpus indicus.*—The wood of this tree is very similar to that of Copaí. *Pterocarpus indicus.*—The wood of this tree is very similar to that of Copaí. *Pterocarpus indicus.*—The wood of this tree is very similar to that of Copaí. *Pterocarpus indicus.*—The wood of this tree is very similar to that of Copaí. *Pterocarpus indicus.*—The wood of this tree is very similar to that of Copaí. *Pterocarpus indicus.*—The wood of this tree is very similar to that of Copaí. *Pterocarpus indicus.*—The wood of this tree is very similar to that of Copaí. *Pterocarpus indicus.*—The wood of this tree is very similar to that of Copaí. *Pterocarpus indicus.*—The wood of this tree is very similar to that of Copaí. *Pterocarpus indicus.*—The wood of this tree is very similar to that of Copaí. *Pterocarpus indicus.*—The wood of this tree is very similar to that of Copaí. *Pterocarpus indicus.*—The wood of this tree is very similar to that of Copaí. *Pterocarpus indicus.*—The wood of this tree is very similar to that of Copaí. *Pterocarpus indicus.*—The wood of this tree is very similar to that of Copaí. *Pterocarpus indicus.*—The wood of this tree is very similar to that of Copaí. *Pterocarpus indicus.*—The wood of this tree is very similar to that of Copaí. *Pterocarpus indicus.*—The wood of this tree is very similar to that of Copaí. *Pterocarpus indicus.*—The wood of this tree is very similar to that of Copaí. *Pterocarpus indicus.*—The wood of this tree is very similar to that of Copaí. *Pterocarpus indicis.* 581 **Araucaria** Araucaria species furnish a great yield, upon which the economy towns and villages depend. The seeds are gathered at the time when they are collected, and some appear to be exported from Arabia. The more important species are: Kurdukaar, Pickled Gum, or White Senega Gum, which is derived from A. Saragam Ficus (Ficus Saragam). It grows in India and Ceylon. It yields a Tannin or Tannin Gum, from A. stenopetala and A. Sargam Dulia var. Flesiata; Boswellia serrata; B. Serrata; B. Serrata var. Flesiata; B. Serrata var. Capa; Gum, principally from A. berberis (A. capa); East India Gum, from A. madagascariensis; A. madagascariensis var. Flesiata; A. madagascariensis var. Araucaria cunninghamii; A. cunninghamii var. Flesiata; A. cunninghamii var. Araucaria cunninghamii; A. cunninghamii var. Flesiata; A. cunninghamii var. Araucaria cunninghamii; A. cunninghamii var. Flesiata; A. cunninghamii var. Araucaria cunninghamii; A. cunninghamii var. Flesiata; A. cunninghamii var. Araucaria cunninghamii; A. cunninghamii var. Flesiata; A. cunninghamii var. Araucaria cunninghamii; A. cunninghamii var. Flesiata; A. cunninghamii var. Araucaria cunninghamii; A. cunninghamii var. Flesiata; A. cunninghamii var. Araucaria cunninghamii; A. cunninghamii var. Flesiata; A. cunninghamii var. Araucaria cunninghamii; A. cunninghamii var. Flesiata; A. cunninghamii var. Araucaria cunninghamii; A. cunninghamii var. Flesiata; A. cunninghamii var. Araucaria cunninghamii; A. cunninghamii var. Flesiata; A. cunninghamii var. Araucaria cunninghamii; A. cunninghamii var. Flesiata; A. cunninghamii var. Araucaria cunninghamii; A. cunninghamii var. Flesiata; A. cunninghamii var. Araucaria cunninghamii; A. cunninghamii var. Flesiata; A. cunninghamii var. Araucaria cunninghamii; A. cunninghamii var. Flesiata; A. cunninghamii var. Araucaria cunninghamii; A. cunninghamii var. Flesiata; A. cunninghamii var. Araucaria cunninghamii; A. cunninghamii var. Flesiata; A. cunninghamii var. Araucaria cunninghamii; A. cunninghamii var. Flesiata; A. cunninghamii var. Araucaria cunninghamii; A. cunninghamii var. Flesiata; A. cunninghamii var. Araucaria cunninghamii; A. cunninghamii var. Flesiata; A. cunninghamii var. Araucaria cunninghamii; A. cunninghamii var. Flesiata; A. cunninghamii var. Araucaria cunninghamii; A. cunninghamii var. Flesiata; A. cunninghamii var. Araucaria cunninghamii; A. cunninghamii var. Flesiata; A. cunninghamii var. Araucaria cunninghamiii **MORINGACEAE.** 437 Babakal and also used by farmers on account of their antiseptic proper- ties. The bark of *A. arborescens* is similar to that of *Babakal*, a native of India, and is used exter- nally in the treatment of scurvy. The bark of several species of *Moringa* is used in the East Indies for various similar medicinal properties. The extract of the bark of *A. oleifera*, an Australian species, is very frequently imported into this country for this purpose. This bark is also used in the preparation of Cacao. Cacao is a very hard, tough, and durable wood, of a dull red colour, called Cacao-bark, and is extensively used in the construction of buildings, especially in the Crystal Palace in Hyde Park, at the Great Exhibition in 1851, and which contained a large number of articles made from this wood. The wood is very fragrant, and when distilled with water or spirits, yields a delicious taste. It is said that the wood was first discovered by the Portuguese, who found it to be the Nut-tree or Shittim-wood of the Bible. By others, however, the name Cacao is derived from the word "Cacau," which means "to eat." The bark is very hard. The bark is probably coloured red by the presence of a substance which produces a dye-wood, called Red Sandal-wood. This must not be confounded with the Red Sandal-wood and Red Sandal-wood (Santalum album), which are two different species, under the name of Barberton woods, are used in the northern parts of South Africa for making furniture and other articles. The wood of these trees has a bright red colour. **Cacau-bark** or **Cacao-bark**. The Name Tree of Western Africa. -The bark, under the name of "ordinary back" or "down bark," is met in certain parts of Africa and America. It is used in medicine as a stimulant and as a diuretic, as are, according to a test of its immersion or bruise. It is also used for making cordial drinks, such as "Cacau," "Cacao," "Cacau Cordial," "Choco," and Macoum Bark. It has been lately recommended as a remedial agent, and has been found to possess some valuable qualities, but it does not have marked results. **Powdered bark**. The leaves of *P. pinnata* and some other species are very vergenting, and have been used in taming under the name of Alparguassu. The leaves are used in South America as a stimulant; they are also used in America, &c., have a sweetish taste, resembling the Cardamom (Cuminum sulphuratum). They are also used in South America as a stimulant under the name of Alparguassu; and a drink called Chico is also prepared from them. The name of Chico is derived from the word "chico," which means "little." These leaves are commonly applied in South America to several fermented drinks. The leaves are also used in South America to make a kind of tea, which is largely used for feeding cattle in Arizona. A gum also comes from the leaves, resembling that obtained from the leaves of *Elaeocarpus umbellatus* and Arizona medicinals, and for technical purposes. Natural Order 61. MORINGACEAE.--The Moringa or Bean-nut Order--contains plants having alternate leaves, simple or compound, leathery, and deciduous; clustered stipules. Flowers white, irregular. Sepals and petals 6 each; the former deciduous, petaloid, and furnished with glands; the latter deciduous or persistent. Stamens 8 or 10, placed on the disk lining the tube of the calyx; two in whorls, the outer ones opposite sepals; three or four stamens included; four stamens superior, 1-inferior, with 3 parallel placentae. Fruit long, pod-shaped, caparicel, 1-inodil, 3-valved, with loc- culi divided into two chambers. **Distribution and Numbers**.--Natives of the East Indies and Arabia. There is only one genus (*Moringa*), and 4 species. 4 **428** **BORACEA.** **Properties and Use.—Pungent and slightly aromatic proper- ties more or less prevalent in plants of the order, hence they have been employed as stimulants.** **Morisia pergamena.—The root resembles that of Hederinum in its taste and odour, but is much more pungent than the latter, and locally when fresh, as a relish, is very potent. A kind of gum resembling gum arabic is obtained from the bark. The seeds are called in France Pois Quarréans and Chiot, and in England Seed oats. The leaves are used by painters, and also by perfumers and washmakers. The wood has been supposed to possess, by authority, to be the gum opium of the old materia medica writers. **Natural Order 82. BORACEAE.—The Rose Order—Character.** Trees, shrubs, or herbs, with opposite simple leaves, compound (figs. 373), alternate (figs. 284), usually stipulate (figs. 303 and 373). Flowers regular, generally hermaphrodite (figs. 935—938), rarely unisexual (figs. 939—941). Stamens numerous (figs. 935—938), with a disk either lining the tube or surrounding the orifice, 4-6. Fig. 965. Fig. 966. **Fig. 965. Diagram of the flower of a species of Eive, with five stamens, five petals, one ovary, and many stamens excepting one. Fig. 966. Vertical section of the flower.** or-lobed, when I the odd lobe posterior (fig. 930), sometimes surrounded by a whorl of bracts forming an involucre or spiky leaf (figs. 411—412); or lobed into three or five equal parts (figs. 940). Stamina definite (fig. 940) or numerous, perigynous (figs. 935—938); filaments united at base, anther oblong or linear-oblong longitudinally. Ovaries 1 (figs. 940), 2, 5, or numerous (figs. 935 and 936). 1-celled (figs. 940 and 943), usually sporoparous and superimposed on each other; or two-celled (figs. 940), the cells con- bined together, and with the tube of the calyx, and thus be- coming filiform (figs. 940—942); or three-celled (figs. 940), lateral (figs. 933), or terminal (figs. 907); an ovule 1 (fig. 943) or few (figs. 938). Fruit various, either a drupe (figs. 688—690), Watermark BORACAE. 529 an sphaenum, a follicle, a dry or succulent sterio (figs. 656 and 720), a synarbolium (fig. 449), or a poma (figs. 668 and 714). A pod (fig. 450) is a fruit (fig. 468), exalbuminous ; em- bryo straight, with flat cotyledon. Fig. 940. Fig. 938. Fig. 912. Fig. 910. Fig. 943. Fig. 957. Fig. 941. A diagram showing the vertical section of the flower of the Peach. Fig. 957. Vertical section of the flower of the Peach.—Fig. 958. Vertical section of the flower of the Peach, with part of the filament of a species of Rubus.—Fig. 960. Lateral view of the flower of the Peach, with part of the filament of a species of Rubus.—Fig. 961. Vertical section of the flower of the Peach, with part of the filament of a species of Rubus.—Fig. 962. Vertical section within which is the ovary.—Fig. 963. Vertical section of an achene within which is the ovary, fig. 964, a species of Rubus, with the ovule. Diagnostis.—Trees, shrubs, or herbs, with alternate leaves. Flowers several together in a cyme or panicle, usually sessile ; pedi- cles. Pedals 5 or rarely more. Steriai perygynous, distinct ; anthers 2-celled, imate. Carpels one or more, usually distinct or sometimes united ; style simple or forked ; stigma simple or less inferior. Seeds few or few, exalbuminous ; embryo straight. M 530 BORACIE. Division of the Order and Examples of the Genera.--The order Boracieae, whose definite limits extend into five sub-orders, which are by some botanists considered at distinct orders. They are characterized as follows --- Sub-order 1. **Anopetalae**.--Trees or shrubs, with simple leaves and free stipules. Carpel solitary, cohering more or less on one side with the calyx; ovule 2, erect; style basilar. Fruit a berry, a capsule, or a nut. Examples: *Corylus*, *Miqulias*. Sub-order 2. **Anopetalae** or **Dropanae**.--Trees or shrubs, with simple leaves and free stipules. Calyx deciduous. Carpel solitary, not adherent to the calyx; style terminal. Fruit a drupe, a berry, or a nut. Sub-order 3. **Bosseae**.--Shrubs or herbs, with simple or compound leaves and free stipules. Carpel united to the tube of the calyx, not united to the tube of the calyx, distinct or sometimes more or less coherent; style lateral or nearly terminal. Fruit either a berry or a nut. Examples: *Berberis*, *Rhamnus*, *Quercus*. Sub-order 4. **Sempervireneae**.--Herbs or herbaceous plants. Flowers often unisexual. Petals frequently absent. Carpel solitary; style lateral or nearly terminal. Stigma in the tube of the calyx, which is often indurated. Seed solitary, encapsulate, or rarely several-celled. Example: *Hemipteleum*, *Sansevieria*. Sub-order 5. **Fonseae**.--Trees or shrubs, with simple or compound leaves and free stipules. Carpels 1 to 5, adhering more or less to each other; style lateral or terminal; fruit a berry or a nut, inferior; style terminal. Fruit a pome, 1-5-celled or rarely spurious; seeds numerous. Examples: *Cydonia*, *Ficus*, *Crataegus*. Distribution and Numbers.--The Chrysobalanaceae are principally natives of the tropical parts of America and Africa. The Anopetalae are found in the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere. The Rosas and Senecios are distributed over all the temperate zones, although a few are found within the tropics. The Fonseae occur only in the cold and temperate regions of the northern hemi- sphere. There are about 60 genera and 700 species, of which about one-half belong to the sub-order Rosas. Properties.--The fruits of this order are principally remarkable for their sterility, and for their frequent production of edible fruits. The seeds, flowers, leaves, and young shoots of many of the drospars yield valuable articles of food; but they yield Hydroxyacids and hence the parts of such plants are sometimes poisonous. All other Boracieae are entirely devoid of poisonous properties. Sub-order 1. **CHRYSOBALANAE**.--Many plants of this sub-order produce edible drosparsic fruits. A stylized illustration of a tree with simple leaves and free stipules. **Boracaeae.** 831 Chrysobalanus.—The fruit of C. frondosa is edible. It is known in the West Indies under the name of "Cassava." The leaves are also eaten in Sierra Leone. The root, bark, and leaves of C. frondosa are employed as food by the natives of Sierra Leone. *Pterocarpus*—F. arenarius yields an edible fruit which is known in Sierra Leone as "Kwamak." The seeds of *P. erianthos* and *P. mossambicus* are likewise reputed to resemble the *Albizzia* seeds. Sub-order. **Antaraleae** DAVIES.---This sub-order is remark- ably rich in species, many of which yield a valuable oil, either with water, hydrocyanic acid, or both. Their bark also frequently possesses antiseptic and astringent properties. *Albizia*—A. jujuba yields a kind of gum, and its bark, leaves, and seeds are edible. *Albizia*—A. leucophylla yields a gum similar to that of *A. jujuba*, but which two varieties are commonly distinguished from one another by the varying nature of their leaves, which are either entire or lobed. The leaves of *A. leucophylla* are more aromatic than those of *A. jujuba*. The leaves of *A. leucophylla* are used in India as a substitute for the leaves of *A. jujuba*. The leaves of *A. leucophylla* are also used in India as a substitute for the leaves of *A. jujuba*. The leaves of *A. leucophylla* are also used in India as a substitute for the leaves of *A. jujuba*. The leaves of *A. leucophylla* are also used in India as a substitute for the leaves of *A. jujuba*. The leaves of *A. leucophylla* are also used in India as a substitute for the leaves of *A. jujuba*. The leaves of *A. leucophylla* are also used in India as a substitute for the leaves of *A. jujuba*. The leaves of *A. leucophylla* are also used in India as a substitute for the leaves of *A. jujuba*. The leaves of *A. leucophylla* are also used in India as a substitute for the leaves of *A. jujuba*. The leaves of *A. leucophylla* are also used in India as a substitute for the leaves of *A. jujuba*. The leaves of *A. leucophylla* are also used in India as a substitute for the leaves of *A. jujuba*. The leaves of *A. leucophylla* are also used in India as a substitute for the leaves of *A. jujuba*. The leaves of *A. leucophylla* are also used in India as a substitute for the leaves of *A. jujuba*. The leaves of *A. leucophylla* are also used in India as a substitute for the leaves of *A. jujuba*. The leaves of *A. leucophylla* are also used in India as a substitute for the leaves of *A. jujuba*. The leaves of *A. leucophylla* are also used in India as a substitute for the leaves of *A. jujuba*. The leaves of *A. leucophylla* are also used in India as a substitute for the leaves of *A. jujuba*. The leaves of *A. leucophylla* are also used in India as a substitute for the leaves of *A. jujuba*. The leaves of *A. leucophylla* are also used in India as a substitute for the leaves of *A. jujuba*. The leaves of *A. leucophylla* are also used in India as a substitute for the leaves of *A. jujuba*. The leaves of *A. leucophylla* are also used in India as a substitute for the leaves of *A. jujuba*. The leaves of *A. leucophylla* are also used in India as a substitute for the leaves of *A. jujuba*. The leaves of *A. leucophylla* are also used in India as a substitute for the leaves of *A. jujuba*. The leaves of *A. leucophylla* are also used in India as a substitute for the leaves of *A. jujuba*. The leaves of *A. leucophylla* are also used in India as a substitute for the leaves of *A. jujuba*. The leaves of *A. leucophylla* are also used in India as a substitute for the leaves of *A. jujuba*. The leaves of *A. leucophylla* are also used in India as a substitute for the leaves of *A. jujuba*. The leaves of *A. leucophylla* are also used in India as a substitute for the leaves of *A. jujuba*. The leaves of *A. leucophylla* are also used in India as a substitute for the leaves of *A. jujuba*. The leaves of *A. leucophylla* are also used in India as a substitute for the leaves of *A. jujuba*. The leaves of *A. leucophylla* are also used in India as a substitute for the leaves of *A. jujuba*. The leaves of *A. leucophylla* are also used in India as a substitute for the leaves of *A. jujuba*. The leaves of *A. Watermark 831 532 Black Cherry of the United States; F. amara the Wild Cherry; P. padus the Bird Cherry; P. avium the Black Cherry; P. americana the Black Cherry; P. cerasifera the Choke-cherry. The latter is one of the fruits most commonly used for decoction with water, and is also employed in the preparation of the Fresh Fruit of the Processed Cereals, the Common Laurel or Cherry- laurel, is a perennial tree, which grows to a height of 10 feet. The fruit is a small, round, black berry containing hydrocyanic acid when they are moistened with water. Cherry-laurel is employed in all cases where the use of hydrocyanic acid is indicated. It is, however, very expensive, and is rarely used except by those who have access to it. It is employed in the preparation of the Fresh Fruit of the Processed Cereals, and is prepared for the distillation of the fresh leaves with water. The leaves are collected in May and dried in the shade. They are then ground up and made into a powder, which is sold under the name of "Cherry-laurel" official in the United States Pharmacopoeia, and is much valued as a remedial agent in cases of inflammation, catarrh, and as an astringent sedative. The berries of P. odorata and other species are used for making a syrup, which is employed in cases of inflammation, etc. A gummy substance somewhat resembling treacle is taken from the bark of Prunus laurocerasus (L.) Schneid., known as "Cherry-laurel," and is sold under the name of "Cherry-laurel" official in the United States Pharmacopoeia. **Borage** *Borago officinalis* Linn. Borage officinalis is a native of Abyssinia. The flowers and tops are used for medicinal purposes, and are said to be employed by the Abyssinians for their antiphlogistic properties. They have been used also under the name of "Borage" official in the United States Pharmacopoeia, but it has not been found to be effective in destroying tapeworms. Cuckoo is now official in the British Pharmacopoeia. **Propolis** *Propolis* F. sessilis and other species or varieties of Propolis, furnish the resinous substance known as propolis. Green arrowwood and F. sessilis are reputed to possess aromatic, tonic, and antiparasitic properties. **Orchis** *Orchis* Linn. Orchis officinalis and G. stoloniferum.—The roots of both these species are used in medicine. The former contains a volatile oil which has an aromatic taste, and also large doses of essence. They are commonly known under the name of "Orchis" official in the United States Pharmacopoeia. **Pentaclethra** *Pentaclethra* Linn. Pentaclethra malabarica—The chicle gum and medlar possess astringent and tonic properties. The chicle gum is obtained from Brazil and Peru; India and Tahiti produce chicle gum; and Medlar gum is obtained from Madagascar. **Quassia** *Quassia amara* Linn. The bark of this and other species contains a large amount of quassia. It is employed in some parts of America as a substitute for opium, but has been found to be poisonous in many cases. **Rhubarb** *Rheum* Linn. The various species and varieties of this genus are well known for the beauty of their flowers, but they are also known for their fruit (commonly known under the same name) of July or August. The fruit is employed in medicine as a refrigerant and astringent. The fresh and dried pips are used medicinally. The root is employed as a stimulant to the nerves. They are used in medicine as a mild astringent and tonic, and also as an emetic. One hundred pounds of rhubarb root contain about 100 grains of rhubarb pips per pound. One hundred pounds of rhubarb root contain about 100 grains of rhubarb pips per pound. One hundred pounds of rhubarb root contain about 100 grains of rhubarb pips per pound. One hundred pounds of rhubarb root contain about 100 grains of rhubarb pips per pound. One hundred pounds of rhubarb root contain about 100 grains of rhubarb pips per pound. One hundred pounds of rhubarb root contain about 100 grains of rhubarb pips per pound. One hundred pounds of rhubarb root contain about 100 grains of rhubarb pips per pound. One hundred pounds of rhubarb root contain about 100 grains of rhubarb pips per pound. One hundred pounds of rhubarb root contain about 100 grains of rhubarb pips per pound. One hundred pounds of rhubarb root contain about 100 grains of rhubarb pips per pound. One hundred pounds of rhubarb root contain about 100 grains of rhubarb pips per pound. One hundred pounds of rhubarb root contain about 100 grains of rhubarb pips per pound. One hundred pounds of rhubarb root contain about 100 grains of rhubarb pips per pound. One hundred pounds of rhubarb root contain about 100 grains of rhubarb pips per pound. One hundred pounds of rhubarb root contain about 100 grains of rhubarb pips per pound. One hundred pounds of rhubarb root contain about 100 grains of rhubarb pips per pound. One hundred pounds of rhubarb root contain about 100 grains of rhubarb pips per pound. One hundred pounds of rhubarb root contain about 100 grains of rhubarb pips per pound. One hundred pounds of rhubarb root contain about 100 grains of rhubarb pips per pound. One hundred pounds of rhubarb root contain about 100 grains of rhubarb pips per pound. One hundred pounds of rhubarb root contain about 100 grains of rhubarb pips per pound. One hundred pounds of rhubarb root contain about 100 grains of rhubarb pips per pound. One hundred pounds of rhubarb root contain about 100 grains of rhubarb pips per pound. One hundred pounds of rhubarb root contain about 100 grains of rhubarb pips per pound. One hundred pounds of rhubarb root contain about 100 grains of rhubarb pips per pound. One hundred pounds of rhubarb root contain about 100 grains of rhubarb pips per pound. One hundred pounds of rhubarb root contain about 100 grains of rhubarb pips per pound. One hundred pounds of rhubarb root contain about 100 grains of rhubarb pips per pound. One hundred pounds of rhubarb root contain about 100 grains of rhubarb pips per pound. One hundred pounds of rhubarb root contain about 100 grains of rhubarb pips per pound. One hundred pounds of rhubarb root contain about 100 grains of rhubarb pips per pound. One hundred pounds of rhubarb root contain about 100 grains of rhubarb pips per pound. One hundred pounds of rhubarb root contain about 100 grains CALCANTHACEAE. 533 The fruits of these plants are almost, if not entirely, consumed in the countries where they grow, but they are also used in Europe and America. The fruit of India is Rose-malum. An commercial Otto of Rose is obtained by distilling the flowers of this plant, which yield a liquid equal to that of a rape. In Turkey, 5,000 tons (ten thousand) of rose-fruit are annually produced, and the oil is exported to Europe. It is imported from Smyrna and Constantinople. Otto of Roses is rarely or ever produced in England, though it is frequently used in perfumes under the names of Oil of Ceylon, Rose-oil or Rose-bloom oil, and has been imported into this country for the express purpose of adulterating otto of roses. Rose-Pistachia is another species of this genus with edible fruits; thus, the fruit of the Indian Rose-pistachia (Pistacia pinnata) is eaten by the natives; the fruit of the Persian Rose-pistachia (Pistacia terebinthus) is used in making rose-water; the Chard-beri, of the bark of the tree R. rehmannii and R. roemariana, is used as an emollient employed as an antispasmodic in some parts of North America, and is official in the United States Pharmacopoeia. Spices. - S. officinalis. The Indian Spice is called Malva-sweet or Malva-sweet pepper, because of its aromatic taste. It is used in cooking and medicine. The leaves are used as a substitute for cloves. S. officinalis var. officinale. - The plant of this sub-order have generally antispasmodic properties like the Rose. S. officinalis var. officinale, which is cultivated in New Holland as a substitute for tea. S. officinalis var. officinale, "Fruit" (India) Malva-sweet or Peruvian Clove, is an antispasmodic and tonic. It is also reputed to be diuretic, and was formerly thought to be a remedy for dropsy; but it is now considered only as a stimulant. Sub-order A. Pomeae.-Many plants of this sub-order yield edible fruits, and food for cattle. A. persica. - The fruit is known in Persian Land's Apocryphal literature under the name of "Persian Apple." It is used in cooking with Persians, an article of Arctic diet (see Pomegranate). A. persica var. persica. - The fruit is frequently mixed with apples in making pies and tart, and much more frequently used in cooking than any other fruit for culinary purposes. A. persica var. persica var. persica var. persica var. persica var. persica var. persica var. persica var. persica var. persica var. persica var. persica var. persica var. persica var. persica var. persica var. persica var. persica var. persica var. persica var. persica var. persica var. persica var. persica var. persica var. persica var. persica var. persica var. persica var. persica var. persica var. persica var. persica var. persica var. persica var. persica var. persica var. persica var. persica var. persica var. persica var. persica var. persica var. A. Persimmon - The fruit is frequently mixed with apples in making pies and tart, and much more frequently used in cooking than any other fruit for culinary purposes. A. Persimmon - The fruit is frequently mixed with apples in making pies and tart, and much more frequently used in cooking than any other fruit for culinary purposes. A. Persimmon - The fruit is frequently mixed with apples in making pies and tart, and much more frequently used in cooking than any other fruit for culinary purposes. A. Persimmon - The fruit is frequently mixed with apples in making pies and tart, and much more frequently used in cooking than any other fruit for culinary purposes. A. Persimmon - The fruit is frequently mixed with apples in making pies and tart, and much more frequently used in cooking than any other fruit for culinary purposes. A. Persimmon - The fruit is frequently mixed with apples in making pies and tart, and much more frequently used in cooking than any other fruit for culinary purposes. A. Persimmon - The fruit is frequently mixed with apples in making pies and tart, and much more frequently used in cooking than any other fruit for culinary purposes. A. Persimmon - The fruit is frequently mixed with apples in making pies and tart, and much more frequently used in cooking than any other fruit for culinary purposes. A. Persimmon - The fruit is frequently mixed with apples in making pies and tart, and much more frequently used in cooking than any other fruit for culinary purposes. A. Persimmon - The fruit is frequently mixed with apples in making pies and tart, and much more frequently used in cooking than any other fruit for culinary purposes. A. Persimmon - The fruit is frequently mixed with apples in making pies and tart, and much more frequently used in cooking than any other fruit for culinary purposes. A. Persimmon - The fruit is frequently mixed with apples in making pies and tart, and much more frequently used in cooking than any other fruit for culinary purposes. A. Persimmon - The fruit is frequently mixed with apples in making pies and tart, and much more frequently used in cooking than any other fruit for culinary purposes. A. Persimmon - The fruit is frequently mixed with apples in making pies and tart, and much more frequently used in cooking than any other fruit for culinary purposes. A. Persimmon - The fruit is frequently mixed with apples in making pies and tart, and much more frequently used in cooking than any other fruit for culinary purposes. A. Persimmon - The fruit is frequently mixed with apples in making pies and tart, and much more frequently used in cooking than any other fruit for culinary purposes. A. Persimmon - The fruit is frequently mixed with apples in making pies and tart, and much more frequently used in cooking than any other fruit for culinary purposes. A. Persimmon - The fruit is frequently mixed with apples in making pies and tart, and much more frequently used in cooking than any other fruit for culinary purposes. A. Persimmon - The fruit is frequently mixed with apples in making pies and tart, and much more frequently used in cooking than any other fruit for culinary purposes. A. Persimmon - The fruit is frequently mixed with apples in making pies and tart, and much more frequently used in cooking than any other fruit for culinary purposes. A. Persimmon - The fruit is frequently mixed with apples in making pies and tart, and much more frequently used in cooking than any other fruit for culinary purposes. A. Watermark Natural Order 82., CALCANTHACEAE., The Calycanthaceae Order., Diosmone.-These are shrubby plants resembling the 534 LYTHRACEAE. *Roseae*, but they differ in having opposite leaves, which are al- ways simple, entire, and stipulate; in their sepals and petals being numerous, and in the stamens being few. The flowers are white, and those whose anthers are adnate, and turned upwards; and by having convolute petals, they resemble the *Lilacinae*. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—They are natives of Japan and North America. *Examples of the Genera*—Calycan- thus, Chimonanthus, *Lilacinae*, *Lilium*, *Lilium* (see page 84), include 6 species. Properties and Uses.—The flowers generally are fragrant and aromatic; and the bark of Calycanthus floridus, Carolina Alligator, is sometimes used in the United States as a substitute for Cin- namon bark. Natural Order 84. LYTHRACEAE.—The Lomandraceae Order. Character.—The flowers usually simple, frequently solitary. Leaves opposite or rarely alternate, entire, and stipulate. Flowers Fig. 844. Fm. 945. Fig. 844. Vertical section of the flower of the Purple Lomandra (Lomandra) showing the ovary with its three chambers, each containing one ovule; the style with its two branches; the stamens with their filaments united into a tube; and the petals with their bases united into a tube. See also Fig. 945. Ovary of the same. regular or irregular. Calyx (figs. 945) persistent, ribbed, tubu- lar below, the upper part often dilated and concave, sometimes with intermediate teeth (figs. 946). Petals (figs. 947) numerous, or the lobes of the calyx and alternate with them (figs. 948), occasionally wanting, very rarely wanting; when present, they are equal in number to the petals (fig. 948), to which they are equal in number, or twin as many, or even more numerous ; anthers adnate, 5-celled, open- ing longitudinally at the base; filaments (figs. 949) slender or 4- celled ; ovules numerous or rarely few ; style 1 , filiform (fig. 948); stigma sessile or shortly stalked; ovary subglobose or incon- trabrous, dehiscent, surrounded by the non-adherent calyx. *Seeds* numerous, with or without wings, exalbuminous ; plesionation axile (fig. 950); endosperm none; cotyledons free from each other, and the radicle towards the hilum. Description of *Lomandra*.—Leaves with entire stipulate and usually opposite leaves. Calyx tubular, ribbed, persistent, bear- **SAXIFRAGACEAE.** 535 ing the deciduous petals and stamens; the latter being inserted below the petals. Anthoc. 3-cleft, adnate, basally longish- narrowly, the segments spreading or reflexed. Fruit membranous, dehiscent, surrounded by the non-elliptic calyx. Seeds numerous, exalbuminous. *Distribution.*—North America. *Numbers.*—The greater number are tropical plants, but some are also found in temperate regions, as for instance, *Ceratostigma* willmottianum, a native species only, *Leptophis Scolaris*, has been hitherto found in New Holland. *Examples of the Genera.*—Lathyrus. Laxmannia. There are about 60 species. *Properties and Uses.*—These plants are chiefly remarkable for the possession of an astrigent principle, and for their value in dyeing. *Astragalus ammodendron.*—The leaves are very small; they are much used in India to make a tea-like beverage, which is supposed to have great pain-relieving properties. In India the flowers are employed in drying, mixed with species of Morinda. (See Morinda.) *Laxmannia multiflora.*—A native of Australia, and its leaves and bark are reputed to be purgative and hydraginetic. *Agalinis tenuifolia.*—This plant is used in Europe and among natives of this island from the Heem or Abyssinian, and other countries. *Hausa* is used by the natives of the Sudan to make a drink from the leaves and seeds, palmae of the hand, and seeds of the plant, a reddish-orange colour. *Euphorbia lathyris.*—The leaves are used in Europe as a decoction for drying skins and Morocco leather reddish-yellow, and in the Arabs, Persians, for dyeing woolen cloth; the seeds are used as a stimulant. *Aglais io.*—The butterfly known as the Comstock is a common British plant, and is said to be useful as an astrigent in diarrhoea, etc. Other species probably possess similar properties. *Natural Order 86. Saxifragaceae.—The Saxifrage Order.* *Character.*—Herbs with alternate leaves, which are entire or 3-lobed; leaf-blades usually sessile; stipules wanting; sepals, which are more or less united at the base (as 620), inferior or more or less superior (as 610 and 947). Petals of 3, pterygous, al- ternate or subalternate (as 610); stamens 3 or 6; ovary wanting. *Stamens* 6–10, pterygous (as 947) or hypogynous; anthoc. calyces alternate with petals (as 610), usually evident, either existing in the form of a sepal process, or as a lamella and notched, hypogynous or pterygous. Ovary superior or more or less inferior; style filiform; stigma terminal or subterminal on one ca- pule, united below, but more or less distalised towards the apex; or 3-5-lobed; fruit capsular. 1–2-celled; usually many-seeded. *Seeds* small, numerous; embryo (as 948) in the axis of feebly albuminous cotyledons. *Diagnosis.*—Herbs with alternate leaves. Flowers un- metrical. Calyx interior or generally most or less superior; 4– 6-parted. Stamens pterygous or hypogynous. Ovary supe- 536 HYDRANGEACEAE. Rior or more or less inferior, composed of 2 carpels united at the base, and diverging at the apex ; styles distinct, equal in number to the number of the ovules, 1-5-celled. Seeds numerous, small, with flabby albumen. Fig. 948. Fig. 947. Fig. 948. Hydrangea arborescens. The leaves are broad and wedge-shaped, and their margins serrate. --Fig. 947. Vertical section of the flower. Fig. 948. Vertical section of the flower. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.--They are exclusively natives of the northern parts of the world, where they chiefly inhabit woods and thickets, and are found at altitudes as high as 10,000 feet above the level of the sea. Examples of the Genera: -Saxifraga, Chrysopileum, Heuchera. There are about 312 species. Properties and Uses.--The plants of the order are all more or less stimulant in action, and are employed in medicine for the root of Heuchera americana, which is much employed for its stringent properties in the United States under the name of Alum-root. Nature.--Heuchera americana is a member of the Saxifrage Order. Diagnosis.--This order is frequently regarded as a sub-order of Saxifragaceae, but differs from them in having opposite leaves, which are always stipulate; in their having sessile flowers; in having staminate flowers in the possession of radiant staminal flowers ; and in having frequently 536 HENSOVIACEAE. CUNONIACEAE. CRASULACEAE. 537 more than 3 carpels, with a corresponding increase in the number of stigmas and cells to the ovary. *Hendersonia*.—A genus of the *Cunoniaceae*.—Natives chiefly of the temperate regions of Asia and America. About one-half of the species are natives of China and Japan. Examples of the Genera: -Hendersonia, with 3 carpels, and 3 stigmas. -Propertis and Use.-Unimportant. Hydroangea.—The leaves of *Hydroangea Thunberg* are used in Japan as tea. The root is employed in China as a diuretic. The root of *H. amurensis*, under the name of "Ko-ho," is used in Korea. The root is employed in the United States of North America in calomel preparations. Natural Order 87. HENSOVIACEAE. The Hensovia Order. Diagnosis.—This is a small order of tropical plants containing but few genera, which are mostly allied to *Hydroangea*, but distinguished from that genus by having the perianth persistent, or deciduous, or a cylinder, and in the total absence of albumen. Example:— -Handroanthus. Natural Order 88. CRASULACEAE. The Crasulaceae. Diagnosis.—Nearly allied to Saxifragaceae, but differing from that family in having the sepals united at the base into a large interpetiolar stipule. The latter character will also distinguish them readily from Hydroangeae, which are exstipulate. Examples:— -Craspedia, with 3 carpels, and 3 stigmas, in South America, the Cape, the East Indies, and Australia. Examples of the Genera:—Winnemina, Cunonia. There are about 100 species. Propertis and Use.-Attractive. Some have been used for tanning leather. Natural Order 89. CRASULACEAE. The Houseleek or Stonecrop Order. Diagnosis.—Plants with opposite leaves, sessile or pinnaled, exstipulate, or stipulate. Flowers usually cyamoid (figs. 631), symmetrical (figs. 775 and 776). Calyx generally commensurate with the corolla; or less than half as long as the corolla; or less united at the base (figs. 775 b), persistent. Petals when present, equal to or exceeding the calyx (figs. 775 b), with which they alternate, either distinct or united, and inserted into the bottom of the calyx; stamens imbricate. Stamina usually equal to or more than twice as many as petals; in number and alternate with them (figs. 776); or twice as many (figs. 776 a), and then forming two wheels, one of each composed of three stamens, and the other of four stamens; stamens alternate with the petals, and the shorter stamens opposite to those of the same kind; filaments usually equal in number to the petals and opposite to them (figs. 776 a), each having frequently a scale on the outside at the base (figs. 775 a), distinct or more or less united; styles distinct. Frequent 538 FRANCOACEAE. either consisting of a whorl of folioles, or a capsule with locu- tional delation, or both, very small, or large, or numerous; envelop in the axis of reflexible leaves, with the radicle towards the hilum. Diagnosis.—Succulent herbs or shrubs. Leaves exstipulate. Flowers perfectly symmetrical, the sepals, petals, and carpels being equal in number (3–20), stamens also being equal to them, or more numerous than the petals and stamens being quite hypogynous. Corolla monospermous or polysepalous. Fruit either sessile or pedicellate. Capsule with loculical delation. Seeds small; embryos in the axis of reflexible albumen. Diagrams of the Order and Examples of the Genera.—The order may be divided as follows: Sub-order 1. Francoaceae—Fruit consisting of a whorl of foli- oles. Examples. Francoa. Sub-order 2. Diomedeaceae—Fruit a many-celled capsule with loculical delation. Examples.—Diomedia, Penthorum. Distribution and Numbers.—They are found in very dry situ- ations in the Mediterranean region, and in the deserts at the Cape of Good Hope. There are nearly 400 species. Properties and Uses.—The Francoaceae are aromatic and acid pro- perties are found in the plants of this order, but none are of much importance. Cotyledon.—Cotyledon.—This plant, which is a common native in the West Indies, has been long used as a remedy in hysteria, and as an emetic; it is also employed in the treatment of syphilis. It is fre- quently used of late years as a remedy for epilepsy. C. velutina, a native of the United States, is said to be emetic. **Natural Order 90. FRANCOACEAE—the Francoaceae Order.** Characters.—Flowers perfect, regular; corolla monospermous. Calyx 4- partite. Petals 4, persistent. Stamens hypogynous or nearly so, four times as long as the petals, the alternate ones sterile. Corolla simple or 4-lobed; stamens 4-6; filaments free, filiform, lobed. Fruit a membranous-celled, 4-valved capsule, with loculical delation; seeds small; embryos in the axis of reflexible albumen. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—Natives of Chili. Examples of the Genera.—Francoa, Tetilla. These are only genera; they have no species. Properties and Use.—The Francoaceae are reputed to be cooling PARONYCHIACEAE PORTULACACEAE. MERCENBREACAE. 339 and sedative. *Telmis* is astringent, and is employed as a remedy for dysmenorrhea. Native Order 91. PARONYCHIACEAE OR ILLEROCARIAE. The Knotwort Order—Character.—Herbs or shrubs, with en- tire or serrate leaves, simple or compound, alternate, or rarely 3 or 4-branch or more or less unifoliate. *Telmis* small or absent, pungent. *Semenis* somewhat hypogynous, either equal in number to the stamens, or one more numerous, or rarely fewer. *Omyra* superior, 1- or 3-celled; *styles* 3-5. *Portulaca* with 4-angled stems; leaves either numerous upon a free central placenta, or solitary on a long funiculus arising from the base of the fruit; *albumen* fari- cious. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—Native chiefly of barren places in South of Europe and the North of Africa. Examples of the Genus are found in the Southern Hemisphere. There are about 100 species. Proprietary Uses and Uses.—Slightly astringent. Paronychium.—The flowers and leaves of *Paronychium argenteum* and *P. arenaceum* are used in the preparation of a kind of tea in France, and which is employed by the natives of the United States as a remedy for either difficulty of digestion. It is known as the *Arabe de Saigneuse.* Natural Order 92. PORTULACACEAE.—The Purslane Order— Character.—Herbs or shrubs, with entire or serrate, opposite leaves. Flowers asymmetrical. Sepale 2, united at the base. Petals usually 5, distinct or united. *Semenis* perigynous or hypogynous; ovary inferior; style terminal; stigma sessile on the petal; *flaments* distinct; anthers 2-celled, versatile. *Omyra* superior, 1-celled; anthers 2-celled, versatile; usually dashing transversely, or by valves; sometimes sessile; *albumen* placenta free central. Seed-nucleus numerous or solitary; endocarp curved round. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—Natives of waste dry soil in the West Indies and South America; also in Cape of Good Hope and in South America. Examples of the Genus— **Portulaca,** Claytonia, Montia. There are about 100 species. Proprietary Uses and Uses.—The flowers and leaves of this genus is edible. *Portulaca oleracea* has been used from the earliest times as a pot-herb, and is employed as a poultice for burns and autono- mic pain. The leaves of many of the plants have large seeds. Natural Order 93. MERCENBREACAE FORSSKALII.—The lo- cals of the West Indies call this genus "Portulaca," but it is not so, or shrubs, with opposite or alternate, simple, stipulate leaves. Calyx—3-5-parted, either free or partially adherent to the ovary. Petals—5-7-angled, free or united at the base; stamens numerous. *Semenis* perigynous, distinct, numerous or definite. *Omyra* superior, 1-celled; anthers 2-celled, versatile; usually dashing transversely, or by valves; sometimes sessile; *albumen* placentae axile, free central, or parietal; *styles* and stigma as 840 **MENEMBRYACEAE OR FICOIDES.** many as the cells of the ovary, distinct; *seeds* usually nume- rous or rarely solitary, amphitropal or apocarpal. Fruit usually a many-seeded capsule, rarely a berry, or a nut, or a capsule or circumcarnate manner at the apex, or splitting at the base; or woody and indehiscent, or deciduous, or a nut; *seeds* sub- tary; *embryo* curved or spiral, on the outside of mealy albumen. *Deamonia.*—Succulent herbs or shrubs, with simple exstipu- lous leaves, and with a single seed in each capsule, attached to the ovary. *Petals* very numerous or absent. *Stamens* papyr- ogamous. *Ovary* free from the pericarp; *fruit* a nut, or a free central, or parietal. *Fruit* capulolar or indolent. *Seeds* with a curved or spiral embryo on the outside of mealy albumen. Narrowly circumscribed sub-order. **Sub-order 1.** Menembryo- aceae may be divided into three sub-orders as follows: Sub-order 1. **Menembyae.**—Leaves opposite. Petals nume- rous; *seeds* numerous, or few, in one locule; *fruit* indehiscent, dehiscent. —Examples.—Menembyaathamnus, Lewisia. Sub-order 2. **Tetragonae.**—Leaves alternate. Petals absent. Stamens numerous; *fruit* indehiscent. —Examples.—Tetragonia, Aizoon. Sub-order 3. **Lecanoreae.**—Leaves alternate. *Stems* absent. Stamen definite. *Fruit* capulolar, with transverse dehiscence. —Examples.—Semivium, Cypella. The two last sub-orders are commonly placed in an order by themselves, but they are readily distin- guished from the Menembyaceae, by its plants having alternate leaves, not opposite as in the first sub-order; and by the phases comprehended in the above three sub-ords are, however, so nearly allied, that we have placed them in one order as above. *Natural Order.*—Menembyales. The Menembyaceae are mainly temperate and tropical regions. A large number are found at the Cape of Good Hope. **Properties and Uses.**—Several are edible; others yield an abundance of seeds when burned ; but generally the plants of the order are poisonous. *Lecania retusa.*—The root is eaten in Oregon. It is sometimes called Tobacco-root from the smell of tobacco which it is said to acquire by cook- ing. According to some authors it is poisonous; according to others it is useful; it forms a very agreeable and wholesome food when cooked. *Menembya athamnus.*—This plant is a native of New Zealand and is called from its surface being studded with little nipples (see page 84) an ice-like snowman. It is a very agreeable and wholesome food when cooked; especi- ally as well as those of *M. capitata*, *M. nodiflora*, and others, contain sals— **Properties and Uses.**—The root is used in New Zealand as a substitute for spinach. It has been much used in this country for many years under the name of New Zealand Spinach. It has been highly recommended for cultivation in this country. Its flavour is very similar to ordinary spinach. A small illustration of a plant from the Menembyaceae family. PASSIFLORACEAE. MALESHERBIACEAE. TURNERACEAE. 541 Natural Order 94. PASSIFLORACEAE.—The Passion-flower Order.—Character.—Herbs or shrubs, usually climbing by tendrils, with alternate simple leaves, and racemose or paniculate flowers. Flowers perfect or very rarely unisexual. Sepals 5, united be- low into a corolla-tube, or free; petals 5, in one or more commo- nous processes; petal 0, inserted into the throat of the calyx on the outside of the filamentous process, with an intricate seti- walled tube, or inserted in the base of the calyx, or in both, or rarely numerous, surrounding the stalk of the ovary. Druy- mous fruit, or a berry, often with a pulpy pericarp. Fruit 1-celled, stalked, generally succulent. Seeds numerous, articulate; embryo in thin fibrous albumen. *Forstia*.—The genus Forstia. They are chiefly found in tropical America, but a few also occur in North America and Asia. The following species belong to this genus of the Genera. *Passiflora*. Tocoma. There are about 214 species. Properties and Uses.—Several have edible fruits, and others are used as bitter and antitussive, narcotic, emmenagogue, or diaphoretic. *Passiflora edulis* has an edible fruit. It is a native of Madagascar. *Passiflora incarnata*. This is a small annual of the family under the name of Granadilla. The root of *P. quadrangularis* is said to be narcotic; but its use is not known. The following species are reputed to be anthelmintic, emmenagogue, expectorant, constic, carminative, *Passion-flower*.—The paly fruits of *T. speciosa*, *T. triquetra*, and others, are used as a stimulant. Natural Order 95. MALESHERBIACEAE.—The Crownwort Order.—Character.—This is a small order of plants somewhat shrubby plants, resembling Passifloraceae, but differing in never being climbers; in the want of stipules; in the filamentous process being inserted into the base of the calyx instead of a short membranous rim or corona in this; in the insertion of the stamens at the base instead of at the apex of the ovary; and in the seed not being articulate. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—They are all natives of Chile and South America; they include *Astragalus*, *Cynoglossum*, Gyrophantes. These are the only genera; they include 6 species. Properties and Uses.—They are used as stimulants. Natural Order 96. TURNERACEAE.—The Turner Order.— Character.—Herbaceous or somewhat shrubby plants. Leaves simple or compound; stipules wanting; flowers perfect or unisexual; 3-lobed, imbricated in estivation. Petals 5, equal, twisted in estivation, perigynous. Sepals 5, alternate with the petals, generally imbricated in estivation; filaments filiform; with 3 parietal processes; stigmas 3, more or less united at the base, forked or spreading; style slender; ovary superiorly developed, partially dehiscing in a loculicidal manner. Seeds with a carun- 541 843 **PAPAYACRE. PANGIACEE.** cule on one side, and a slightly curved embryo in the midst of fibrous albumen. **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers—Natives exclusively of South America and the West Indies. Examples of the Genera:—Daucus, Dicoryon, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum, Dicoryonum. Lindeley; see also about 60 species. **Proprietaries.** The U.S. Pharmacopoeia is to be stringent; others toxic and expectorant; and a few anesthetic. **Taverner—the drug known in the United States under the name of *Daucus carota* Linn., is a native of Europe and Asia Minor. It is used in Europe and probably in *microphila*. The source of another variety of *Daucus*, known as *D. carota var. microphila*, is found in Washington and Maryland. **DC., a plant of the order Compositae. (See *Apoglypea.*). Domiana is regarded as a powerful stimulant.) **Natural Order 97. **PAPAYACRE. The Papaya Order.—Chlorophyllous Tree or shrub; sometimes with an aerial milky juice. Leaves alternate or opposite; on long stalks; leaflets Fleshy or membranous. Corolla regular; petals 5; stamens numerous; ovary 5-celled; style 1; stigma 5-lobed. The barren flower has a few stamens inserted on the corolla. The fertile flower has a single stamen inserted on the corolla. The fruit is a berry or drupe. **Proprietaries and Uses.—Generally unimportant; but the acrid milky juice is employed in some cases as a stimulant and in others emmenagogue. The seeds of some species are also emmenagogue. **Gurmar—the acrid milky juice of *Cucurbita pepo* Linn. is said to be a dejectant poison. The juice of the entire fruit and the pounded seeds of *Cucurbita pepo* Linn., are employed in India as a stimulant; but they are certain in its action. The fruit; however when cooked is eaten. The powdered seeds of *Cucurbita pepo* Linn., are employed by the Indians as their powerful emmenagogue properties. The milky juice of the acrid fruit has no therapeutic value; but it is employed by the natives of India for this purpose for a short time. Its use for this purpose is very general in Guiza; and it is employed by the natives of India for this purpose for a short time. Its use for this purpose is very general in Guiza; and it is employed by the natives of India for this purpose for a short time. Its use for this purpose is very general in Guiza; and it is employed by the natives of India for this purpose for a short time. Its use for this purpose is very general in Guiza; and it is employed by the natives of India for this purpose for a short time. Its use for this purpose is very general in Guiza; and it is employed by the natives of India for this purpose for a short time. Its use for this purpose is very general in Guiza; and it is employed by the natives of India for this purpose for a short time. Its use for this purpose is very general in Guiza; and it is employed by the natives of India for this purpose for a short time. Its use for this purpose is very general in Guiza; and it is employed by the natives of India for this purpose for a short time. Its use for this purpose is very general in Guiza; and it is employed by the natives of India for this purpose for a short time. Its use for this purpose is very general in Guiza; and it is employed by the natives of India for this purpose for a short time. Its use for this purpose is very general in Guiza; and it is employed by the natives of India for this purpose for a short time. Its use for this purpose is very general in Guiza; and it is employed by the natives of India for this purpose for a short time. Its use for this purpose is very general in Guiza; and it is employed by the natives of India for this purpose for a short time. Its use for this purpose is very general in Guiza; and it is employed by the natives of India for this purpose for a short time. Its use for this purpose is very general in Guiza; and it is employed by the natives of India for this purpose for a short time. Its use for this purpose is very general in Guiza; and it is employed by the natives of India for this purpose for a short time. Its use for this purpose is very general in Guiza; and it is employed by the natives of India for this purpose for a short time. Its use for this purpose is very general in Guiza; and it is employed by the natives of India for this purpose for a short time. Its use for this purpose is very general in Guiza; and it is employed by the natives of India for this purpose for a short time. Its use for this purpose is very general in Guiza; and it is employed by the natives of India for this purpose for a short time. Its use for this purpose is very general in Guiza; and it is employed by the natives of India for this purpose for a short time. Its use for this purpose is very general in Guiza; and it is employed by the natives of India for this purpose for a short time. Its use for this purpose is very general in Guiza; and it is employed by the natives of India for this purpose for a short time. Its use for this purpose is very general in Guiza; and it is employed by the natives of India for this purpose for a short time. Its use for this purpose is very general in Guiza; and it is employed by the natives of India for this purpose for a short time. Its use for this purpose is very general in Guiza; and it is employed by the natives of India for this purpose for a short time. Its use for this purpose is very general in Guiza; and it is employed by the natives of India for this purpose for a short time. Its use for this purpose is very general in Guiza; and it is employed by the natives of India for this purpose for a short time. Its use for this purpose is very general in Guiza; and it is employed by the natives of India for this purpose for a short time. Its use **Natural Order 98. PANGIACEE. The Pangium Order.—Diagonis.—This is a small order of herbaceous unisexual plants nearly allied to *Papaveraceae* but differing principally in being polygamous instead of hermaphrodite or having both sexes at once as there are petals), and placed opposite to those of *Papaveraceae*. The flowers are usually white or yellow respectively native to the hotter parts of India. They are all more or less poisonous. **Proprietaries and Uses.—Generally unimportant; **Distribution**, Examples,**and Numbers—Natives exclusively of South America and the West Indies. Examples of the Genera:—Daucus, Diceryom, Diceryom, Diceryom, Diceryom, Diceryom, Diceryom, Diceryom, Diceryom, Diceryom, Diceryom, Diceryom, Diceryom, Diceryom, Diceryom, Diceryom, Diceryom, Diceryom, Diceryom, Diceryom, Diceryom, Diceryom, Diceryom, Diceryom, Diceryom, Diceryom, Diceryom, Diceryom, Diceryom, Diceryom, Diceryom, Diceryom, Diceryom, Diceryom, Diceryom, Diceryom, Diceryom, Diceryom, Diceryom, Diceryom, Diceryom, Diceryom, Diceryom, Diceryom, Diceryom, Diceryom, Diceryom, Diceryom, Diceryom， 9/22 CUCURBITACEAE. 443 It is said, however, that by boiling and maceration afterwards in cold water, the pulsatine properties may, in some cases, be got rid of, as in the seeds of *Papaver* edulis, the kernels of *Vicia* sativa, and *Cucurbita* pepo, and for mixing in curries. But even these, according to Horneby, act as a cathartic upon those unacustomed to their use. 2. Epipogia. Natural Order 60. CUCURBITACEAE.—The Gourd or Cucumber Order.—Character.—Herbs, generally of a succulent nature, Fig. 869. Fig. 851. Fig. 850. Fig. 855. Fig. 856. Terminal or pinnate leaves of the Cucumber (*Cucumis sativus*), on a leaf-stalk, which is very short; the limb is entire or with few divisions. On the opposite side of the stem are alternate leaves of the same, the basal envelopes of which have been divided into several lobes; the young leaves are also pinnate. The flowers are white; they are of the type of the spiriting Cucumber (*Cucumis sativus*), distinguishing this seed. and either prostrate or climbing by means of tendrils. Leaves broadly ovate or oblong-ovate, entire or with a few teeth; flowers or less abundant. Flowers universal (figs. 949 and 950), inconspicuous or dancious. Calyx monosperalous, 5-toothed (fig. 949), the limb A diagram showing a plant with pinnate leaves and tendrils. A diagram showing a plant with alternate leaves and tendrils. 844 CUCURBITACEAE. sometimes oblong, superior in the female flowers (fig. 948). Cucurbita moschata, Linn. — A very common plant, sometimes fringed, with evident reticulated veins, papyraceous. Barren flower.—Species usually 5, epappulate (fig. 960, a), either distinct or united (fig. 960, b) in such a way that two of the bundles contain each 2 stamens, and the other two contain each 3 stamens. Flowers sessile, sessile- sessile; authors 2-celled, usually long and sinuous (fig. 926, b); rarely straight. Fertile flower.—Inferior (fig. 949), 1- cellar, or rarely 2-celled, usually long and sinuous (fig. 926, b). Corolla of the placenta: placenta parietal, usually 3; cells inde- terminate (fig. 949). Calyx: calyx tubular or conical-thickened (figs. 949, 642 and 949, a), papillose, lobed, or fringed. Fruit a pepo (figs. 710 and 713), or rarely a succulent berry. Seeds numerous; seeds ellipsoid to ovoid; fruit a berry; hairy testa, solitary or numerous; embryo flat, without albumen; cotyledons free. This order is sometimes placed amongst the Coriariaceae on account of its monopetalous flowers, but its affinities are so essentially different from those of the Coriariaceae that it is placed here in accordance with Do Candolle's view, and those of most other botanists. Sub-order I. Hesperidum—Herbs, usually of a succulent nature. Leaves rough, alternate, radially veined. Flowers unisexual. Calyx tubu- lated or conical-thickened; corolla of the placenta: placenta parietal; petals usually 3; stamens usually 3; anthers usually one-celled; style short; stigma sessile. Fruit a berry. Seeds flat, ex- albuminous, ovoid-leaved leaf. Division of the Order and Summary of the Genus.—This order has been divided into three sub-orders as follows: Sub-order I. Nocardioides—Anthera simosa. Placentas projecting so as to meet in the centre of the fruit. Seeds numerous. Sub-order II. Cucurbitoides—Anthera simosa. Placentas pro- jecting so as to meet in the centre of the fruit. Seeds numerous. Sub-order III. Sicyon—Placentas not projecting. Seed solitary, pendulous. Examples: Sicyon, Sicythus. Distribution and Numbers.—Natives principally of hot cli- mates in America and Asia; but also occasionally shown in the East Indies. One species only occurs in the British Islands, Bryonia alba Linn. Fertile flower.—An aroid bitter purgative property is the chief characteristic of the plants of this order ; this is CUCURBITACEAE. 545 possessed more or less by all parts of the plant, but it is es- pecially evident in the leaves surrounding the seeds, the seeds themselves are, however, merely slightly acid. The reason for this acidity is so constructed that they become poisonous ; while the other parts of the plant are neutral, and consequently differed that their fruit becomes edible. As a general rule the plants of this order are regarded with suspicion. Bitter cucumber is a much used to aid by herbivores under the name of White Bitter Cucumber or Bitter Cucumber. It is also known as the Bitter Cucumber of Mexico (see Monocotyledons). Its active vitamin is an essential ingredient in the preparation of the juice of the plant which is employed as an external application to treated parts. The young shoots are eaten raw or cooked, and are considered delicious. The leaves and fru- its possess similar properties. The root of B. pepo is employed by the native inhabitants of Central America as a stimulant. The juice of its leaves seemed to be a powerful remedy in making him. Chayote is a native of Mexico and Central America. It is called Bitter Cucumber or the Bitter Apple. This plant is supposed to be the wild form of the Old Testament, the Four-leaved Cucumber (see Monocotyledons). It is also known as the Four-leaved Cucumber or Bitter Apple. This fruit, which is commonly known as the Bitter Apple or Cucurbita, is a perennial plant, and has been cultivated for many centuries. It possesses poison. It owns its property to a bitter substance called cucubellin. Two varieties are grown in Mexico : one imported from Spain and Syria and Magadha of Europe. Cucurbita is a native of South America, and was introduced into Mexico from Peru and Brazil. It is commonly known as the White Cucurbita, but that imported from France bears no resemblance to it. The fruit is very similar to that of the White Cucurbita, but that imported from France bears no resemblance to it. The fruit is very similar to that of the White Cucurbita, but that imported from France bears no resemblance to it. The fruit is very similar to that of the White Cucurbita, but that imported from France bears no resemblance to it. The fruit is very similar to that of the White Cucurbita, but that imported from France bears no resemblance to it. Magadha Cucurbita is principally used by chandars for their showy blooms. The seeds are used by some people as a stimulant, but they are not so pungent as to be far more active part of the fruit. In parts of Africa, more especially in Zanzibar, there is a species called "Ceremonial" or "Ceremonial" (see Ceremonial), which is native of the East Indies, are reputed to be pungent, like the true official cumin. Cucurbita—the fruits of several species of cucumbers are used as articles of food in various countries. They are found in India under the names of "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucumis," "Cucu 546 LOSAACKE. HOMALIACE. properties to a leaf cradleate extremely bitter principle called *Esterina*. In imposer does scatrum is an irritant poison. *Ferula* (Ferula) is a genus of plants which are violently pungent and emetic; thus forming a striking exception to the general harshness properties of Cruciferaeous seed. The fruit is reputed to act as an antiseptic, and is used in the treatment of scurvy. *Joliba africana* (Joliba africana) is a shrub of the family *Rhamnaceae*, by expression a very good medicine, that obtained from Oliver. They have been imported into this country on account of its medicinal properties. *Lepanthes subgloca* is commonly called the Scilla Grecia, from its hard pericarp because of its resemblance to the Scilla. It is a very useful plant. *Lepa.* L. pericarpus et d. fructus.—The fruit of these plants is violently purgative. It is commonly called American Sarsaparilla. The fruit of other species has been used in the treatment of scurvy. *Lepa* (Lepa) is a genus of Sparrow Peas, and is found in the East Indies. The fruit of *Lepa* is said to be purgative, and the leaves are used in the treatment of scurvy. The seed forms part of the fruit of *Lepa* species is used in both rooms by Leptospermum, and in the treatment of scurvy. The leaves are used in the treatment of scurvy, and the seeds may now be used with this country under the name of *Lepa*. The leaves are also used in the treatment of Lepa officinalis, an Indian species, is said to be useful in affections of the cerebrum. Seabuck thorn.—The green fruit is commonly eaten in hot countries. It is called Chayote. *Trachyspermum (Bergam)*. *Achillea* is the source of the oleoherbal remedy known by the name of *Achillea*. This plant is known as *Bergam* lemon. It is said to possess powerful emetic and cathartic pro- pertie. *Trachyspermum ampicinum* is the Seabuck thorn.—The fruits of this and some other species are said to be emetic and cathartic; they are supposed to possess poisonous properties. Natural Order 101. LOSAACKE.—The Chalky Nuttlet Order— Claytonia virginica—Herbaceous plants, with stiff hairs or sting- ing glands. Leaves without stipules. Calyx superior, 4 or 5-parted, with 3 or 4 sepals; corolla regular, with 5 petals, often hooded. Species numerous, in several shorts, either distinct or united in bundles. Corolla inferior. Infloresc., with several petals or 1 and 2, and with 1 or more stamens; ovary inferior. Stamens few; pistil capitate or sessile. Seeds having an embryo lying in the middle. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—They are all natives of North and South America. Examples of the Genera—Bartonia, Leptospermum, etc. Properties and Uses.—Some of the species are remarkable for their disagreeable taste; others are employed as stimulants. Several species are cultivated on account of the beauty of their flowers. A Mexican species, Mentzelia hodepind, is reputed to possess a purgative property. Natural Order 101. HOMALIACE. Chamaecrista fasciculata—Herbaceous plants, with long petioles and stipules; superior, funnel-shaped, with from 5–15 divisions. Petals equal in number to, and alternate with, the divisions of the calyx. Stamens **CACTACEAE.** 547 appendiculate to the pedicel and inserted on them, either distinct or in bundles of 3 or 6. Genus: *Cereus*. - *Echinocactus*, placentate-partial ; *Echinocactus* numerosus, pendulous ; *Echinocactus* 3—5—. Fruit a capsule or berry. *Berry scale*: endocarp in the axis of a little flimsy albumen. *Indeterminate fruit*: fruit with a few or many seeds, the natives of the tropical parts of India, Africa, and America. Examples of the genus: *Cereus*, *Echinocactus*, *Ferocactus*, &c., are ornamental plants. **Properties and Uses.**—Some species of *Haworthia* are astrin- gent, but nothing is known of the properties of the following genera. Names: *Haworthia*, *Haworthiopsis*, *Haworthiopsis* or Indian Fig Order.—Character.—Succulent plants, which are usually spiny and leafless, with globose, columnar, flattened or 3- or more spined, and altogether presenting a peculiar form and irregular ap- pearance. Fig. 502. Fig. 553. Fig. 502. Vertical section of the flower of *Pitcairnia* Fig. 553. *Pitcairnia* (Spreading Pitcairnia). Fig. 503. Diagram of the flower of the same. **parasitic.* Plants parasitic. Repuls and pedicels usually numerous (figs. 953) and scarcely distinguishable from each other; or rarely 4—epigynous (figs. 962). Stamine numerous (figs. 902 and 903), with long stamens; pistillate solitary (figs. 902 and 903), with short stamens (figs. 902), finely, 1-celled, with parietal placenta (figs. 962); style 1; stigma several. Fruit succulent. Nuts numerous, partial or unilateral. **Distribution,** *Examples,* and **Numbers.**—Native exclusively of the tropical regions of South America: *Cereus*, *Echinocactus*, *Melocactus*, Mammillaria, Cereus, Opuntia. There are about 800 supposed species. **Properties and Uses.**—The fruit of many species is somewhat acid and agreeable, and is useful in febrile complaints. The nearly sterile fruits are used by the Indians as a substitute on account of their juice, in the dry districts of South America. Many species of *Cereus*, *Epiphyllum*, *Phyllocactus*, &c., are cul- n s 2
Stackhousiaceae Staphylaceae
Distribution, Examples, and Numbers. Chiefly natives of the western United States, but also found in Mexico; they are also plentiful at the Cape of Good Hope.
Pentas. A genus suitable for the presence of arid principalities.
Cynoglossum The young slender shoots, with attached leaves, constitute a very attractive garden plant, which is often freely shown by the Arabs, and is used in producing great fertility of soil and as a beverage like our tea. Its leaves are described as being somewhat pungent and agreeable to the taste, and its flowers are a more pungent and agreeable mixture.
Calotropis The seeds of Cynoglossum yield oil of a powerful stimulant nature, which is employed in medicine under the name of "Gomphos nigrum."
Cynoglossum scandens u. Cynoglossum sesquipedalis have purgative and emetic properties.
548. GROSSULACEAE. ESCALLONIACEAE. PHILADELPHACEAE.
Treated on account of their showy flowers. Some species of Corylus open their flowers at night; they are remarkable for their size, some being as much as a foot in diameter. **Genus.—Oriental.—The fruit of this plant is the Prickly Pear, which is much esteemed by the natives of the West Indies, and more imperially imported into this country, and used as a dessert fruit. It is not, however, so good as the figs, but is very agreeable to the taste. The pear has been employed as a water colour.—O. medellifera, the Nopal Pear, is cultivated in the West Indies, and is said to be the favourite Insect (Gentle Cate); the dried fruits form the Cochinail of commerce. **Natural Order 103. GROSSULACEAE.—The Gooseberry or Current Order.—Character.—Shrubs with (fig. 379) or with— out spines; leaves alternate, simple, entire, or serrate; stipules absent. Flowers axillary, racemose, perfect or rarely unisexual. Calyx superior, 4-clefted. Petals 5, minute, inserted on the calyx. Stamens 5 or 10; filaments united in a tube, or free. Fruit a berry, 1-lobed, with 2 parallel placenta (fig. 710, p. 7). Fruit a berry (fig. 710 and 711). Seeds numerous; embryo minute, in hairy albumen. **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—Natives of the tem- perate regions of Europe and Asia; also cultivated in many parts of the Genera.—Ribes. Polysoma. These are the only genera; which include about 100 species. **Properest.—The Ribes.—These are showy garden plants, as Ribes fuchsiodes, R. emarginatum, R. aureum, R. coecinum ; but they are chiefly ornamental for their flowers and fruits. Thus the fruit of Ribes Grossularia is the Gooseberry; R. rubrum and its varieties yield both Red and White Curranite ; and R. nigrescens is the Black Ribes. **Natural Order 104. ESCALLONIACEAE.—The Escallonia Order. **Character.—Shrubs or small trees; leaves opposite or alternate, leaves, and axillary showy flowers. Calyx superior, 5-toothed, imbriinate in imbrices. Petals 5, alternate with the divisions of the calyx; stamens numerous; anthers free from each petal, perigynous. Ovary inferior, 2—5-celled, crowned by a cone- shaped disc; ovules numerous; embryo minute in a hairy albumen. Fruit capsule or baccate, crowned by the persistent style and calyx. Seeds very numerous, minute; embryo minute, in a mass of oily albumen. **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—They are chiefly natives of the temperate regions of North America and of the Genera.—Escallonia, Itoa. There are above 60 species. **Properest.—The Escallonia.—The Syringa Order. **Character.—Shrubs; Leaves opposite, deciduous, estipulate. Calyx superior; petals few; stamens numerous; anthers perigynous. Petals equal in number with the divisions of the calyx, and alternate with them. Stamens numerous, perigynous. Ovary
548. GROSSULACEAE. ESCALLONIACEAE. PHILADELPHACEAE.
MYRTACEAE. 510 inferior; styles united or distinct; stigmas several. Capsule half- inferior, 3-10-celled, placentaless scale. Seeds numerous, with three bursulae. Illustration, Examples, and Numbers—Natives of the South of Europe, North America, Japan, and India. Examples of the Genus Myrtus are found in the United States about 25 species. Properties and Uses.—Of little importance. Dravina.—The leaves of some species of Dravina, especially those of D. sempervirens, are used by the natives of Java, hence, from their roughness, they are used in Japan for polishing purposes. Myrtus communis Linn. (Fig. 584).—Common Myrtle. It is a native of the South of Europe. It is generally known as the Syzygium of commerce, because it is used in making preserves and for producing the Orange in appearance and odour. This odour is due to the presence of a volatile oil which is obtained by distillation with water. The leaves have a flavour and aroma resembling that of Citrus. Natural Order 106. MYRTACEAE. The Myrtle Order— Character.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves opposite or alternate, entire, stipulate (Fig. 584), usually dentate, and having a vein running through the middle of each leaf. Calyx superior (Fig. 585), 4 or 5- chambered, with a few sepals appear- ing in the form of a cap. Petals 4–5 (Fig. 584), imbricately, rarely alternately arranged; stamens distinct or numerous (Fig. 588 and 584), or reduced to one or two (Fig. 587) in polygamous flowers. Corolla inferior (Fig. 580), 4–5—coiled, style and stigma united; ovary superior (Fig. 586), placentaless scale (Fig. 589), or very rarely compound; ovules supplementary, deliquent or imbibi- cent. Seeds without albumen, usually bursulae. Demonon of the Order and Ex- amples of the Genus.—The order may be divided into two sub-orders, as follows— Tribe I. Leptophorinae. Fruit cup- ped; Example: Myrtus communis. Leptopetum. Tribe II. Myrtoideae. Fruit bocaste. Examples—Funicus, Myrtus. Distribution and Numbers—Natives of the tropical and of the temperate zones. Myrtus communis, the common Myrtle, is the most northern species of the order. This plant, although now naturalised in the South of Europe, was Fig. 584. Flowering branch of the Myrtle (Myrtus commu- nensis). Fig. 584. 850 MIRTACEAE. Originally a native of Persia. There are about 1390 species belonging to this class. Propertiea. Uses. These plants are generally remarkable for aromatic and pungent properties, which are due to the presence of volatile oils. Many of these oils have been used in medicines as stimulants, antispasmodics, and also in perfumery. The dried flower-buds and leaves of some species are used as flavoring in cakes and pies. Other plants of the order are astrigent, and some secrete a sacerchate mastic. The fruits of some having a sweetish acidu- lous taste are used as preserves. Carophyllus aromaticus or *Euphorbia corollata*, is the Clove-tree. The leaves of this plant are aromatic, and are used medicinally as a stimulant, and in medicine, for their astringent, stimulant, and car- minative properties. The flowers are used in perfumery, and the essence of a volatile oil. The dried upland fruits are called clover seeds; they are used in China and Japan as a substitute for cloves. The leaves of this tree are sometimes used in medicine, but they are inferior to the ordinary cloves, which are ob- served in the form of the leaves, and in the form of the flowers. They are also used as a stimulant instead of cloves. They are commonly known as Clove-Tree, and by the name of *Clove*. Anacardium occidentale or *Elaeocarpus reticulatus*, the Iron Bark-tree, a native of Australia. The leaves of this tree are aromatic, and are used medicinally as a stimulant, called Eucalyptus or Baling Bark Tree. This tree is sometime used in medicine, but its principal constituent is kina-tannin seed oil. The leaves of *Eucalyptus* contain a substance, called Eucalyptol or Baling Bark Oil. This oil is sometime used in medicine. Its principal constituent is kina-tannin seed oil. Australia, consequently exudes a saccharate substance resembling manna, which is therefore commonly termed Manna Oil. Most of this oil is found in leaves and twigs, but it is sometimes so large as to be found in the bark. It is sometime used in medicine, and hence they are called Gums or Gum in England—Gum in America. Various preparations of this oil are sold under the trade name of "Baling Bark Oil." Some preparations of this oil are sold under the trade name of "Baling Bark Oil." Some preparations of this oil are sold under the trade name of "Baling Bark Oil." In intermittent fever, and on many medical prescriptions there being tempi- tary or chronic diseases, it is sometimes employed with advantage. It must be benedict that all such substitutes proper must be very similar to those of the clove tree, and that they must be aromatic; and that they contain the leaves and bark have been recommended as useful for the treatment of intermittent fever. E. citriodora, or *Citrus aurantium dulcis*, is a native of India. It is grown extensively in California for its fruit, which is very rich in vitamin C. It is also grown extensively in California for its fruit, which is very rich in vitamin C. It is also grown extensively in California for its fruit, which is very rich in vitamin C. It is also grown extensively in California for its fruit, which is very rich in vitamin C. It is also grown extensively in California for its fruit, which is very rich in vitamin C. It is also grown extensively in California for its fruit, which is very rich in vitamin C. It is also grown extensively in California for its fruit, which is very rich in vitamin C. It is also grown extensively in California for its fruit, which is very rich in vitamin C. It is also grown extensively in California for its fruit, which is very rich in vitamin C. It is also grown extensively in California for its fruit, which is very rich in vitamin C. It is also grown extensively in California for its fruit, which is very rich in vitamin C. It is also grown extensively in California for its fruit, which is very rich in vitamin C. It is also grown extensively in California for its fruit, which is very rich in vitamin C. It is also grown extensively in California for its fruit, which is very rich in vitamin C. It is also grown extensively in California for its fruit, which is very rich in vitamin C. It is also grown extensively in California for its fruit, which is very rich in vitamin C. It is also grown extensively in California for its fruit, which is very rich in vitamin C. It is also grown extensively in California for its fruit, which is very rich in vitamin C. It is also grown extensively in California for its fruit, which is very rich in vitamin C. It is also grown extensively in California for its fruit, which is very rich in vitamin C. It is also grown extensively in California for its fruit, which is very rich in vitamin C. It is also grown extensively in California for its fruit, which is very rich in vitamin C. It is also grown extensively in California for its fruit, which is very rich in vitamin C. It is also grown extensively in California for its fruit, which is very rich in vitamin C. It is also grown extensively in California for its fruit, which is very rich in vitamin C. It is also grown extensively in California for its fruit, which is very rich in vitamin C. It is also grown extensively in California for its fruit, which is very rich in vitamin C. It is also grown extensively in California for its fruit, which is very rich in vitamin C. It is also grown extensively in California for its fruit, which is very rich in vitamin C. It is also grown extensively in California for its fruit, which is very rich in vitamin C. It is also grown extensively in California for its fruit, which is very rich in vitamin C. It is also grown extensively in California for its fruit, which is very rich in vitamin C. It is also grown extensively in California for its fruit, which is very rich in vitamin C. It is also grown extensively in California for its fruit, which is very rich in vitamin C. It is also grown extensively in California for its fruit, which is very rich in vitamin C. It is also grown extensively in California for its fruit, which is very rich in vitamin C. It is also grown extensively in California for its fruit, which is very rich in vitamin C. It MYRTACEAE. 551 —350 feet or more, and 100 feet in circumference, the trunks being destitute of branches to a height of 10 feet. The leaves are long, narrow, and deep green, and several times as long as broad. The bark is said by John Muir to be useful for good packing and printing paper. Good writing paper may also be made from the bark of this tree. **Eucalyptus:** E. Fimbria (Pimenta officinalis) is the Common Allspice. To the botanist, the leaves of this tree are very similar to those of the common Allspice, *Pimento officinalis*. The name "Allspice" is given to this tree because of its aromatic qualities. It is used in much the same manner as the true Allspice, but in smaller doses than that plant. In some cases it is used as a substitute for the true Allspice. **Eucalyptus:** E. cinerea (Cajuputum) is the Cajeput Tree. The leaves of this tree are used in the manufacture of perfumes and soaps. They are also employed in medicine, and are said to have a stimulating effect on the nervous system. The oil obtained from these leaves is used in the manufacture of perfumes and soaps. The leaves are also employed in medicine, and are said to have a stimulating effect on the nervous system. The oil obtained from these leaves is used in the manufacture of perfumes and soaps. **Eucalyptus:** E. citriodora (Citronella) is the Citronella Tree. The leaves of this tree are used in the manufacture of perfumes and soaps. They are also employed in medicine, and are said to have a stimulating effect on the nervous system. The oil obtained from these leaves is used in the manufacture of perfumes and soaps. The leaves are also employed in medicine, and are said to have a stimulating effect on the nervous system. The oil obtained from these leaves is used in the manufacture of perfumes and soaps. **Eucalyptus:** E. citriodora (Citronella) is the Citronella Tree. The leaves of this tree are used in the manufacture of perfumes and soaps. They are also employed in medicine, and are said to have a stimulating effect on the nervous system. The oil obtained from these leaves is used in the manufacture of perfumes and soaps. The leaves are also employed in medicine, and are said to have a stimulating effect on the nervous system. The oil obtained from these leaves is used in the manufacture of perfumes and soaps. **Eucalyptus:** E. citriodora (Citronella) is the Citronella Tree. The leaves of this tree are used in the manufacture of perfumes and soaps. They are also employed in medicine, and are said to have a stimulating effect on the nervous system. The oil obtained from these leaves is used in the manufacture of perfumes and soaps. The leaves are also employed in medicine, and are said to have a stimulating effect on the nervous system. The oil obtained from these leaves is used in the manufacture of perfumes and soaps. **Eucalyptus:** E. citriodora (Citronella) is the Citronella Tree. The leaves of this tree are used in the manufacture of perfumes and soaps. They are also employed in medicine, and are said to have a stimulating effect on the nervous system. The oil obtained from these leaves is used in the manufacture of perfumes and soaps. The leaves are also employed in medicine, and are said to have a stimulating effect on the nervous system. The oil obtained from these leaves is used in the manufacture of perfumes and soaps. **Eucalyptus:** E. citriodora (Citronella) is the Citronella Tree. The leaves of this tree are used in the manufacture of perfumes and soaps. They are also employed in medicine, and are said to have a stimulating effect on the nervous system. The oil obtained from these leaves is used in the manufacture of perfumes and soaps. The leaves are also employed in medicine, and are said to have a stimulating effect on the nervous system. The oil obtained from these leaves is used in the manufacture of perfumes and soaps. **Eucalyptus:** E. citriodora (Citronella) is the Citronella Tree. The leaves of this tree are used in the manufacture of perfumes and soaps. They are also employed in medicine, and are said to have a stimulating effect on the nervous system. The oil obtained from these leaves is used in the manufacture of perfumes and soaps. The leaves are also employed in medicine, and are said to have a stimulating effect on the nervous system. The oil obtained from these leaves is used in the manufacture of perfumes and soaps. **Eucalyptus:** E. citriodora (Citronella) is the Citronella Tree. The leaves of this tree are used in the manufacture of perfumes and soaps. They are also employed in medicine, and are said to have a stimulating effect on the nervous system. The oil obtained from these leaves is used in the manufacture of perfumes and soaps. The leaves are also employed in medicine, and are said to have a stimulating effect on the nervous system. The oil obtained from these leaves is used in the manufacture of perfumes and soaps. **Eucalyptus:** E. citriodora (Citronella) is the Citronella Tree. The leaves of this tree are used in the manufacture of perfumes and soaps. They are also employed in medicine, and are said to have a stimulating effect on the nervous system. The oil obtained from these leaves is used in the manufacture of perfumes and soaps. The leaves are also employed in medicine, and are said to have a stimulating effect on the nervous system. The oil obtained from these leaves is used in the manufacture of perfumes and soaps. **Eucalyptus:** E. citriodora (Citronella) is the Citronella Tree. The leaves of this tree are used in the manufacture of perfumes and soaps. They are also employed in medicine, and are said to have a stimulating effect on the nervous system. The oil obtained from these leaves is used in the manufacture of perfumes and soaps. The leaves are also employed in medicine, and are said to have a stimulating effect on the nervous system. The oil obtained from these leaves is used in the manufacture of perfumes and soaps. **Eucalyptus:** E. citriodora (Citronella) is 583 LECTRITRACEAE. CHAMELACIACEAE. cooling drinks, on account of its mildish taste. The flowers and fruits are still on plants, which have been brought from the East Indies to this country, where they common name is, *Lecthium* flower. The kind of the fruit, and the bark of the plant, are both used medicinally in India, and are regarded in this country ; but the latter is also official in the British Pharmacopoeia. These are the only two genera of the family, and the former is the commonly regarded as a valuable antispasmodic ; the fresh bark is preferred by some, but the dried leaves are more generally employed. The fruits of the Fagostemum are principally due to tannin acid, but also partly to gallic acid. For this reason, it is sometimes employed as a purgative, and possesses a volatile alkali, which is evidently its most important active principle ; thus it has been called *Alkaloidum*. **Sugarcane.** The bark is employed in the East Indies as a urethral antiseptic in chronic dysentery and dyspepsia. **Natural Order 106. CHAMELACIACEAE.**—The Brazil-Nut or Monkey-Post Order.—Character.--Large tree, with alternate dotted leaves, and small deciduous strobiles. Flowers large and showy. The fruits are large, and contain many seeds. The seeds time united at the base. Stamens numerous, epigynous : some of these organs are very large, and form a fleshy body. **Injury infarctus,** 2 to 6-celled ; placenta axile. Fruit woody, either indurated or opening in a circumscissile manner (fig. 68). Seed hard, with a thick pericarp. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.--Principally natives of Guiana and Brazil; also of other regions of South America. Examples of the Genera: Lectrhinia, Bertelletia. There are about 40 species. **Properties.** These woody plants are chiefly remarkable for their large woody fruits, the pericarps of which are used as drinking vessels, and for other purposes. Their seeds are fre- quently edible. **Bertelletia.*—The seeds of B. adulae Hook., a native of Brazil, are used by the Indians as a substitute for coffee beans. The seeds of Paru Nuts. As many as 100,000 seeds are annually imported into this country from Brazil for this purpose. They are used by the Indians which is used by artists and watchmakers. The laminated inner bark is valuable for making varnish. **Lectrhinia.*—The seeds of L. adulae Hook., L. alata Hook., are large and edible fruits, which are used by the Indians as food; they exist in our fruit shops, and are certainly superior in flavour to the ordinary Brazil nut; they are also used for making paper, which are used by the Indians as wrappers for their cigarettes. The fruits of these two species have been called *Moka-pods* on account of their peculiar form. **Natural Order 106. CHAMELACIACEAE.**—The Fringe-Myrtle Order.—Character.--Large trees or shrubs with evergreen dotted leaves, and nearly allied to Myrtaceae, but distinguished from them by their branch-like spicules; their more or less pinnate leaves being opposite or sub-opposite. From Lechrethium they are at once known by their habit, their exceedingly small flowers, and their fruit. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.--Exclusively native BARRINGTONIACEAE. BELVISACEAE. MELASTOMACEAE. 558 of Australia. Examples of the Genera:—Chamelaucium, Dar- winia. There are above 60 species. Propertes and Use. —Chamelaucium. Natural Order 100. BARRINGTONIACEAE.—The Barringtonia Order. —Dampens. This is a small order of plants usually checked by the leaves, which are often alternate, but some differ from that in their order in the following particulars: namely, the petiole is short, and the leaf is sessile, or nearly so, and in their having alternate leaves and often serrated leaves. Thomson has, however, proved that the seeds are exalbuminous, and that in the case of the species of this genus the seeds are very slight indeed. But another character of distinction is to be found in the flowers, which are very different from each other re- spectively; thus in that of Myrteam it is valvate, while in Bar- ringtoniaceae it is imbricate. Examples of Species and Numbers. —Natives of tropical regions in all parts of the world. Examples of the Genera:— Barringtonia, Chamelaucium, Darwinia. Properties and Use. —The bark of Sennecium racemosum is reputed to be fragrant, and the root bitter, aperient, and astringent. The fruit is used as a stimulant. The juice of the plant is of beneficial use in asthma, and produces an intoxicating effect upon fish. Generally the plants of the order should be regarded as something like the genus Myrteam. Natural Order 101. BELVISACEAE. The Belvisia Order. —Character.—Trees, shrubs, or herbs. Leaves opposite, or be- thery texture. Calyx superior, coriaceous, 5-petalled, and with axillary stipules. Corolla consisting of three distinct whorls of petals; the outermost one being much smaller than the others. Pod- fleshy, and forming a cup-shaped expansion over the ovary. Every leaf-bud contains two flowers; the upper one is male; style 2-angled or 2-jointed; stamens pentagonal. Fruit a soft rounded bursule crowned by the calyx. Seeds large, kidney- shaped, or oblong. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers. —Natives of tropical Africa and South America; also New Zealand, Napoleonis. These are the only genera; they include a species. Properties and Use. —Nothing is known of the uses of these plants except that they are aromatic; the leaves are sweet, and the perrycarp contains much tannic acid. They might, probably, be used therapeutically. Natural Order 111. MELASTOMACEAE. The Melastoma Order. —Character.—Trees, shrubs, or herbs. Leaves opposite, or almost alternate; stipules present; flowers regular; petals more or less adherent to the ovary, imbricate. Petals equal in num- ber to the stamens; sepals free from each other. Stamens equal in number to, or twice as many as, the petals; filaments curved downwards in adnation; anthers long-2-celled; curiously budded, usually bifurcating by two pores at the apex, or some 554 ONAGRACEAE. times longitudinally ; in meation lying in spaces between the ovary and side of the calyx. Ovary usually less adnate, many-celled. Fruit a capsule, sessile from the base of the calyx or dehiscens; or succulent, united to the calyx, and indehiscent. Seeds very numerous, minute. Distributive Characters and Numbers.--They are principally natives of tropical regions, but a few are also extra-tropical, being found in the warmer parts of South America, and in the northern provinces of India. Examples of the Genera : Melosa, Medinilla, Memecylon. There are about 3,000 species. Properties.--The leaves are provided with glands, and the plants is a slight degree of astrigency. Many produce edible fruits, and some yield valuable oils. The name Melosa is derived from the fruits of the species dying in the month black. The leaves of Memecylon taeniofornum are used in some parts of India as a substitute for tobacco. The flowers of the plants possess but little interest in a medical or economical point of view. The seeds of several species are cultivated in this country on account of the beauty of their flowers. Natural Order 112. ONAGRACEAE.--The Evening Primrose Character.--Herbs or shrubs. Leaves alternate or opposite. Flowers solitary or in cymes. Calyx (Fig. 95.) 3-6-lobed, or sometimes 2-lobed (Fig. 77). In meation, generally regular and equal in number to the sepals; inserted into the throat of the calyx, rarely absent. Stamens (Fig. 777 and 958.) 1-2-4-6, inserted with the petals into the throat of the calyx; rarely absent. Petals (Fig. 958.) 1-2-4-6, inserted with the stamens into the throat of the calyx; rarely absent. Stigma (Fig. 958.) 1-2-4-6, inserted with the petals into the throat of the calyx; rarely absent. Ovary (Fig. 958.) 1-2-4-6, 2-celled ; ovoid ; plocate axile ; style 1, filiform ; stigma simple or compound ; anthers free or connate at base. Seeds numerous, often dehiscent. Diagnosis.--Herbs or shrubs, with simple exstipulate double leaves. Calyx superior, 2--6-lobed, or sometimes 2-lobed (Fig. 77). In meation, generally regular and equal in number to the sepals; inserted into the throat of the calyx, rarely absent. Stamens (Fig. 777 and 958.) 1-2-4-6, inserted with the petals into the throat of the calyx; rarely absent. Petals (Fig. 958.) 1-2-4-6, inserted with the stamens into the throat of the calyx; rarely absent. Stigma (Fig. 958.) 1-2-4-6, inserted with the petals into the throat of the calyx; rarely absent. Ovary (Fig. 958.) 1-2-4-6, 2-celled ; ovoid ; plocate axile ; style 1, filiform ; stigma simple or compound ; anthers free or connate at base. Seeds numerous, often dehiscent without albumen. Fig. 95A. Vertical section of the flower of Melosa (Melosa). Figs. 95A & B.--Vertical sections of flowers of Melosa (Melosa) and Memecylon (Memecylon). **HALORAGACEAE. COMBRETACEAE.** 553 except at the Cape. *Examples of the Genera* :-Gnetum, Euphorbia, Fuchuca, Cirrus. There are about 600 species. *Proprietary Uses.* -The leaves are used in the preparation of tea, and possess mucilaginous properties. The roots of *Gnetum* bennettii and other species are edible. The fruits of many Fuchus are somewhat similar to figs, and are employed as food. The leaves are astringent. Natural Order 113. HALORAGACEAE. -The *Mar's tail* or Water-Checkroot Order. --Jacquin.--Herba or Herba, generally aquatica. Flowers small (fig. 407), frequently incomplete and intermixed with stamens, and often with a few stamens only; but are merely a degeneration or imperfect form of that order. They are usually sessile, and have a single ovule, which is frequently obsolete; and by having solitary pendulous seeds, which have feathery albumen, or are exalbuminous. *Indigenous Species.* -The following genera are found in all parts of the world. *Examples of the Genera* :-Hippuris, Trapa. There are about 70 species. *Properties and Use.* -Of little importance except for their edible seeds. *Trapa.*--This is a genus of floating aquatic plants, remarkable for their beautiful flowers and seeds. They are found in all warm seas. The seeds are edible; those of *Trapa natans* are called Chagras of Eku by the French, and are much esteemed in the East Indies; they are ground, and made into a kind of bread. *T. nucifera* is called Sling in the South Seas; its seeds are largely consumed in Ceylon and some other parts of India. Natural Order 114. COMBRETACEAE. --The Myrciariales. --Character.--Trees or shrubs. Leaves stipulate, entire, without out-crops. Flowers perfect or unisexual. Culipar superior, with a 5-lobed calyx; corolla regular; stamens numerous as the lobes of the calyx, often alternate. Stigmas numerous as the lobes of the calyx, or three as many, or sometimes equal to them in number; anthers 2-celled, with longitudinal or valvular dehiscence; fruit a capsule; seeds numerous in long columnar ovules; style and stigma simple. Fruit indehiscent; 1-seeded. Seeds very small; endosperm none. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.--Exclusively natives of the tropical parts of America, Africa, and Asia.--Examples of the Genera:--Combretum, Myrcia, Myrica, Myrsine. *Properties and Use.* -The order is chiefly remarkable for the presence of an astringent principle in the bark of some species, which is employed in tanning and dyeing. Some yield excellent timber. *Combretum barbatum*, a native of South-Eastern Africa, produces a kind of resene which is called Chapee by the Caftons, by whom it is used to dress their victuals. **556** **RHIZOPHORACEAE. ALANGIACEAE.** Quinqueae incisa—The seeds are in repute in the Malacca for their antiphlogistic and purgative properties. *Terminus.* The fruits of several species are largely imported into this country, mainly for the purpose of being used as a medicine. The principal kinds of myrobalans are the Chochlo and the Balbina; the first is obtained from Zanzibar, and is said to be the most valuable of all myrobalans, especially used by calmer painters for the production of a black colour which is very precious. The second is obtained from the island of Madagascar. Myrobalans have been also called Madagascare Myrobalans and Bubba Nana. The Bubba Nana is a native of the East Indies, and its fruit is a very good remedy for the consumption. The seeds of T. biflora are eaten as the name indicates in the East Indies, but they possess no medicinal virtue, and have been popularly supposed to be a wholesome aliment in its own right. A seed of this kind is sold in India at 30 cents per pound. The seeds of T. indica are also sold in Bombay, and are considered as a valuable remedy in India. The seeds of T. biflora are purgative, and when ground with water upon drying forms a fragrant and mellow substance resembling benzoin in its properties. **Natural Order 116. RHIZOPHORACEAE.** The Mangrove Order. **Character.—Trees (fig. 290) or shrubs. Leaves simple, op- posite, dentate, or entire, with stipules; flowers interpetiolate stipulate. Calyx exterior, 4–12 lobed, with valvate insertion; corolla tubular; lobes sometimes united so as to form a calyptus. Petals arising from the base of the calyx; stamens numerous, equal to each other in number; stigmas sessile or nearly so; ovary inferior, 2, 3, or 4-lobed, sessile or almost sessile; style filiform; pistil pendulous, 1-lobed, 1-seeded, crowned by the calyx. Seed pendulous, or attached to the fruit usually growing together with the fruit is still attached to the tree. **Distribution,** Examples, and Numbers.—Natives of muddy shores on the coasts of tropical countries. Rhizophora, Bruguiera. There are about 20 species. **Propriety,** Uses, and Properties.—They possess their nutritive and other alimentary properties, whence they are used for dyeing and tanning, and also in medicine as febrifuges and tonics. Rhizophora mucronata is a native of India; its bark is sometimes im- ported into this country as a tanning material, but it is not much used. The fruit is sweet and edible, and its juice when fermented forms a kind of wine. **Natural Order 116. ALANGIACEAE.** The Alangium Order. **Characters,** Uses, and Properties.—Leaves opposite or alternate; stipules without dots; Calyx exterior, 8–10-lobed. Petals 5–10, linear, reflexed. Stigma sessile or nearly so; or two or four times divided into lobes; anthers free. Ovary inferior; 2–2-celled; style simple; ovule solitary, pendulous. Fruit drooping; seeds numerous; embryo large; endosperm abundant. Seed pulpy; semipendulous, with flimsy albumen, and large flat leathery cotyledons. **Distribution,** Examples, and Numbers.—Natives of various A botanical illustration showing the flowers and leaves of Rhizophora mucronata. **CORNACEAE. HAMAMELIDACEAE.** 557 parts of the East Indies and the United States. **Examples of the Genus—Alangium.** There are about 8 species. **Propertie.** The fruits are little known. Some species of Alangium are said to be pungent and aromatic; and their suc- culent leaves are sometimes used medicinally. A decoction or condiment is used occasionally as a substitute for Lime fruit, whence it is called the Oyster Lime. **Natives of the United States.** The Cornel or Dogwood Order.—Character.—Shrubs, trees, or rarely herbs. Leaves simple, entire, alternate, deciduous, or evergreen; flowers numerous, perfect or rarely unisexual, arranged in heads, or in a corym- bose, or umbellate manner, with or without an involucre. Calyx epauleteous, or cup-like, with 3-5 sepals; corolla at the top of the calyce tubular; stamens 5, inserted with the petals; pistil solitary, sessile or on a short stalk, sur- mounted by a disk, 2-celled; seeds pendulous, solitary, astrate- nous; style and stigma simple. Fruit drupaceous, crowned with the remains of the calyx; seeds pendulous; flowers in the axils of the leaflets alternate; cotyledons large and hairy. **Diagnose.** The leaves are simple exstipulate, and (with but one exception) opposite leaves. Flowers perfect or sometimes unisexual. Calyx eparys, 4-leaved. Co- lum with 4 lobes; petals 4, free from each other, alter- nate with the petals. Ovary inferior, usually 2-celled; style longer than the stamens; stigma simple. Fruit drupaceous. Embryo in the axis of freely alliterative. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—Natives of the tem- perate parts of Europe and America; also in the West Indies. **Propertie.** The leaves are aromatic and are chiefly remarkable for tonic, febrifuge, and antiseptic properties. Cornel (Cornus). The cornel C. fruticosa is official in the United States Pha- rmaceutical Code under the name of Cornus officinalis. It is a shrub of the official in the United States Pharmacopoeia, and have similar proper ties to those formerly attributed to Cornus amomum. The leaves possess a property also possessed by the leaves and flowers. The fruit, called Ame- na, is much esteemed in Europe for its medicinal properties. They are used in their sherbets and for other purposes. The fruits of the American species are used medicinally in some parts of Scotland they are reputed to possess tonic properties, the plant yielding much bitters and tannin. The leaves are used medicinally in the supposed effect of the fruits in increasing the appetite. The seeds of C. amomum have been used for burning in lungs. Chervil for the manufacture of gan- ger beer; and the leaves of several species of this genus which are other species such as used in the United States and in the West Indies to run on the teeth. Natural Order 118. HAMAMELIDACEAE.—The Witch Hazel Order.—Character.—Small trees or shrubs, with alternate 558 BRUNIACEAE. UMBELLIFERAE. Leaves, and deciduous stipules. Flowers perfect or unisexual. Calyx superior, 4- or 5-cleft. Petals 4 or 5, with an imbricare vestiture, or altogether wanting. Stamens 6, half of which are sessile and the other half inserted on the calyx. Staminodes 4 and alternate with them ; anthers 2-celled, intercalary. Ovary inferior, 2-celled ; style 2. Fruit capsular, 2-valved, with a boculicular dehiscence, or a dehiscent suture at the base of the calyx. Distributions, Examples, and Numbers—Natives of North America, and of Europe and Asia. Genus—*Himantoglossum*.—*Him- antoglossum*, Rhododendron. There are about 20 species. Properties and Uses.—Of but little importance. *Hamamelis virginiana* yields oil edible leaves ; its leaves and bark possessing medicinal virtues, especially in cases of gout, dyspepsia, and other affections. Natural Order 137. BURSARIACEAE.—The Brunia Order. Characters similar to shrubs, with small imbricate, rigid, outer, exstipulate leaves. Calyx usually imbricate, or sometimes mostly imbricate ; petals usually imbricate ; stamens inserted on the calyx, the petals alternate with the divisions of the calyx and imbricate ; anthers 2-celled, extrorse, bursting longitudi- nally. Ovary inferior ; fruit a capsule. The genus comprises 3 species, of which *Bursaria spinosa* is a native of Australia ; it is suspended anisotropic ovule in each cell ; style simple or bifid. Fruit erect or pendulous. Seeds numerous. *Bursaria spinosa* is a common weed in the drier districts. Seeds with a minute embryo, in the latter dehiscing. Seeds with a minute embryo, in the latter dehiscing. Distributions, Examples, and Numbers—Natives of the Cape of Good Hope except one Madagascar species. Examples of the Genus.—*Bursaria*, *Bursaria spinosa*, *Bursaria spinosa* (Fig. 507) small trees, with hollow or solid stems. Leaves alternate, generally imbricate (figs. 507, 508). Petals generally imbricate (figs. 507, 508) or sometimes wanting, always exstipulate. Flowers generally in umbels (figs. 503 and 403), white, pink, yellow, or blue, with a minute embryo in each cell (figs. 503 and 403). Stamens inserted on the calyx (figs. 503 and 403), mostly superior, the limb entire or b-lobed, or toothed. Petals (figs. 507, 508) usually imbriced at the point, often unequal in size, inserted on the calyx (figs. 507, 508), or wanting ; corolla very ; peduncle imbricate or rarely varieate. Stamens 5 inserted with the petal at their base (figs. 507, 508), or wanting ; anthers fleshy disk (figs. 507, 508). Ovary inferior (figs. 507), crowned by a double fleshy disk (figs. 507, 508). 2-celled ; with a solitary pen- dulous ovule in each cell (figs. 507). Fruit called a coracium or discosemion (figs. 700 and 907), consisting of a coracium and a discosemion (figs. 700 and 907), connected by a common axis (coracophore), from which they ultimately separate and become pendulous (figs. 700); each mericarp (figs. 908) an Properties and Uses—Unknown. Natural Order 138. UMBELLIFERAE.—The Umbelliferae. Characters similar to herbs with umbels of flowers; leaves alternate ; petiole short ; stem usually leafy ; flowers perfect ; stamens usually equal ; anthers mostly extrorse ; style simple ; fruit a capsule. Distributions, Examples, and Numbers—Natives of Europe, Asia and America. Genus—*Umbrella*.—*Umbrella*, *Umbrella caroliniana*. There are about 14 UMBELLIFERAE. 548 incholeucum 1-seeded body, traversed (the dorsal surface by ridges, a, a), of which there are 3 or 4, but sometimes there are 4 others, alternating with them, in which case the former are termed primary, and the latter secondary ridges; the spaces between the ridges are called channels (canaliculi), 4, 6, in which Fig. 956. Fig. 957. Fig. 956. a. General view of Poa's Pansy (Chionodoxa sp.) in fruit. b. Longitudinal section of the fruit. c. Transverse section of the fruit. d. The leaves of the plant. e. The leaves of the plant in fruit. Fig. 958. a. Section of the fruit of the plant. b. The leaves of the plant in fruit. Fig. 959. a. Section of the fruit of the plant in fruit. Fig. 960. a. General view of Poa's Pansy (Chionodoxa sp.) in fruit. b. Longitudinal section of the fruit. c. Transverse section of the fruit. d. The leaves of the plant in fruit. Fig. 961. a. Section of the fruit of the plant in fruit. Fig. 962. a. Section of the fruit of the plant in fruit. Fig. 963. a. Section of the fruit of the plant in fruit. Fig. 964. a. Section of the fruit of the plant in fruit. Fig. 965. a. Section of the fruit of the plant in fruit. Fig. 966. a. Section of the fruit of the plant in fruit. Fig. 967. a. Section of the fruit of the plant in fruit. Fig. 968. a. Section of the fruit of the plant in fruit. Fig. 969. a. Section of the fruit of the plant in fruit. Fig. 970. a. Section of the fruit of the plant in fruit. Fig. 971. a. Section of the fruit of the plant in fruit. Fig. 972. a. Section of the fruit of the plant in fruit. Fig. 973. a. Section of the fruit of the plant in fruit. Fig. 974. a. Section of the fruit of the plant in fruit. Fig. 975. a. Section of the fruit of the plant in fruit. Fig. 976. a. Section of the fruit of the plant in fruit. Fig. 977. a. Section of the fruit of the plant in fruit. Fig. 978. a. Section of the fruit of the plant in fruit. Fig. 979. a. Section of the fruit of the plant in fruit. Fig. 980. a. Section of the fruit of the plant in fruit. Fig. 981. a. Section of the fruit of the plant in fruit. Fig. 982. a. Section of the fruit of the plant in fruit. Fig. 983. a. Section of the fruit of the plant in fruit. Fig. 984. a. Section of the fruit of the plant in fruit. Fig. 985. a. Section of the fruit of the plant in fruit. Fig. 986. a. Section of the fruit of the plant in fruit. Fig. 987. 548 560 UMBELLIFERAE. inserted on the outside of a double feathery disk which grows the center. One or inferior 2-edged with a solitary pendulous ovule in each cell; styles 2. Fruit consisting of two indehiscent carpels, which separate when ripe, from which seeds pass out, and are enclosed in a carpell, with a minute embryo at the base of abundant horny albumen. Dr. A. H. Smith, in his "Flora" described the plants of this order and those of the Araliaceae, proposed to eliminate from the Umbelliferae all those species which have a single ovule, and within which the seeds are derived from their fruit, and to place them in a new order to which he gave the name of Hederales. (See Araliaceae.) Division of the Order and Examples of the Genera.---The order has been divided into three sections from the section of the albume, and the umbelliferous plants well defined. They are as follows: Sub-order 1. Umbelliferae.---Albumen flat on its face. Ex- amples: --Hyssopus, Saniculo, Cnidosculus, Heracleum, Heracleum, Daucus. Sub-order 2. Caryophylliferae.---Albumen rolled inwards at the margin, and presenting a vertical furrow on its face. Examples: Anthriscus, Chrysanthemum, Carthamus. Sub-order 3. Ormonocauliferae.---The base and apex curved inclosed on its face. Examples: --Ormonocodium, Coriandrum. Distribution and Numbers.--Chiefly natives of the northern parts of Europe, Asia, and America. Many occur, however, in the southern hemisphere. They are rare in temperate regions except upon the mountains; they are very common by no means uncom- mon. There are about 1,700 species. Properties.--The umbelliferous plants variable; thus, some are edible; others aromatic and cammative; and in some cases, stimulant and tonic from the presence of oil or resin; some, again, contain poisonous substances which renders them unsafe or less poisonous; while others are antipathogenic and stimulant from the presence of gum or resin; some give virtue, which is essentially composed of gum, resin, and volatile oil. This is in the case of Asarifolia contains sublimate. 1. EUCETUS UMBELLIFERAE. Anthriscus.--Two species of this genus are cultivated.--A. Coriandrum, the Coriander; A. Hippunicum, the Aniseed; A. Hippunicum variegatum, spicatum, variegatum, variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatus UMBELLIFERAE. 581 **Bennania.—B. aureaum and B. Radulaeumae have roundish umbelliferous roots, which are edible; they are natives of the countries of the North, or Fig nut—B. fruticulosa, a native of Greece, has also edible tuberous roots. **Cerato Gaudium.—The roots of this plant are much eaten by the Indians of Florida, and are used in the same way as the potato, with other substances. **Cynara scolymus, Semplicis, is commonly used as an ingredient in pitches. **Cynara Scolymus, var. sativa, the cultivated or Garden Cynara, is well known for its excellent root. **Ferula communis, the Common Ferula; and F. dulcis the Sweet Ferula. The latter is frequently considered as a cultivated variety of the former; but it is not so. It is a very poisonous plant, and its roots, which are well known as poultices and garnishing substances,—F. eupatris is a Carrot. **Ferula.—The roots of several species of this genus, and of other allied plants, are used as stimulants; and some of them are employed medicinally. *Heliotropium arcuatum* is said to be Mistletoe; but it is very delicate; they are eaten by the Sapindus Indians in Oregon. **Ferula communis, var. sativa, the cultivated or Garden Cynara, is well known for its excellent root. (See Poisonous Umbelliferae.) **Ferula communis, the Common Ferula; and F. dulcis the Sweet Ferula. The latter is frequently considered as a cultivated variety of the former; but it is not so. It is a very poisonous plant, and its roots, which are well known as poultices and garnishing substances. **Ferula eupatris is a Carrot. **Ferula.—The roots of several species of this genus, and of other allied plants, are used as stimulants; and some of them are employed medicinally. *Heliotropium arcuatum* is said to be Mistletoe; but it is very delicate; they are eaten by the Sapindus Indians in Oregon. **Ferula communis, var. sativa, the cultivated or Garden Cynara, is well known for its excellent root. (See Poisonous Umbelliferae.) **Ferula communis, the Common Ferula; and F. dulcis the Sweet Ferula. The latter is frequently considered as a cultivated variety of the former; but it is not so. It is a very poisonous plant, and its roots, which are well known as poultices and garnishing substances. **Ferula eupatris is a Carrot. **Ferula.—The roots of several species of this genus, and of other allied plants, are used as stimulants; and some of them are employed medicinally. *Heliotropium arcuatum* is said to be Mistletoe; but it is very delicate; they are eaten by the Sapindus Indians in Oregon. **Ferula communis, var. sativa, the cultivated or Garden Cynara, is well known for its excellent root. (See Poisonous Umbelliferae.) **Ferula communis, the Common Ferula; and F. dulcis the Sweet Ferula. The latter is frequently considered as a cultivated variety of the former; but it is not so. It is a very poisonous plant, and its roots, which are well known as poultices and garnishing substances. **Ferula eupatris is a Carrot. **Ferula.—The roots of several species of this genus, and of other allied plants, are used as stimulants; and some of them are employed medicinally. *Heliotropium arcuatum* is said to be Mistletoe; but it is very delicate; they are eaten by the Sapindus Indians in Oregon. **Ferula communis, var. sativa, the cultivated or Garden Cynara, is well known for its excellent root. (See Poisonous Umbelliferae.) **Ferula communis, the Common Ferula; and F. dulcis the Sweet Ferula. The latter is frequently considered as a cultivated variety of the former; but it is not so. It is a very poisonous plant, and its roots, which are well known as poultices and garnishing substances. **Ferula eupatris is a Carrot. **Ferula.—The roots of several species of this genus, and of other allied plants, are used as stimulants; and some of them are employed medicinally. *Heliotropium arcuatum* is said to be Mistletoe; but it is very delicate; they are eaten by the Sapindus Indians in Oregon. **Ferula communis, var. sativa, the cultivated or Garden Cynara, is well known for its excellent root. (See Poisonous Umbelliferae.) **Ferula communis, the Common Ferula; and F. dulcis the Sweet Ferula. The latter is frequently considered as a cultivated variety of the former; but it is not so. It is a very poisonous plant, and its roots, which are well 582 known as poultices and garnishing substances. **Ferula eupatris is a Carrot. **Ferula.—The roots of several species of this genus, and of other allied plants, are used as stimulants; and some of them are employed medicinally. *Heliotropium arcuatum* is said to be Mistletoe; but it is very delicate; they are eaten by the Sapindus Indians in Oregon. **Ferula communis, var. sativa, the cultivated or Garden Cynara, is well known for its excellent root. (See Poisonous Umbelliferae.) **Ferula communis, the Common Ferula; and F. dulcis the Sweet Ferula. The latter is frequently considered as a cultivated variety of the former; but it is not so. It is a very poisonous plant, and its roots, which are well 583 known as poultices and garnishing substances. **Ferula eupatris is a Carrot. **Ferula.—The roots of several species of this genus, and of other allied plants, are used as stimulants; and some of them are employed medicinally. *Heliotropium arcuatum* is said to be Mistletoe; but it is very delicate; they are eaten by the Sapindus Indians in Oregon. **Ferula communis, var. sativa, the cultivated or Garden Cynara, is well known for its excellent root. (See Poisonous Umbelliferae.) **Ferula communis, the Common Ferula; and F. dulcis the Sweet Ferula. The latter is frequently considered as a cultivated variety of the former; but it is not so. It is a very poisonous plant, and its roots, which are well 584 known as poultices and garnishing substances. **Ferula eupatris is a Carrot. **Ferula.—The roots of several species of this genus, and of other allied plants, are used as stimulants; and some of them are employed medicinally. *Heliotropium arcuatum* is said to be Mistletoe; but it is very delicate; they are eaten by the Sapindus Indians in Oregon. **Ferula communis, var. sativa, the cultivated or Garden Cynara, is well known for its excellent root. (See Poisonous Umbelliferae.) **Ferula communis, the Common Ferula; and F. dulcis the Sweet Ferula. The latter is frequently considered as a cultivated variety of the former; but it is not so. It is a very poisonous plant, and its roots, which are well 585 known as poultices and garnishing substances. **Ferula eupatris is a Carrot. **Ferula.—The roots of several species of this genus, and of other allied plants, are used as stimulants; and some of them are employed medicinally. *Heliotropium arcuatum* is said to be Mistletoe; but it is very delicate; they are eaten by the Sapindus Indians in Oregon. **Ferula communis, var. sativa, the cultivated or Garden Cynara, is well known for its excellent root. (See Poisonous Umbelliferae.) **Ferula communis, the Common Ferula; and F. dulcis the Sweet Ferula. The latter is frequently considered as a cultivated variety of the former; but it is not so. It is a very poisonous plant, and its roots, 586 which are well known as poultices and garnishing substances. **Ferula eupatris is a Carrot. **Ferula.—The roots of several species of this genus, and of other allied plants, are used as stimulants; and some of them are employed medicinally. *Heliotropium arcuatum* (Mistletoe)— 587 are said to be Mistletoe; 588 they are eaten by 589 the Sapindus Indians in Oregon. **Ferula communis var sativa (Garden Cynara), cultivated in Europe, and in America, 590 has been introduced into 591 Great Britain, 592 and 593 elsewhere, 594 and 595 it has been found to be 596 very palatable, 597 and 598 it has been 599 used 600 as 601 a 602 stimulant, 603 and 604 it has been 605 used 606 as 607562 UMBELLIFERAE. forms a very agreeable stomachic. The petioles were formerly blanched and eaten like celery. Daucus Carota, var. sativa—the roots are used in the form of a poultice, on account of their diuretic properties. Eryngium maritimum and E. maritimum, Eryngum, have sweet aromatic roots, which are used in medicine. Ferula (Ajanaparsham)—The root, which is official in the British Pharmacopoeia, is also used in India. It is commonly known as Jambul-root, and also from its use in the preparation of the Indian medicinal liquor, and antisepticum. Hydrophyllocarpus.—This leaves, particularly when in a fresh state, are employed in India internally and externally, as a poultice, secondary remedy. As the leaves are so much esteemed by the natives of the tropical countries, against leprosy they excited much attention some years since in the Island of Mauritius. Moen—M. mimosifolia, Balsamum or Mone, and M. Musalinum, have aromatic leaves. Salviae leaves.—The root has been largely popularly used in some pro- vinces of Bengal as a remedy for coughs and colds. The leaves are employed in hooping-cough, and other nervous affections; but when tried in regular practice its use has not been attended with any marked success. 8. Fomorous Umbelliferæ. The poisonous properties of these plants arise from the presence of a nauseous principle contained in them; owing to the nature of the soil and climate, for Sir Robert Cotton has noticed, that certain species which grow near the sea shore at Plymouth, are more poisonous than those growing certain localities near Edinburgh. This is a very important point, and one which requires further investigation before we can decide whether this plant would probably account in a great degree for the varying strength of the local propensities of individuals towards different diseases. It may be observed that these plants possess noxious qualities either in their odour or taste; but they differ from most other plants in having their odour and taste modified by their condition pernamently; and also by the different opinions entertained as to the necessity of their being included among the genera of "Toxic bellsiliferae" plants. Echinacea purpurea—Foli's Pansley, is a very common indigenous plant, and usually regarded as possessing poisons proper; but this is incorrect. The leaves contain a principle which is said to be poisonous. Leaves have been taken internally as a remedy for rheumatism and sciatica. The leaves have been mistaken and eaten as a treat for those of Parley. Chasmanthe floribunda—Flower-plant, is also a native plant of South Africa. The flowers are said to be poisonous. (See Eucalyptus Umbellifera.) The leaves of this plant are used as a remedy for nervous affections. Cynara scolymus—Silybum marianum, is another indigenous plant of a highly poisonous nature. Its poisonous principle has been termed "cynarin." It is said to be emetic and purgative; but it is not yet well understood what from which having been mistaken for those of other harmful Convolvulus, but not having been found to be poisonous. It is said to be useful as a remedy in nervous and sick headache. Cumin (Cuminum cyminum)—This is indigoous; it has been for a long time official in our pharmacopoeia. In proper doses it is estimatively employed as an emetic; but it is liable to cause violent nervous irritation in general. It owes its properties chiefly to the presence of a 583 **ARALIACEE.** coloured ally liquid with a penetrating mouthy odour, to which the name of *Chine* has been given by the Chinese. However, powerful poison, and fatal accidents have arisen from its having been mistaken for other harmless Umbelliferae plants. **A. Umbelliferae. yielding potted Gum-Berries.** The most important of these gum-roots are, *Amaranthum*, *Ammonium*, and *Gomphrena*. The first two are natives of America, and the latter of Europe. *Gomphrena* and *Saponaria* are both, but they are now nearly every part of the world. They are all very useful in medicine, as well as for their stimulant properties; this is especially the case with *Amaranthum*, which is also extensively used in India. The leaves of *Gomphrena* are used externally in the same way as garlic and other allied plants are employed in England. The leaves of *Amaranthum* are used internally in the same way as garlic, and both are used externally in the form of plasters to promote the absorption of poisons. The leaves of *Saponaria* are used externally in the same way as garlic, and both are used externally in the form of plasters to promote the absorption of poisons. The leaves of *Amaranthum* are used internally in the same way as garlic, and both are used externally in the form of plasters to promote the absorption of poisons. The leaves of *Saponaria* are used externally in the same way as garlic, and both are used externally in the form of plasters to promote the absorption of poisons. The gum-roots are not at all known, but they are exclusively natives of America. The gum-roots are not at all known, but they are exclusively natives of America. The gum-roots are not at all known, but they are exclusively natives of America. The gum-roots are not at all known, but they are exclusively natives of America. **Amaranthum** is obtained by *Amaranthum*. D. Atheri, and pernicious other species. It exudes from the stem seemingly to some extent when injured, and is collected from the plant by means of a knife or similar instrument when the plant has attained perfection. It appears to be a native of India, and is found in abundance in India in the form of a fine-tipped plant as income, and is imported from Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in Persia under the name of *Ferula*. It is also found in **Gomphrena** (Fig. 210) - The Ivy Order. Character - Trees, shrubs, or herbs. Leaves alternate, without stipules (fig. 210). Flowers small, white or pale yellowish; corolla or calyx usually 5-lobed (fig. 209), rarely 6-lobed; corolla more or less superior (fig. 90); entire or toothed. Petals (fig. 90), 2, 4, or 6; stamens numerous; filaments distinct or rarely imbricate, generally distinct or rarely monopetalous. **Natural Order 121. ARALIACEE. - The Ivy Order.** Character - Trees, shrubs, or herbs. Leaves alternate, without stipules (fig. 210). Flowers small, white or pale yellowish; corolla or calyx usually 5-lobed (fig. 209), rarely 6-lobed; corolla more or less superior (fig. 90); entire or toothed. Petals (fig. 90), 2, 4, or 6; stamens numerous; filaments distinct or rarely imbricate, generally distinct or rarely monopetalous. A diagram showing a plant with alternate leaves and small flowers. 564 **ARALIACEAE.** occasionally wanting. petals and alternate. Glaucous, ascending in number to the corolla (fig. 90), or twice as many, inserted on the outside of a disk which crowns the ovary ; anthers turned inwards, with a long filament and dehiscent. Ovary (fig. 90) more or less free from the calyx, with several cells, or very rarely 1-celled, crowned by a disk, each cell with a solitary perianthous stamen, sometimes united ; stigma simple. The seeds are numerous, small, roundish or dry, each cell with 1 pendulous seed, with fleshly albumen. **Aralia** is generally allied to *Umbel- lifera*, from which it may be generally distinguished by the large and conspicuous leaves of the corolla ; by the fruit being usually ripe from a foot to two feet high, and by its fleshly albumen. There is also a greater tendency among *Araliae* to form a woody stem than in *Umbelliferae*. As already noticed (see page 660), Dr. Seemann has proposed a new order under the name of Hederales, to include certain plants of the genus *Hedera*. This order is now abandoned. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.--These plants are universal in temperate climates, but rare in tropical, temperate, and the coldest regions. Examples of the Genera :--Panna, Aralia, Hedera. The order includes about 160 species. Properties.--The leaves of *Aralia* are somewhat remarkable for that, nearly allied as the Araliaceae are to the Umbelliferae, they possess some of their aromatic properties which are frequently found in plants of that order. The Araliaceae are generally stimulant, aromatic, diaphoretic, and emollient. *Aralia* **A. cordata** is native in North America, where its roots are used popularly as an alternative and stimulant diaphoretic in rheumatic affections. It is also employed medicinally in Europe and in some countries of Asia. It is sometimes forwarded to this country. Under the name of *A. officinalis* it is sold in Europe. It grows wild in the Creek, in North America. The bark of *A. spinosa*, called *Angelica* or *Twinkle-leaf*, is used medicinally in Europe. The root of *A. crenulata*, *A. sanguinea*, and *A. spinosa*, yield aromatic gum-resins ; *A. sanguinea* is used in medicine ; *A. crenulata* is employed as a vegetable in China and Japan. Glaucous leaves are peculiar to its maximum leaves, which are some times as much as eight feet in diameter; the slender peduncles resemble those of the Thunbergia; the flowers are white or yellow; the receptacle Helix; the 1st., is reputed to be diaphoretic; and its berries are emollient and carminative. It contains a peculiar acid called aralidin acid, which is supposed to be a glaucine. Fig. 90. Flower of the com- mon tree Aralia. Fig. 90. **ANALYSIS OF THE ORDERS IN THE CALCIFLORAE.** 565 **Pomace.-F. Ginseng or Rehmannia.—The root of this plant, which is a native of China, is used by the Chinese as a stimulant and aphrodisiac, that they will sometimes give it to their women in order to increase their fertility. It is one of the World's...** F. pseudoginseng is a native of North America. Its root is known as "Indian Ginseng." The following are other properties of the preceding: **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, a native of India, appears to have some proportioning; **F. Fraxinus**, anative 566 ANALYSIS OF THE ORDERS IN THE CALCIFYLOME. 2. Fleshy seeds in the axis. Leaves with scattered data. Ovary leafless. Cotyledons not dis- tinct. Chamaelirionum. 108. Ovary with more than 1 cell. Cety- rionum. 107. Leaves without data. Myosotis. 106. Pods defined in number. Monoplocium. 93. Pods without definite number. Alpinia. 116. Pods rounded and concave. Borreriastrum. 109. Stylistic distinct. Philadelphus. 186. 3. Leers with stipules. 1. Carpels distinct, or solitary. Carpels wholly combined, at least one to the common stem. Leaves opposite. Rhinanthus. 115. Leaves alternate. Lysimachia. 107. Flowers entire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rhinanthus. 115. Flowers partial ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Rhinanthus. 107. 2. Flowers Oligandrous—Stamens less than 20. A. Ovary wholly superior. 1. Leaves simple, entire. Carpels more or less distinct, or solitary. Carpels with hypogynous scales. Scales distinct, or entire, or both. Each carpel having two scales or more, or each carpel with several scales, all perfect. Carpels usually combined but one imperfect. Leaves without stipules. Carpels combined by a single stamen from the base of the carpel or by several stamens from the leaves distal to the carpel. Stylar distinct to the base. Carpels without hypogynous scales or without hypogynous scales or without more or less combined. Stylar distinct. Flowers unisexual. Flowers with a ring or crown of sterile scales. Flowers unisexual. Female flower not connected with the calyx, or female flower without sterile stamens. Flowers without sterile stamens Flowers with sterile stamens Stylar distinct to the base Carpels without hypogynous scales Carpels without hypogynous scales Stylar more or less combined. Stylar distinct. Pods defined in number Pods without definite number Pods rounded and concave Stylistic distinct Pods defined in number Pods without definite number Pods rounded and concave Stylistic distinct Pods defined in number Pods without definite number Pods rounded and concave Stylistic distinct Pods defined in number Pods without definite number Pods rounded and concave Stylistic distinct Pods defined in number Pods without definite number Pods rounded and concave Stylistic distinct Pods defined in number Pods without definite number Pods rounded and concave Stylistic distinct Pods defined in number Pods without definite number Pods rounded and concave Stylistic distinct Pods defined in number Pods without definite number Pods rounded and concave Stylistic distinct Pods defined in number Pods without definite number Pods rounded and concave Stylistic distinct ANALYSIS OF THE ORDERS IN THE CALCICYFORE. 587 Sepals more than 2. Unreadable Ornate sepals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Calycotomum. 71. Ornate sepals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bravemanum. 119. Calyx with petals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Calycotomum. 75. Stamens opposite to the petals. . . . . Phaeocentrum. 75. Stamens alternate with the petals. . Leaves simple. Calyx tubular. Lepidocaryon. 84. Leaves compound. Calyx not tubular. Aspidorhizum. 75. A. Leaves with stipules. 1. Carpel distinct, solitary. Fruit sessile; calyx entire; calyx inferior. Lepidocaryon. 80. Fruit not bicornutum; calyx entire superior. Rhamnus. 82. Corydalis involucrata, (at least by their corona). . Placentae parietal. Flowers with a ring of appendages Flowers with a ring of appendages in the style base. Stamens minute - Pseudorhizum. 91. Stamens large - Pseudorhizum. 91. Leaves opposite - Cassiopea. 88. Leaves alternate - Staphylinaceae. 86. 2. Carpel united, several. Flowers sessile - Fagaceae. 74. Flowers peduncled - Fagaceae. 74. Leaves simple, Petals united by their bases - Staphylinaceae. 73. Leaves compound. Petals distinct - Staphylinaceae. 73. Calyx with stipules - Stamens opposite to the petals, im- mersed in the style base - Rhinanthus. 75. Stamens twice as many as the petals - Aspidorhizum. 75. B. Ovary inferior, partially so. A. Leaves without stipules, or with obscure stipules. Placentae parietal. Flowers usually unisexual Monopetala - Cucurbitaceae. 99. Flowers bisexual or polygamous Pe- tala distinct - Gramineae. 103. Flowers in umbels - Umbelliferae. 130. Style three or more - Aspidorhizum. 131. Flowers solitary - Aspidorhizum. 131. Carpel solitary - Aspidorhizum. 131. Petals entire - Aspidorhizum. 132. Leaves simple - Aspidorhizum. 132 568 ANALYSIS OF THE ORDERS IN THE CALCULIFLORE. Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: Calyx: Corolla: 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 Leaves alternate. Herbs. Saururus. 85. Leaves opposite. Herbs. Urtica. 96. Leaves two or more, not diverging. Antherium. 97. Calyx valvate. Antherium. 98. Stamens alternate with the petals, im- mersed. Stenostoma. 99. Stamens none. Ovules horizontal. Ornithogalum. 100. Stamens distinct. Ovules pendu- lous. Ornithogalum. 100. Stamens abundant. Helenium. 100. Calyx not valvate. Stamens downwardly. An- thers with appendages. Leaves oblong-elliptic. Melanthium. 100. Anthers only curved. Anthers short. Leaves ovate-lanceolate, minute. Leaves not dotted. Myricaria. 100. Stemless. Biscutella. 100. Scrub-like. Brassica. 100. Leaves with stipules. Curculigo. 100. Stipules entire. Monopetalus. 100. Stipules entire, Petals distinct. Platycodon. 100. Stamens equal to the petals, alternate with them. Helenium. 99. Leaves opposite. Biscutella. 99. Leaves alternate. Helenium. 99. Although it is impossible to suppose that the Calcifloreae have di- chlamydes, or polyvalvate corollae, or corollae with stamens or epigynous stamens, yet many exceptions occur, which should be particularly noticed, viz., the following plants in the Calcifloreae, Rhinanthus, Anacardiaceae, Leguminosae, Rosaceae, Lathyraceae, Surfragaceae, Compositae, Papaveraceae, Combretaceae, Hemerocladaceae, and Araliaceae. Monopetalous corollae occur in the following genera of the Calcifloreae, i.e., in Convolvu- laceae, and Bittercress; and occasionally in Cruciferae, For- tunellaceae, Leychnodendron and Araliaceae. In some Calcifloreae, again, such as in the genus Rhinanthus, they are very rarely so, as in Anacardiaceae, Conranaceae, Leguminosae, Surfragaceae, Combretaceae, and Papaveraceae. Universal leaves always occur in Helianthea, Papaveraceae, Papilionaceae, and Cucurbitaceae and sometimes in Rosaceae, Hy- HYPERLINK "https://www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com" www.example.com">www. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a yellow flower. A small image of a plant with white flowers. A small image of a plant with red flowers. A small image of a plant with blue flowers. A small image of a plant with purple flowers. A small image of a plant with pink flowers. A small image of a plant with white flowers. A small image of a plant with green leaves. A small image of a plant with red flowers. A small image of a plant with white flowers. A small image of a plant with green leaves. A small image of a plant with red flowers. A small image of a plant with white flowers. A small image of a plant with green leaves. A small image of a plant with red flowers. A small image of a plant with white flowers. A small image of a plant with green leaves. A small image of a plant with red flowers. A small image of a plant with white flowers. A small image of a plant with green leaves. A small image of a plant with red flowers. A small image of a plant with white flowers. A small image of a plant with green leaves. A small image of a plant with red flowers. A small image of a plant with white flowers. A small image of a plant with green leaves. A small image of a plant with red flowers. A small image of a plant with white flowers. A small image of a plant with green leaves. A small image of a plant with red flowers. A small image of a plant with white flowers. A small image of a plant with green leaves. A small image of a plant with red flowers. A small image of a plant with white flowers. A small image of a plant with green leaves. A small image of a plant with red flowers. A small image of a plant with white flowers. A small image of a plant with green leaves. A small image of a plant with red flowers. A small image of a plant with white flowers. A small image of a plant with green leaves. A small image of a plant with red flowers. A small image of a plant with white flowers. A small image of a plant with green leaves. A small image of a plant with red flowers. A small image of a plant with white flowers. A small image of a plant with green leaves. A small image of a plant with red flowers. A small image of a plant with white flowers. A small image of a plant with green leaves. A small image of a plant with red flowers. A small image of a plant with white flowers. A small image of a plant with green leaves. A small image of a plant with red flowers. A small image of a plant with white flowers. A small image of a plant with green leaves. A small image of a plant with red flowers. A small image of a plant with white flowers. A small image of a plant with green leaves. A small image of a plant with red flowers. A small image of a plant with white flowers. A small image of a plant with green leaves. A small image of a plant with red flowers. A small image of a plant with white flowers. A small image of a plant with green leaves. A small image of a plant with red flowers. A small image of a plant with white flowers. **COELIIFLORAE—EPIGYNE.** 569 *drampacea*, *Passifloraceae*, *Gomphocerae*, *Heliotropaceae*, *Combre- taceae*, *Cornaceae*, *Hamamelidaceae*, and *Aristoliceae*. The Epigynum is a very important character upon which the perigynous and epigynous sub-divisions of the Calyci- formes are founded. In the Perigynae we sometimes find the ovary partially or wholly inferior to the perigynium, as in *Fockeaceae*, *Bhomiaceae*, *Annonaceae*, *Rosaee*, *Sanfrangae*, *Jatrophae*, and *Ceratonia*. But in the Epigynae this is rarely found. But the exceptions to the ordinary inferior ovary of the Epigyne are much more rare, only occurring in *Myrtaceae*, *Malvaceae*, and *Caryophyllaceae*, where the ovary is sometimes partially or wholly superior. Sub-class III. Cordulifera. 1. Epigyne. The Natural Orders placed in this sub-division of the Cordu- lifera were included by De Candolle in the Calyciferae; thus the Corduliferae are a subdivision of the Calyciferae. The orders in which the cordula was hypogynous, and the ovary consequently superior, and which are placed in our arrangement in the Nat- ural Order 122. CAPRIFOLIAE.—The Honeychuck Order (Jap. 300), *Skeletaria* (Jap. 301), *Hemipentas* (Jap. 280), stipulate. Calyx superior (Jap. 601). 4—b-lot, usually tricornulate. Corolla imbricate (Jap. 302). 4—b-lot, tubular or rotate, irregular (Jap. 303) or irregular, nearly poly- A diagram showing a flower with a central column and two lateral lobes. As Jap. Part of the name, Hidai (Japanese sign) surrounded by a circle. Vertical section of a flower. Vertical section of a flower. Vertical section of a flower. But the simplest arrange- ment for the student is to consider the Monopetalous Corolla as the essential mark of the Corduliferae, and in accord- ance with this view, to call all those orders Corduliferae, and call it the Epigyne. It should be noticed, however, that some authors place it among the Calyciferae. (See Analysis of the Calyciferae, page 568.) Natural Order 122. CAPRIFOLIAE.—The Honeychuck Order (Jap. 300), *Skeletaria* (Jap. 301), *Hemipentas* (Jap. 280), stipulate. Calyx superior (Jap. 601). 4—b-lot, usually tricornulate. Corolla imbricate (Jap. 302). 4—b-lot, tubular or rotate, irregular (Jap. 303) or irregular, nearly poly- 570 REHACEAE. peduncle. Stamen (fig. 962) 1—3, inserted on the corolla, and alternate with its lobes. Ovary inferior (fig. 961), 1—3-celled, usually 3-celled, often with 1 ovule in one cell, and several in the other cells. Filament filiform, slender (figs. 962, 961, and 962) 5. Fruit indistinct, 1 or more coiled, dry or succulent, and crowned by the persistent calyx-like seed scales or numerous embryo (see fig. 963), in fleshy albumen. **Doronicum** (fig. 964). - **Doronicum** (fig. 964). - **Doronicum** (fig. 964). - **Doronicum** (fig. 964). - **Doronicum** (fig. 964). - **Doronicum** (fig. 964). - **Doronicum** (fig. 964). - **Doronicum** (fig. 964). - **Doronicum** (fig. 964). - **Doronicum** (fig. 964). Calyx cupulate, 4—5-lobed, persistent. Corolla monopetalous, and bearing commonly only two stamens as it has lobes to which the stamens are attached. Stamens usually 2—3, rarely 1—5-bellied. Fruit indehiscent. Seeds with fleshy albumen. *Dictamnus albus*. - *Dictamnus* albus Linné. - *Dictamnus* albus Linné. - *Dictamnus* albus Linné. - *Dictamnus* albus Linné. Native of the northern parts of Europe, Asia, and America. They are rare in the southern hemisphere. Examples of the Genera.—*Capsicum*, Solanum, *Caryophyllus*, *Lonicera*, etc., are common in Europe. Properties and Uses.—The plants of this order have frequently shown flowers, which are also commonly sweet-scented; hence many species are used as perfumes; e.g., *Caryophyllus* and *Lonicera*, which are species of *Caryophyllus* and *Lonicera*; *Gaultheria* (fig. 965); *Symphoricarpos* (fig. 966); *Snowberry* (*Symphoricarpos racemosus*), etc. Some are emetic and purgative; others astrigent, sudorific, or diuretic; and some are employed in medicine as stimulants or expectorants; but none Mon Hymenocallis has been also recently reported. But the patient is not well recovered; the symptoms resembled those caused by belladonna. Sowthyme species, the Common Elder.—Several parts of this plant have been long used medicinally; the leaves and flowers of *Sambucus nigra*, British Pharmacopoeia, contain a volatile oil, which renders them mildly emetic and purgative; they are also employed in the treatment and in the preparation of Elder Flower Water. The inner bark, roots, and seeds are also used medicinally. The fruit is also mildly emetic and diuretic. It is extremely useful for the people suffering from dropsy or dropsy of the liver; it is also used in wine which is commonly known as Elder Wine. The wood is also used in making varnish; it is also employed in making paper; it is also used in making ink. The flowers of Sowthyme have similar properties to those of S. aqua- et graminea; but they are less agreeable. **Trionum perfoliatum** is a mild purgative and emetic. Its roots are used both internally and externally. Pierisarum.—F. Linné, the Realy Guelder-Rose or Wayfaring Tree has two varieties: *Pieris armandii* (fig. 967), native of Japan; the Guelder-Rose, a plant commonly regarded as emetic and cathartic.* **Rutaceae**, or _Citrus Family._—The genus Citrus comprises about twenty species of trees or shrubs, which are cultivated for their fruits; they are mostly natives of tropical regions; but some species have been introduced into temperate climates for cultivation; e.g., *Citrus aurantium*, the Orange; *Citrus limon*, the Lemon; *Citrus reticulata*, the Grapefruit; *Citrus maxima*, the Pomelo; *Citrus medica*, the Bitter Orange; *Citrus × paradisi*, the Grapefruit-Pomelo; the black fruits of the Rhus- laura species are edible and agreeable. Natural Order 123. REHACEAE.—The Madder Order.—Character.—Trees, shrubs, or herbs. Stems rounded or angular. A flower from the Doronicum family. **RUBIACEAE.** 571 Leaves simple, entire, and either opposite and with interpetiolar stipules (fig. 377), or whorled and exstipulate (fig. 281). Inflorescence cymose. Calyx superior (figs. 960, col., and 966, b), with Fig. 964. Fig. 965. Fig. 966. Fig. 967. Fig. 964. Diagram of the flower of the Madder (Rubia tinctorum). Fig. 965. Portion of leaf of the Common Rue or Rue-leaf Madder (Ruta graveolens) showing the stipules, which are often united by their bases to form a sheath around the base of the calyx (fig. 967). Vertical section of the leaf and basal part of the stem of Rubia tinctorum. the limb 4-6-toothed, or entire, or obsolete. Corolla monopetalous, regular, tubular or rotate, with its lobes corresponding in number to the stamens, but differing in size from the corolla and equal in number to, and alternate with, its lobes (figs. 968, 969). Outer corolla-lobe (figs. 968 and 969), ovate to elliptic, usually 2-4 mm. long; inner corolla-lobe (figs. 968 and 969), linear to elliptic; style I or II (figs. 968 and 969), sometimes slightly divided; stigma simple or double; ovary superior, sessile or shortly stalked, dry or succulent, indistinguishable or separating into two or more dry cocci. Seeds I (figs. 967, o), 2 or more, in each cell, when few they are enclosed in a single locule; endosperm abundant; axis placentaless; embryo small, in horny albumen (fig. 307, a). Dioecious plants; flowers solitary on short peduncles; simple entire leaves, interpetiolar stipules, and rounded seeds; or with whorled exstipulate leaves, and angular stems. Only superior Corolla with one or two lobes; corolla similar to the teeth of the calyx and segments of the corolla, with the latter forming part of the calyx; ovary inferior; seeds 2 or more cellular. Fruit inferior. Seeds 1 or more in each cell, with horny albumen. *Fagopyrum esculentum*. This Order was separated by Lindley into two orders, the Cinchonaceae and the Galiumaceae or Stellariae, as arranged by Bentham and Hooker (1883); but this view has now been abandoned as not in accordance with the more generally accepted views of botanists. The Galiumaceae of Lindley were distinguished from the Cinchonaceae by having simple entire leaves and angular stems. Some botanists regard these woors as formed partly of leaves and partly of stipules rather than true leaves in outline and appearance.) The order Rubiaceae is 572 **BUBIACEAE** now divided by Hooker and Bentham into three series, each of which is divided into two sections. The Galiums of Lindley are natives of the northern parts of the northern hemisphere, and the mountainous of the southern, while the Cucubus are natives of the tropical regions of both hemispheres. There are about 3,000 species in the Rubiaceae as defined above. **Proprietaries.** The rubiaceous plants are very important to man, furnishing him with many valuable medicinal agents, as well as substances useful in the arts and manufactures. They are used as stimulants, antispasmodic, febrifuge, astrigent, emetic, or purgative properties; some are diuretic; others have astringent, expectorant, and expectorating qualities; tanning agents; and others have edible fruits and seeds. Some are reputed to possess intoxicating, and in rare cases even poisonous properties. The flowers of many species are used in our stores on account of the beauty and fragrance of their flowers. *Cynoglossum amaranticolor.*—The root of this plant, which is native of Brazil and New Granada, is termed amaranticola. In Brazil this root is well known as a remedy for dropsy. The *Cynoglossum* plant has become somewhat scarce in Brazil but is now being imported from South America. It is also cultivated in England and India. *Cynoglossum amaranticolor* is sold under the name of *Cynoglossum officinale* in the United States Pharmacopoeia. It constitutes a good remedy for dropsy. The flowers of *Cynoglossum amaranticolor* are used in our stores for their beautiful color and for their perfume. **Chloranthaceae.**—The plants of this order are natives exclusively of the intertropical regions. They are found in all parts of the world except Australia and New Zealand. The Chloranthaceae grow commonly at heights varying from about 4,800 to nearly 12,000 feet above sea level. They are found in the forests of Central America, from Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia, along 1st Sth Lts., through Peru and Chilean Patagonia; in the forests of Brazil; in the forests of Mexico; in small alpine shrubs, or large forest trees, with evergreen leaves, and commonly bearing flowers with five petals. The genus *Chloranthus* contains a number of about 600. The bark of several species and varieties is extensively employed in medicine. **Chloranthus chrysanthus.*—This plant is called "the Indian Tobacco," or "Jew's-Red." Since the years since, in consequence of the great destruction of Chrysanthemums (Chloranthus) by fire, it has been necessary to import them from China to replace them. It was found that in a short time our supply of this most valuable plant had been entirely exhausted. This was due to the fact that we did not give sufficient attention to the thanks given to the Chinese for their laborious efforts in cultivating this plant. The Chinese cultivate it in various parts of China, Java, and elsewhere, and are now cultivated in these countries (more properly so) in India. The Chinese have learned how to cultivate it so that they can procure any deficiency of supply in future years. A large number of commercial varieties have been introduced into Europe and America by Mr. H. W. Howard, and others, for a description of which we must refer to works on Horticulture. The following list will show what may be obtained from our own home sources: 1. *Chloranthus chrysanthus.*—The leaves are used medicinally. 2. *Chloranthus coccineus.*—The leaves are used medicinally. 3. *Chloranthus coccineus.*—The leaves are used medicinally. 4. *Chloranthus coccineus.*—The leaves are used medicinally. 5. *Chloranthus coccineus.*—The leaves are used medicinally. 6. *Chloranthus coccineus.*—The leaves are used medicinally. 7. *Chloranthus coccineus.*—The leaves are used medicinally. 8. *Chloranthus coccineus.*—The leaves are used medicinally. 9. *Chloranthus coccineus.*—The leaves are used medicinally. 10. *Chloranthus coccineus.*—The leaves are used medicinally. 11. *Chloranthus coccineus.*—The leaves are used medicinally. 12. *Chloranthus coccineus.*—The leaves are used medicinally. 13. *Chloranthus coccineus.*—The leaves are used medicinally. 14. *Chloranthus coccineus.*—The leaves are used medicinally. 15. *Chloranthus coccineus.*—The leaves are used medicinally. 16. *Chloranthus coccineus.*—The leaves are used medicinally. 17. *Chloranthus coccineus.*—The leaves are used medicinally. 18. *Chloranthus coccineus.*—The leaves are used medicinally. 19. *Chloranthus coccineus.*—The leaves are used medicinally. 20. *Chloranthus coccineus.*—The leaves are used medicinally. 21. *Chloranthus coccineus.*—The leaves are used medicinally. 22. *Chloranthus coccineus.*—The leaves are used medicinally. 23. *Chloranthus coccineus.*—The leaves are used medicinally. 24. *Chloranthus coccineus.*—The leaves are used medicinally. 25. *Chloranthus coccineus.*—The leaves are used medicinally. 26. *Chloranthus coccineus.*—The leaves are used medicinally. 27. *Chloranthus coccineus.*—The leaves are used medicinally. 28. *Chloranthus coccineus.*—The leaves are used medicinally. 29. *Chloranthus coccineus.*—The leaves are used medicinally. 30. *Chloranthus coccineus.*—The leaves are used medicinally. 31. *Chloranthus coccineus.*—The leaves are used medicinally. 32. *Chloranthus coccineus.*—The leaves are used medicinally. 33. *Chloranthus coccineus.*—The leaves are used medicinally. 34. *Chloranthus coccineu BURIACEAE. 573 and which is placed in the British Pharmacopoeia as one of the sources of methylated spirits. Several species have been used as medicinal constituents of the different kinds of Chironia bark in varying proportions; but for the purpose of this work, only C. flavescens has been considered. The former is, however, alone official and is generally regarded as the most valuable of the two. It is a hard, tough, fibrous bark, with a pleasant smell and taste, in an emolent degree, antiperiodic, ichorific, and tonic properties. It is a native of South America, and is found in Brazil, Peru, and Chile. It is also cultivated in India. It is a very useful stimulant, and in some cases have been found to be efficacious as topical applications. Coffea arabica, the Coffee Plant.—The seeds of this plant, when roasted, are known as coffee beans. They are used as a stimulant and as a beverage. When brewed, coffee essentially contains the albumen of the seed. The leaves contain caffeine (see below), and are used as a stimulant with effects (see Thes., p. 687) similar to that of coffee. About 40 millions of pounds of coffee are annually produced in the world, and the whole world has been estimated at about 1200 million pounds. In India, coffee is grown extensively in the south-western provinces and used as a substitute for tea, under the name of Coffee Tea. This leaf contains caffeine (see below). Medicinally, coffee has been also used with frequent beneficial effects as a stimulant and diuretic. It is also employed in the treatment of melancholia, but its antiseptic action is much less. Besides C. arabica, the seeds of C. canephora are used medicinally in India. C. arabica and C. arabica var. maculata are also employed medicinally in India. C. arabica var. maculata is culti- vated, and becoming a very important source of coffee; it bids fair to sup- plant C. arabica in the cultivation of coffee in India. The leaves contain caffeine, plant and flavonoids at a lower elevation; and the seeds large and of a good quality at a higher elevation than those of C. arabica. Cupressus.—The fruits of C. serrata and other species are eaten in India as a vegetable; they are also used medicinally as an emetic and laxative. The leaves of C. sativaides are used by the priests to discover the will of the gods. Gaultheria.—G. africana, Gooseberry or Cloudberry.—The impregnated juice of this plant is used in India as a vermifuge; it is also employed in other extreme diseases. Its medical uses have been employed as a substitute for coffee; but it is not so effective as coffee or green tea. Laurus nobilis.—The leaves of Laurus nobilis are used medicinally. The fruit of Laurus nobilis is edible; it is also employed in India. Mimosa pudica—The leaves of Mimosa pudica are prepared, which are extremely useful in India as an emetic and laxative; they are also employed medicinally. Nerium oleander—The leaves of Nerium oleander are employed in India as an emetic, which is said to be antispasmodic. Pentaclethra macrophylla—This tree grows wild in tropical Asia; the Lans tree is the Grouping of South America. In British Guinea, a branch of this tree was found to be poisonous to the natives of the Palm. The fruit of G. berberidifolia also furnishes a volatile dye. Gardenia jasminoides—The flowers of this plant yield an aromatic essence. Wood of certain makes, but according to Schencking, this is the pro- duct of Crete; but it is not known whether any part of Morocco is also employed in India for dying, mixed with those of Gardenia tinctoria. (See Gruehl.) 874 **RUBIACEAE.** Oldenlandia amabilis.—The root is occasionally imported from India under the name of Chas. or Chas. Moschata. It is employed as dye red, purple, and orange-brown. The colouring matter is confined to the bark. Pseudocynara deserti, a native of Bolivia, A.C., is stated to yield the bark. It is not known whether this plant is really a species of Cynara, or whether it belongs to some other genus. 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Jacaranda mimosifolia, a native of Brazil, is stated by some writers (though not by all) that there two twain kinds of Jacaranda which have been found in the United States, one of which is the true Jacaranda, the other a species of Cercis; but the botanical source of the other, which is known as small-armed Jacaranda, is unknown. Accordingly, according to Plancius, a species of Cercis has been found in America, but its botanical source is unknown; but it is not known what kind of Jacaranda it is. Jacaranda mimosifolia, a native of Brazil, is stated by some writers (though not by all) that there two twain kinds of Jacaranda which have been found in the United States, one of which is the true Jacaranda, the other a species of Cercis; but the botanical source of the other, which is known as small-armed Jacaranda, is unknown; but it is not known what kind of Jacaranda it is. Jacaranda mimosifolia, a native of Brazil, is stated by some writers (though not by all) that there two twain kinds of Jacaranda which have been found in the United States, one of which is the true Jacaranda, the other a species of Cercis; but the botanical source of the other, which is known as small-armed Jacaranda, is unknown; but it is not known what kind of Jacaranda it is. Jacaranda mimosifolia, a native of Brazil, is stated by some writers (though not by all) that there two twain kinds of Jacaranda which have been found in the United States, one of which is the true Jacaranda, the other a species of Cercis; but the botanical source of the other, which is known as small-armed Jacaranda, is unknown; but it is not known what kind of Jacaranda it is. Jacaranda mimosifolia, a native of Brazil, is stated by some writers (though not by all) that there two twain kinds of Jacaranda which have been found in the United States, one of which is the true Jacaranda, the other a species of Cercis; but the botanical source of the other, which is known as small-armed Jacaranda, is unknown; but it is not known what kind of Jacaranda it is. Jacaranda mimosifolia, a native of Brazil, is stated by some writers (though not by all) that there two twain kinds of Jacaranda which have been found in the United States, one of which is the true Jacaranda, the other a species of Cercis; but the botanical source of the other, which is known as small-armed Jacaranda, is unknown; but it is not known what kind of Jacaranda it is. Jacaranda mimosifolia, a native of Brazil, is stated by some writers (though not by all) that there two twain kinds of Jacaranda which have been found in the United States, one of which is the true Jacaranda, the other a species of Cercis; but the botanical source of the other, which is known as small-armed Jacaranda, is unknown; but it is not known what kind of Jacaranda it is. Jacaranda mimosifolia, a native of Brazil, is stated by some writers (though not by all) that there two twain kinds of Jacaranda which have been found in the United States, one of which is the true Jacaranda, the other a species of Cercis; but the botanical source of the other, which is known as small-armed Jacaranda, is unknown; but it is not known what kind of Jacaranda it is. Jacaranda mimosifolia, a native of Brazil, is stated by some writers (though not by all) that there two twain kinds of Jacaranda which have been found in the United States, one of which is the true Jacaranda, the other a species of Cercis; but the botanical source of the other, which is known as small-armed Jacaranda, is unknown; but it is not known what kind of Jacaranda it is. Jacaranda mimosifolia, a native of Brazil, is stated by some writers (though not by all) that there two twain kinds of Jacaranda which have been found in the United States, one of which is the true Jacaranda, the other a species of Cercis; but the botanical source of the other, which is known as small-armed Jacaranda, is unknown; but it is not known what kind of Jacaranda it is. Jacaranda mimosifolia, a native of Brazil, is stated by some writers (though not by all) that there two twain kinds of Jacaranda which have been found in the United States, one of which is the true Jacaranda, the other a species of Cercis; but the botanical source of the other, which is known as small-armed Jacarand **Rubus fruticosus**—The fruit or berries or fruits or berries or fruits or berries or fruits or berries or fruits or berries or fruits or berries or fruits or berries or fruits or berries or fruits or berries or fruits or berries or fruits or berries or fruits or berries or fruits or berries or fruits or berries or fruits or berries or fruits or berries or fruits or berries or fruits or berries or fruits or berries or fruits or berries or fruits or berries or fruits or berries or fruits or berries or fruits or berries or fruits or berries or fruits or berries or fruits or berries or fruits or berries or fruits or berries or fruits **Rubus fruticosus**—The fruit or berries or fruits or berries or fruits **Rubus fruticosus**—The fruit **Rubus fruticosus**—The fruit **Rubus fruticosus**—The fruit **Rubus fruticosus**—The fruit **Rubus fruticosus**—The fruit **Rubus fruticosus**—The fruit **Rubus fruticosus**—The fruit **Rubus fruticosus**—The fruit **Rubus fruticosus**—The fruit **Rubus fruticosus**—The fruit **Rubus fruticosus**—The fruit **Rubus fruticosus**—The fruit **Rubus fruticosus**—The fruit **Rubus fruticosus**—The fruit **Rubus fruticosus**—The fruit **Rubus fruticosus**—The fruit **Rubus fruticosus**—The fruit **Rubus fruticosus**—The fruit **Rubus fruticosus**—The fruit **Rubus fruticosus**—The fruit **Rubus fruticosus**—The fruit **Rubus fruticosus**—The fruit **Rubus fruticosus**—The fruit **Rubus fruticosus**—The fruit **Rubus fruticosus**—The fruit **Rubus fruticosus**—The fruit **Rubus fruticosus**—The fruit **Rubus fruticosus**—The fruit **Rubus fruticosus**—The fruit **Rubus fruticosus**—The fruit **Rubus fruticosus**—The fruit **Rubu COLUMELLIACEAE. VALERIANACEAE. 673 Natural Order 124. COLUMELLIACEA. The Columellia Order. - **Character** - Evergreen shrubs or trees. Leaves opposite, sessile, entire, simple, alternate, deciduous, or persistent. Calyx inferior, 5-parted. Corolla monopetalous, rotate, 5- or 6-parted, with longitudinal adhesion. Stamens numerous, filiform, inserted on the corolla tube. Style superior, 1-celled, surmounted by a fleshy disk. Fruit capsule, 2-celled, many-seeded. Seeds winged. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers. - Nat- tive to Europe and Asia. The following species belong to the genus Columella, which includes three species. Properties and Uses. - Unknown. Natural Order 125. VALERIANACEAE. The Valerian Order. - **Character** - Herbs. Leaves opposite or alternate, simple, entire, sessile or petiolate (figs. 489 and 490) rarely uniseriatus. Calyx superior (figs. 489, 490), and 6- or 7-valved. Corolla monopetalous (figs. 489 and 490), tubular, inserted upon the base of the calyx (figs. 489 and 490). Stamens 1-5, inserted upon the corolla tube (figs. 489 and 490), and usually 2 abortive or empty ones. Fruit a capsule, often dehiscent into several seeds in a fertile cell, and usually 2 abortive or empty ones. Flowers fragrant (figs. 489 and 490). Seed solitary, suspended; exstipulate; radiculose. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers. - Chiefly natives of the temperate parts of Europe, Asia, and America; but also found in the warmer parts of the Genera—Contrastum, Valeriana. There are about 180 species. Fragrant Plants. - They are chiefly remarkable for the presence of a strong-scented volatile oil, which renders them agreeable to the nose; but they are not generally considered agreeable by Europeans. Note.-The genus Valeriana is commonly referred to as the Nardus indigena, the true Spikenard of the ancients. It is the Nard of the Hebrews, and the Nardo of the Greeks; and is used in medicine as a stimulant, and in perfumes as a fixative and hydrotic. In some districts, as Leb- nitz chief use for its oil is as a stimulant. The young leaves are occasionally used as a salad both on the continent and in England. In France they are known under the name of "Nardes." The root of V. officinalis is used in England for "Nard," but it is not so efficacious as the British Plantain (Plantago major). The roots of V. officinalis, V. officinale var. officinale (L.) Schrad., V. officinale var. pilosa (L.) Schrad., and V. officinale var. pilosa subsp. pilosa (L.) Schrad., are most esteemed in Russia. Fig. 968. Fig. 968 Vertical section of a flower of Valeriana officinalis Linn., showing the corolla tube with stamens inserted at its base; the style with its disk; and the ovary with its single seed. Figures in this page: figs. 489 and 490 576 **DIPSACACEAE. CALYCERACEAE** **Natural Order 126. DIPSACACEAE.—The Teasel Order.** **Character.—** Leaves alternate, stipulate, or verticillate stipulate. Flowers in dense heads (capituli) (fig. 423), surrounded by an involucre. Fig. 508. Fol. 576. **Fig. 508. Plant of *Saxifraga* species, var. **(fig. 423).** Capitulum, with a tubular involucre, with a membranous or papillose bract, surrounded by an involucre. Corolla (fig. 970) tubular, mono- or bicornate, 3-lobed, generally irregular (fig. 970), with an imbricate calyce. Stamens 4, epistelate, distinct; corolla inferior (fig. 970), sessile; style simple (fig. 970), with a long, flat and stigma simple. Fruit dry, indehiscent, surrounded by the pappose calyx (figs. 464 and 306). Seed small, oblong or ovoid ; stem erect ; bracts short ; radicle suberect. **Distribution. Examples.** **Species.** Chiefly natives of the South of Europe, and of North and South Africa. A few species are found in this country. **Examples of the Genus.—*Dipsacus*, Knautia, Scabiosa.* **Properties and Uses.** Some are reputed to possess astrigent and febrifugal properties, but as remedial agents they are also regarded more as stimulants than as remedies. Pullmann is, however, an important economic species. *Dipsacus.* Pullmann. Fuller's Teasel.—The dried capitula are used by fuller's to make a dye called "fuller's green." The head shot bookers raise the nap without tearing the stuff like metal in-struments do when they are used on cloth; hence the name given to this country from France. Scabiosa is said to be called the Devil's-bit Scabious, on account of its sharply serrated stamens or root. It is said to be antiseptic, and to yield a good remedy for scabies and other skin affections. In a similar manner, as is specified by the author in the *Pharmaceutical Journal* of London (1868), it is stated that the leaves are used in the treatment of caputis, which is the ordinary arrantage in the plant of this order. **Natural Order 127. CALYCERACEAE.—The Calycium Order.** **Character.—** Leaves alternate, stipulate, stipulate. Flowers in capitula, surrounded by an involucre. Calyx superior, irre- Fig. 508. Fig. 508. Plant of *Saxifraga* species, var. 576 **COMPOSITAE.** 577 gular, 5-lobed. *Corylus monopetala* : regular, valvate, 5-lobed. *Sassafras* 5, epipetalous ; *Simmondsia monopetala* : anthera par- ticularly long, with a long filament ; *Lindera obtusiloba* : anthera prolifidehimbent. Seed solitary, pendulous, with feathery albumen ; edible. Diagnosis. — These plants inhabit an intermediate position between Dipsacaceae and Compositae, being distinguished from the former by their 5-lobed corolla, and from the latter by their 5-lobed individual florets, valvate articulation of corolla, monadelphous diastema, and the presence of a long filament on the anther. The florets of their anthers being only partially united, and in their pendulous albuminous seed, and superior radicle. *Eupatorium* (Eupatorium) : exclusively natives of South America, especially the cooler parts. Examples of the Germinal Order. In this family there are about 20 species. Properties and Uses. — Unknown. Natural Order 128. COMPOSITAE. — The Composite Order— Character.—Mild or bitter. Leaves alternate, opposite. A small illustration showing a plant with compound leaves and a central stem. Fig. 971. Latifolia form of *Chrysanthemum* flavum. a. Corolla with adnate calyx ; b. Corolla with free calyx ; c. Corolla with adnate anthers ; d. Stamen formed by the adnate anthers ; e. Stigma. P. 973 The above are forms of *Chrysanthemum* flavum. exstipulate. *Flores* (floral) hermaphrodite (figs. 971-973), unisexual (figs. 486) or neuter, arranged in capitula (figs. 422 P F A small illustration showing a flower head with multiple florets. 578 COMPOSTEL. and 430), which are commonly surrounded by an involucre formed of a number of united bracts (phylloides) (figs. 304); the sepals, petals, stamens, and pistil, being united into a monopetalous or scale-like bracteole (pistole) (figs. 309, b). Calyx super- nate (figs. 460, 461), or sessile (figs. 460, 461), or membranous or membranous (fig. 461); in the latter case it is entire, or toothed, or papose—that is divided into bristles, or simple, or branched—(figs. 460, 461). Corolla monopetalous (figs. 571-573), tubular (fig. 460), ligulate (figs. 573), orbicular (fig. 573), or irregularly lobed (fig. 573). Stamens stamine (figs. 571-573, c) or rarely 5, inserted on the corolla, and alternate with its divisions; filaments distinct or membranous; anthers free, pendulous, or sessile or appendaged (fig. 543), which is perforated by the style (fig. 573). Ovary inferior, 1-celled, with 1 erect ovule (fig. 572); style 1, uni- Fig. 573. Fig. 92a. Styles and stigma of Composite Flowers to illustrate In Can- dida viridis Linn., a species of the genus *Centaurea* (Veronstroemum). *Centaurea* subspicata (Drosera) Linn., a flowerless plant found in the mountains of the Pyrenees and the Alps. *Lunaria* auricula Linn., a plant of the family *Lactucaceae*. *Lunaria* auricula var. auricula (Müll. Arg.) Houtt., a variety of the same plant. viled below, and commonly bifid above (fig. 573), stigma 2, one being antheriform and the other linear-lanceolate; style as long as the style (fig. 975). Fruit dry, indehiscent, 1-celled, crowned by the limb of the calyx, which is often papose (fig. 974). Seed (figs. 574, solitaria) small, ellipsoid to ovoid; embryo short and thickened at the base; endosperm abundant. Diagnosis: Herbs or shrubs, with stipulate leaves. Flowers (naked flowers) solitary or in cymes; calyx usually imbricated, surrounded by an involucre; calyx superior; its limb abortive, or membranous, or papose—the latter case being rare; corolla monopetalous, its limb toothed, with scales at the base; stamens stamine, or rarely 5; anthers free; style bifid; ovary inferior, 1-celled, with ovule(s); style(s) symmetrical. 578 COMPOSTE. 579 1 erect ovule; style simple, bifid above. Fruit 1-celled, dry, indehiscent. Seed solitary, erect, exalbuminous; radicle inferior. **Lamiaceae** (Labiate family). This order has been variously divided by authors. By Linnaeus, the following sub-orders were established: **Sub-order** 1. *Coriifoliae* (Corymbiferae), which corresponded to the Natural Order *Compositae* as above defined, were arranged in five orders, under the names of Polypogonia, Scrophularia, Centaurea, Genista, and Verbascum. The characters of these have been already stated at page 568. **Sub-order** 2. *Labiatae* (Labiate family). The two sub-orders are as follows—1. *Coriifoliae*, the plants of which have either tubular (bocconia) and perfect flowers; or those of the disk (corymbium) and imperfect flowers; or those of the corolla tubular and pistillateous, or ligulate (radiant). 2. *Cyaneo- pala*, the flowers of which are perfect and perfect; or those of the corolla tubular and those of the disk imperfect. In this sub-order include those plants the flowers of which are bilabiate, and which were known to Linnaeus; their arrangement must therefore have been that of the present day is that of *Labiatae*; this was found on that of Lesing. It is as follows— **Scra-oxen** 1. *Tubulifera*.—Flowers tubular or ligulate, either perfect or imperfect; with a perianth of three parts. This sub-order includes the *Coriifoliae* and *Cyaneopala* of Amentaceae. **Tribe 1. Vernonieae.*—Style cylindrical; its arms generally long and exstipulate, sometimes short and blunt, always covered all over with stellate hairs; with a perianth of three parts. Elephantopus. **Tribe 2. Coriifoliae.*—Style cylindrical; its arms long and somewhat clavate, with a papillose surface on the outside near the end (figs. 973, 4). Examples—Eupatorium, Tussilago. **Tribe 3. Cyaneopala.*—Style cylindrical; its arms long, flat on the outside, equally and finely downy on the inside (figs. 973, 4). **Tribe 4. Semecarides.*—Style cylindrical; its arms linear, fringed at the point, generally truncate, but sometimes extended beyond it; with a perianth of three parts; with some kind (figs. 973, 4 and 5). Examples—Anthemia, Semicarides. The above four tribes correspond to the sub-order *Coriifoliae* of Linnæus; the next six tribes to the *Cyaneopala* of the same author. **Tribe 5. Cyaneae.*—Style thickened above, and often with a horizontal base; with a perianth of three parts; without or free (figs. 973, 4). Examples—Calendula, Centaurea. **Scra-order** 2. *Labiatifera*.—Flowers with bilabiate corolla; perfect or unisexual. Of this sub-order we have two tribes— 5 580 COMPOSITAE. Tribe 6. *Matthiola.*—Style cylindrical or somewhat ovoid ; its arms usually blunt, but sometimes pointed at the outside, and either covered at the upper part by a fine uniform hairiness, or absolutely free from hairs (figs. 973, b). Examples :— *Matthiola.* Tribe 7. *Nemophila.*—Style never swollen ; its arms long, linear, truncate, or fringed only at the point (figs. 973, b). Ex- amples :— *Nemophila.* SUB-ORDER 3. *Lactiflorae.*—Flowers all ligulate and perfect. SUB-ORDER 4. *Calyculiflorae.*—The corolla tubular or campanulate ; the calyx cylindrical or conical at the upper part ; its arms somewhat obtuse, and equally pubescent. Examples : Calyculiflorae. By Bentham the Compositae are divided into thirteen tribes. Distribution and Numbers.—Universally distributed ; but the *Lactiflorae* are confined to the northern hemisphere, and the *Calyculiflorae* to South America. The *Lactiflorae* are almost entirely confined to the extra-tropical regions of South America. In the northern parts of the world they are found in North America, Europe, Asia, but in South America and some other parts of the southern hemisphere, there are no species belonging to this sub-order. Some years since there were about 9,500 species according to M. Lesquiey, who remarks " that they have abundantly increased during the last few years." There are several plants, in proportion as our knowledge of species has advanced. Thus Linnæus had 1,800 species ; Linnaeus had 2,800 species ; the present number is 3,800 ; and in 1823 Lindley estimated 5,823 in the year 1823, which was again a tenth ; and now (1845) that the estimate is 9,500 species. In 1845 Lindley estimated that there amount to 9,500. Lindley estimated the order to contain about 9,500 species. Properties and Uses.—The properties of the Compositae are variable. A bitter principle predominates the greater number of the species; but in some cases it is absent; in others it is rendered tonic. Some are laxative and anthelmintic. Many contain a volatile oil, which communicates aromatic, carminative, and diaphoretic properties. The leaves of many species are used, and the *Lactiflorae* commonly abound in a bitter-tasted milk juice, which is sometimes narcotic. Sub-order 3. *Lactiflorae.*—The plants of this sub-order are chiefly remarkable for their bitter, tonic, and emetic properties; those due to the presence of a bitter principle, and a volatile oil; but there are excellent vegetables. *Medicago*.—This genus contains several valuable leguminous and styptic. It is regarded in the United States of America, where the leaves are used medicinally, as one of the most important of all her- baceous plants. In the form of a warm infusion they are also aromatic. According to Lindley, this plant is more efficacious than coffee, as regards the stimulating property of beer. Formerly this herb had a high reputation as A diagram showing different parts of a flower. COMPOSTER. 851 a vestimentary; hence its name of New-birth—a modele is known in nature to have been formed by the agency of the wind, and is considered as a stomatic topic. It is also termed "ive." The root of this plant is a very agreeable flavoring—its root is used at it is employed as an energetic local irritant and diaphlogus. In toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache, in toothache. The root is commonly used in Germany. A species of this plant is extensively cultivated for the sake of its flower-heads which are official and much esteemed for their medicinal properties. The flowers constitute the Roman name "Tulip," and are used as a stimulant and a diuretic. They are also extensively for the treatment of constipation. The flowers constitute the Roman name "Tulip," and are used as a stimulant and a diuretic. They are also extensively for the treatment of constipation. The root is commonly used as an emetic and a purgative. It is also used as a stimulant and a diuretic. It is also used as a stimulant and a diuretic. The root is commonly used as an emetic and a purgative. It is also used as a stimulant and a diuretic. It is also used as a stimulant and a diuretic. The root is commonly used as an emetic and a purgative. It is also used as a stimulant and a diuretic. It is also used as a stimulant and a diuretic. The root is commonly used as an emetic and a purgative. It is also used as a stimulant and a diuretic. It is also used as a stimulant and a diuretic. The root is commonly used as an emetic and a purgative. It is also used as a stimulant and a diuretic. It is also used as a stimulant and a diuretic. The root is commonly used as an emetic and a purgative. It is also used as a stimulant and a diuretic. It is also used as a stimulant and a diuretic. The root is commonly used as an emetic and a purgative. It is also used as a stimulant and a diuretic. It is also used as a stimulant and a diuretic. The root is commonly used as an emetic and a purgative. It is also used as a stimulant and a diuretic. It is also used as a stimulant and a diuretic. The root is commonly used as an emetic and a purgative. It is also used as a stimulant and a diuretic. It is also used as a stimulant and a diuretic. The root is commonly used as an emetic and a purgative. It is also used as a stimulant and a diuretic. It is also used as a stimulant and a diuretic. The root is commonly used as an emetic and a purgative. It is also used as a stimulant and a diuretic. It is also used as a stimulant and a diuretic. The root is commonly used as an emetic and a purgative. It is also used as a stimulant and a diuretic. It is also used as a stimulant and a diuretic. The root is commonly used as an emetic and a purgative. It is also used as a stimulant and a diuretic. It is also used as a stimulant and a diuretic. The root is commonly used as an emetic and a purgative. It is also used as a stimulant and a diuretic. It is also used as a stimulant and a diuretic. The root is commonly used as an emetic and a purgative. It is also used as a stimulant and a diuretic. It is also used as a stimulant and a diuretic. The root is commonly used as an emetic and a purgative. It is also used as a stimulant and a diuretic. It is also used as a stimulant and a diuretic. The root is commonly used as an emetic and a purgative. It is also used as a stimulant and a diuretic. It is also used as a stimulant and COMPOSTER. 582 COMPOSTER. In China, it is known as *Bianmao* or *Nan composter*. In China it is used in medicine, and is also employed in the preparation of a beautiful pink dye. The pink seeds of *Cynara scolymus* are sometimes employed externally to women, so as to have a similar effect to that of Arnica. Carrots, which are very popular in this country, are particularly good for women, because they are used as tonics and febrifuges. Carrots are also used in the preparation of a beautiful pink dye. The pink seeds of *Cynara scolymus* are sometimes employed externally to women, so as to have a similar effect to that of Arnica. Carrots, which are very popular in this country, are particularly good for women, because they are used as tonics and febrifuges. Carrots are also used in the preparation of a beautiful pink dye. The pink seeds of *Cynara scolymus* are sometimes employed externally to women, so as to have a similar effect to that of Arnica. Carrots, which are very popular in this country, are particularly good for women, because they are used as tonics and febrifuges. Carrots are also used in the preparation of a beautiful pink dye. The pink seeds of *Cynara scolymus* are sometimes employed externally to women, so as to have a similar effect to that of Arnica. Carrots, which are very popular in this country, are particularly good for women, because they are used as tonics and febrifuges. Carrots are also used in the preparation of a beautiful pink dye. The pink seeds of *Cynara scolymus* are sometimes employed externally to women, so as to have a similar effect to that of Arnica. Carrots, which are very popular in this country, are particularly good for women, because they are used as tonics and febrifuges. Carrots are also used in the preparation of a beautiful pink dye. The pink seeds of *Cynara scolymus* are sometimes employed externally to women, so as to have a similar effect to that of Arnica. Carrots, which are very popular in this country, are particularly good for women, because they are used as tonics and febrifuges. Carrots are also used in the preparation of a beautiful pink dye. The pink seeds of *Cynara scolymus* are sometimes employed externally to women, so as to have a similar effect to that of Arnica. Carrots, which are very popular in this country, are particularly good for women, because they are used as tonics and febrifuges. Carrots are also used in the preparation of a beautiful pink dye. The pink seeds of *Cynara scolymus* are sometimes employed externally to women, so as to have a similar effect to that of Arnica. Carrots, which are very popular in this country, are particularly good for women, because they are used as tonics and febrifuges. Carrots are also used in the preparation of a beautiful pink dye. The pink seeds of *Cynara scolymus* are sometimes employed externally to women, so as to have a similar effect to that of Arnica. Carrots, which are very popular in this country, are particularly good for women, because they are used as tonics and febrifuges. Carrots are also used in the preparation of a beautiful pink dye. The pink seeds of *Cynara scolymus* are sometimes employed externally to women, so as to have a similar effect to that of Arnica. Carrots, which are very popular in this country, are particularly good for women, because they are used as tonics and febrifuges. Carrots are also used in the preparation of a beautiful pink dye. The pink seeds of *Cynara scolymus* are sometimes employed externally to women, so as to have a similar effect to that of Arnica. Carrots, which are very popular in this country, are particularly good for women, because they are used as tonics and febrifuges. Carrots are also used in the preparation of a beautiful pink dye. The pink seeds of *Cynara scolymus* are sometimes employed externally to women, so as to have a similar effect to that of Arnica. Carrots, which are very popular in this country, are particularly good for women, because they are used as tonics and febrifuges. Carrots are also used in the preparation of a beautiful pink dye. The pink seeds of *Cynara scolymus* are sometimes employed externally to women, so as to have a similar effect to that of Arnica. Carrots, which are very popular in this country, are particularly good for women, because they are used as tonics and febrifuges. Carrots are also used in the preparation of a beautiful pink dye. The pink seeds of *Cynara scolymus* are sometimes employed externally to women, so as to have a similar effect to that of Arnica. Carrots, which are very popular in this country, are particularly good for women, because they are used as tonics and febrifuges. Carrots are also used in the preparation of a beautiful pink dye. The pink seeds of *Cynara scolymus* are sometimes employed externally to women, so as to have a similar effect to that of Arnica. Carrots, which are very popular in this country, are particularly good for women, because they are used as tonics and febrifuges. Carrots are also used in the preparation of a beautiful pink dye. The pink seeds of *Cynara scolymus* are sometimes employed externally to women, so as to have a similar effect to that of Arnica. Carrots, which are very popular in this country, are particularly good for women, because they are used as tonics and febrifuges. Carrots are also used in the preparation of a beautiful pink dye. The pink seeds of *Cynara scolymus* are sometimes employed externally to women, so as to have a similar effect to that of Arnica. Carrots, which are very popular in this country, are particularly good for women, because they are used as tonics and febrifuges. Carrots COMPOSITE. 583 Jamaica Heliotrope, Elephantbane.—The root is an aromatic tuber, expec- tored, and digested. It is used in medicine to check haemorrhage and to diabetes. It was also formerly much used in this country as the basis of a Balsam of Jamaica. Laurier edulisoides, Wild Vanilla, or Des's Tongue.—The leaves of this plant are used by the natives of the West Indies as a sweet-smelling weed largely to give flavour to tobacco and cigars. They would be probably very useful in the same way to the English smoker. The leaves of this species, more especially L. ellipticus, yield the root known as Balm Seaweed. Mentha.—The name of M. officinalis, a native of Chili, yields by pressure a volatile oil which is used in medicine and in perfumery. The leaves are exten- sively used for illumination. The plant is now cultivated in Asia Minor, Algiers, and other places. The oil is used in perfumery. The leaves have the valuable property of not coming off at 10° below zero of Fahrenheit, hence it is sometimes employed as a substitute for wintergreen. Moricaria Chamomile, the similar property to that of true Chamomile. The flowers of Moricaria are white, but they are not so fragrant as Chamomile; they are usually distinguished as Common or German Chamomile. They are allied to Matricaria chamomilla. **Molinia caerulea,**—Gorse has been much used as an emollient in the treatment of scabies and other skin affections. In this respect it is a most effective of all the plants known. Gorse, for some reason undetermined shows that when it grows on poor soil it becomes more effective than on good veganous ground. Gorse has also been highly spoken of as a remedy for neumonia. **Noisette,**—The family Noisette contains many of its grandfathers and n. oregan, and is allied to the genus *Caryophyllus*. The Noisette is a plant with a very strong smell. **Pentas malvaceae,**—The insect powers of pentas are considered to be the powerful flower- buds of the plant. The flowers are white or pinkish-purple, and P. malvaceae yields Pentas Root Powder, but the more energetic insecticide is obtained from P. indica (India Pentas). This plant is allied to *Caryophyllus*. **Sulphur,**—S. laciniata, S. perfoliata, and other species, natives of North America, yield Sulphur Powder. These plants are very useful, are reputed to be very efficacious in cases of asthma. S. laciniata is also known as *Sulphur Root*. The leaves of these plants are said to prevent their faces uniformly white and smooth. Sir J Hooker has stated that the leaves of *Sulphur Root* are used by the natives of New Zealand as a remedy for rheumatism. The plant becomes visible at once by the altered appearance of the leaves of the Compound Plant. **Tansy,**—Tansy vulgaris, the common Tansy, possesses tonic and antiphlogistic properties. **Tussilago Farfara,** Coltsfoot.—This plant is employed as a popular remedy for coughs and catarrh. **Wormwood anthelmintic.*—The seeds are employed in the East Indies as an anthelmintic.* **Xanthium spinosum,**—The powdered leaves, &c., of this plant are said to be a most efficient remedy for syphilis; but they have been found useless by some writers. There are no important plants known to belong to this subdivision. Some have been employed as diuretic, antiseptic, and expectorant; and the leaves of *Pistacia vera* are sometimes employed at the Cape Colony. Suborder b. Linnaeales.—The plants of this suborder generally contain volatile oils, and are employed medicinally for their aromatic prop- erties or medicinal properties. The roots of some are used as medicinal vapors; the leaves of others are employed as emollients; and some become edible as salads. Calthusum.—C. Integra, Choricry.—The Choricry plant is indigenous **581** **CAMPANTLACRE.** in this and many other countries of Europe. It is also extensively culti- vated for the sake of its roots, which when roasted and powdered are used as a substitute for coffee. The roots of this plant are very nutritious, and contain 100 millions of pounds are annually consumed in England. In France, the consumption of coffee is so great that the cultivation of this plant is not so much cultivated that in proportion to that of coffee it is nearly 40 per cent. It does not, however, possess any virtue to augmente the pernicious excitation, which is occasioned by the excessive consumption of coffee. The most impor- tant is much more than that of coffee, and it is not unfrequently attended with in- dividual disorders, such as headache, indigestion, and nervousness. The pernicious effect of coffee on the health has been frequently observed, and it is probable to have somewhat similar properties to that of Datura. The leaves of the plant are to be prepared in the same manner as those of the Caffeine plant. *Leucanthemum vulgare*. *Common Daisy.* *Leucanthemum* is a genus of plants *Leucanthemum vulgare*. *Common Daisy.* *Leucanthemum* is a genus of plants cultivated for use as a salad. As a medicine it possesses no slight extent, except as a diuretic. The leaves are employed in the preparation of *Will* or *Strong-concent. Lactuca*, possess much more evident analysis and anti- biotic properties than *Lactuca sativa*. The leaves of both species are rich in both *Lactuca sativa*. The leaves of both species are rich in vitamins A and C, and contain a large quantity of *Lactuca sativa*. The leaves of both species are rich in vitamins A and C, and contain a large quantity of *Lactuca sativa*. The leaves of both species are rich in vitamins A and C, and contain a large quantity of *Lactuca sativa*. The leaves of both species are rich in vitamins A and C, and contain a large quantity of *Lactuca sativa*. The leaves of both species are rich in vitamins A and C, and contain a large quantity of *Lactuca sativa*. The leaves of both species are rich in vitamins A and C, and contain a large quantity of *Lactuca sativa*. The leaves of both species are rich in vitamins A and C, and contain a large quantity of *Lactuca sativa*. The leaves of both species are rich in vitamins A and C, and contain a large quantity of *Lactuca sativa*. The leaves of both species are rich in vitamins A and C, and contain a large quantity of *Lactuca sativa*. The leaves of both species are rich in vitamins A and C, and contain a large quantity of *Lactuca sativa*. The leaves of both species are rich in vitamins A and C, and contain a large quantity of *Lactuca sativa*. The leaves of both species are rich in vitamins A and C, and contain a large quantity of *Lactuca sativa*. The leaves of both species are rich in vitamins A and C, and contain a large quantity of *Lactuca sativa*. The leaves of both species are rich in vitamins A and C, and contain a large quantity of *Lactuca sativa*. The leaves of both species are rich in vitamins A and C, and contain a large quantity of *Lactuca sativa*. The leaves of both species are rich in vitamins A and C, and contain a large quantity of *Lactuca sativa*. The leaves of both species are rich in vitamins A and C, and contain a large quantity of *Lactuca sativa*. The leaves of both species are rich in vitamins A and C, and contain a large quantity of *Lactuca sativa*. The leaves of both species are rich in vitamins A and C, and contain a large quantity of *Lactuca sativa*. The leaves of both species are rich in vitamins A and C, and contain a large quantity of *Lactuca sativa*. The leaves of both species are rich in vitamins A and C, and contain a large quantity of *Lactuca sativa*. The leaves of both species are rich in vitamins A and C, and contain a large quantity of *Lactuca sativa*. The leaves of both species are rich in vitamins A and C, and contain a large quantity of *Lactuca sativa*. The leaves of both species are rich in vitamins A and C, and contain a large quantity of *Lactuca sativa*. The leaves of both species are rich in vitamins A and C, and contain a large quantity of *Lactuca sativa*. The leaves of both species are rich in vitamins A and C, and contain a large quantity of *Lactuca sativa*. The leaves of both species are rich in vitamins A and C, and contain a large quantity of *Lactuca sativa*. The leaves of both species are rich in vitamins A and C, and contain a large quantity of *Lactuca sativa*. The leaves of both species are rich in vitamins A and C, and contain a large quantity of *Lactuca sativa*. The leaves of both species are rich in vitamins A and C, and contain a large quantity of *Lactuca sativa*. The leaves of both species are rich in vitamins A and C, and contain a large quantity of *Lactuca sativa*. The leaves of both species are rich in vitamins A and C, and contain a large quantity of *Lactuca sativa*. The leaves of both species are rich in vitamins A and C, and contain a large quantity of *Lactuca sativa*. The leaves of both species are rich in vitamins A and C, and contain a large quantity of *Lactuca sativa*. The leaves of both species are rich in vitamins A and C, and contain a large quantity of *Lactuca sativa*. The leaves of both species are rich in vitamins A and C, and contain a large quantity of *Lactuca sativa*. The leaves of both species are rich in vitamins A and C, and contain a large quantity of *Lactuca sativa*. The leaves of both species are rich in vitamins A and C, and contain a large quantity of *Lactuca sativa*. The leaves of both species are rich in *Tussilago farfara.* **Feverfew**. -Herbaceous plant or underbrake, with a milky juice. Leaves nearly always alternately alternateate. Calyx cup-shaped; corolla tubular; stamens 6; pistil 1; ovary 3-celled (Fig. 432) and 6(8); stamens valvate (Fig. 70). Summus equal in number to 6(8) stamens; corolla tubular (Fig. 70); anthers distinct or partly united. Ovary im- fertile (Fig. 692), or fertile (Fig. 692); calyx 3-lobed (Fig. 692); hairy; stigma naked. Fruit dry; on slender, delicately linear pedicels (Fig. 708) or by valves at the apex; placentae 3(6) or 6(8) (Fig. 708). Seed small; finely albumen (Fig. 97). *Dolichos lablab.* **Lablab**. -Chiefly natives or the temperate parts or northern hemisphere ; but good many seeds, however, found in the southern hemisphere, especially at the LOBELIACEAE. 585 Cape of Good Hope. A few species only are tropical. Examples of the Genera - Phytelema, Campanula, Specularia. There are about 300 species. Fig. 976. Fig. 977. Fig. 978. Fig. 976. Diagram of the flower of Rampion (Campanula rapunculus). Fig. 977. Vertical section of the stem. Fig. 978. Vertical section of the flower. Properties and Uses.-The milky juice which these plants con- tain is sometimes of a sub-acute character, but the roots and young parts of several species, especially when cultivated, are used in medicine as a diuretic, and in some cases as a purgative. Rampionus, commonly known under the name of Rampion ; those of Cyphos glaucifolius, in Abyssinia ; and those of Cyphos digitatum, in India, are used as a vegetable, and their leaves have been used in salads. One species, Campanula glauca, is reputed to be antipyretic. Figs. 980. The order, however, does not contain any plant of sufficient importance, either in a medicin- al or commercial point of view. Natural Order 130. LOBELIACEAE. The Lobelia Order. - CHARACTERS.-Flowers with a milky juice. Leaves al- ternate, simple, entire or serrate. Corolla monopetalous, irregular, valvate. Stemless ; scape solitary or few-flowered; inferior, 1–3-celled ; pericarpel bilocular ; style filiform ; stigma surrounded by a fringe of hairs (fig. 979). Fruit enveloped by the calyx ; seeds numerous, albuminous. Species numerous, albuminous. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.--They are chiefly natives of tropical and sub-tropical regions ; but a few occur in Fig. 979. Fig. 980. Fig. 979. Figure of Lobelia nutans. Fig. 980. The terminal organ of the flower, with the calyx. 588 **GOODNACEAE. STYLIACEAE.** temperate and cold climates. Examples of the Genera:—Clim- tum, Lobelia, etc. **Properties and Use.—The milky juice with which these plants abound is commonly of a very sedative nature, hence the species of this Order are often employed in the treatment of some, as Lobelia inflata, Tussilago, Fumaria, etc., as is narcotico- acidic poison. Lobelia inflata. Indian Tobacco. This tobacco is a native of North America. The flowering herb and seeds have been extensively em- ployed, both in Europe and America, as a stimulant and nervine, and as a remedy for nervous affections. It is also esteemed as a important expectorant. Lobelia resembles tobacco in its action; it is similar in its effects to the tobacco plant, but more powerful. It has oc- curred in the United States, and in this country, from its empirical use. The leaves are used medicinally, and are employed in the treatment of nervous character. The root of L. tuberosa possesses mucous, purgative, and expectorant properties. As a stimulant, it has been reputed to be effective on the nerves. L. serotina has blighting properties. The leaves is used in Peru as an emetic and purgative, and its employment has been suspected of being dangerous. **Natural Order 131. GOODNACEAE. The Goodnace Order.** **Character.—Herbs or rarely shrubs, not milky. Leaves ex- stipulate; calyx persistent; corolla regular; stamens 5; pistil 1; style 1; ovary 2-celled; placenta free central; stipule 1 pair (figs. 78, 79).** Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—These plants are principally natives of the temperate regions of North America, Europe, and Asia; rarely of India, Africa, and South America. Examples of the Genera:—Goodnia, Leucodiscium. There are about 200 species. **Properties and Use.—Unimportant.** **Scandia Tuscanus. The Scented-leaf Plant.** A plant with a strong smell like that of tobacco; the leaves are eaten as a potherb. Other species of Scandia are reputed to be emollient. **Natural Order 132. STYLIACEAE. The Styliaceae Order.** **Character.—Herbs or under-shrubs, not milky. Leaves ex- stipulate. Calyx cupular; corolla regular; stamens 5; pistil 1; style 1; ovary 2-celled; placenta free central; stipule 1 pair (figs. 80, 81).** Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—They are chiefly found in the swamps of Australia. Examples of the Genera:— Stylidium, Stylidium spinosum, etc., are shown above. **Properties and Use.—Unknown.** **VACCINACEAE. BRUNONIACEA. ERICACEAE.** 587 Natural Order 133. **—VACCINACEA.—The Cranberry Order.** **Character.** Shrubs or small trees. Leaves alternate, unifoliate, simple, entire, or pinnate, stipulate; stipules often petiole-like imbricate. Stamens distinct, epigynous, two to many as many as the lobes of the corolla; anthers (figs. 476, c.) appendiculate, with a long slender filament; pollen monosulcate, tetrasulcate, or trisulcate. Fruit succulent. Seeds with feathery albumen. *Examples.* Vaccinium myrtillus Linn., the blueberry native of the temperate regions of the globe. *Examples of the Genera—* Vaccinium, Thunbergia. There are about 200 species. Propagated by seeds; some cultivated for their astrangent leaves and bark, and for their edible acid-fruits. *Oxycoccus pilosus* Linn., *Oxycoccus Oxyacanthus*.—The fruit of this plant is the "Bilberry" or "Blueberry," which is used for preserves. The leaves are other purposes—o. monoceros yields the American Cranberry, which large quantities are exported annually to Europe. *Ferruginea.*—The fruit of several species is edible; thus—f. *Merrillii*, with a red berry; f. *Lindleyana*, with a white berry; f. *Lindleyana*, and f. *edulis*, the Red Wheatberry or Cowberry. (See also Oxycoccus.) The fruit of *Ferruginea* is not only edible but is also employed for making beer, etc. Lastly, when exposed to fermentation, it produces a kind of wine. **2. Hypostemonaceae.** Natural Order 134. **BRUNONIACEA.—The Brunonia Order.** **Character.** Herbs. Leaves entire, radical, stipulate. Flowers regular, hermaphrodite, axillary, solitary or in cymes; 5-partite; Corolla 4–5-lobed; stamens numerous; anthers slightly united. Ovary superior, 1-celled; ovule solitary; style short; stigma terminal. Fruit enclosed in the hardened calyx. Seed erect, solitary, without albumen. *Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.*—Natives of Australia. Brunonia is the only genus. **Family.** Brunoniaceae. Natural Order 135. **ERICACEA.—The Heath Order.** **Character.** Shrubby plants. Leaves entire, radical, opposite or whorled, stipulate; Corolla 4–5-lobed; inferior (figs. 478, c.), persistent sepals; stamens numerous; anthers (figs. 479 and 481), 4–5-cleft; stigmatic imbricate. Stamens hypogynous (figs. 482 and 483); anthers (figs. 482 and 483) opening by pores (figs. 527, e.), appendiculate (figs. 527, a). Ovary many-celled, with one or more ovules per cell; style short; stigma terminal. Fruit capsular or rarely baccate; placenta axile. Seeds numerous, small, anisotropic ; embryo in the axis of feathery albumen. *Examples.* Ericaceae are very numerous in the temperate regions of the globe. Some genera are cultivated for their ornamental foliage and flowers. *Examples.* *Erica*.—The heaths are natives of Europe and North America. They are mostly shrubs with alternate leaves and axillary racemes of flowers. The corolla is usually 4-lobed (figs. 484 and 485). The stamens are numerous (figs. 486 and 487), hypogynous (figs. 486 and 487), and appendiculate (figs. 486 and 487). The ovary is usually many-celled (figs. 486 and 487), with one or more ovules per cell; the style is short (figs. 486 and 487); the stigma terminal (figs. 486 and 487). *Distribution.*—Europe and North America. *Examples.* *Erica carnea*. Linn., *Erica vulgaris*. Linn., *Erica arborea*. Linn., *Erica cinerea*. Linn., *Erica ciliaris*. Linn., *Erica ciliaris var*. *alpina*. Linn., *Erica ciliaris var*. *alpina* subsp*. *alpina*. Linn., *Erica ciliaris var*. *alpina* subsp*. *alpina* var*. *alpina*. Linn., *Erica ciliaris var*. *alpina* subsp*. *alpina* var*. *alpina* subsp*. *alpina* var*. *alpina* subsp*. *alpina* var*. *alpina* subsp*. *alpina* var*. *alpina* subsp*. *alpina* var*. *alpina* subsp*. *alpina* var*. *alpina* subsp*. *alpina* var*. *alpina* subsp*. *alpina* var*. *alpina* subsp*. *alpina* var*. *alpina* subsp*. *alpina* var*. *alpina* subsp*. *alpina* var*. *alpina* subsp*. *alpina* var*. *alpina* subsp*. *alpina* var*. *alpina* subsp*. *alpina* var*. *alpina* subsp*. *alpina* var*. *alpina* subsp*. *alpina* var*. *alpina* subsp*. alpine*, etc. 587 588 ERICACEAE. Division of the Order and Examples of the Genera:—Lindley has two sub-ordens, as follows:— Sub-order 1. *Ericaceae.* Fruit bo- cullular, or rarely septiocal or baccate. Buds naked. Ecom- plex. — Ericaceae. Sub-order 2. *Rhododendreae.* Fruit capitate, septiocal. Buds exserted. Complex. — Ecom- plexes: *Ameles,* Rhododendron. Distribution and Numbers.— They are very abundant at the Cape, but are rare in Europe, and are more or less generally diffused in Europe, Asia Minor, Persia, India, and Asia. There are about 900 species. Fig. 361. Vertical section of the flower of a species of *Heath* (Erica). — Fig. 362. The same in section. — Fig. 363. The same in whole view. The stamens ensue to one another. The stamens ensue to one another. The stamens ensue to one another. Properties and Uses.—The plants of this order are chiefly used for ornament, and for pro- prietaries; either as narcotics, or in some cases even poisonous. This is especially the case with the *Erica* genus, which includes *Erica* chrysanthemum, *Andromeda floribunda,* and *Andros* posites. The fruits of *Erica* are used in the *Kalmia,* Azalea, &c., are largely cultivated in this country on account of the beauty of their flowers. The three latter genera are common in America; but they are not, however, confined to America, as the name would imply. *Ameles* floribunda.—This shrub, which is native of North America, is poisonous; its leaves are employed by Indians as a remedy treated by eating of it, but out of 37 attacked recovered under judicial treatment. *Arctostaphylos Uva-Ursi.* The Bearberry.—The leaves are astrigent, and are often used as a remedy for indigestion; they are also used as an antides in poisoning by Ipecacuanha. Combined with astrignency they are emetic; and they have been employed as a purgative. *Astraea* position.—Trilobium honey owes its peculiar properties to the two pericarpial seeds which it contains; these seeds are said to be emollient. *Arctostaphylos Uva-Ursi.* In his account of the Dietet of the Two Thousand, was of like nature. *Arctostaphylos repens.* Trailing Arbutus.—The leaves and stems possess similar properties to Uva-Ursis, and are used in the United States in similar manner. *Gaultheria procumbens,* Partridge Berry.—The leaves are astrigent; and the United States Pharmacopoeia employs them as astrignents, and stimulant properties; which they owe to the presence of a volatile oil, and a gum or resin. They are used in the form of Tea or Of Winter Green. An infusion of the leaves is employed in certain parts of North America, as a substitute for China tea, under the same name. Fig. 361. Vertical section of the flower of a species of *Heath* (Erica). Fig. 362. The same in section. Fig. 363. The same in whole view. Fig. 361. Vertical section of the flower of a species of *Heath* (Erica). Fig. 362. The same in section. Fig. 363. The same in whole view. MONOTROPIACEAE. ITROPLACEAE. 689 **Monotropa** Salomonis Tea. The fruits, known as Paracris berries or New berries, are the fruits of **Monotropa hypopitys** (L.) Schreb., or **Erythronium** parviflorum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** pusillum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** albidum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** grandiflorum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** revolutum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** multiflorum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** fimbriatum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** candidum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** erectum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** dens-canadense (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** bulbiferum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** fimbriatum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** candidum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** dens-canadense (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** bulbiferum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** fimbriatum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** candidum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** dens-canadense (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** bulbiferum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** fimbriatum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** candidum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** dens-canadense (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** bulbiferum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** fimbriatum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** candidum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** dens-canadense (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** bulbiferum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** fimbriatum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** candidum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** dens-canadense (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** bulbiferum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** fimbriatum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** candidum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** dens-canadense (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** bulbiferum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** fimbriatum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** candidum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** dens-canadense (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** bulbiferum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** fimbriatum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** candidum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** dens-canadense (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** bulbiferum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** fimbriatum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** candidum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** dens-canadense (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** bulbiferum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** fimbriatum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** candidum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** dens-canadense (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** bulbiferum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** fimbriatum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** candidum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** dens-canadense (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** bulbiferum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** fimbriatum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** candidum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** dens-canadense (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** bulbiferum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** fimbriatum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** candidum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** dens-canadense (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** bulbiferum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** fimbriatum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** candidum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** dens-canadense (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** bulbiferum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** fimbriatum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** candidum (L.) Salisb., or **Erythronium** dens-canadense (L.) Salisb., or **Erythro 500 **Efrachidaceae. Efracereae.** Natural Order 138. Efracereae. — The Egaric Order. — Character.—Trees or shrubs, alternate or rarely opposite, simple, with parallel or radiating veins. Calyx and corolla inferior, usually 5-partite, or rarely 4-partite. Stamens equal in number to the petals, or more numerous than the petals, hypogynous or adnate to the corolla; anthers 1-celled, without appendages; pollen mononucellar. Fruit a berry or capsule. Seeds with a fleshy skin, albuminous. *Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.*—Natives of Australia, the Indian Archipelago, and the South Sea Islands, where they are very common; also in the West Indies and the Genera *—Astraulia*, *Epsarita*. There are about 300 species. *Properties and Uses.*—Of little importance except for the beauty of their flowers, which are often very richly colo- rated. The fruits of many species are edible, as those of *Astraulia* laxiflora (fucus), the *Tamanu* (Cantua), *Lecanopogon rubus*, the Native Current of Australia; *Lecanomia agallo*, and others. **3. Epipetalae.** Natural Order 139. Efracereae. — The Ebony Order. — Character.—Trees or shrubs without milky juice. Leaves alternate, simple, entire, or rarely lobed; stipules absent. Cymes 3-7-petite, inferte, persistent. Calyx 3-7-petite, staminate or pistillate; corolla 3-7-petite, hypogynous or adnate to the calyx; anthers 2-celled, introcapitate, opening longitudinally. Ovary 3-7-celled, each cell having as many ovules as there are cells to the ovary. Fruity fully developed. *Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.*—They are mostly natives of tropical India, but a few occur in colder regions. Examples: *Cecropia peltata*, *Cecropia peltata*, and nearly 200 species. *Properties and Uses.*—Many of the trees of this order are remarkable for the hardness of their wood, which is commonly known under the names of Ebony and Ironwood. Many species have edible fruits. *Disporae.*—Many species of this genus have hard and dark-colored heart-wood, which form the different kinds of Ebony; thus from *Diospyros* is obtained the black ebony of India; from *Diospyros* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained the black ebony of Brazil; from *Cecropia* is obtained **AQUIFOLIACEAE.** 591 The Chinese, the chief fruits freely in this country in a conservatory or greenhouse. The fruit of the **Holly**, *Ilex aquifolium*, is known as the **Deer Plum**, is sweet and edible when ripe, especially after a frost, but it is not so much esteemed as the apple, and is not so generally used in that condition in the United States, where it is official, as an antispasmodic. The bark has been likewise used as a stimulant and arrantent.—D. Lobb. A species of *Ilex* is said to be the most aromatic and aromatic property. The fresh fruit of *E. kerguelensis* is very agreeable, and is often used in making preserves. The **Ripe Plum** (Prunus persica). The fruit of the tree is unpalatable. The raw fruit of *B. salicina* yields a black dye. **Holly** (Arbutus) var. is rigid, a Cape shrub, its edible fruit. **Natural Order 140. AQUIFOLIACEAE—The Holly Order —Cherry Family** (Linn.) (Linn.) (Linn.) (Linn.) (Linn.) (Linn.) (Linn.) (Linn.) (Linn.) (Linn.) (Linn.) (Linn.) (Linn.) (Linn.) (Linn.) (Linn.) (Linn.) Corylaceae, simple, exstipulate or with minute stipules. Foliars 3-5, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6, 4-6. **Corylaceae**, simple. Sterile leaves equal in number to the divisions of the corolla and alternate with its segments; staminate flowers solitary or in clusters; pistillate flowers solitary or in clusters; staminate flowers solitary or in clusters; pistillate flowers solitary or in clusters; staminate flowers solitary or in clusters; pistillate flowers solitary or in clusters; staminate flowers solitary or in clusters; pistillate flowers solitary or in clusters; staminate flowers solitary or in clusters; pistillate flowers solitary or in clusters; staminate flowers solitary or in clusters; pistillate flowers solitary or in clusters; staminate flowers solitary or in clusters; pistillate flowers solitary or in clusters; staminate flowers solitary or in clusters; pistillate flowers solitary or in clusters; staminate flowers solitary or in clusters; pistillate flowers solitary or in clusters; staminate flowers solitary or in clusters; pistillate flowers solitary or in clusters; staminate flowers solitary or in clusters; pistillate flowers solitary or in clusters; staminate flowers solitary or in clusters; pistillate flowers solitary or in clusters; staminate flowers solitary or in clusters; pistillate flowers solitary or in clusters; staminate flowers solitary or in clusters; pistillate flowers solitary or in clusters; staminate flowers solitary or in clusters; pistillate flowers solitary or in clusters; staminate flowers solitary or in clusters; pistillate flowers solitary or in clusters; staminate flowers solitary or in clusters; pistillate flowers solitary or in clusters; staminate flowers solitary or in clusters; pistillate flowers solitary or in clusters; staminate flowers solitary or in clusters; pistillate flowers solitary or in clusters; staminate flowers solitary or in clusters; pistillate flowers solitary or in clusters; staminate flowers solitary or in clusters; pistillate flowers solitary or in clusters; staminate flowers solitary or in clusters; pistillate flowers solitary or in clusters; staminate flowers solitary or in clusters; pistillate flowers solitary or in clusters; staminate flowers solitary or in clusters; pistillate flowers solitary or in clusters; staminate flowers solitary or in clusters; pistillate flowers solitary or in clusters; staminate flowers solitary or in clusters; pistillate flowers solitary or in clusters; staminate flowers solitary or in clusters; pistillate flowers solitary or in clusters; staminate flowers solitary or in clusters; pistillate flowers solitary or in clusters; staminate flowers solitary or in clusters; pistillate flowers solitary or in clusters; staminate flowers solitary or in clusters; pistillate flowers solitary or in clusters; staminate flowers solitary or in clusters; staminate flowers solitary or in clusters; pistillate leaves equal to the divisions of the corolla and alternate with its segments. **Distribution**, Examples of the **Genus** —Ilex. Prunus. **Properties**—The leaves of this plant are emollient and purgative. While others are largely used as a kind of Tonic. **The leaves and bark of I. Aquifolium**, the common Holly have been long employed as a tonic and expectorant by the people of Great Britain and Continental Europe. Both its leaves from the bark and its white wood is used by cabinet makers for making fine furniture. It is also employed as a substitute for the black drink of the Black Indian. The dried leaves and young twigs of *Ilex aquifolium* are used by the Indians as a substitute for tobacco. These leaves and twigs are employed extensively throughout South America as tea under the name of "Tea" and "Tea-leaves." In China and Japan these leaves are employed as a substitute for tea. In China they are called "Tea-leaves," because the alcohol already noticed as existing at China Tea. See (See This page) page of this book for more information on this topic. The leaves of this plant are similar to those of *Ilex aquifolium*. Its properties are therefore somewhat similar but it is more exciting and stimulating than that plant. The bark of *Ilex aquifolium* is called "Tea-leaves" and is also prepared from *I. concinna* and *I. thorniana*. The bark of *Ilex paraguariensis* is also employed as a stimulant and expectorant. The consumption of *Tea-leaves* is variously estimated at from one to two hundred pounds per year. From the great stimutancy of the fresh leaves of *I. paraguariensis*, I. Gueydan deduces that the fresh leaves contain some substance which stimulates the heart and causes an increase of blood pressure. The leaves of *I. paraguariensis* contain much tannic acid and are employed industrially. **Pernetia plateri**—The leaves of this plant which is a native of North 502 **Sapotaceae** America, are used as a substitute for China Tea. This is known under the name of **Aguascalientes Tea**, (Coca). The bark of *F. verticillata*, called Black-stick Bark or Winter Beryl, is employed in the United States in the form of a tea. Natural Order 14. SAPIOTACEAE.---The Sapota or Sapodilla Tree. Order.--Character.--Trees or shrubs, often having a milky juice. Leaves alternate, simple, entire, and deciduous. Flowers hermaphrodite. Calyx inferior, usually with 5 or sometimes with 4--5 segments, persistent. Corolla with as many divisions as the calyx, and with 5 or 6 petals. Stamens numerous, in definite, in a single row, half of them sterile and alternating with the fertile ones. Fruit a berry, usually with a large number of corollas; corollas commonly extremely coarse. Outer ones 4--15-celled, with a solitary anatropous ovule in each cell; style 1. Fruit fresh. Seeds large, hard, and smooth; cotyledons large and fleshy in albumen, and with a short radicle. Distribution.--Native of tropical America. Native chiefly of the tropical parts of Asia, Africa, and America. Examples of the Genus.--Chrysophyllum, Leonardia, Baccan. There are about 200 species. Properties and Uses.--Many species yield edible fruits ; others are valuable as sources of oil and balsam; some have bitter astringent fibrous bark; and the milky juices of certain yield a substance analogous in its general charac- teristics to Coca. *Actaea.* Several species of this genus yield dessert fruits ; thus the fruit of *A. spinosa* is the Sapodilla Plum, or Maracuya, the Maracua.--Adonis vernalis.--This plant has large white fragrant flowers. Its seeds are used as food; its leaves are employed in making a tea similar to that of *Coca*. The fruit of *B. vulgaris* is used as food; its leaves are employed in making a tea similar to that of *Coca*. The fruit of *B. vulgaris* is used as food; its leaves are employed in making a tea similar to that of *Coca*. The fruit of *B. vulgaris* is used as food; its leaves are employed in making a tea similar to that of *Coca*. The fruit of *B. vulgaris* is used as food; its leaves are employed in making a tea similar to that of *Coca*. The fruit of *B. vulgaris* is used as food; its leaves are employed in making a tea similar to that of *Coca*. The fruit of *B. vulgaris* is used as food; its leaves are employed in making a tea similar to that of *Coca*. The fruit of *B. vulgaris* is used as food; its leaves are employed in making a tea similar to that of *Coca*. The fruit of *B. vulgaris* is used as food; its leaves are employed in making a tea similar to that of *Coca*. The fruit of *B. vulgaris* is used as food; its leaves are employed in making a tea similar to that of *Coca*. The fruit of *B. vulgaris* is used as food; its leaves are employed in making a tea similar to that of *Coca*. The fruit of *B. vulgaris* is used as food; its leaves are employed in making a tea similar to that of *Coca*. The fruit of *B. vulgaris* is used as food; its leaves are employed in making a tea similar to that of *Coca*. The fruit of *B. vulgaris* is used as food; its leaves are employed in making a tea similar to that of *Coca*. The fruit of *B. vulgaris* is used as food; its leaves are employed in making a tea similar to that of *Coca*. The fruit of *B. vulgaris* is used as food; its leaves are employed in making a tea similar to that of *Coca*. The fruit of *B. vulgaris* is used as food; its leaves are employed in making a tea similar to that of *Coca*. The fruit of *B. vulgaris* is used as food; its leaves are employed in making a tea similar to that of *Coca*. The fruit of *B. vulgaris* is used as food; its leaves are employed in making a tea similar to that of *Coca*. The fruit of *B. vulgaris* is used as food; its leaves are employed in making a tea similar to that of *Coca*. The fruit of *B. vulgaris* is used as food; its leaves are employed in making a tea similar to that of *Coca*. The fruit of *B. vulgaris* is used as food; its leaves are employed in making a tea similar to that of *Coca*. The fruit of *B. vulgaris* is used as food; its leaves are employed in making a tea similar to that of *Coca*. The fruit of *B. vulgaris* is used as food; its leaves are employed in making a tea similar to that of *Coca*. The fruit of *B. vulgaris* is used as food; its leaves are employed in making a tea similar to that of *Coca*. The fruit of *B. vulgaris* is used as food; its leaves are employed in making a tea similar to that of *Coca*. The fruit of *B. vulgaris* is used as food; its leaves are employed in making a tea similar to that of *Coca*. The fruit of *B. vulgaris* is used as food; its leaves are employed in making a tea similar to that of *Coca*. The fruit of *B. vulgaris* is used as food; its leaves are employed in making a tea similar to that of *Coca*. The fruit of *B. vulgaris* is used as food; its leaves are employed in making a tea similar to that of *Coca*. The fruit of *B. vulgaris* is used as food; its leaves are employed in making a tea similar to that of *Coca*. The fruit of *B. vulgaris* is used as food; its leaves are employed in making a tea similar to that of *Coca*. The fruit of *B. vulgaris* is used as food; its leaves are employed in making a tea similar to that of *Coca*. The fruit of *B. vulgaris* is used as food; its leaves are employed in making a tea similar to that of *Coca*. The fruit of *B. vulgaris* is used as food; its leaves are employed in making a tea similar to that of *Coca*. The fruit of *B. vulgaris* is used as food; its leaves are employed in making a tea similar to that of *Coca*. The fruit of *B. vulgaris* is used as food; its leaves are employed in making a tea similar to that of *Coca*. The fruit of *B. vulgaris* is used as food; its leaves are employed in making a tea similar to that of *Coca*. The fruit of *B. vulgaris* is used as food; its leaves are employed in making a tea similar to that of *Coca*. The fruit of *B. vulgaris* is used as food; its leaves are employed in making a tea similar to that of *Coca*. The fruit of *B. vulgaris* is used as food; its leaves are employed in making a tea similar to that of *Coca*. The fruit of *B. vulgaris* is used as food; its leaves are employed in making a tea similar to that of *Coca*. The fruit of *B. vulgaris* is used as food; its leaves are employed in making a tea similar to that of *Coca*. The fruit of *B. vulgaris* is used as food; its leaves are employed in making a tea similar to that of *Coca*. The fruit of *B. vulgaris* is used as food; its leaves are employed in making a tea similar to that of *Coca*. The fruit of *B. vulgaris* is used as food; its leaves are employed in making a tea similar to that of *Coca*. The fruit A small tree with green foliage and white flowers. Chrysophyllum cainito (L.) Jack The Fruit.--The fruits vary much according to the variety ; they may be round or oblong, or even conical ; they may be greenish-yellow or yellowish-brown when ripe ; their size varies from 3 inches up to 8 inches long by 4 inches broad ; they contain one or two seeds which may be either large or small ; the flesh may be white or yellowish-white, or even brownish-red ; it may be sweet or acidulous ; it may be very juicy or dry ; it may be soft or hard ; it may be aromatic or insipid ; it may be very nutritious or very palatable ; it may be very nutritious or very palatable ; it may be very nutritious or very palatable ; it may be very nutritious or very palatable ; it may be very nutritious or very palatable ; it may be very nutritious or very palatable ; it may be very nutritious or very palatable ; it may be very nutritious or very palatable ; it may be very nutritious or very palatable ; it may be very nutritious or very palatable ; it may be very nutritious or very palatable ; it may be very nutritious or very palatable ; it may be very nutritious or very palatable ; it may be very nutritious or very palatable ; it may be very nutritious or very palatable ; it may be very nutritious or very palatable ; it may be very nutritious or very palatable ; it may be very nutritious or very palatable ; it may be very nutritious or very palatable ; it may be very nutritious or very palatable ; it may be very nutritious or very palatable ; it may be very nutritious or very palatable ; it may be very nutritious or very palatable ; it may be very nutritious or very palatable ; it may be very nutritious or very palatable ; it may be very nutritious or very palatable ; it may be very nutritious or very palatable ; it may be very nutritious or very palatable ; it may be very nutritious or very palatable ; it may be A close-up view showing the white flowers and greenish-yellow fruits. Chrysophyllum cainito (L.) Jack The Fruit.--The fruits vary much according to the variety ; they may be round or oblong, or even conical ; they may be greenish-yellow or yellowish-brown when ripe ; their size varies from 3 inches up to 8 inches long by 4 inches broad ; they contain one or two seeds which may be either large or small ; the flesh may be white or yellowish-white, or even brownish-red ; it may be sweet or acidulous ; it may be juicy or dry ; it may be soft or hard ; it may be aromatic or insipid ; it may be A close-up view showing the white flowers and greenish-yellow fruits. Chrysophyllum cainito (L.) Jack The Fruit.--The fruits vary much according to the variety ; they may be round or oblong, or even conical ; they may be greenish-yellow or yellowish-brown when ripe ; their size varies from 3 inches up to 8 inches long by 4 inches broad ; they contain one or two seeds which may be either large or small ; the flesh may be white A close-up view showing the white flowers and greenish-yellow fruits. Chrysophyllum cainito (L.) Jack The Fruit.--The fruits vary much according to the variety ; they may be round A close-up view showing the white flowers and greenish-yellow fruits. Chrysophyllum cainito (L.) Jack The Fruit.--The fruits vary much according to the variety ; they may be round A close-up view showing the white flowers and greenish-yellow fruits. Chrysophyllum cainito (L.) Jack The Fruit.--The fruits vary much according to the variety ; they may be round A close-up view showing the white flowers and greenish-yellow fruits. Chrysophyllum cainito (L.) Jack The Fruit.--The fruits vary much according to the variety ; they may be round A close-up view showing the white flowers and greenish-yellow fruits. Chrysophyllum cainito (L.) Jack The Fruit.--The fruits vary much according to the variety ; they may be round A close-up view showing the white flowers and greenish-yellow fruits. Chrysophyllum cainito (L.) Jack The Fruit.--The fruits vary much according to the variety ; they may be round A close-up view showing the white flowers and greenish-yellow fruits. Chrysophyllum cainito (L.) Jack The Fruit.--The fruits vary much according to the variety ; they may be round A close-up view showing the white flowers and greenish-yellow fruits. Chrysophyllum cainito (L.) Jack The Fruit.--The fruits vary much according to the variety ; A close-up view showing the white flowers and greenish-yellow fruits. Chrysophyllum cainito (L.) Jack The Fruit.--The fruits vary much according to the variety ; A close-up view showing the white flowers and greenish-yellow fruits. Chrysophyllum cainito (L.) Jack The Fruit.--The fruits vary much according to the variety ; A close-up view showing the white flowers and greenish-yellow fruits. Chrysophyllum cainito (L.) Jack The Fruit.--The fruits vary much according to the variety ; A close-up view showing the white flowers and greenish-yellow fruits. Chrysophyllum cainito (L.) Jack The Fruit.--The fruits vary much according to the variety ; A close-up view showing the white flowers and greenish-yellow fruits. Chrysophyllum cainito (L.) Jack The Fruit.--The fruits vary much according to the variety ; A close-up view showing the white flowers and greenish-yellow fruits. Chrysophyllum cainito (L.) Jack The Fruit.--The fruits vary much according to the variety ; A close-up view showing the white flowers and greenish-yellow fruits. Chrysophyllum cainito (L.) Jack The Fruit.--The fruits vary much according to the variety ; A close-up view showing the white flowers and greenish-yellow fruits. Chrysophyllum cainito (L.) Jack The Fruit.--The fruits vary much according to the variety ; A close-up view showing the white flowers and greenish-yellow fruits. Chrysophyllum cainito (L.) Jack The Fruit.--The fruits vary much according to the variety ; A close-up view showing the white flowers and greenish-yellow fruits. Chrysophyllum cainito (L.) Jack The Fruit.--The fruits vary much according to the variety ; A close-up view showing the white flowers and greenish-yellow fruits. Chrysophyllum cainito (L.) Jack The Fruit.--The fruits vary much according to the variety ; A close-up view showing the white flowers and greenish-yellow fruits. Chrysophyllum cainito (L.) Jack The Fruit.--The fruits vary much according to the variety ; A close-up view showing the white flowers and greenish-yellow fruits. Chrysophyllum cainito (L.) Jack The Fruit.--The fruits vary much according to the variety ; A close-up view showing the white flowers and greenish-yellow fruits. Chrysophyllum cainito (L.) Jack The Fruit.--The fruits vary much according to the variety ; A close-up view showing the white flowers and greenish-yellow fruits. Chrysophyllum cainito (L.) Jack The Fruit.--The fruits vary much according to the variety ; A close-up view showing the white flowers and greenish-yellow fruits. Chrysophyllum cainito (L.) Jack The Fruit.--The fruits vary much according to the variety ; A close-up view showing the white flowers and greenish-yellow fruits. Chrysophyllum cainito (L.) Jack The Fruit.--The fruits vary much according to the variety ; A close-up view showing the white flowers and greenish-yellow fruits. Chrysophyllum cainito (L.) Jack The Fruit.--The fruits vary much according to the variety ; A close-up view showing the white flowers and greenish-yellow fruits. Chrysophyllum cainito (L.) Jack The Fruit.--The fruits vary much according to the variety ; A close-up view showing the white flowers and greenish-yellow fruits. Chrysophyllum cainito (L.) Jack The Fruit.--The fruits vary much according to the variety ; A close-up view showing the white flowers and greenish-yellow fruits. Chrysophyllum cainito (L.) Jack The Fruit.--The fruits vary much according to the variety ; A close-up view showing the white flowers and greenish-yellow fruits. Chrysophyllum cainito (L.) Jack The Fruit.--The fruits vary much according to STYRACACEAE. 593 is also the source of the gum or gum-emin known in New York as Chicle. It has also been called Maracua Gum and Rarito Juce. It has been chiefly used by the Indians of Brazil. Diocarpus (Tamarix). Guttia, the Gutta Percha or Tamarix-tree. The impenetrable juice of this, and probably other species of Juncus, and of other plants, is employed in the manufacture of gutta percha. The leaves of Man- na-Tree, and Ambrosia, constitute the valuable substance called Gutta Percha. This is obtained by cutting the tree in order to obtain the juice. The juice is then evaporated in a furnace, and the resulting mass is cut into small pieces, which are afterwards ground up with water, and pressed into a soft mass, which is then dried in the sun. This process is continued until the mass becomes hard and rigid, when it is ready for use. The gum is sold at from $100 to $200 cwt. The best Gutta Percha is obtained from Diocarpus Guttifera, and from the Gutta Percha Tree (Gutta Percha) of Brazil. The latter is a tree about 60 feet high, which Dr. Triniton believes to be a species of Fagara. Gutta Percha is also found in the trees of the genus *Lemnaceae*. Several species yield edible fruits. The plant alluded to above is a species of *Lemnaceae* called *Lemna gibba*. Another species, *Lemna gibba*, yields *phytoplasm* (See Chrysophyceae). The genus *Elaeagnus* contains several species of great value as a source of oil. One of them, *Elaeagnus angustifolia*, is employed as a desert ; that of *M. Elaeagnus* is the medicinal Oil. The bark of *Pterospermum* also possesses medicinal properties. The oil of *Caryophyllus* is obtained by distilling with water distilled from the flowers as well as perfume, and as a stimulant medicine. The genus *Sapindus* contains several species yielding a very useful oil. Several species, as *M. Elaeagnus*, *M. medica*, *M. hebescens*, and *M. oleifera*, yield an oil which is used in medicine. The oil of *Sapindus mukorossi* is also by some authors regarded as a species of Mimosas. *M. globosa* is by some authors regarded as a species of Mimosas. **Suprema** means the Gutta Percha tree of Guinea. Natural Order 142. STYRACACEAE.—The Styrocer Order— Character.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves simple, alternate, exstipulate, entire or lobed; stipules wanting; stipels wanting; petioles short or long; leaf-blades entire or somewhat lobate. Stamens equal in number to the petals, or twice or thrice as many, more or less united at the base; filaments free or united; anthers extrorse; style simple. Fruit drupaceous, always more or less fleshy. Styrax officinalis Linn., the officinal Styrax, grows in the midst of abundant dense bushes, with a long radical root. Micros has divided the Styracaceae into two orders, called Styroceres and Euphorieae, but these are not essentially distinguished by its inferior ovary, imbricate insertion of corolla-layers, etc. **Order I.—Euphorieae**, Euphorbs, and Numbers.—These plants are sparingly distributed in warm and tropical regions ; but few are so widely distributed as those belonging to this order—Sym- plocos, Styrae. Micros enumerates about 120 species in this order. **Order II.—Styroceres**, Styraxes.—Plants are principally remark- able for yielding similarsaline balsams. Some yield drying agents, but these are of little importance. **Styrax**.—The species of this genus frequently yield stimulant balsamic resins.—S. benzoin, the Benzoin resin, is the principal; if not the sole. Q Q 594 APOPTACEAE. source of the well-known official concrete balsamic soda which is com- monly, but improperly, called "balsam." This is usually obtained after making incisions in the bark. Two kinds are distinguished in com- merce under the name of "balsam," one being the true balsam, the other former is most esteemed in England. Balsam is used in medicine as a stimulant and expectorant, and in the treatment of the affection of severe acidosis; and on account of its apparent odor when heated, it is a common ingredient of perfumes. The leaves of this tree are chewed by the natives of India, and are employed in the Catholic churches. It is also a constituent of aromatic and fortifying pastilles, and to counteract the effects of opium. The bark of this tree is used by the Nagari similar balsamic rosin—S. officinale, a native of Greece. The leaves of this tree are chewed by the natives of India, and are employed in the Catholic churches. It is also a constituent of aromatic and fortifying pastilles, and to counteract the effects of opium. The bark of this tree is used by the Nagari similar balsamic rosin—S. officinale, a native of Greece. The leaves of this tree are chewed by the natives of India, and are employed in the Catholic churches. It is also a constituent of aromatic and fortifying pastilles, and to counteract the effects of opium. The bark of this tree is used by the Nagari similar balsamic rosin—S. officinale, a native of Greece. The leaves of this tree are chewed by the natives of India, and are employed in the Catholic churches. It is also a constituent of aromatic and fortifying pastilles, and to counteract the effects of opium. The bark of this tree is used by the Nagari similar balsamic rosin—S. officinale, a native of Greece. The leaves of this tree are chewed by the natives of India, and are employed in the Catholic churches. It is also a constituent of aromatic and fortifying pastilles, and to counteract the effects of opium. The bark of this tree is used by the Nagari similar balsamic rosin—S. officinale, a native of Greece. The leaves of this tree are chewed by the natives of India, and are employed in the Catholic churches. It is also a constituent of aromatic and fortifying pastilles, and to counteract the effects of opium. The bark of this tree is used by the Nagari similar balsamic rosin—S. officinale, a native of Greece. The leaves of this tree are chewed by the natives of India, and are employed in the Catholic churches. It is also a constituent of aromatic and fortifying pastilles, and to counteract the effects of opium. The bark of this tree is used by the Nagari similar balsamic rosin—S. officinale, a native of Greece. The leaves of this tree are chewed by the natives of India, and are employed in the Catholic churches. It is also a constituent of aromatic and fortifying pastilles, and to counteract the effects of opium. The bark of this tree is used by the Nagari similar balsamic rosin—S. officinale, a native of Greece. The leaves of this tree are chewed by the natives of India, and are employed in the Catholic churches. It is also a constituent of aromatic and fortifying pastilles, and to counteract the effects of opium. The bark of this tree is used by the Nagari similar balsamic rosin—S. officinale, a native of Greece. The leaves of this tree are chewed by the natives of India, and are employed in the Catholic churches. It is also a constituent of aromatic and fortifying pastilles, and to counteract the effects of opium. The bark of this tree is used by the Nagari similar balsamic rosin—S. officinale, a native of Greece. The leaves of this tree are chewed by the natives of India, and are employed in the Catholic churches. It is also a constituent of aromatic and fortifying pastilles, and to counteract the effects of opium. The bark of this tree is used by the Nagari similar balsamic rosin—S. officinale, a native of Greece. The leaves of this tree are chewed by the natives of India, and are employed in the Catholic churches. It is also a constituent of aromatic and fortifying pastilles, and to counteract the effects of opium. The bark of this tree is used by the Nagari similar balsamic rosin—S. officinale, a native of Greece. The leaves of this tree are chewed by the natives of India, and are employed in the Catholic churches. It is also a constituent of aromatic and fortifying pastilles, and to counteract the effects of opium. The bark of this tree is used by the Nagari similar balsamic rosin—S. officinale, a native of Greece. The leaves of this tree are chewed by the natives of India, and are employed in the Catholic churches. It is also a constituent of aromatic and fortifying pastilles, and to counteract the effects of opium. The bark of this tree is used by the Nagari similar balsamic rosin—S. officinale, a native of Greece. The leaves of this tree are chewed by the natives of India, and are employed in the Catholic churches. It is also a constituent of aromatic and fortifying pastilles, and to counteract the effects of opium. The bark of this tree is used by the Nagari similar balsamic rosin—S. officinale, a native Natural Order 143. APOPTACEAE.—The Dog-bane Order. Character.—Trees or shrubs; usually milky. Leaves entire, Fig. 893. Fig. 894. Fig. 893 Vertical section through stem showing leaf-spike (Pinus). Fig. 894 Vertical section through stem showing flower (Pinus). commonly opposite, but occasionally whorled or scattered; exsti- pules (figs. 895) 5-lobed; inflorescence ovoid or conical (figs. 896) alternate with leaves or below them; flowers (figs. 897) 5-merous, alternately disposed on short stalks; sepals (figs. 898) 5-angled; ovary composed only (figs. 899), which are generally merely in contact, but sometimes united so as to form a bursiform cavity at base, and contracted in middle; stamens numerous; filaments slender, and inserted at base and apex; anthers linear or oblong; ovules at base **APOCTACEAE.** 803 ble in form an hour-glass or dumb-bell (fig. 504, a); ovules numerous. Fruit a berry, or a follicle, or capsule, or capsule, drupe, or berry. Seeds usually with albumen, or rarely exalbumin. **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—Natives principally of tropical regions, but a few occur in northern regions. Vines in the tropics. The following are common in America—Allamanda, Urecia, Apocynum. There are about 600 species. **Properties and Uses.—The plants of this order are generally alkalotic to some degree. The leaves of the Allamandas are poisonous, although the fruits of a few species are edible. Some are draught-purging; others are diuretic; and some are emetic. India-rubber or Caoutchouc, now commonly known in commerce as Rubber, is obtained from the milky juice of several species. **Allamanda cathartica, a native of India and the Philippine Islands, has a bitter taste, and is an emetic and purgative herb; which is most esteemed as a remedy for chronic dysentery and for the treatment of cholera morbus. The leaves are also used as a diuretic. The seeds contain an un-rectifiable substance called diuretis, which administered in the same dose as the leaves produces the same effect. The leaves have been proved, however, that diuretis is not an alkali but a compound substance formed from the leaves by the action of the stomach. From recent investigations show, however, that Cortez Almendro is not derived from the leaves of the tree but from its bark. The bark of Aesculus hippocastanum, a native of Turkey, the Meditarranean and the eastern parts of Java. It is known as "black buckthorn" because it contains a very powerful purgative alkaloid which has been named alumbre or alumbre de madera. It also contains an emetic substance called alumbre de vino. The bark of Euphorbia cyparissias derived from e.cyparissias contains at least four alkaloids, which he named carboalumbre (carbolic acid) and alumbre (alcohol). (See also Synonym.) **Caoutchouc** has an aromatic taste, which is analogous to its properties in that of Cassia and Winter's Bark. **Apocynum** (Cats-nest), *Cats-nest* and *A. undulatum* are emetic and slightly purgative. The flowers known as Calendula Herb, which is used as a stimulant and expectorant, is derived from *C. officinalis*. **Apocynum** (White Quince) yields White Quince Bark, which has been lately highly recommended as a febrifuge and antiperiodic; it is also employed as a diuretic. The bark of *A. venosum* is also termed apopinephrine. The recent investigations of Dr. Weidling indicate that the bark of *A. venosum* contains an alkaloid described by Hoes in 1861 which he derived from a bark known as White Quince Bark. This bark was formerly known as *A. officinale*. More recent investigations of O.House have however proved to him that the bark of *A. venosum* contains an alkaloid similar to that found in the bark which has been named apopinephrine. The bark known as Red Quince Bark is derived from *A. officinale*. **A. venosum**, a native of Guiana, is remarkable for its dental趣; it is emetic and purgative; it is also used as a stimulant and expectorant. In commerce, one uses Brazil nut oil; but Brazil nut oil is not used in commerce, since being costly both, from Ceylon pine-oil China. **Caoutchouc**—Caoutchouc means here an edible fruit, which is eaten in the q.q2 500 LOGANIACEAE. East India, where it is used as a substitute for Red Current jelly. The fruits of C. cerasifera are used in the preparation of a syrup called "Guramangalam" or "Guramangalam" by G. F. Kellner, which is the bark which employed me- dically in the treatment of laryngitis and anthraxosis. The tree is known under the name of Puerariae rubra. Hannan's species (C. hainanensis) is a native of China, and is known to the Hindustani as "Mangalapura." It is termed Mangalapura or Mangava. The milky juice when hardened forms a hard, white, fibrous substance, which is sometimes called "Mangalapura." This rubber is probably derived from this species. This rubber is now imported in large quantities into India from Ceylon, and also from the Malay Peninsula. Landolt (1873) - O. Courouet - L. Florida, and other species, yield African Rubber. Palmierine.-The flowers of P. alba and other species, natives of the West Indies and some parts of South America, are used medicinally, and it is said that the juice of the French P. palmaire is distilled from them. A. rubra is called Red Jute Anacardium in the West Indies. Regalina (P. regia) is a native of Brazil, and yields an edible fruit called Cream fruit. Palmerina-sonnina adula, the Hyo-Nya or Cow-dew of Demerara, has a milky juice similar to that of P. palmaire. Fruitum rubrum, the Madagascan Poison nut.-The seeds of this plant are amongst the most deadly of poisons. It is said that no longer than six hours after eating this fruit, death may result from its effects, as an en- tirely unknown poison. Tamarindus indica.-The bark of this West Indian indra is reputed to possess valuable antipertussive properties. Tamarindus indica is one of the principal plants of the order yielding India rubber. According to Collin it yields rubber roots, and probably other India rubber products, but these have never been obtained from Firas station (See Fig.). Ficus carica.-The leaves of Madagascar, and other species, yield a kind of rubber. This kind is much valued in France, where it is sometimes known as Marseilles rubber. Wrightia.-The bark of T. indicarubrae or Heterandra indicarubrae is highly esteemed in India for its medicinal qualities, and it has many similar properties. Both the bark and seeds are much used in India. From W. discolor and W. indica are obtained the same products as from T. carica. Natural Order 144. Loganiaceae. The Loganiaceae or Strychnosceae Order.-Celastraceae - Berberis, berberis, or trachelospermae; Berberis vulgaris; Berberis vulgaris; Berberis vulgaris; Berberis vulgaris; Berberis vulgaris; Berberis vulgaris; Berberis vulgaris; Berberis vulgaris; Berberis vulgaris; Berberis vulgaris; Berberis vulgaris; Berberis vulgaris; Berberis vulgaris; Berberis vulgaris; Berberis vulgaris; Berberis vulgaris; Berberis vulgaris; Berberis vulgaris; Berberis vulgaris; Berberis vulgaris; Berberis vulgaris; Berberis vulgaris; Berberis vulgaris; Berberis vulgaris; Berberis vulgaris; Berberis vulgaris; Berberis vulgaris; Berberis vulgaris; Berberis vulgaris; Berberis vulgaris; Berberis vulgaris; Berberis vulgaris; Berberis vulgaris; Berberis vulgaris; Berberis vulgaris; Berberis vulgaris; Berberis vulgaris; Berberis vulgaris; Berberis vulgaris; Berberis vulgaris; Berberis vulgaris; Berberi LOGANIAEAE. 507 **Properties and Use.—These plants are almost universally poisonous, acting on the nervous system and producing frighten- ing convulsions, paralytic symptoms, and even temporary or per- manent paralysis of the muscular system, and for their most remarkable and fatal properties, but they require much caution in their employment, and can generally be only given in very small doses. **Gardenia odorata* empeirica* Yellow Jasmine. The most useful plant in the United States for the treatment of nervous affections is the narcotic plant of the face and jaws. It is evidently a remedy of great value in the treatment of neuralgia, and has been largely employed in the United States in intermittent, intermittent, typhoid, and other febrile diseases, as well as in the treatment of neuralgic and other affections. The active principle, termed pelargonium or pelargonia, exercises a stimulant action upon the nervous system, and its effects at its action vary very closely to continue. It is very popular in Europe. **Sophora japonica* empeirica* Japanese Wisteria. Perennial Worm- grass. The root and leaves of this plant are employed in the United States in the treatment of neuralgia, intermittent fever, and in cases does they operate as irritant cathartics, and its poisonous dose as anorectic. **Solanum dulcamara* empeirica* Sweet Brier. The root of this Plant Root is employed for similar purposes in Galicia and the West Indies. Drogha is also employed in Italy for similar purposes. The species that are known as *Ipsocidus.* This plant yields the seeds known as St. Ignatius seeds, which are used by the Chinese as a stimulant to the nerves. They are also employed by the Chinese as a stimulant to the nerves in the United States Pharmacopoeia. They are intensely bitter, and contain the alkaloids solanine and solanidine, which are poisonous to man. Their effects are similar to them : they are largely used by homoeopathic practitioners in the treatment of neuralgia, intermittent fever, and other affections of the nervous system. —S. nucifera*, the Kukui tree, produces Nux-vomica seeds, so well known for their use in medicine. These seeds have many curative properties to the presence of the alkaloids solanidine and bensite, but some authorities state that these seeds are poisonous. We know what authority we know not, that the fruit of Fendleria cordifolia is an antidote against poison. The seeds of Solanum dulcamara have been employed as stimulants of the nervous system in Galicia. They are also employed by the Chinese as a stimulant to the nerves, Cayenne, Ceylon, Ceylon, and other parts of India. In consequence of the enormous quantity of these seeds imported into this country from India it was formerly thought that they were employed in the manufacture of bitter tea, as mentioned by Dr. Hahnemann. But this opinion has since been disproved. A large quantity of both nux-vomica seeds and strychnine are imported annually into this country from India. The seeds of both plants and the seeds and strychnine are also largely exported to Australia where they are extensively employed for medicinal purposes under the name of strychnine. The large importation of these seeds into this country is therefore satisfac- tory evidence that they are employed for medicinal purposes rather than for their improper use. The bark of *S. dulcamara* is also very poisonous owing to the presence of solanidine and bensite contained in it. As already noticed, it was formerly stated for empeirica or empeiricae bark that it was poisonous. This statement is now considered erroneous. The bark is also frequently added in Calcutta under the name of Rhusa, from which it derives its name. It is also employed in India under the name of fidejapa, the Robina tree (see p. 69). The leaves and wood are also employed medicinally in India. The juice of *Nepenthes* cordifolia is the Newa juice called Upani Thanda. It owes its poisonous properties to Strychnine. A small image depicting a plant with yellow flowers. 509 DIAFENSIACEAE. STILBACEAE. GENTIANACEAE. This poison must not be confounded with the true Upa, which is derived from a plant of the same name, but belonging to the family of the Solanaceae. The recent investigations of Planchon have shown that the species of this family, which are found in various humid regions in the northern parts of both America, and known as "Horned Nightshade" (Solanum americanum), are not identical with Stilbaceae. Planchon has also proved that different species are employed in the manufacture of the drug, and that the species used in the upper Amazon, S. congensis is used; in the upper Orinoco region a new species, named S. guianense; and in the lower Orinoco region another species, S. nigra is used. This last species is allied to S. cupreus, and S. nodiflora, which is also prepared from a new species named S. crenulata. Wooton has been employed in the manufacture of the drug, and is allied to S. cupreus and S. nodiflora; and S. nigra, native respectively of Malabar and Java, is employed in the manufacture of the drug. The species of this family are generally termed Euphorbes of Snake-bark. Several other kinds of wood are however employed in the manufacture of this drug; but these have also been employed as a cure for intermittent fever, and for other purposes, I cannot say whether they are still employed or not. The bark of S. Panicum is extensively employed in Brazil as a stimulant; but it is not known whether it is still employed in this country, or whether it is still employed at all. It is very remarkable that many of the plants which are employed in the manufacture of this drug are not only poisonous themselves, but are also poisonous to animals; and it is probable that many of them are poisonous to man also. The seeds of several plants are devoid of poisonous properties. They are em- ployed by the natives of South America for medicinal purposes; and some herbs which is commonly applied to them. Their efficacy is due to the presence of alkaloids; and it is probable that many other plants may serve as analogues to analogous agents employed for their own use. These seeds are also reputed to be efficacious against snake-bite; but I am not aware that this is so. It is also true that S. panicum, S. jamaicensis, and some other species; and another kind of Rauwolfia, called S. Nux-vomica are likewise known to be poisonous to man by birds. Natural Order 146. DIAFENSIACEAE AND STILBACEAE. These are two small orders of shrubby plants which are placed together because they belong to families which are closely related to each other, and are nearly allied to Loganiaceae. The Disporiaceae, of which there are but 2 genera, namely Dicoryne and Dicoryne angustifolia, are native of North America and Northern Europe; and the Stilbaceae, of which there are 3 genera, and 7 species, without any known allies. Natural Order 147. GENTIANACEAE.—The Gentianian Order. **Character.—Herbs or rarely shrubs, usually smooth. Leaves generally simple or compound; stipules often deciduous; rarely alternate or stalked; or compound; or always exstipulate. Flowers (Fig.) regular or irregular; perianth usually 5-lobed or 5-parted; corolla rotate or spreading; calyx persistent or deciduous; stamens numerous or few; pistils 1-2; ovary inferior or superior; style filiform or slender; stigma capitate or sessile; fruit a berry or capsule; seeds numerous or few—pericarpel 2-3-celled, anterior and posterior to the axis, and free** 148 GENTIANACEAE. 509 quently turned inward; style 1; stigma 2, right and left of the axis. Fruit sessile (fig. A), 3-valved, usually with a minute dehiscence; or a berry, less common (fig. B). (Jn. 675.) usually solitary, minute, in the axis of the flower. Flowers regular, white, blue, purple, yellow. Leaves without stipules. Flowers nearly always regular. Calyx and corolla persistent, to the lobes of the calyx. Stamens alternate to the lobes of the corolla; stamens 2-4, in the axils of the petals. Ovary 1-celled, with 2 partial placentae placed anterior and posterior, sometimes united into one. Style 1; stigma 2. Seeds small, numerous, with a minute embryo in the axis of the flower. The genus Gentianus is divided into two sub-orders: The order may be divided into two sub-orders, the characters of which are derived from the formation of the corolla. Sub-order 1. Gentianaceae. - The leaves are simple, entire, or slightly toothed. Examp- les - Gentiana, Chloris. Sub-order 2. Monogynaeae. - Corolla plaited or induplicate. Examples - Euphrasia, Villasius. Distribution and Numbers.- They are found in nearly all parts of the world, inhabiting both the coldest and hottest regions. The following are the principal genera: Properties and Uses.- A bitter principle almost universally prevalent in the plants of this order; hence many of them are tonic, stimulant, and diuretic. Euphrasia Gentianus. Common Gentian, is an injurious plant pos- sessing similar properties to Gentian. It was till lately officious in our hospitals for the treatment of dropsy. Erinacea Various species, of E. biennis, E. pendulifera, and others, native of Europe and America, are used as a diuretic and as a tonant, and may be administered for dropsy. Gentianum Gentianum officinale is native in the Plaumannia of the United States. It is commonly known as American Colchicum. It has been employed by physicians for dropsy and dropsy of the liver; but as it is injurious to the property, it is less popular. It has now sold for Colchicum in France, and is also used in Germany. Gentianum hispanum This plant is native of the mountains of central and southern Europe; it is used as a diuretic and as a stimulant; but as it is bitter tonic property. The roots of other species of Gentian are frequently used as stimulants and diuretics; but they are not so efficacious as Gentianum officinale. G. Pernumbulae This admixture is, however, of little consequence, as they are not so efficacious as Gentianum officinale; but they are used for their great favour, to be taken both by mouth and by injection. From Gentian root, the Swiss and Tyrolean physicians prepare a syrup called "Gentian," which is very efficacious in dropsy; but it is not so efficacious as G. officinale is official in the Pharmacopoeia of the United States, and has been employed by physicians for dropsy. Monogynaeae trifolium Buck's-bean, Bog-plant, or Mallow Trefilion-The leaves have been employed by physicians for dropsy and dropsy of the liver and stomach; but it is not so efficacious as Gentianum officinale is official in its pharmacopoeia. The plant has been employed in Lepidium and some parts of Europe; as a stimulant to the spleen. It was till lately official in our pharma- copoeia. 600 **ASCLEPIADACEAE.** *Opheia (Aphrodisia) Chironi, the Chironia of Chrysanthus.* The dried plant and root possess great medicinal virtues, and are used by the natives of India as remedies employed in Europe. It is also one of the most active, if not the most active, stimulants known to man. The leaves of this species, native of the East Indies, have similar properties, but are less valuable. One of these leaves was employed by the ancient Egyptians as a remedy for the genitae druses, as was first noticed by the author. **Mokobod** (Cynanchum) is a very valuable herb, and root are em- ployed in the United States for their tonic and stimulatory properties. **Natural Order 148. ASCLEPIADACEAE.—The Asclepias or Milkweed Order.—Character.—Shrub or Herbs, commonly milky, and with opposite leaves, simple or compound, and capi- tulate. Flowers regular (figs. 980 and 980). Calyx and corolla 4-partite (figs. 981 and 981). Stamens 4, alternate with the petals; the calyx persistent (fig. 980), the corolla deciduous. Stamina 5 (fig. 982), alternate with the lobes of the corolla. Fig. 983. Fig. 986. Fig. 987. **Fig. 983. Diagram of the flower of *Asclepias* nana.** Fig. 984. Flower of a milkweed (fig. 985). Fig. 985. The flower of *Asclepias* nana, showing the petal (a), corolla (b), appearance of the stamens (c). Fig. 986. One of the flowers of the same species. *F. nana*. A. Petal; b. Corolla; like appendages. *Corolla*, *Allemonti*, usually combined so as to form a tube round the pistil (figs. 987 and 987); *Corolla* (figs. 987, p.)—pollen when the anther dehisces, inhering in masses (figs. 986, b) and sticking to 5 processes of the stigma (figs. 987, c); *Corolla* (figs. 987, d) with a long tubular style (figs. 987, e), formed of 2 carpellate, which are more or less adhèrent below, but disarticulating above; at length united and expanded into a dense 5-corniced head, the pollen-sticks adhering to gelatinous processes arising from its angles (figs. 986, a, and 986). *Fruit-cone*—ovoid or oblong nutlets; *Seed* numerous, generally compressed (figs. 744), with thin albumen. **Diosma.—This order is at once distinguished amongst the** Euphorbiaceae by its large leaves, and by its peculiar capitula. A diagram showing the structure of a milkweed flower. A diagram showing the structure of a milkweed flower. A diagram showing the structure of a milkweed flower. A diagram showing the structure of a milkweed flower. **ANCIETADACEAE.** 601 **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—They are chiefly tro- pical plants, abounding in southern Africa, India, and equatorial America. The following species are the most important: *Calotropis*, *Asclepias*, *Hoya*, *Stapelia*. There are about 1,000 species. **Properties and Use.—The plants of this order are chiefly remark- able for their bitter astring juice, which renders them poisonous to animals. The leaves of some of these species are reputed to be antidotes to snake-bites. The milky juice of some species is employed in the preparation of a commer- cial kind of Rubber is obtained from them. The parts of some are edible, as the roots of *Gomphocarpus pedunculatus*, and the leaves of *Cepovaria Faginatae*, etc. **Analysis.—The root of *A. Causseana* is employed in some of the West Indian medicines, and is said to have been introduced into Europe from the stems of *A. inserrata*, Jussie or *Tungue Tamaris* are obtained. The root of *A. Causseana* is employed in the United States as a diuretic and expectorant.—*A. Asclepias*, Swam- p Milkweed, is employed in the United States as a diuretic and expectorant. **Causseana.*—The dried root batch of *C. Causseana* and *C. Goweri* form Medicinal Root, which is official in the Indian Pharmacopoeia, and has been employed in the treatment of diabetes, and as a diuretic and expectorant for Ipecacuanha. It contains a bitter principle. According to Boyle, it is "a very good diuretic." The root of *C. Goweri* possesses similar properties, and is used to yield Ferum sanguinis. **Causseana.*—The dried root batch of *C. Causseana* mixed with other purgative solutioes constitutes *Ferum* or *Mesorum* Seppurum.—C. Causseana.*—The dried root batch of *C. Causseana* is employed in India as a diuretic and expectorant. In the United States it is used as a purgative agent. **Conradia.*—The dried root batch of *Conradia* has been employed in India as a diuretic and expectorant. In the United States several ex- tensive trials have shown that it is as useful as a purgative agent for Ipecacuanha. **Gymnema.*—G. balfourii is the Comptel of Ceylon. It derives its name from the Greek word "gymne," meaning naked or bare, because the leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are administered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are administered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are adminis- tered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are adminis- tered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are adminis- tered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are adminis- tered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are adminis- tered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are adminis- tered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are adminis- tered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are adminis- tered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are adminis- tered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are adminis- tered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are adminis- tered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are adminis- tered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are adminis- tered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are adminis- tered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are adminis- tered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are adminis- tered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are adminis- tered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are adminis- tered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are adminis- tered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are adminis- tered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are adminis- tered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are adminis- tered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are adminis- tered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are adminis- tered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are adminis- tered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are adminis- tered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are adminis- tered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are adminis- tered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are adminis- tered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are adminis- tered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are adminis- tered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are adminis- tered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are adminis- tered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are adminis- tered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are adminis- tered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are adminis- tered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are adminis- tered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are adminis- tered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are adminis- ered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are adminis- ered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are admini- stered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are admini- stered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are admini- stered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are admini- stered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are admini- stered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are admini- stered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are admini- stered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are admini- stered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are admini- stered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are admini- stered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are admini- stered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are admini- stered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are admini- stered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are admini- stered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are admini- stered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are admini- stered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gymnema.*—The leaves when boiled and chopped into pieces are admini- stered to women suffering from leucorrhoea. **Gynemum Sylvestre (Cynanchum)*.—A plant which has been much emu- lated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinal properties. **Tetraplema aureum*** is a plant which has been much emulated by other plants in its medicinalproperties 802 CORDIACEAE. CONVOLULACEAE. Natural Order 140. Cordiaceae.—The Cordia or Sebasten Order.—Character.—Trees with alternate serrate leaves, ex- minate, stipulate, stipular, stipulaceous, stipuloid, stipuloides, stipuloides. Stemma 5, alternate with the segments of the co- rola ; corolla 5-lobed, the lobes spreading or reflexed ; 1 pendulous ovule in each cell ; stigma : stigma 4—8-cleft. Fruit dropa- ceous, 4—8-celled, or frequently some of the cells are abortive; pendent or sessile ; seeds numerous, minute, subglobose ; albumen none ; cotyledon placed longitudinally. Characters. —The genus Cordia comprises trees almost ex- clusively of tropical regions. Examples of the Genus.—Cordia, Varroona. There are above 180 species. Properly speaking, the genus Cordia includes many species are edibles, as those of Cordia Mysorensis and Cattleya, which are called Sebastena or Sebasten; and the genus Convallaria, which is native in India ; those of Cordia obliqua, Wannay or Vanzye, which are esteemed by the Abyssinians; and the succulent fruits of Fara- mout rich in sugar and used in Egypt for the preparation of candy. The bark of C. Mysorensis is reputed to be a mild tonic and astringent. Some species of Cordia are employed in medicine. The wood of Cordia Mysorensis is said to be that from which the Egyptians constructed their numerous temples and palaces. This tree was introduced into this country a few years since, and recommended as a both ornamental and medicinal plant. Natural Order 150. CONVOLULACEAE.—The Convolvulus or Bindweed Order.—Character.—Herbs or shrubs, generally twining (figs. 218) or trailing, and milky. Leaves (figs. 218) alter- nate, stipulate. Calyx inferior (figs. 988 and 989) with 5 deep divisions, much imbricated, persistent. Corolla (figs. 988 and 989) 5-lobed, in its tube ; stamens filiform. Stamina 5, alternate with the A diagram showing the structure of a flower from the Cordiaceae family. Fig. 986. Flower of Great Bindweed (Calpe- trera grandiflora). Diagram of the flower showing two stamens and one pistil. Fig. 987. Vertical section of the seed. Fig. 988. Flower of Great Bindweed (Calpe- trera grandiflora). Diagram of the flower showing two stamens and one pistil. Fig. 989. Vertical section of the seed. 903 **CONVOLVULACEAE.** 609 lobes of the corolla (fig. 89). Osyris (fig. 89) 2, 3, or 4-celled, or the carpellae are more or less distinct ; one to two in each cell or corpuscle, and the others united into a common papillated dehisence. *Emboga* (fig. 90) large, curled or coiled in a small quantity of multinucleated albumen, with foliaceous encoiled cotyledons. **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.** They are chiefly found in the pampas of South America, but some species occur in temperate climates, and they are altogether absent in the coldest latitudes. *Examples of the Genera.* -Convulvulus, *Hymenocallis*, and *Osyris*. There are 700 species. **Properties and Uses.** They are chiefly remarkable for the presence of albumen in their seeds, which is used medicinally. Hence the order includes some important medicinal plants. The pur- gative property of the juice is essentially due to the presence of peculiar albuminous substances in the seeds. This principle is either absent or in but small quantity, and starch or sugar predominate when these are edible. The seeds of some species are also purgative. **Botany.** The stem of this plant constitutes the Sweet-Potato, which is a very important article of food in tropical countries. *Convolvulus* scandens. From the incised living root of *C. Scandens*, the edible tuber is obtained by boiling it in water. This plant is a native of Asia Minor, Syria, the Crimea, and Greece. The roots are edible, and are used as a vegetable; they are exported from Smyrna. The roots of many other species also possess in a certain degree this property, such as *C. involucratus* (Gallipote), *C. arvensis* (Cuckoo's-pipe), *C. arvensis* (Cuckoo's-pipe), and *C. scadens*. It is said that *Con- volvulus* arvensis is the only plant which can be eaten without danger, one of the plants used for Receiving Noses. The following species are cultivated for their edible roots: *Convolvulus* arvensis (Cuckoo's-pipe), *C. arvensis* (Cuckoo's-pipe), *Convolvulus* scadens (Sweet-Potato), *C. scadens* (Sweet-Potato), *Convolvulus* involucratus (Gallipote). Its tubular roots constitute the true Jujube of the Mexico Pharmacopoeia. **Jujube,** *Ziziphus jujuba*. A shrub or small tree, cultivated with true jujube. This principal jujube is known in Mexico as mazate, and, according to its botanical name, is a member of the genus *Ziziphus*. It is called at first jujube-jujube. It possesses much use as a purgative. The large roots of *Ziziphus* are employed in Mexico as a remedy for the inhabitants of Georgia and Carolina. *Z. jujuba* is the Medicamet of the Indian Pharmacopoeia; it is used as a purgative and emollient diuretic. True jujube, now frequently employed as a substi- tute for Ziziphus, has no medicinal properties whatever. It appears to be nearly, if not quite, as powerful as the official kind.—(Pomegranate.) *Punica granatum*. An evergreen tree, with medicinal properties to our Jujube; its fruit is quite as useful. **Description of Plants belonging to this genus,** native of the Canary Islands, the whole of Africa south of Morocco, and India. It was introduced into this country at an early time; the medicinal value of its leaves is attributable to a mixture compounded according to the taste of the reader and the pocket of the buyer. The powdered wood is also used for snuff, and for fenugreek. A small illustration showing a plant with green leaves and red berries. **604 CUSCUTACEAE. POLEMONIACEAE. SOLANACEAE.** **Natural Order 151. CUSCUTACEAE.—The Dodder Order.** **Description.** The order to which this genus belongs is treated as a sub-division of the Convolvulaceae. The plants of which it is composed are distinguished from those of other order by their parasitic habit, and by the characters by which they are distinguished from one another, by the tube of their tubular flowers being furnished with scales (fig. 301). Fig. 301. Fig. 302. which alternate with its segments; and by having a filiform coiled embryo (fig. 302), with almost obsolete cotyledons. **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—Chiefly natives of temperate regions, but also of tropical America.** **Properties and Uses.—They are said to be purgative in their action; they are often very destructive to Flax, Clover, and other crops.** **Natural Order 152. POLLENACEAE.—The Phlox Order.** **Characteristics.** Leaves simple, entire, or pinnately divided; inferior, 2-4-petite, persistent, generally regular. Corolla 5-jointed, with conical calyx; petals usually white or pale blue; stamens 5, alternate with the segments of the corolla; pollen usually of a blue colour. *Onion* 3-jointed ; style 1; stigma trilobed. Fruit cap- selar; nutlets numerous, small, oblong or ovoid; embryo straight, in the axis of opusum herba; cotyledons elliptical. **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—They abound most in the temperate parts of North and South America; but are rare here almost entirely, except in some localities in tropical countries. *Examples of the Genera.*—Phloxia, Colomina, Polemonium.* **Properties and Uses.—Of no importance except for the pret- tiness of their flowers. The seeds of Colomina and some other plants of this order are used as a substitute for the seeds of common spined sarsaparilla; these three in Colomina expand in cells where they are crushed.* **Natural Order 153. SOLANACEAE.—The Solanum or Potato Order.** **Characteristics.** Herbs, or rarely shrubs, or trees, with a columnar stem; leaves opposite or alternate; flowers di- cence axillary, or frequently extra-axillary (fig. 349). *Flowers* A small illustration showing a plant with small leaves and a single flower at the top. SOLANACEAE. 608 \textit{Inomorbus} (Fig. 993). Calypso (Fig. 905) with 8 or rarely 4 divisions. \textit{Cordia} (Fig. 907), \textit{Corydalis} (Fig. 908), \textit{Drosera}, \textit{Euphorbia}, \textit{Gentiana}, \textit{Gymnadenia}, \textit{Hepatica}, \textit{Hyacinthus}, \textit{Juncus}, \textit{Lilium}, \textit{Lobelia}, \textit{Mertensia}, \textit{Narcissus}, \textit{Oenothera}, \textit{Ornithogalum}, \textit{Paeonia}, \textit{Primula}, \textit{Ranunculus}, \textit{Tulipa}. \textit{Vaccinium} (Fig. 906). \textit{Balsamroot} (Fig. 904). \textit{Fig. 903. Diagram of the flower of the Potato (Solanum tuberosum).} \textit{Fig. 904. Vertical section of the flower. c. Calyx. P.P. Petal. n. Nectary.} \textit{Fig. 905. Vertical section of the flower of the Calypso (Calypso bulbosa).} \textit{Fig. 906. Vertical section of the flower of the Lobelia (Lobelia cardinalis).} \textit{Fig. 907. Vertical section of the flower of the Drosera (Drosera rotundifolia).} \textit{Fig. 908. Vertical section of the flower of the Euphorbia (Euphorbia lathyris).} \textit{Diagram of the flower.} 2-celled, with longitudinal or porous delaminate (Fig. 524). Ovary superior (Figs. 993, 994, and 996), usually 2-celled, in which case the cells are placed anterior and posterior, rarely 3- to 5-biellated ; \textit{nucellar tube} (Fig. 902) often persistent, sometimes entire, or lobed. \textit{Fruit} capitate or baccate, 2 or more called. Seeds numerous, Fig. 903. Fig. 904. Fig. 905. Fig. 906. Fig. 907. Fig. 908. 408 **POLANACEE.** albunaceous; embose straight, or curved in a more or less annular or spiral form (see, 593). **Diapensiæ.** -Harris or rarely shrubs or trees, with alternate leaves, and a colourless juice. Flowers inconspicuous. Calyx and corolla of the same nature as in the genus *Corydalis*. Corolla very slightly irregular; nativation valvate, imbricata, or induplicate. Stamens equal in number to the lobes of the corolla. Ovary superior, usually 5-celled, the cells being placed anterior and posterior to each other; style filiform; stigma terminal. Petals 5-7 or more celled. Seeds numerous, albunaceous. In the following table we have arranged according to the views of Miers, we made a new order, *Atropaceae*; but as this arrangement has not been generally adopted, we have now combined the latter order with that of *Corydalis*, and have retained the important medicinal value of the Atropace of Miers, we retain this order as a sub-order, and divide the Solanaceæ as follows: Sub-order 1. **Atropaceæ.** -Flowers regular; corolla valvate or induplicate. Stamens equal in number to the lobes of the corolla. Examples: -Cestrum, Solanum. Sub-order 2. **Corydalisæ.** -Flowers regular; corolla imbricate, or some modification of imbricate. Stamens equal in number to the lobes of the corolla, one occasionally sterile. Examples: *Atropus*, *Lycium*. **Distribution and Numbers.** -They are scattered over various parts of the globe except the polar circles, but are most abundant in temperate regions. This order, as defined above, contains about 1,290 species. Sub-order 1. **Solanæ.** -Properties and Uses.-The plants of this order are mostly poisonous; they are either injurious by any means to the same extent as those of the Atropaceae. Fatal cases of poisoning have, however, occurred from their improper use. Some species contain a bitter principle; others an essence of an acid resin; others contain a bitter tonic principle; and a few have a stimulant effect on the nervous system. It is stated that the juice of the Solanum does not produce dilatation of the pupil of the eye, as is the case with that of many plants of the Atropaceæ. **Cucurbitaceæ.** -The species of this genus are remarkable for the presence of an oleo-mucous liquid in their fruits, which renders them hot, pungent, and stimulant; and for their frequent occurrence in tropical countries. This has been proved to contain a very minute proportion of a crystalline substance, which is supposed to be an essential oil; and it is found in all fruits. The various species of Cucurbita are generally supposed to have been distributed by birds from America to Europe and Asia from whence they have become distributed over the world. There are several species which are cultivated for their fruit; these are called *Cucurbita vulgaris*, namely, the *C. ficifolia* of Blume. The fruits of this are sometimes sold **SOLANACEAE.** 607 as Chilis; but this name is more commonly applied in this country to the fruits of the common or garden pepper, and the Garden Pepper. These fruits are less than an inch in length, and are the most pungent of all vegetables. They are cultivated in many parts of the world, particularly several species or varieties of Capsicum, but principally of C. frutescens. The fruit of the Garden Pepper is used in many ways, and is extensively used in Great Britain, the United States, &c. They are frequently two or more inches long, and are usually green when ripe. The commonest fruit is a variety of C. annuum with a small pointed fruit. It is highly esteemed, and is much used in cooking. The fruit of the common or garden pepper is also used in cooking. Other varieties or species of Capsicum in use in different parts of the world include the fruit of C. baccatum, which is known as the green pepper (Bell Pepper), C. frutescens (Sweet Pepper), C. baccatum (Red Pepper), C. longum (Long Pepper), and C. frutescens (Green Pepper) is applied to the fruits of the species and varieties of Capsicum. **Piperaceae.**—The Piperaceae are a family of plants belonging to the genus Piper, and include the Laurel, Tobacco, or Tomato, as much employed in the preparation of sauces and for flavoring. **Piperina.—Piperina** is an edible fruit which is known as the Peruvian pepper. It is a native of South America, and other species, are Strychnos (Strychnos) sometimes, as its name implies, being poisonous. **Panaxia (Molucca) amomum.—The dried fruit is employed in India as a digestive and stomachic, and also as a stimulant for reasons in making choco-a, &c. **Balsamodendron (Balsamodendron) officinale.**—In a temperate climate, it is the tuber of S. fahrenheimii. A decoction of the stem and leaves has been employed as a stimulant and antispasmodic. The leaves have narcotic properties similar to those of the leaves of the Balm tree (Syzygium aromaticum). The medicinal properties of the Plantain plant are chiefly due to the presence of a substance called Panaxinum which has narcotic properties. Solomon does not produce distinct differences on the part of the human body from that produced by the juice of the Solanum genera differing in such respect from that of the Atropa belladonna plant. The juice of this plant is employed in medicine but in the tuber all parts of it are entirely removed by means of boiling water. The seeds are obtained from potatoes, and used for food under the name of "potato seed." 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The flowers of this plant are also employed in that country as a tonic and linctus. Several species of Solanum are also employed in Abyssinia as a stimulant, as a vermifuge, and others. The flowers and leaves of S. cornu-areum are antiseptic, and have been employed in Germanic, ephimia, &c. Sub-order 3. *Atrorae.* Properties and Uses.—Many of the plants have some pharmacic properties whose several are very poisonous. The juice of numerous species will produce dilatation of the pupils of the eye. (See Properties and Uses of the Solanum, page 606.) *Atrope* Blandihi. Deadly Nighthshade or Death's is a powerful poison. It is employed internally as an emetic and antispasmodic, and externally as a stimulant. It is used in Abyssinia to cure the palsy, which is medicined in that country. It owes its activity to a peculiar alkaloid called atropine, which is found in all parts of the plant, and for other purposes. Atropine is a most potent poison. *Atropa belladonna*. This plant is employed by all parts of the plant, and is especially developed in the seeds. Its medicinal effects seem to be due to atropine, which is found in all parts of the plant, and is antispasmodic. In symptomatic medicine, seeking the break, or irritation from the influence of the poison, it is employed as an emetic. When we require such cessation, as it is in some instances produced fatal results. Atropine has been employed in the treatment of hydrophobia, in which disease it is reputed to be very effective. Stramonium is employed in the same way. Both these plants contain alkaloids, which much resemble and is probably identical with atropine, the alkaloid of Atropa belladonna. The name of Atropa belladonna means that it is identical with dulcamara and belladonna. (See Dulcamara.) Dulcamara is a perennial herbaceous plant belonging to the genus *Dulcamara*, *D. funestus*, and other species, have similar properties to *D. Stramonium*. In India, *Dulcamara* is used as a stimulant, but it does not possess the professional precautions from this drug being called Dulcamara. The fruit of *Dulcamara* is used in India as a stimulant. The fruit of the Androa, and in Central America, in the preparation of narcotic drinks; those is believed to be a stimulant. The seeds of *Dulcamara* are used by some of them to have communication with the spirits of their ancestors. *Dulcamara* is found in South America, in South Africa, in California, and some parts of Australia, is chiefly allied to Belladonna in its properties, and contains atropine. The seeds are used as a stimulant. I am now said that this alkaloid, Atropine, and dulcamara, are of the same nature. The leaves of *Dulcamara* are used as a stimulant by some people (see Erythrophora), are obtained from *D. Hipsocodon*. They are said to contain atropine. *Hypogynum* spec., Belladonna.—The whole herb possesses narcotic proper- ties, and is employed as an emetic and antispasmodic. The juice of this plant is activity essentially due to the presence of the alkaloid hypogynum (see Belladonna). The leaves are employed as a stimulant; they act like them on ceases stimulation of the pupil. Two varieties of Belladona are com- monly cultivated; one variety (spec.), which grows wild in Europe, mainly regarded as the most active—A. alba, a native of the region of the Middle-Atlantic States; another variety (spec.), which grows wild in Asia, is that of H. spec.; H. spec., a native of British Columbia, is sometimes used for stimulation; it is said to be more than a very poisonous special. It is called Mountain Hemo. A page from a book with text about plants. OLEACEAE. 609 **Mandragora officinalis**, the true Mandrake.—The roots have a fancied medicinal virtue, but they are not so powerful as the root of *Bryonia alba*, which must not be confounded with the root of *Bryopsis dioica*, which also sometimes serves as an emetic. The leaves are used in some parts of Europe, and was used for the antsacn as an emetic. The plant is called *Devil's apples* by the Germans, and is supposed to be poisonous. **Nicotiana.**—The leaves of various species and varieties supply the different kinds of tobacco, which are grown in many countries, and in nearly every part of the globe. Mr. Crawford estimated the total annual value of this article at £300,000, and that of the whole of the other articles at the value of 5d per pound, would amount to more than $78,000,000. The increase of this article has been very rapid during the last decade, and is still increasing. Thus in the year 1841 the quantity produced was 11,141,000 pounds, and in 1851 it had increased to 14,732,000 pounds. In 1852 it was 15,442,000 pounds, and in the year 1853 to 15,356,000 pounds. In 1854 it was 16,356,000 pounds. The increase is due to the cultivation of new varieties of tobacco, and to the introduction of new methods of cultivation. The cultivated leaves are much finer than those of the wild plant; and they contain less nicotine than those of the wild plant. The leaves of the wild plant are very poisonous; but those of the cultivated plant are not so poisonous as those of the wild plant. Tobacco has been employed as a medicine for a long time past, and is now employed for that purpose in many countries. The principal kinds of tobacco are the American, Spanish, Cuban, and Havana, from N. America; the Turkish from Turkey; the Cuban from Cuba; and the Turkish from N. America; Cuba and Oviedo, from N. America; South America; and Brazil. Tobacco is used for medicinal purposes as that of *Aceria Belladonnae* in Europe and America. It has been imported into this country from South America since 1799, and has been distributed by Holmes. It is said to contain nicotine. **Natural Order 154. OLEACEAE.—The Olive Order.—Char- acter.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves opposite (Fig. 433). Flowers** Fig. 499. Fig. 498. Fig. 500. **Fig. 498. Diagram of the flower of the Olive (Olea europaea subsp.)** —Fig. 500. Flower of the Manzanilla, *Pentas malvae*, with both calyx (corolla) and corolla removed; showing the stamens (anthers), filaments (stigma), and style (style); also section of the calyx and petal of the Fruit (Zygopetalum resupinatum). 6 610 JAMINACEAE. usually perfect or rarely unisexual. Cleft ovary persistent. 4-cleft (fig. 908), sometimes cleft to the base, infertile (fig. 1000). Ca- nula regular, 4-cleft (fig. 908), or of a distinct petal (fig. 999). Stamens uni- sely 2 (fig. 908), or 3 (fig. 907), or 4 (fig. 906), or 5 (fig. 1000). Stamina uni- sely 2 (fig. 908), or 3 (fig. 907), or 4 (fig. 906), or 5 (fig. 1000). Stamens uni- sely 2 (fig. 908), or 3 (fig. 907), or 4 (fig. 906), or 5 (fig. 1000). Stamens uni- sely 2 (fig. 908), or 3 (fig. 907), or 4 (fig. 906), or 5 (fig. 1000). Stamens uni- sely 2 (fig. 908), or 3 (fig. 907), or 4 (fig. 906), or 5 (fig. 1000). Stamens uni- sely 2 (fig. 908), or 3 (fig. 907), or 4 (fig. 906), or 5 (fig. 1000). Stamens uni- sely 2 (fig. 908), or 3 (fig. 907), or 4 (fig. 906), or 5 (fig. 1000). Stamens uni- sely 2 (fig. 908), or 3 (fig. 907), or 4 (fig. 906), or 5 (fig. 1000). Stamens uni- sely 2 (fig. 908), or 3 (fig. 907), or 4 (fig. 906), or 5 (fig. 1000). Stamens uni- sely 2 (fig. 908), or 3 (fig. 907), or 4 (fig. 906), or 5 (fig. 1000). Stamens uni- sely 2 (fig. 908), or 3 (fig. 907), or 4 (fig. 906), or 5 (fig. 1000). Stamens uni- sely 2 (fig. 908), or 3 (fig. 907), or 4 (fig. 906), or 5 (fig. 1000). Stamens uni- sely abundant flaky albumen; embryo starch. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—The plants of this order are mostly tropical, but some species occur within the tropics. Examples of the Genera—Olea, Ligustrum, Fraxinus, Syringa. Properties and Uses.—The bark of many plants of this order are tonic and febrifugal. The mild purgative called Manna is obtained from the leaves of Olea europaea Linn., which yields the well-known Olive Oil. Other species are remarkable for the hardness of their wood. Fraxinus americana Linn., American Ash, has a fibrous bark. The leaves are very prone to possess certain properties. The plant's anatomy is small, quantitative, and its structure is simple. It possesses much strength and elasticity combined with lightness, hence it is commonly used in the construction of boats and ships. In the United States, the wood of Fraxinus americana Linn., known as White Ash, is extensively used in the manufacture of furniture. The excellent excelsior known as Manna may be obtained by making incisions into the stem of Olea europaea Linn., and then covering them with a solution of potassium nitrate. Only one species of Olea europaea Linn., Olea europaea Linn., is cultivated in China. The leaves of Olea europaea Linn., Olea europaea Linn., are used in medicine. The leaves of Olea europaea Linn., Olea europaea Linn., are used in medicine. The leaves of Olea europaea Linn., Olea europaea Linn., are used in medicine. The leaves of Olea europaea Linn., Olea europaea Linn., are used in medicine. The leaves of Olea europaea Linn., Olea europaea Linn., are used in medicine. The leaves of Olea europaea Linn., Olea europaea Linn., are used in medicine. The leaves of Olea europaea Linn., Olea europaea Linn., are used in medicine. The leaves of Olea europaea Linn., Olea europaea Linn., are used in medicine. The leaves of Olea europaea Linn., Olea europaea Linn., are used in medicine. The leaves of Olea europaea Linn., Olea europaea Linn., are used in medicine. The leaves of Olea europaea Linn., Olea europaea Linn., are used in medicine. The leaves of Olea europaea Linn., Olea europaea Linn., are used in medicine. The leaves of Olea europaea Linn., Olea europaea Linn., are used in medicine. The leaves of Olea europaea Linn., Olea europaea Linn., are used in medicine. The leaves of Olea europaea Linn., Olea europaea Linn., are used in medicine. The leaves of Olea europaea Linn., Olea europaea Linn., are used in medicine. The leaves of Olea europaea Linn., Olea europaea Linn., are used in medicine. The leaves of Olea europaea Linn., Olea europaea Linn., are used in medicine. The leaves of Olea europaea Linn., Olea europaea Linn., are used in medicine. The leaves of Olea europaea Linn., Olea europaea Linn., are used in medicine. The leaves of Olea europaea Linn., Olea europaea Linn., are used in medicine. The leaves of Olea europaea Linn., Olea europaea Linn., are used in medicine. The leaves of Olea europaea Linn., Olea europaea Linn., are used in medicine. The leaves of Olea europaea Linn., Olea europaea Linn., are used in medicine. The leaves of Olea europaea Linn., Olea europaea Linn., are used in medicine. The leaves of Olea europaea Linn., Olea europaea Linn., are used in medicine. The leaves of Oleoeuropaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeiaeie Natural Order I55.—JAMINACEAE.—The Jamine Order.— Character.—Shrubs, often twining; Calyx persistent, inferior, Springe epigyna, the Lilacs, the Lilac is a bicolour and bicolour leaf. 14 **SALVADORACEAE. MYRSINACEAE.** 611 with 5—8 divisions. Corolla regular, 5—8-partite ; antistome. Stigmae 2, included ; corolla 5—6 lobed, 2—3—lobed, with 4—5 equal lobes, or 4—5 unequal lobes. Fruit a berry. Seed with very little or no albumen ; embryo erect. **Salvadora persica Linn.**—The tree of Persia. Native of the East Indies, but a few species are found in several other warm regions of the globe. Examples of the Genera :—Jasminum, Nyctanthes, etc. Properties and Use.—The flowers are generally fragrant. The edible fruits are used as a vegetable, and the seeds chiefly obtained by distillation from the flowers of *Myrsinum officinale* and *Jasminum grandiflorum*. The fragrant flowers of *Jasminum sambac* are used as a stimulant, and the leaves are employed to have much power in arresting the secretion of milk. The leaves and seeds of *Salvadora persica* are used medicinally, and have been employed for various purposes, but generally speaking the order contains no active medicinal plants. The flowers of *Nyctanthes* are used as a stimulant, and the seeds as a diuretic. Natural Order 156. SALVADORACEAE.—The Salvadora Order. **Salvadora persica Linn.**—The tree of Persia. Leaves, stipules, flowers small ; pedicel : calyx 4—partite, membranous. Stamens 4. Ovary 1-celled ; stigma sessile. Fruit a berry ; seed with a milky or yellow albumen. **Dendropogon**—Examples, and Numbers : Natives of Asia, Syria, and North Africa. Examples of the Genera :—Salvia, Monarda. Properties and Use.—Some are acid and stimulant. The only plant of importance is *Salvia officinalis*, which Dr. Boyle has proved to be the *Great-herb* of Scripture. The fruit of this is edible, and is used as a stimulant. The bark of the root is acrid, and is employed as a blisters agent in India. Natural Order 157. MYRSINACEAE.—The Myrseine Order. **Character.-Tree or shrub ; Flowers perfect ; Corolla coriaceous, somewhat lobed ; Stamens 4—5—partite. Stigmae usually corresponding with the stamens ; ovary 1-celled ; fruit a berry ; seed with albumen, but sometimes there are also 5 sterile petals alternate ones ; anthers dehiscing longitudinally. Ovary superior or nearly so, or celled ; stamens numerous ; flowers axillary ; seeds are imbedded. Fruit dry. Seed : 1, or many ; albumen abundant, brownish-yellow.* Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—Chiefly natives of the islands of the southern hemisphere. Examples of the Genera :—Jasminum, Nyctanthes. Properties and Use.—Of little importance. The fruits and seeds of *Myrsinum officinale* are used by the Abyssinians mixed with barley as food for 612 612 **AGRICERACEAE. PRIMULACEAE.** their sesse and mules. The seeds of *Theophrastus Justus* are used in St. Dominge in the manufacture of a kind of bread. **Natural Order 150. Primulaceae—The Primrose Order.** **Diagnosis.** This order includes but one genus of plants. There are 5 species, all of which are annuals, and their seeds germinate while the fruits are still attached to the plant, and send their roots down into the mud, like Mangroves. The genus is distinguished by its flowers, which are dehiscent transversely, in having foliaceous fruit; and in the seeds being very small. **Natural Order 150. Primulaceae—The Primrose Order.** **Character.-Herbs.** Leaves (figs. 387, 388) simple, stipulate. Flowers regular, perfect, 5-petalled (figs. 389, 390). Petals (figs. 453 and 476) 4-5-let., persistent, inferior (figs. 453, 476), very superior. Corolla (figs. 476 and 1001), pale green, very rarely absent. Figs. 1001. Fig. 1002. Fig. 1001. Fig. 1002. **Fig. 1003.** Fig. 1001. Flower of the *Primula erecta*. r. Calyx. r.r. Petals. r.r.r. Stamens. r.r.r.r. Pistil. r.r.r.r.r. Fruit of the flower. p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p.p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p..p.. of the corolla, and similar to them. Corry superior (figs. 453) or rarely inferior (figs. 1001); petals free com- plete (figs. 630 and 1002); style (figs. 453 and 1002); stigma capitate (figs. 453 and 1002); stamens with transverse (figs. 762) or valvate diadenum. Seda (figs. 1003) numerous, with filmy albumen; embryo placed transversely to the hilum. **Description.** Examples, and Numbers.—These plants primi- tively inhabit the moist soil of the tropics and temperate parts of the globe. They are rare in the tropics, where they are only found on the seashore or in mountainous districts. Examples of the Genus are found in Europe, Asia, and America about 200 species. **Properties and Uses.—Of no particular importance except for the beauty of their flowers. The flowers of the Cowslip are...** PLUMBAGINACEAE. 613 (Prismula seris) are sedative and diaphoretic, and are sometimes employed in the manufacture of a spermic wine. The roots of *Cynara scolymus* (Artichoke) are used in the treatment of bed-wetters, which have been used as a drastic purgative and emmenagogue. The Oyster Plant, *Physostegia virginiana*, is a native of South-broads, from their being eaten by wild boars in Sussex. Natural Order 160. PLUMBAGINEAE.—The Thrift Order. Characterized by the corolla of the flowers being tubular, estipulate. Flowers regular (fig. 1004). Calyx tubular, pilated, per- nate, or 5-partite; corolla tubular, pilated, per- nate, or 5-partite or of 5 petals. Stamens (figs. 1004 and 1005) 5, opposite the petals, to which they are attached when the corolla is polysepalous; filaments free; anthers introrse; the bases of the stamens of the corolla when this is monopetalous (fig. 1004). Ovary Fig. 1004. Fig. 1004. Diagram of the brows of *Thalictrum*. Fig. 1005. Essential organs of the plant. 1-celled (figs. 692 and 1004); scale solitary, suspended from a long cord arising from the base of the cell (fig. 692); styles (figs. 1004) usually 5, sometimes 3 or 4. Fruit utricular, or dehiscing by a single apical lobe; seeds numerous, small and in small quantity. Order 161. Thalictrum Number.—Chiefly found growing on the sea-shores and in salt marshes in various parts of the globe, but by far the greater number inhabits temperate regions. Ec- cypeal species are rare; but there are about 250 species. Proprietary Names.—Of little importance, but acidity and sterility appear to be the most remarkable properties of the plants of this order. Astragalus: Common Thrift.—The dried flowers are commonly re- puted to be diuretic. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with a single cell containing a scale-like structure. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five styles emerging from a single cell. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five petals. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that are introrse. Diagram showing the structure of a flower with five stamens and anthers that areintrorose Astilbe japonica: Common Thrift.—The dried flowers are commonly reputed to be diuretic. **814** PLANTAGINACEAE. *Plantago*.—The roots of several species are astringent and vesicant when used, as the following species are, but the leaves are not. *P. major*. F. Lamarck is used as a poultice in Morocco. *P. lanceolata* is used as a poultice in Morocco. *P. maritima* is used as a poultice in the United States, whose root is official and is much employed as an active astringent. The root of *S. biennis* is also astringent, and has been employed in Russia and Spain as a tanning agent. The roots of *S. maritima* and *S. erecta* are astringent, and have been employed to produce astringent properties. The roots known under the name of *Tufra*, which are supposed to possess astringent properties, the roots known under the name of *Tufra*, which are supposed to possess astringent properties, according to Holmes, from S. balsamifera, are very astringent, and appear to be derived from species of *Shasta* ; the latter, according to Holmes, from S. leucantha. Natural Order 161. PLANTAGINACEAE. The Bilberry Order. Fig. 1005. Fig. 1007. Fig. 3005. Plant of a species of Bilberry (Phlomis), with its flowers. Flowers of the main. usually epicalyx (fig. 408) and perfect (fig. 1007), or rarely soli- tary, and sometimes unisexual. Calyx persistent, 4-partite, infrorse (fig. 1007). Corolla dry and membranous, persistent, 4-petalled (fig. 1007). Stamens numerous, inserted on the base of the corolla and alternate with them (fig. 1007); filaments long and slender; anthers versatile. Ovary simple, but apparently 2 or sometimes 3-celled; style short; stigma free from the placenta; stigmas 4 or 6-petalled (fig. 3005). Capsule mem- branous, with transverse veins; seeds numerous; free from testa. Seeds 1, 2, or more, with mucronulate testa, erect or oblique, in fluffy albumen. *Habitat*.—Examples, and Numbers.—They abound in cold or temperate climates, but are more or less diffused over the globe. *Economic of the Genera*.—Littorella, Plantago. There are about 100 species. *Properties and Uses*.—Generally of little importance ; but some are demulcent, and others astringent. A plant with four petals and two sepals. A plant with four petals and two sepals. A plant with four petals and two sepals. A plant with four petals and two sepals. HYDROPHYLLEACEAE. BORAGINACEAE. 618 Platycarpeae.---The seeds of Platycarpea Zophopepla, P. emporicaea, P. citieta, P. Parviflora, and P. parviflora, are used in the preparation of medicinal demulcent drinks; those of the first species being employed in the preparation of a syrup known in India by the Persian name of Ispalpud, or as Spode Sweet. The three species are allied to the genus Euphorbia. Leaves and roots of P. emporicaea and some other species are slightly bitter and astringent. Natural Order 163. HYDROPHYLLEACEAE.---The Hydrophyllaceae Order includes about 50 genera and 1000 species, some usually hairy, lobed, lobed, and alternate. Flowers either solitary, stalked, and axillary; or in cymes and arranged in a compound panicle or raceme; leaves simple, 5-lobed or 5-parted; sepals 5; Stamens equal in number to, and alternate with, the segments of the corolla; petals 5; stamens 2; filaments united into a tube; style 1; ovary 2-celled, with a large placenta filling the cell. See inserted ; -stamens. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.--Chiefly natives of the northern hemisphere; but several species are found in South America. Examples of the Genera.--Hydrophyllum, Nemophila, Eutrema. There are about 90 species. Properties and Use.--Unimportant, except as showy garden plants. Eriocaulon californicum, Benth., has a reputation among the Spaniards as having a medicinal value similar to that of the American Tobacco; it is known as the Conewberry weed. It has been recommended in the United States as a remedy for pulmonary and bronchial affections. Natural Order 163. BORAGINACEAE.---The Boraginaceae Order. Character.--Herbs or shrubs, with more or less rounded stems. Leaves (figs. 435) alternate, entire, usually rough. In- florescence terminal (figs. A435-A437). Flowers regular, symme- tric (figs. A438-A440). Sepals 5; petals 5; stamens 5; pistil 1; ovary 2-celled; corolla (figs. A477 and A480) regular or nearly so; 4-5-partite; usually with scales at its base (figs. A477, A478); stamens abundant. Stamens (figs. A490) equal in number. Fig. 1068. Fig. 1069. Fig. 1068. Vertical section of a flower of Eriocaulon californicum. Two adaxial views are seen. The upper one shows the position of the flower. The lower one shows the upper part of the flower. (See page 1069.) Fig. 1069. Stipule (left), leaf (right). (See page 1069.) 618 **ERHETACEA.** to the lobes of the corolla and alternate with them. Ossey deeply 4-lobed (fig. 603), with a solitary corolla in each lobe; stipe: 1. (fig. 604) - 2. (fig. 605) - 3. (fig. 606) - 4. (fig. 607). Fruit con- sisting of from 2 to 4 distinct segments, placed at the bottom of the persistent calyx, and containing seeds. Seeds exalbuminous; embryo straight, with a superior radicle. **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.** Chiefly natives of temperate regions, but also found in the warmer parts of the Geraea - Echinum, Borago, Cynoglossum. There are nearly 700 species. **Properties and Uses.** The plants of this order are chiefly remarkable for their muliaginous properties; hence they are mostly used by the natives as a substitute for the more expensive. Some species have roots of a reddish colour, which renders them useful as dyeing agents. **Echinus (Alchem.) Sterculia. Alhout, has a dark blooded root; this chiefly belongs to the genus in its use to dye, and is often used in perfumes, and for dying woods and other purposes. Borago officinalis Linn. - The Borago officinalis is medicinal and emollient. The herb imparts odour to beverages in which it is steeped owing to its contain of a volatile oil, which is said to be aromatic. Echinum - The broken leaves, stems, and flowers of species of Echinum are employed by the natives as a substitute for tobacco. They are sold in the Indian bazar under the name of Gomadun. Mentzelia - The leaves of Mentzelia are used by the natives as a substitute for the taste of coffee. Apocynum venetum Linn. - S. officinale, Confier, is reputed valerianous. The young leaves and shoots are sometimes eaten as a vegetable. S. officinale is used to form a decoction for the treatment of various neurological affections, and when freshly peeled and laid on calms to obtain the thick- ness of a leaf, it is applied externally to relieve pain in the limbs. S. superbum has been recommended for cultivation in this country as well for food. It has long been used as a sacred plant in Greece and in Russia. **Natural Order 164. ERHETACEA.** The Erhetae Order, *Synonym* - *Echinaceae*. This order contains plants having most of their characters, but they differ in having their carpos all completely united so as to form a 2- or more coiled calyx; or in their nature being either succulent or fleshy; it is generally charac- terised also by the presence of a small quantity of albu- men in the seed-capsule; and by having a single ovule; some authors the Erhetaceae are made a sub-order of the Borag- naceae. **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.** Chiefly tropical plants. Examples of the Genera - Echinus, Heliotropium. There are nearly 700 species. **Properties and Use.** Unimportant. **Heliotrope - Some species of Echinus have edible fruits. The roots of** *Heliotrope* are fresh, are employed in India by the native prac- titioners as an alterative.* A botanical illustration showing the structure of an erheta flower. NOLANACEAE. LABIATE. 617 **Nolanaeum.—Some species have a delicious odor, as the Peruvian Nolana floribunda (Fig. 388), which is used by the Indians of Peru to cure leprosy; and the Nolana nitida of Liberia sends the name of the "Erythraea Plant," from its common use, in the form of tea, to cure indigestion. **Nolanaeum Order 160. **NOLANACEAE. The Nolana Order. **Character.—Herbs or shrubs. Leaves alternate, stipulate. Inflorescence straight. Calyx 5-partite, persistent, with a valvate wall, and with 5 free lobes; corolla 5-lobed, with a tube, and 5 lobes, 5 opposite to the lobes of the calyx. Corolla composed of from one to several bundles; style on a freely distal disk; stigma simple. Fruit composed of 5 more separate or more less combined capsules, or of a single capsule, or of a single berry. Seed with a little albumen; embryo curved; radicle inferior. **Nolanaeum—A genus of about 100 species, exclusively of South America, especially of Chile. Examples of the genera: —Nolana, Alona. There are about 36 species. **Progenitor Order 160. **LABIATE ORDER. **Character.—Herbs or shrubs. Leaves usually opposite. Stem-stalks. Leaves usually scented, exstipulate. Flowers generally in axillary cyme; which are often branched, and sometimes compound, as to form what are called villariellae (Fig. 388). Calyx persistent, ![Fig. 1010.] Diagram of the flower of the White Sweet-scent (Lavatera alba). either tubular, b. or 10-toothed, regular, or irregular and labiate (Fig. 487), with 3–10 divisions; the odd tooth or division always posterior (Fig. 1010); corolla (figs. 479–482, 1011) usually white, but sometimes blue-brown; upper lip undivided (figs. 479) or bifid (figs. 480 and 481), and commonly more or less reflexed; lower lip three-lobed (figs. 482), nearly suppressed (figs. 481); the lower lip three-lobed (figs. 1011), with the odd lobe anterior (figs. 1010); or rarely the corolla is divided into two parts only, each part being three-lobed; namely, (figs. 482 and 481), or very rarely of nearly equal length, each lobe of the upper lip three-lobed (figs. 482); or very rarely divided by abortion; the filament or connective sometimes forked, each ![Fig. 1011.] Diagram of the flower of the White Sweet-scent (Lavatera alba). 618 LABIATAE. branch than bearing a perfect cell, or the cell on one side obsolete or sterile (fig. 512). Corolla deeply 4-lobed (figs. 604 and 1015), seated on a short pedicel, or sessile (fig. 513); corolla regular (fig. 514); bracteas none (fig. 515); stamens 4; stigma forked (fig. 1015). Fruit compound, with several seeds, or simple, with one seed only. Seed erect, with little or no albumen; embryo erect, with fat cotyledons. **Dipsaceae.** Herbs or shrubby plants, with opposite exstipu- late leaves. Flowers irregular, asymmetrical. Calyx persia- Fig. 1012. Fig. 1014. Fig. 1015. **Fig. 1013.** **Fig. 1012. Front view of the flower of the Sarsaparilla.** — **Fig. 1013. The cor- olla of the Sarsaparilla.** — **Fig. 1014. The stamens of the Sarsaparilla.** — **Fig. 1015. The stigmas of the Sarsaparilla.** **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—Chiefly natives of temperate regions. Examples of the Genera.—Lavandula, Salvia, Eucalyptus, etc., and many others; about 2,500 species.** **Properties and Uses.—The plants of this order are entirely free from any deleterious qualities. They abound in volatile oil, and** tent. Corolla usually more or less bilabiate. Stamens usually 4 and then commonly monadelphous, or rarely of equal length ; or only 2 fertile ones. Ovary deep-cleft or lobed; style filiform; stigma bifid. Fruit consisting of 1—4 achene, enclosed by the persistent calyx; or a capsule, dehiscent by valves. **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—Chiefly natives of temperate regions. Examples of the Genera.—Lavandula, Salvia, Eucalyptus, etc., and many others; about 2,500 species.** **Properties and Uses.—The plants of this order are entirely free from any deleterious qualities. They abound in volatile oil, and** LIBIAT.R. 619 are therefore commonly aromatic, carminative, and stimulant. All labiate plants also contain or bear a bitter extractive matter, which is often employed by the cook for flavouring, when they are frequently tonic and stomachic. Several are used in medicine, and some are employed in perfumery. The leaves are employed by the cook for flavouring, such as Thymus vulgaris (Garden Thyme), Thymus citriodorus (Lemon Thyme), Salvia officinalis (Sage), Mentha aquatica (Water Mint), Mentha arvensis (Sweet Marjoram), Satureja montana (Winter Savory), Nardostachys jatamansi (Summer Savory), &c. The finely flaky, ground seeds of Satureja montana and S. hortensis are edible. Aromatic herbs are found in great repute in Southern India as a remedy in intermittent fever, catarrhal affection, etc., and are employed in the United States (where the leaves and tops are official) as an emmenagogue, and also occasionally as a diuretic. *Lamiaceae.*—The flowers of *L. canum*, Common Lavender, yield by distilla- tion with steam a volatile oil, which is aromatic, pungent, and bitter, furnishing a medicine in the form of tincture, and also in pills, pastes, and also in medicine as a stimulant, aromatic, and carminative. The flowers of *L. officinalis* yield a similar oil. *L. officinalis* is very commonly employed in medicine. The flowers of *L. spica* or *L. officinalis*, French Lavender, yield 10% of Spikes of Lavender Oil, which is used medicinally as a stimulant and carminative. The English Oil, and is not employed medicinally, but principally by painters and artists for its odour. The leaves of *L. officinalis* are also yielded by distillation as essential oil, which is commonly distinguished as the "True Lavender Oil." *Origanum.*—O. vulgare, Common Thyme. The leaves and tops are official in the United States Pharmacopoeia. *Origanum majorana.*—Majorene. Possesses mild stimulant properties. It is used in medicine to relieve flatulence and to relieve spasmodic asthma. *Mentha.*—Mentha.—Several species are employed in medicine, and as sweet herbs. The leaves of two species are often employed medicinally. *Mentha aquatica* (Water Mint). The flowers of *M. aquatica* yield a volatile oil, which is used medicinally as a stimulant and carminative. *Mentha piperita* (Peppermint). The leaves of *M. piperita* yield a volatile oil. *Mentha suaveolens* (Sweet Basil). The leaves of *M. suaveolens* yield a volatile oil. *Mentha viridis* (Green Mint). The leaves of *M. viridis* yield a volatile oil. *Mentha x piperita* (Peeled Mint). The leaves of *M. x piperita* yield a volatile oil. *Mentha × piperita* var. majorana, that thyme which it is obtained from *M. majorana*, possesses mild stimulant properties. *Satureja.*—Satureja.—Oil is used in France as a substitute for China Tea. *Zanthoxylum.*—M. persicum. Horehound is used medicinally in the United States under the name of Horehound Oil; but it is not considered to possess the ordinary merits, but it is more stimulating... *M. persicum* is used in South America as tea under the name of Guayusa Tea. The flowers of *M. officinale* are used medicinally as a stimulant and carminative; and the leaves may be used for the preparation of a kind of cinchona. **Origanum:** O. vulgaris, Common or Wild Marjoram has similar pro-
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perrie to the other labiate plants. The herb is official in the United States Pharmacopoeia, and is also used in Europe, as a substitute for Chinee Tso. Hanberry first proved that the red velvet oil commonly sold in the shops was a mixture of the oil of the plant with that of the leaves from Thymus vulgaris. This oil is imported from the South of France. The herb of C. Major is used in the preparation of a syrup, which is a very popular remedy, and was formerly official in this country. Several species of *Glechoma* are used in Europe, but *Glechoma hederacea* (formerly *Marjoram*) is the only one grown in this country. **Verbenaceae** 650 **Veronica**—Veronica officinalis—The Common Speedwell. The flowering tops contain a volatile oil, which is used medicinally, and is also employed as a perfume. This oil is official in the British and Indian Pharmacopoeias. Rosmarinus is however considered by some authors to be identical with *Veronica*. The leaves of *Nardostachys jatamansi* are said to be due to the bee feeding on the flowers of this plant. The flowers are used medicinally, and are also employed as a perfume. **Nux vomica,** Common or Garden Sage. The leaves were formerly much used medicinally, and are still employed as a perfume. An infusion of Sage is frequently used in the United States as a balm for the stomach, and is also employed in making perfumes. It has stimulant, carminative, and anti-emic properties. Sage is also employed by the cook as a flavouring. **Salvia officinalis,** Salvia officinalis—The Wild Sage. A native of Spain, and introduced into England about 1580. The leaves are used medicinally, and are also employed by the cook for flavouring. **Satureja**—Thyme—Thymus vulgaris—The Valerian Order. - **Character:** -Herbs, shrubs, or trees. Leaves opposite or alternate, stipulate. - **Fol. 1016.** - **Description:** -The leaves are simple, entire, or serrate; usually more or less 3-lobed. Stems 4, usually 2-stemmed; leafy stems 2 or 3-stemmed; leaves opposite; there are but 2 stamens; anthers 2-celled. *Corydalis* (Fig. 1016) 1016:2 or 4-celled; style 1, terminal (Fig. 1016); corolla tubular or campanulate; calyx tubular or campanulate, composed of 2–4 carpellar segments, which when riper become united into a tube; ovary superior; ovules numerous; placenta axile; fruit a capsule; seeds few or many; endosperm abundant. - **Use:** -Seed erect or ascending, with little or no albumen, and an infertile radicle. **Fig. 1016. Petiole of the Veronicae (Veronica).** The leaves of *Thymus* differ from those of the Labiate by their more united carpellars and terminal style. | Species | Description | |---|---| | *Thymus vulgaris* | -Common Thyme -A perennial herb with opposite leaves -Flowers in spikes -Stems 4-stemmed -Leaves opposite -Stem 2-stemmed -Leaves alternate -Stem 2-stemmed -Leaves alternate -Stem 2-stemmed -Leaves alternate -Stem 2-stemmed -Leaves alternate -Stem 2-stemmed -Leaves alternate -Stem 2-stemmed -Leaves alternate -Stem 2-stemmed -Leaves alternate -Stem 2-stemmed -Leaves alternate -Stem 2-stemmed -Leaves alternate -Stem 2-stemmed -Leaves alternate -Stem 2-stemmed -Leaves alternate -Stem 2-stemmed -Leaves alternate -Stem 2-stemmed -Leaves alternate -Stem 2-stemmed -Leaves alternate -Stem 2-stemmed -Leaves alternate -Stem 2-stemmed -Leaves alternate -Stem 2-stemmed -Leaves alternate -Stem 2-stemmed -Leaves alternate -Stem 2-stemmed -Leaves alternate -Stem 2-stemmed -Leaves alternate -Stem 2-stemmed -Leaves alternate -Stem 2-stemmed -Leaves alternate -Stem 2-stemmed -Leaves alternate -Stem 2-stemmed -Leaves alternate -Stem 2-stemmed -Leaves alternate -Stem 2-stemmed -Leaves alternate -Stem 2-stemmed -Leaves alternate -Stem 2-stemmed -Leaves alternate -Stem 2-stemmed -Leaves alternate -Stem 2-stemmed -Leaves alternate -Stem 2-stemmed -Leaves alternate -Stem 2-stemmed -Leaves alternate -Stem 2-stemmed -Leaves alternate -Stem 2-stemmed **MYTOFORACEAE. SELAGINACEAE.** 431 Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—They are found both in temperate and tropical regions. Examples of the Genera:— Veronica, Lantana, Tecoma, Cordulierodendron. There are above 600 species. Properties and Uses.—Many of the plants are slightly aromatic and bitter, but there are no important medicinal plants among them. The Veronica species have hairy leaves, while other species have flaky fruits, which are edible; and the leaves of a few are used as a substitute for tea. The Tecoma species are valued in our gardens for the beauty of their flowers and for their fragrance, as the different species and varieties of Veronia, the *Alopec* Lippia cordifolia, the sweet Veronia or Lemmon-plant, &c. Cordulierodendron.—The leaves of C. infestans, an Indian species, possess some antiseptic properties. Gentianaceae.—The leaves of G. auriculata and G. cainina have demulcent properties. Lantana camara (Linn.) Merr., syn. L. camara Linn., has the same name as Caput de Morte. Some species of Lantana have edible fruits. Tecoma stans (Linn.) Benth., syn. T. stans Linn., is known under the name of "sao" at Vanua Levu, is said to be one of the constituents of the remedy for melancholy, and is called "the fruit of Tonga" in certain forms of neuro- ralgia, &c. (See also Rhaponticum.) Veronica.—It is used medicinally in Liberia in the form of tea to pro- tect against malaria; it is also employed in India as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opium; and its leaves are sometimes employed in Austria as a substitute for tea, to subdi- minish the effects of opum **Natural Order 169. MYROPAEACEAE. The Myropea Order.** Diagnosis.—This order is somewhat regarded as an order or subdivision of Verbenaceae from which it can be scarcely separated. It only differs from that family by having ordering perennials with persistent seeds, and a superior radicle. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—Chiefly natives of South America: Brazil (including Amazonia), Argentina (including Patagonia), Chile (including Patagonia), Uruguay (including Patagonia), Paraguay (including Patagonia), Bolivia (including Patagonia), Peru (including Patagonia), Ecuador (including Patagonia), Colombia (including Patagonia), Venezuela (including Patagonia), Guyana (including Patagonia), Surinam (including Patagonia), French Guiana (including Patagonia), St. Lucia (including Patagonia), St. Vincent (including Patagonia), St. Thomas (including Patagonia), St. John (including Patagonia), St. Croix (including Patagonia), St. Kitts (including Patagonia), St. Maarten (including Patagonia), St. Barts (including Patagonia), Martinique (including Patagonia), Guadeloupe (including Patagonia), Dominica (including Patagonia), Antigua (including Patagonia), Barbados (including Patagonia), Jamaica (including Patagonia), Haiti (including Patagonia), Dominican Republic (including Patagonia), Puerto Rico (including Patagonia), Cuba (including Patagonia), Jamaica (including Patagonia), Haiti (including Patagonia), Dominican Republic (including Patagonia), Puerto Rico (including Patagonia), Cuba (including Patagonia) Veronica.—Herbs or herbs with alternate stipulateleaves. Flowers regular or irregular. Sepals persistent or usually ephemeral with definite number or divi- sions or rarely consisting two distinct sepals. Corolla tubular, Character.—Herbs or herbs with alternate stipulateleaves. Flowers regular or irregular. Sepals persistent or usually ephemeral with definite number or divi- sions or rarely consisting two distinct sepals. Corolla tubular, **Natural Order 170. SELAGINACEAE. The Selaginella Order.** Character.—Herbs or herbs with alternate stipulateleaves. Flowers regular or irregular. Sepals persistent or usually ephemeral with definite number or divi- sions or rarely consisting two distinct sepals. Corolla tubular, Character.—Herbs or herbs with alternate stipulateleaves. Flowers regular or irregular. Sepals persistent or usually ephemeral with definite number or divi- sions or rarely consisting two distinct sepals. Corolla tubular, **Natural Order 171. SORRUBACEAE. The Sorrubio Order.** Character.—Herbs or herbs with alternate stipulateleaves. Flowers regular or irregular. Sepals persistent or usually ephemeral with definite number or divi- sions or rarely consisting two distinct sepals. Corolla tubular, Character.—Herbs or herbs with alternate stipulateleaves. Flowers regular or irregular. Sepals persistent or usually ephemeral with definite number or divi- sions or rarely consisting two distinct sepals. Corolla tubular, **Natural Order 172. SORRUBACEAE. The Sorrubio Order.** Character.—Herbs or herbs with alternate stipulateleaves. Flowers regular or irregular. Sepals persistent or usually ephemeral with definite number or divi- sions or rarely consisting two distinct sepals. Corolla tubular, Character.—Herbs or herbs with alternate stipulateleaves. Flowers regular or irregular. Sepals persistent or usually ephemeral with definite number or divi- sions or rarely consisting two distinct sepals. Corolla tubular, **Natural Order 173. SORRUBACEAE. The Sorrubio Order.** Character.—Herbs or herbs with alternate stipulateleaves. Flowers regular or irregular. Sepals persistent or usually ephemeral with definite number or divi- sions or rarely consisting two distinct sepals. Corolla tubular, Character.—Herbs or herbs with alternate stipulateleaves. Flowers regular or irregular. Sepals persistent or usually ephemeral with definite number or divi- sions or rarely consisting two distinct sepals. Corolla tubular, **Natural Order 174. SORRUBACEAE. The Sorrubio Order.** Character.—Herbs or herbs with alternate stipulateleaves. Flowers regular or irregular. Sepals persistent or usually ephemeral with definite number or divi- sions or rarely consisting two distinct sepals. Corolla tubular, Character.—Herbs or herbs with alternate stipulateleaves. Flowers regular or irregular. Sepals persistent or usually ephemeral with definite number or divi- sions or rarely consisting two distinct sepals. Corolla tubular, **Natural Order 175. SORRUBACEAE. The Sorrubio Order.** Character.—Herbs or herbs with alternate stipulateleaves. Flowers regular or irregular. Sepals persistent or usually ephemeral with definite number or divi- sions or rarely consisting two distinct sepals. Corolla tubular, Character.—Herbs or herbs with alternate stipulateleaves. Flowers regular or irregular. Sepals persistent or usually ephemeral with definite number or divi- sions or rarely consisting two distinct sepals. Corolla tubular, **Natural Order 176. SORRUBACEAE. The Sorrubio Order.** Character.—Herbs or herbs with alternate stipulateleaves. Flowers regular or irregular. Sepals persistent or usually ephemeral with definite number or divi- sions or rarely consisting two distinct sepals. Corolla tubular, Character.—Herbs or herbs with alternate stipulateleaves. Flowers regular or irregular. Sepals persistent or usually ephemeral with definite number or divi- sions or rarely consisting two distinct sepals. Corolla tubular, **Natural Order 177. SORRUBACEAE. The Sorrubio Order.** Character.—Herbs or herbs with alternate stipulateleaves. Flowers regular或irregular Sepals persistent或usually ephemeral with definite number or divisions or rarely consisting two distinct sepals Corolla tubular 822 **FEDALACE. GENREACACE.** 5-partite. Stems 4, or rarely 2; anthers 4-celled. Corolla azure, or white, or yellowish, or purplish. **Pod** 2-celled, with a solitary pendulous seed in each cell. Seed with a little fleshy albumen ; embryo with a superior radicle. In *Glabrocarpum* and *Genreacum*. **Distribution. Examples, and Numbers.** Chiefly natives of the Cape of Good Hope, and of South America, and of the temperate regions, European plants. **Examples of the Genus:** -Sagloba, Globularia. There are about 120 species. **Proprieties.** Of little importance. **Glabrocarpum. The Globularias are periparous and sterile. The leaves of Globularia are opposite, simple, entire, and alternate; they act as a pivot, and to fall down is a safe, mild, and efficient pugnace. They have no seeds, but the embryo is in the albumen, and also it is said, in the process of tearing. They contain both tannic and gelatinous matter. Natural Order 170. **Fedalace.** The Pedalium Order. **Character.** -Glandular herbs. Leaves entire, without stipules. *Genreacum.* -The Genreacums are periparous and sterile. The leaves of Genreacum are opposite, simple, entire, and alternate; they act as a pivot, and to fall down is a safe, mild, and efficient pugnace. They have no seeds, but the embryo is in the albumen, and also it is said, in the process of tearing. They contain both tannic and gelatinous matter. **Distribution. Examples, and Numbers.** Chiefly tropical plants. *Examples of the Genus:* -Glabrocarpum. There are about 25 species. **Proprieties.** To Eyes -Chiefly remarkable for their oily seeds. *Fedalace.* -An infusion of the fresh leaves in India is diuretic and perspirative. *Nemophila.* -A plant which grows wild in Japan, France, etc., where it is regarded as an efficient antiseptic; its oil is used in making ointments for the eyes (see *Ophthalmia*). The leaves of *Nemophila* are used for cleaning and beautifying the skin and hair. It is said that the oil of *Nemophila* is used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* -The leaves of this plant are used by the Chinese as a vermifuge. *Genreacum.* Natural Order 171. **GENREACEAE.** The Generaecaceae Order. **Character.** Plants with opposite or alternate simple or compound stipulate, generally opposite or whorled. Flowers irregular, showy : Calyx 3-lobed or 5-lobed : Petals 3-5 : Stamens 3-5 : Styles 3-5 : Ovary free : Seeds numerous : Fruit indehiscent : Seeds diamorphic : Dihymenous with two cells : A fifth cell usually present : Pod 2-celled, frequently united. **Example:** half superior : Leaf-sori, surrounding one side only : Embryo with an inferior radicle : Seed-capsule or succulent : 1-celled, with 2-lobed parietal placentas. A small illustration showing parts of an herbaceous perennial with opposite simple or compound stipulate foliage. **CRESCENTIACEAE. BIGNONIACEAE.** 628 *Seeds numerous, with or without albumen ; embryo with minutes cotyledons.* Division of the Order and Examples of the Genera. The Order has been divided into two sub-orders as follows : Sub-order 1. *Generae.* — Fruit partially adherent to the calyx. Sub-order 2. *Corydendrae.* — Fruit not adherent to the calyx. Distribution and Numbers.—Chiefly natives of warm or tropical regions. The Generae are all American ; the Corydendrae are New World. Properties and Uses.—Of little importance except for the beauty of their flowers, which are common objects of cultivation in gardens. Natural Order 173. CRESENTIACEAE. The Crescentia or Chamaecyparis. (Linn.)—The Crescentia is a small, simple, alternate or clustered, exstipulate. Flowers invisible, growing out of old branches or stems. Calyx entire, free at base, five-lobed ; corolla entire, five-lobed ; stamens five ; pistil one. Bila- biate. Species 4, ditunicous with a rudimentary fifth : anthers three ; ovary sessile, one-celled ; fruit a capsule, 2-4-lobed ; seeds 2-4, partial ; style 1. Fruit indurated, woody. Species large, numerous, enveloped in pulp, without albumen ; cotyledons minute. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—Natives exclusively of tropical regions. Examples of the Genera.—Crescentia, Par- mentiera, etc., are about 36 species. Properties and Uses.—Unimportant. Crescentia.—The sweet pulp of the fruit of Crescentia Cuprea, the Caribbean plant, is used in making ice cream, and its hard pericarp is used for bottling, forming a substitute for the Peruvian chancay. The fruit of *Parmentiera* edulis under the name of Quindalibae is eaten by the Mexicans, and that of *Persea* is likewise used in Mexico. The fruit is globular or ovoid in shape, and hence the tree bearing it is named the Candle-tree. Natural Order 173. BIGNONIACEAE. — The Bignonia or Trumpet-flower Family. (Linn.)—The Bignonia genus, which are mostly twining or climbing, or rarely herbs. Leaves exstipulate, usually simple ; stipules wanting ; petiole short or long. Calyx entire or divided. Corolla 4–5-lobed. Stamens 3 or 4; anthers 3-celled. Ovary sessile in a disk, 2–4-lobed ; placenta axile ; fruit a capsule, 2-4-lobed ; seeds numerous, semee, large, winged ; albumen none ; embryo with large basal endosperm. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—Chiefly tropical plants. Examples of the Genera.—Bignoniaea, Tecoma, Jacar- anda, etc., are about 300 species. Properties and Uses.—The chief interest of the plants in this 21 ACANTHACEAE. SCROPHULARIACEAE. order has its their beautiful flowers, although some are used medi- cinally and in the manufacture of tannin. Bignoniaceae.—From the leaves of Bignonia chinensis the Indians of South America obtain a red dye called Chile or Canaria, which is used for paint- ing their bodies. The leaves of this plant are very similar to those of Chirita, but are con- founded with Chirita and Mauve (see [Fig. 508]), and also with other Chirita, which are found in India. The wood of Bignonia chinensis is very light, and is ob- tained in India from the wood of Bignonia rhombica. It is reputed to be a valuable medicine. Teucrium.—Some species of Teucrium have aromatic properties. The wood of several species is employed in the manufacture of tannin. Spathodeae.—The leaves of Spathodea lamottei are employed as an anthel- mic in France. Scrophulariaceae.—The leaves of Scrophularia lanceata, a Brazilian species, have powerful medicinal properties. Natural Order 17th. SCROPHULARIACEAE. The Figwort Order. Chloranthus.—The Anacardiaceae Order— Chloranthus, or Herba or Lomus—Lomus opposite, simple, ex- stipulate. Flowers irregular, bracteate. Calyx 4—5-partite, or consisting of 4—5 free segments. Corolla regular, sometimes double. Corolla more or less 2-lipped. Stamens 2 or 4, in the latter case ditamnous. Ovary sessile in a disk; 5-celled; placentae axile; style 1. 1. Fruit capsule, 2-celled, with 1, 2, or many seeds in each cell; seeds smooth or roughened; placenta axile; cells of the placenta, without wings ; albumen none; cotyledons large and fleshy ; radicle invisible. Examples of the Genera—Thunbergia, Rutilia, Acantus, Justicia. There are about 300 species. Properties and Uses.—Generally unimportant ; but several species are nauseous and bitter. Acanthus.—The leaves of the root of Acanthus perfoliate are official in the Pharmacopoeia of India. They are known under the names of Acanthus and Acanthus vulgaris in high esteem in India for their bitter taste and aromatic properties. Moluccella.—The leaves of Moluccella have broad and narrow leaves, and are said to have furnished the model of the Corinthian cap. Natural Order 17th. SCROPHULARIACEAE. The Figwort Order. Chloranthus.—The leaves opposite or alternate; petals few; generally opposite leaves ; sometimes persistent on a node. Inflorescence illary; corolla regular; stamens numerous; style 1. Examples of Scrophularia (figs. 1018) persistent (figs. 713). 4—5-partite. Corolla more (figs. 483 and 484) or less (figs. 497 and 488) irregular; 5—partite; petals usually opposite; stamens numerous (figs. 1017) or 4, in the latter case ditamnous (fig. 564); rarely 5 or with a variable number (figs. 621 and 1017). Fruit usually capulare (figs. 1018), its components capsules being placed anterior and posterior ; style 1 (figs. 621 and 1017). Fruit usually capulare **SCOPHELIACEAE.** (§6, 703) or rarely baccate, usually 2-celled : placenta axile. *Nodes* generally numerous, abaxiunals ; embryo straight or slightly curved, with a short hilum ; cotyledons free (the cotyledons are in accordance with the views of Miers). *Epophyllon* (§6, 704) is a genus of the *Flowers* anomalous. Infrorsecence: Calyx and corolla with 4 or 5 divisions. Corolla more or less irregular, estivation imbricata. Stamina 2, 4 and 6 ; filaments united at base ; anther linear. Ovary usually 2-celled, the cells placed anterior and posterior ; style I. Fig. 1017. Fig. 1018. Fig. 1017. Flower of the common Spotted (Veronica).—Fig. 1018. Sta- mens of the same plant, showing the anther united at base, with one cell below. Fruit capitate or baccate. Seeds generally numerous, albu- minous. Distribution. *Euphorbia*, *Euphorbia*, *Euphorbia*.—The plants of this or- der are found all parts of the globe. Euphorbia of the *Green*— Calotoma, Verbascum, Asterinum, Scrophularia, Veronica, Rhinanthus, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*, *Veronica*. A Propertis and Uses.—The plants of this order must be re- garded with suspicion as some are powerful poisons. Many are bitter-tasting and others have a disagreeable characteristic, and a few possess narcotic properties. A great many species are cultivated in our gardens, &c., on account of the beauty of their flowers. *Oenothera bifolia* is used in Central America as tea. Euphorbia is a genus of plants which contain important medi- cal plants in the order. The roots, leaves, and seeds are the most active parts, but the leaves are also used in medicine as a diuretic and repupe. Euphorbia is largely used as a diuretic in dropsies, and as a seda- tive of the nerves. The leaves of some species are poisonous and may be deadly poison. Its use is entirely essential to the promoter of a power- ful remedy for dropsies. The seeds are used in medicine as a valuable medicine, and are official in the British Pharmacopoeia. Euphorbia is reputed to be a cure for cancer. Other species of Euphorbia have similar properties to those of Euphorbia, but they are not so active as la... 623 635 **OROBANCHICKA. LENTIBULARIAACEAE.** *Grindelia* officinalis, Hooker Hyppa, was formerly official in our pharma- ceutical. Its possessive, pungent, and distasteful properties, and in large doses is said to be an emetic. *Lentibularia* amplexicaulis, Willd. The root or rhizome is official in the United States Pharmacopoeia. When fresh it acts violently as a cathartic. The dried plant is used in medicine, and its leaves are esteemed as excellent diuretics, and are used largely in the United States as substitutes for *Cayenne* crenata—the flowers of this plant, which is a native of South Africa, have been long employed by the natives of that country under the name of African Saffron. They closely resemble true saffron in smell and taste; and when dried they are used in the same manner. It is supposed that under their yield a false orange colorage exists. *Nemophila* maculata, Linn. The leaves of *N. maculata* are sometimes used in the form of an emulsion or fomentation, as an application in skin diseases and in indolent ulcers. The leaves of this plant are emollient, and the leaves of *N. americana*, both of which belong to the same genus, are emollient, are purgative and emetic, and are supposed to be slightly narcotic. Furthermore, the leaves of *N. americana* are diuretic and expectorant. The seeds of *N. americana* are diuretic and expectorant. The leaves may be readily taken internally. *Euphorbia* peplus, Linn. The leaves of *E. peplus* have been used in this country, on the continent, as a substitute for Chinese Tea; hence the plant is some- times called "Chinese Tea." The leaves are emollient, diuretic, expectorant, expectorant, tonic, etc., and were employed formerly in port wine, particularly in the wine of Bordeaux. **Natural Order 176. OROBANCHICKA.**—The Broom-rape **Order.—Character.—Herbs of a more or less flaccid charac- ter growing from a short rootstock with a few narrow leaves (Narrow) scale; but without any green leaves. Calyx persistent, toothed. *Corydalis irregular*, persistent; antirrhine white. *Stemma 4, diaphanous*, with a few narrow leaves; calyx persistent; the com- ponent corolla being placed right and left of the axis; *pistillate* 2–4, parallel; stamens numerous; ovary sessile; fruit a berry. Numerous, minute, with feathery albumen and a very small embryo. **Distribution.** *Emplaxis*, *Euphorbia*, and *Numera*.—Primarily native of Europe, but introduced into North America as a weed. **Examples.** *Euphorbia*.—The Euphorbias are plants of the Good Hope. Examples of the genus—*Euphorbia*, Orobanche, Lithospermum. **Properties and Uses.—The presence of an antiseptic prin- ciple is the most marked property of the plants of this order, but they are altogether unimportant in a medicinal point of view. **View.—The root of *Euphorbia stricta* is called Cancer root, from its having been used as a cancer remedy; but it is not an important ingredient in the once celebrated North American nostrum, called Martin's Cancer Powder.* **Natural Order 177. LENTIBULARIACEAE.**—The Butterwort **Order.—Character.—Herbs, growing in water, marshes, or wet places; with opposite or alternate leaves; leaflets like filaments bearing little pouches or air receptacles. Flowers irregu- lar. Calyx persistent, bilabiate. *Corydalis* paniculate, spurred. A flower from the Lentibulariaceae family. **ANALYSIS OF THE ORDERS IN THE COROLLIFLORE. 627** **Stamen 2, included; anthers 1-celled.** *Ovary* 1-celled; *style* 1, short; *stigma* bilobate; *placentae* free central. *Fruit* a capsule, with a single seed. **Stamen 3, included; anthers 1-celled.** *Ovary* 3-celled; *style* long, minute, with the corylids much smaller than the radicle. *Fruit* a capsule, with a single seed. **Stamen 4, included; anthers 1-celled.** *Ovary* 4-celled; *style* long, slender, with the corylids much smaller than the radicle. *Fruit* a capsule, but more particularly of tropical regions. Examples of the genus: --Utricularia, Pinguicula. There are about 180 species. **Properties and Uses.--Of little importance. The leaves of Pinguicula are used by the natives of the country of dissolving and absorbing insects, and other animal matters.** **Pinguicula.--Pinguicula europaea is termed Butterwort, from the property its leaves are said to possess of combining milk.* --- **Artificial Analysis of the Natural Orders in the Sub-class Cephalo-irregulara.** Distilled from Linnaeus. • **A few less well known genera, whose flowers of which are sometimes monopetalous, are also included in this analysis.** (The numbers refer to the Orders.)
































































































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1. Epigynum.
a. Anthers united. Calyxovorum. 157.
b. Ovule solitary. Corpostrum. 138.
c. Ovule double. Corpostrum. 138.
d. Fruit with perfected and rudimentary ones. Vallariamorum. 125.
e. Fruit 3-celled, and without any rudimentary one. Seeds adnominus. 126.
f. Carpel solitary. Diplocarpos. 126.
a. Anthers united. Lobellorum. 130.
b. Anthers distinct. Colomelorum. 124.
c. Filaments not united to the style. Filamentorum. 124.
d. Stigmas more than 2. Unicarporum. 104.
e. Anthers opening longitudinally; Sigmae. 105.
f. Anthers opening transversally; Gondulorum. 101.
a. Stigma without an indusium; Lobellorum adnominus;130.
Lobellorum adnominus;











































































Calyxovorum;Corpostrum;Vallariamorum;Seeds adnominus;Diplocarpos;Lobellorum;Colomelorum;Filamentorum;Unicarporum;Sigmae;Gondulorum;Lobellorum adnominus;Calyxovorum;Corpostrum;Vallariamorum;Seeds adnominus;Diplocarpos;Lobellorum;Colomelorum;Filamentorum;Unicarporum;Sigmae;Gondulorum;Lobellorum adnominus;Calyxovorum;Corpostrum;Vallariamorum;Seeds adnominus;Diplocarpos;Lobellorum adnominus;Calyxovorum;Corpostrum;Vallariamorum;Seeds adnominus;Diplocarpos;Lobellorum adnominus;Calyxovorum;Corpostrum;Vallariamorum;Seeds adnominus;Diplocarpos;Lobellorum adnominus;Calyxovorum;Corpostrum;Vallariamorum;Seeds adnominus;Diplocarpos;Lobellorum adnominus;Calyxovorum;Corpostrum;Vallariamorum;Seeds adnominus;Diplocarpos;Lobellorum adnominus;Calyxovorum;Corpostrum;Vallariamorum;Seeds adnominus;Diplocarpos;Lobellorum adnominus; 638 ANALYSIS OF THE ORDERS IN THE COROLLIFORM. A. Carpel solitary. 1. Hypostemonium. Sylums indistincte. Leaves radical, entire. *Brassicaeae*. 194. Carpels more than one. a. Leaflets entire or with poves. Herbs. Seeds of loose-bunched texture. *Pyrolaceae*. 157. Shrubs or trees with winged seeds. *Eriocaulaceae*. 185. b. Leaflets lobed or toothed. 1. Lobes linear or oblong-lanceolate. *Euphorbiaceae*. 158. 2. Lobes ovate or elliptic. *Platanaceae*. 59. 3. Plants with dotted leaves. *Parnica* brown only plantae. *Monotropaceae*. 186. B. Flowers regular. a. Ovary naked. Inflorescence scapoidal. *Estivation of corolla imbricate* Imbricate Inflorescence straight. Corolla with a valvate Estivation. Leaves exstipulate. Lonicera exstipulata. b. Ovary united. 1. Carpels more than three, distinct or combined, but not united at the base, opposite each other. Stem horizontal. Style: Fruit a cup- enule Stem vertical. Style: Fruit fleshy, inde- hacentum Stem horizontal or woody. Style: Fruit 5, (rarely 3 or 4). Filaments numerous Stamen number opposite the petals of the same number. Corylus cornuta Seeds common Stem woody. Carpel combined. Ovary for more coiled. Ovary for more coiled. Ovary for more coiled. Estivation of the corolla plantate. Fruit: Cupule Ovule pendulous or suspended, or rarely pendulous Stamens two or four times as many as the lobes of the corolla. Filaments equal in number to the lobes of the corolla. Filaments alternate Stamens equal in number to the lobes of the corolla. Filaments alternate Stamens unequal in number to the lobes of the corolla. Filaments distinct Stamens unequal in number to the lobes of the corolla. Filaments distinct Anther erect or spreading, some of the ovules occasionally es- tivating Anther erect or spreading, some of the ovules occasionally es- tivating Filaments more or less suberect Filaments more or less suberect Carpel solitary. 2. Hypostemonium. Sylums indistincte. Leaves radical, entire. *Brassicaeae*. 194. Carpels more than one. a. Leaflets entire or with poves. Herbs. Seeds of loose-bunched texture. *Pyrolaceae*. 157. Shrubs or trees with winged seeds. *Eriocaulaceae*. 185. b. Leaflets lobed or toothed. 1. Lobes linear or oblong-lanceolate. *Euphorbiaceae*. 158. 2. Lobes ovate or elliptic. *Platanaceae*. 59. 3. Plants with dotted leaves. *Parnica* brown only plantae. *Monotropaceae*. 186. B. Flowers regular. a. Ovary naked. Inflorescence scapoidal. *Estivation of corolla imbricate* Imbricate Inflorescence straight. Corolla with a valvate Estivation. Leaves exstipulate. Lonicera exstipulata. Carpel solitary. 2. Hypostemonium. Sylums indistincte. Leaves radical, entire. *Brassicaeae*. 194. Carpels more than one. a. Leaflets entire or with poves. Herbs. Seeds of loose-bunched texture. *Pyrolaceae*. 157. Shrubs or trees with winged seeds. *Eriocaulaceae*. 185. Carpel solitary. j **ANALYSIS OF THE ORDERS IN THE COROLLIFLOR. 629** 2. Carpeis albes, combinand us so to form a b- sulphurous, or yellowish. Nem. hortensia. Nem. hortensis. 2. Carpeis two, combinand or move or ben dis- placed. Stamens 5. Corolla 4-lobed. Corolla with three 4-lobed. Stamens 5 or more. Inflorescence non- nodular. Fruit a capsule, lobed or imperforate lobed. Fruit decompound, 3 or more celled leaves. Leaves simple. Petioles long. Leaves simple. Petioles short. Leaves alternate. Calyx in a compound calyx. Anthocyan in the stamens. Anthocyan in the petals. Anthocyan in the stamens and petals. Flowers axile. Stamens 5. Stamens opposite the lobes or petals of the corolla. Stamens alternate to the lobes of the corolla. Fruit decompound, 2-celled or rarely 4-celled. Stamens 5 or more. B. Flowers irregular. a. Corolla 4-lobed. b. Corolla 5-lobed. 1. Carpel solitary. Anthocyan in the petals. Flower hard or soft. Anthocyan in the petals. Corolla valvate in sectioning Anthocyan in the petals. Gynaeceum pendulous Polianthaceae. 103. Dipsacaceae. 144. Chamaemelum. 154. Jasminum. 155. Hydrophyllaceae. 103. Eriophyllum. 104. Solanaceae. 151. Caryophyllaceae. 150. Aristolochiaceae. 148. Gentianaceae. 147. Solanaceae. 158. Aristolochiaceae. 148. Euphorbiaceae. 141. Aristolochiaceae. 148. Gentianaceae. 147. Stellaria. 146. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. Placentiferae. 630 ANALYSIS OF THE ORDERS IN THE COBOLIFORM. Fruit capitate or sessile. *Floriferous.* Leaves short, leaves without petals. Leafy plants. Leafy plants. Seeds without wings. Flowers with 5 sepals. Cytolobus. Minute, radicle long. Flowers with 5 sepals. Cytolobus. large, radicle short. Flowers with 5 sepals. Polydendron. Cytolobus large, radicle short. Placentae free central. Placentae sessile, wings. Allotropes. Exallotropes. Stamen attached to both petiole and pedicel. Seeds winged. Exallotropes. Phloem free central. There are certain exceptions to the characters above given in the Coryliform and the Cytolobiform. Thus among the Eugeyes, on account of the fine polyptalumous of *Cyper- fulva* and *Lobeliaceae*, and hence in those respects such plants would probably be placed in the Coryliform, they are somewhat superior in Genusensee, thus resembling the Eupateate of the sub-class Coriiforma, instead of the Eugeyes to which they usually belong. The same is true of *Hypocryptanthus*. In the Hypocryptanthus, polyptalumous species are more or less found in *Eugeyes*, but not so much as in *Hypocryptanthus*, which are therefore in such cases Thaliamorph. In Eupateaceae also, the stamens sometimes adhere to the corolla, in the same way as is the case in *Hypocryptanthus*. Among the Eupateate we occasionally find plants with polyptalumous flowers, as *Amphecarpus*, *Amphecarpus*, *Pleurocarpus*, *Mnemonica*, and *Pleurocarpus*. The stamens are also some- times hypogynous in *Eleonora*, *Pleurocarpus*, and *Pleurocarpus*, and hence these plants are Thaliamorph. The petals of such plants are distinct, or at least united, the Hypocryptanthus of the Coriolibiform. Again, among the Eupateate we find plants with one or two stamens, or partly so, as in *Eleonora*, *Streptanthera*, *Mnemonica*, *Primulaceae*, and always in Genusensee and hence such plants belong to the Coryliform. Among the Eupateate of the Eugeyes of the Calyciflorae, accordingly as their petals are united or distinct. In *Eleonora* and *Primulaceae*, apetalous species sometimes occur, under which circumstances the plants resemble the Mon- chlamydeae. Unisexual species are occasionally found in *Eleonora*, *Compositae*, *Eleonora*, *Aquilegia*, *Mnemonica*, and *Pleurocarpus*.
2. Sympetrum.
a. Anthers united; Calyxovorum, 157,
b. Ovule solitary; Corpostrum, 138,
c. Ovule double; Corpostrum, 138,
d. Fruit with perfected and rudimentary ones; Vallariamorum, 125,
e. Fruit 3-celled, and without any rudimentary one; Seeds adnominus, 126,
f. Carpel solitary; Diplocarpos, 126,
a. Anthers united; Lobellorum, 130,
b. Anthers distinct; Colomelorum, 124,
c. Filaments not united to the style; Filamentorum, 124,
d. Stigmas more than 2; Unicarporum, 104,
e. Anthers opening longitudinally; Sigmae, 105,
f. Anthers opening transversally; Gondulorum, 101,
a. Stigma without an indusium;
Fruit capitate or sessile. Coryliform.
Leafy plants. Cytolobiform.
Leafy plants. Seeds without wings. Cytolobiform.
Flowers with 5 sepals. Cytolobus. Cytolobiform.
Minute, radicle long. Cytolobiform.
Flowers with 5 sepals. Cytolobus. Cytolobiform.
Large, radicle short. Cytolobiform.
Flowers with 5 sepals. Polydendron. Cytolobiform.
Cytolobus large, radicle short. Cytolobiform.
Placentae free central. Cytolobiform.
Placentae sessile, wings. Cytolobiform.
Allotropes. Cytolobiform.
Exallotropes. Stamen attached to both petiole and pedicel. Cytolobiform.
Seeds winged. Exallotropes. Cytolobiform.
Phloem free central. Cytolobiform.
Fruit capitate or sessile.Coryliform.
Leafy plants.Cytolobiform.
Leafy plants. Seeds without wings.Cytolobiform.
Flowers with 5 sepals. Cytolobus.Cytolobiform.
Minute, radicle long.Cytolobiform.
Flowers with 5 sepals. Cytolobus.Cytolobiform.
Large, radicle short.Cytolobiform.
Flowers with 5 sepals. Polydendron.Cytolobiform.
Cytolobus large, radicle short.Cytolobiform.
Placentae free central.Cytolobiform.
Placentae sessile, wings.Cytolobiform.
Allotropes.Cytolobiform.
Exallotropes. Stamen attached to both petiole and pedicel.Cytolobiform.
Seeds winged. Exallotropes.Cytolobiform.
Phloem free central.Cytolobiform.
A flower diagram showing a compound leaf with stipules.A fruit diagram showing a pod-like structure.631 POLYGONACEAE. Coccoloba uvifera, Sund. Grange.—From the leaves, wood, and bark of this species a very strong stimulant has been obtained which is commonly known as Jamaica Kina. The fruit is pleasantly acid and edible. **Polygonum** *vulgare*, Linn. (Polygonum officinale).—The common knotweed or Sarsenum, of E. America, and other species, are used as a substitute for corn as a food for ploughmen and other labourers, and also for the poor in the towns and other parts of the world. The former species is cultivated in Britain as food for ploughmen, but the latter is not so extensively used. A case of poisoning resembling intoxication, and a case has been reported within the last few years in which a man was killed by eating a large quantity of this plant, apparently killed by it. **Polygonum** *fumosum*, Linn. (Polygonum persicaria).—The chine of P. fumosum, commonly called Buckroot, is a powerful antispasmodic, which property is due essentially to the presence of the alkaloid, pellotine. It possesses also astringent properties, and some expectorant, emetic, and purgative effects. It is used in medicine as a stimulant to the appetite, especially in early periods of the North-End of England as a pucher's dish under the name of Pax-son, probably derived from Paxson's patent remedy for stomach-ache. Eastertail. The roots of P. persicaria are also used as food by the Equato- rians. The root of P. fumosum is used in China as a substitute for the root of Water-piper which is given to this plant. This species also yields a volatile oil, which is used in medicine. The leaves are used in Japan and in France. As the Chinese produce a blue dye from several species of Polygonum. **Rhoeas**, Rhubarb.—The species of this genus usually possess more or less pernicious qualities, and are generally considered injurious to health with their roots and hence these are largely used in medicine. Various species of Rhoeas have been employed in medicine since ancient times, but until recently the beneficial source of our official rhubarb was unknown, and examples of its use were rare indeed. The rhubarb plant is however, most probable that whilst the plant described by Ballard, under the name of R. officinalis, was the true rhubarb, that described by him as R. officinale was merely a form of R. rhabarbarum. Rhubarb is one of those plants which have been cultivated for ages; it is said that it was first introduced into Europe from Persia about 1000 A.D., and that it was then brought into Italy by the Arabs. In India it is grown wild from seeds imported from China; it is also grown wild in South Africa from seeds imported from China. In China it is grown wild from seeds imported from Persia; it is also grown wild in South Africa from seeds imported from China. The rhubarb thus derived from R. rhabarbarum is chiefly exported by way of Shanghai to Great Britain and America; it is also exported to India, Australia, America, and Foochow. The kind known as Indian or Hindustan Rhubarb (R. officinale) is cultivated in India and Australia; it is also grown wild in South Africa. R. officinale (Linn.) Benth., (R. officinale Linn.)—English Rhubarb is chiefly derived from R. rhabarbarum (Linn.), but it is not so active as the official rhubarb. Although this species has been cultivated in England for many years English Rhubarb has also obtained from R. officinale which is now also culti- vated in this country; but although both these species are employed in the East for the preparation of salads, the varieties used in England differ considerably in appearance owing to the presence of oxalic acid. The leaves of both species of Rhubarb contain abundance of calcium oxalate crystals (complimentary table). **Rheum**, Rheum.—Several species possess a powerful stimulant owing to the presence of salts of oxalic acid contained in their leaves and roots; they include R. rheum officinale (Linn.), R. rhabarbarum (Linn.), R. nobile (Linn.), R. Furcatum (Linn.), etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc, etc， and R. Furcatum (Linn.) has also been employed as a pucher's dish under the name of Paxson. Probably derived from Paxson's patent remedy for stomach-ache. Eastertail. The roots of P. persicaria are also used as food by the Equato- rians. The root of P. fumosum is used in China as a substitute for the root of Water-piper which is given to this plant. This species also yields a volatile oil, which is used in medicine. The leaves are used in Japan and in France. As the Chinese produce a blue dye from several species of Polygonum. **Rhoeas**, Rhubarb.—The species of this genus usually possess more or less pernicious qualities, and are generally considered injurious to health with their roots and hence these are largely used in medicine. Various species of Rhoeas have been employed in medicine since ancient times, but until recently the beneficial source of our official rhubarb was unknown, and examples of its use were rare indeed. The rhubarb plant is however, most probable that whilst the plant described by Ballard, under the name of R. officinale was the true rhubarb, that described by him as R. officinale was merely a form of R. rhabarbarum. Rhubarb is one of those plants which have been cultivated for ages; it is said that it was first introduced into Europe from Persia about 1000 A.D., and that it was then brought into Italy by the Arabs. In India it is grown wild from seeds imported from China; it is also grown wild in South Africa from seeds imported from China. In China it is grown wild from seeds imported from Persia; it is also grown wild in South Africa from seeds imported from China. The rhubarb thus derived from R. rhabarbarum is chiefly exported by way of Shanghai to Great Britain and America; it is also exported to India, Australia, America, and Foochow. The kind known as Indian or Hindustan Rhubarb (R. officinale) is cultivated in India and Australia; it is also grown wild in South Africa. R. officinale (Linn.) Benth.. (R. officinale Linn.)—English Rhubarb is chiefly derived from R. rhabarbarum (Linn.), but it is not so active as the official rhubarb. Although this species has been cultivated in England for many years English Rhubarb has also obtained from R. officinale which is now also culti- vated in this country; but although both these species are employed in the East for the preparation of salads, the varieties used in England differ considerably in appearance owing to the presence of oxalic acid. The leaves of both species of Rhubarb contain abundance of calcium oxalate crystals (complimentary table). **Rheum**, Rheum.—Several species possess a powerful stimulant owing to the presence of salts of oxalic acid contained in their leaves and roots; they include R. rheum officinale (Linn.), R. rhabarbarum (Linn.), R. nobile (Linn.), R. Furcatum (Linn.), etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc,, **NICTANTHACEAE—AMARANTHACEAE—CHENOPODIACEAE** 835 Water Dock, is astringent and antiseptic. The roots of *R. alpina* are poisonous, formerly employed in place of Rhusod under the name of Moschus's Rhusod. Natural Order 179. **NICTANTHACEAE—The Marvel of Peru** Order—Character.—Herbs or shrubs. Leaves simple, entire, or palmate, usually toothed at the tips. Flowers generally opposite. Calyx with an involucre. Corolla tubular or funnel-shaped, often coiled, with a long tube and spreading lobes. Stamens numerous, the style persistent and ultimately becoming indurated and forming a fruit. Pistil superior, 1-celled; ovule solitary; stigma 1-celled. Fruit a nutlet, enclosed by the hardened persistent base of the calyx. The flowers are followed by a dry fruit, consisting of two valves, each with numerous caryopsids, and an inferior radicle. Examples of this Order are: *Cynara*, *Cynara*, *Cynara*, *Cynara*, *Cynara*, *Cynara*, *Cynara*, *Cynara*, *Cynara*, *Cynara*, *Cynara*, *Cynara*, *Cynara*, *Cynara*, *Cynara*, *Cynara*, *Cynara*, *Cynara*, *Cynara*, *Cynara*, *Cynara*, *Cynara*, *Cynara*, *Cynara*, *Cynara*, *Cynara*, *Cynara*, *Cynara*, *Cynara*, *Cynara*, *Cynara*, *Cynara*, *Cynara*, *Cynara*, *Cynara*, *Cynara*. There are about 100 species. **Forsythia—Forsythia**—Remarkable for the presence of a purgative property in their roots; which is especially the case in the species of this genus. The leaves of M. sibirica, also known commonly under the name of the Forster's Clock plant, from opening its flowers in the afternoon. Boerhaavia edulis is a native of South America. Natural Order 180. **AMARANTHACEAE—The Amaranth Order—Character.—Herbs or shrubs. Leaves simple, stipulate, entire, or palmate, usually toothed at the tips. Flowers generally opposite. Calyx with an involucre. Corolla tubular or funnel-shaped. Stamens numerous, hypogynous and opposite to the sepals, or a multiple of that number; stamens 2- or 1-celled. Ovary free, 1-celled, with a single ovule; style persistent; fruit a nutlet or com- pound. Fruit a nutlet, Caryopsis or basaceae. Seeds 1 or more. Perennial ; corolla curved round near umbellic ; radicles next to the stem. Distribution, Eupompha, and Names.—The plants of this order are natives of tropical America and are not very conspicuous unknown in the coldest climates. Examples of the Genera—Calendula, Gomphrena, Gomphrena. **Proprietas usus.—Unimportant. Amaranthus synonmous other Indian species possess medicinal properties. Another Indian species possesses a purgative property. Gomphrena officinalis and G. macrocephala are used in India as a diuretic and expectorant against some other diseases. Some of the species have bright-colored perma- nent flowers, and are hence cultivated in our gardens as Amaran- thaceae; but they are not used medicinally except for their virtues. Primo's feathers, Colchicum creutzek, Cuckoocock, and others. Natural Order 181. **CHENOPODIACEAE—The Goosefoot or Spinch Order—Character.—Herbs or undershrubs. Leaves 834 **CHENOPODIACEAE.** extipulate, usually alternate, rarely opposite. *Flowers* minute, greenish, without bracts, partly, partly, or disperse. *Sepals* 3-5, usually 5, imbricate. *Stamens* equal in number to the lobes of the sepals; or 2-4, the others sterile. *Pistil* 1-celled, with a single ovule at the base of the ovary; or 2-celled. *Ovary* superior (fig. 26) or partly inferior. *Pods* 1-seeded, or several-seeded; or syno- gynous or inserted into the base of the lobes ; anthers 2-celled. *Ornament* usually simple. *Fruit* usually an acheneum or utricle (fig. 60), rarely a nut or a berry; or a compound fruit, with many di- visions, rarely simple. Fruit usually an acheneum or utricle (fig. 60), rarely a nut or a berry; or a compound fruit, with many di- visions, rarely simple. **Diagnoses.—They are chiefly distinguished from the Nycto- graceae by their flowers being sessile on the receptacle.* **Distribution.** Examples, and Names.—More or less distri- buted over the world; but more common in temperate and tropical regions. *Examples of the Genus.*—Salacia, Atriplex, Spi- nacia, Beta, Chamaecrista, Salsola. There above 600 species. *Proprietaries.*—The seeds of these plants are used as food; as salt-mashes, and yield by combustion an acid called boric acid, from which borax is obtained; but its use for this purpose has much failed off late years, in con- sequence of that substance being more readily extracted from other sources than from the seeds; especially belonging to the genus *Salvia*, *Salviae*, *Chamaecrista*, and *Atriplex*. The seeds of the genus *Spinacia* are used as a spice; and those of the genus *Beta* as a potherb; as Spinach or Mountain Spinach (fig. 71). The seeds of the genus *Salsola* are used as a spice; and those of the genus *Chamaecrista* as a spice; and those of them anthelmintic, antispasmodic, aromatic, curative, or stimulant. **Beta.—The root of Beta vulgaris, the Common Beet, is used as a salad, and as a potherb; and is also employed in medicine. The seeds are used as a source of sugar. Two varieties of the Beet are commonly grown for sugar; one is the Red Beet (Beta vulgaris rubra), and the White or Scarlet Beet (Beta vulgaris alba); the latter being; the most commonly cultivated for sugar. The Red Beet yields about 3000 lbs. of sugar. Attempts have been made of late years to grow Beet in many districts in which it might be cultivated with success. The grated root of this plant is used in making beer; and the juice extracted in the manufacture of best sugar, are also useful ; the former for feeding cattle, and the latter for making syrup. The seeds contain much sulphuric acid, and submitted to fermentation, yield from 34 to 40 per cent. of spirit. The seeds of this plant are used as a spice; and are also a variety of the Common Beet (Beta vulgaris ssp. vulgaris) in the Mangold varieties; and are also used in making beer. The petioles and midrib of the leaves of this plant are used as a substitute for spinach or greens. **Chenopodium.—The seeds of C. quinoa contain starch granules, which BASELLACEAE. SCLERANTHACEAE. PHYTOLACCEAE. 635 are remarkable for being the smallest bitterso noted. These seeds are known under the name of petty rac and are common articles of food in Peru and other parts of South America, where they are much used both as a medicine and as a condiment. The fruits of C. sceleratae, native under the name of Wormseed, are largely employed in the preparation of the famous Peruvian medicine called "Purin," which is supposed to possess certain antispasmodic qualities. The bark generally has an agreeable taste, but is not so powerful as the leaves, which contain a definite volatile oil. Both the oil and fruit are official in the United States Pharmacopoeia. The genus Sceleranthus is very similar to the genus Physalis, but somewhat smaller, general, but they are not so powerful. C. sceleratae is also used in the preparation of a medicine called "Purin" in Peru, which is supposed to possess certain antispasmodic qualities. The bark generally has an agreeable taste, but is not so powerful as the leaves, which contain a definite volatile oil. Both the oil and fruit are official in the United States Pharmacopoeia. The genus Sceleranthus is very similar to the genus Physalis, but somewhat smaller, general, but they are not so powerful. C. sceleratae is also used in the preparation of a medicine called "Purin" in Peru, which is supposed to possess certain antispasmodic qualities. The bark generally has an agreeable taste, but is not so powerful as the leaves, which contain a definite volatile oil. Both the oil and fruit are official in the United States Pharmacopoeia. Natural Order 182. BASELLACEAE.—The Basella Order. Dipentum.—This is a small order of climbing herbs or shrubs closely allied to the Compositae, and is generally distinguished by its plant having a single calyx with two lobes only, and by their stamens being evidently pentamerous. There are about 12 species in this order. Properties and Uses.—Basella rubra and B. officinalis are used in the East Indies as a substitute for Sambucus. From the former species is made a syrup called "Basil." The leaves of *Umbilicus foliaceus* or Molucca balsam are largely used in Peru and some of the adjoining countries as a substitute for the Potato. Natural Order 183. SCLERANTHACEAE.—The Scleranthus Order. Characteristics.—This is a small order of herbaceous herbs, frequently considered as a sub-order of Physalaceae, from which it differs chiefly in having its flowers solitary; by being apetalous; by the tube of their calyx becoming hardened and covering the fruit, which is solitary and 1-lobed; and by their stamens being usually 5 or 6 in number. The valueless found in barren places in the temperate regions of the globe belong to this order. Of these there are many species belonging to the genus *Scleranthus* are natives of Britain. Their uses are unknown. Natural Order 184. PHYTOLACCEAE.—The Phytolacca Order. Character.—Herbs or undershrub. Leaves alternate or opposite; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanting; stipules wanted **636 SUBIANACEE. PETIVERIACEAE. GYSTROSTEMONEE.** **Properties and Uses.—An acid principle in this Indian species is reputed to be a powerful antiseptic in cases of cancer.** *Petiveria alata* (Linn.) Willd. **—** Petiveria, *F. decora*, Poke or Pocan, are employed in the United States for their emetic and purgative properties. That use and the emetic property of the plant have been used in chronic rheumatism and syphilitic affections. A neutral crystalline substance has been isolated from the leaves, which are used in the treatment of leprosy. Its young shoots boiled in water are rated in the United States as an expectorant, and its leaves are used as a diuretic. A species of Petiveria, which has been named *F. eleonora, a native of Newfoundland, is said to be a powerful emetic, and is sometimes employed by persons suffering from a cough or who are suffering from any other complaint to gather a hæmorrhoid. It is also stated that the needle of the compound is poisonous. **Natural Order 185. SUBIANACEA.** —This name is given to an order of which there is but one known species ; this is common on the sea-coast in the tropics. The order is supposed to be allied to the Solanales, but differs from them in the structure of its ovary ; but it is at once distinguished by the possession of a single seed-capsule, and by having no perianth or sepal. It is now frequently referred to the Simaroubaceae. Its uses are unknown. **Natural Order 186. PETIVERIACEA.** —The Petiveria Order. *Diapogone, etc.*—This is another small order of plants, which is placed by some botanists under the Solanales, and by others under it with which it agrees in many particulars. It is distinguished from that order by having stipulate leaves, an ovary formed of a single seed-capsule, and by having no perianth or sepal with conoidal cotyledons. Those plants are natives of tropical America. Most of the species in this order have a strong alliaceous odour. *Petiveria*. —Petiveria alata, Guianas-bush-Poke, is reputed to be restorative and emollient, and is used as a poultice for toothache. It is also commonly put into warm baths, which are used to reduce swellings. **Natural Order 187. GYSTROSTEMONEA.** —The Gyrostemonum Order.—Diapogone, etc.—This is another small order of plants, na- tive of South-western Australia, which is sometimes considered to belong to the Solanales, but differs from them in being glabrous throughout its whole body, except at its base. It is distinguished from that order by having unornamental flowers, by having two sepals only, and by having a columnar ovary. Those plants have no known uses. This order contains several peculiar orders requiring further investiga- tion before their affinities can be well ascertained. **PIPERACEAE.** 637 **Natural Order 188. PIPERACEAE.—The Pepper Order.** **Character.—Hairy, aromatic, jointed stems.** Flowers **spikelike,** perfect, acheneous, bracteate. Stamens 2 or more; **flowers 1-2-celled.** Ovary simple, 1-celled, with one erect ovary, sessile, and one or two short stigmas; calyx tubular, 5-lobed, hairy; **fruit** 1-celled, 1-seeded. Seed erect ; embryo in a distinct fleshy sac at the apex of the seed. **Distributive Range.**—In the subtropical and tropical regions of tropical regions, especially in America and the islands of the Indian Ocean. **Common Names.**—Pepper, Cubeb, Piper, Arantia. There are above 600 species. **Properties and Uses.** The plants of this order are chiefly rancid, aromatic, acid, pungent, aromatic, and stimulant propertes. These qualities are principally found in their fruits, and are employed in medicine as astringent, volatile oil and resin. Some are narcotic, and others are reputed to be astringent and febrifugal. **Aristotle.—The dried leaves of s. stipitata (Piper amalagamatum) consist of a mixture of the leaves and seeds of the plant; they are used in the treatment of melancholy; they have a medicinal application for arresting hemorrhages from wounds; he has been also employed for the treatment of dropsy; but his remedies are very feeble. His action appears to be more specially medicinal like that of the common pepper; but his virtues are not so strong as those of the latter. It is probable that the name Sattina is applied by the inhabitants of India to this plant; for the leaves of this plant and its seeds are also similarly designated in different parts of South America. The dried fruits contain a volatile oil which is used as a condiment as well as pepper; and its leaves, as first noted by the author, are sometimes substituted for those of the pepper; but these leaves are not aromatic or astringent, and cannot be employed for drying yellow urine. **Cubeb.—The dried fruits and leaves of Cubeba officinalis or Piper Cubeba constitute our official Cubeba. Cubeba is the produce of the leaves and fruits of the plant Piper cubeba Linn., a member of the gentian-organic genus, upon which they are generally supposed to have a specific effect on the stomachs of man and animals. The fruit ripens directly principally upon two reasons, but also to some extent to the presence of a certain kind of fungus which grows on them. The fruit of Full Pepper, from the dried fruits having a short stalk attached to them. The seeds are blackish brown in color; they are smooth and hard. Black Pepper of Western Africa, are employed by the negroes of Sierra Leone, &c., as a medicine for various diseases; but their effects on ordinary affection do not appear to resemble those of the official Cubeba. According to Buchanan's "Pharmacopoeia," "the leaves and fruits of this plant constitute the Black Pepper of the pope," and that which is official in the British Pharmacopoeia is derived from this plant. It is an important state divested of its external bark covering. The future is the most useful part of this plant; it is employed in medicine as a stimulant of ripening. Both kinds are extensively used as condiments, and traditionally as hallucinogens among certain tribes in Central America and South America. They contain an acid resin and volatile oil in which their acid is pungent, pungent, aromatic, and stimulant properties. **Ferrugineus.—The dried leaves and fruits of this plant possess to some extent febrifugal properties.—F. Mertensianum or Piper **638** **CHLORANTHACEAE. Saururaceae.** *tricocum*, and probably other species, also produce good pepper. The dried mature fruits of *C. amara* (the "Indian pepper"), which are very similar to those sent from Sumatra and Ceylon, and are the product of *Piper cinereum* or *Chamomilla* (the "Chinese pepper"). The fruit of *C. amara* is used in India as a condiment, and contains an acid, a viscid oil, and the crystalline alkaloid called Piperine. It is also employed in medicine, and is said to be a stimulant. It is chiefly employed for culinary purposes. Dried slices of the root are in great request in the East Indies, and are used as a substitute for ginger. The juice of the leaves of *P. betle*, *Piper betle*, and *P. Sichora* are chewed by the Indians as a stimulant, and are supposed to be emetic. The seeds of *C. amara* (Acorus calamus), and a little lime, dried as thus prepared is considered to impart an agreeable taste to food, and is used in the preparation of beverages; it is also supposed to possess stimulant and narcotic properties, and is used in medicine as a stimulant, emetic, and purgative. *J. J. Füssli* says that "the juice of the leaves of *C. amara* is one of the plants yielding a kind of debetum." (See *Foliorum*.) **Macrospore morphology.** The large rhizome of this plant is known in the South Seas as "the black pepper," and is used in medicine in the preparation of an intoxicating and narcotic liquor, called Aca or Caca. It is also employed in medicine as a stimulant, emetic, purgative, and narcotic, and several effects have been noticed. It has been lately tried successfully in France as a remedy in cholera. **Nature.** Order 180. **CHLORANTHEAE.**—The Chloranthaceae Order. **Order Chloranthaceae.**—Herbs or undershrub with jointed stems, which are tubular at the nodes. Leaves simple, opposite, oblong-elliptic or ovate-lanceolate, with acute or obtuse apexes; stipules 1-2 mm long; flowers axillary; sepals 3-5; petals 3-5; stamens 3-5; pistil 1; ovary 1-celled; style filiform; stigma sessile; fruit a dry capsule. **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—Natives of tropical regions.** Examples of the genus—Hedyosmum, Chloranthus. It grows wild in China. **Properties and Uses.—Aromatic stimulant properties are the principal characteristic of this family." **Chloranthaceae.** The roots of *C. officinale* and *C. houtteanae* have been employed in Java as a stimulant in malignant fevers, and for their antiseptic properties; the flowers of *C. amarae* are used in China to perfume tea. (See *Tee.*) **Natural Order 190. Saururaceae.—The Saururaceae Order.** **Order Saururales.**—Herbs or shrubs, alternate stipulate. *Species general:*—Squarrosa, althaceousum, perfect. *Species specific:*—3-5-petaled; usually more or less distant, or sometimes sessile; sepals 3-5; stamens 3-5; pistil 1-celled; fruit consisting of a finely indistinctly achene, or capulare and 3-celled; seed with hard or soft albumen. **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—Natives of North America, Europe, Asia Minor, and Australia.** Species of the genus—Saururus, Houttonia. There are about 7 species. A dried plant specimen. PODOSTEMACEAE. THYMELACEAE. 639 Properties and Uses.—They have acid properties, and are repulsive to be emmenagogue. Some are also astringent. Astringent.—The leaves of *Podostemon* *acuminatus*, and an infusion of its roots and the external application of these in powders are recommended for the treatment of hemorrhoids, and as a very astringent and is also used as an application generally to cuts and sores. Astringent.—The leaves of *Stemmatophyllum* *acuminatum* is a valuable remedy in inflammatory affection of the genito-urinary organs, and also in cases of dysuria. Natural Order 191. PODOSTEMACEAE.—The Podostemon; River-wind Order.—Character.—Aquatic herbs with the aspect of Mosses or Liverworts. Leaves minute or finely divided into filaments, or sometimes entire, but with a chlo- mydosea, or with an imperfect calyx, or with 3 sepals. Stamens 3 ; filaments united at the base ; anthers 2-2-2 ; stigma 2-2 ; cells ascending, numerous. Fruit cap- sular, ribbed, with parallel or axial placentaion. Sede nema- rous, or rarely solitary. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—Principally natives of South America. The following species :—Hydrocotylus, Podostemon. There are about 100 species. Properties and Uses.—Unimportant. Some species of Locius are said to be astringent ; others are diuretic ; and other plants of the order are eaten by cattle and fish. Natural Order 192. TURACRANTACEAE. The Turacrantus Order. Character.—Herbs or shrubs, usually leafy. Leaves entire, exstipulate. Flowers perfect (Fig. 102) or nearly bisexual. Sepals 3-5 ; petals 3-5 ; stamens numerous, equal or sub-equi- morphic. Petals numerous (Fig. 102), twice as many as the divisions of the calyx, or equal in number to them, or more numerous than the lobes of the calyx ; anthers 2-2-2 ; bursae-capsular (Fig. 102), simple, with a solitary sus- pended ovule (Fig. 78). Fruit dry and mist- tough, or hard and tough, usually sessile ; seeds none or but small in quantity ; embryo straight or curved. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.— They are found more or less abundantly in all parts of the world except Australia and New Zealand, and the Cape of Good Hope. Examples of the Genus :—Turacranthus, Pinetum, Lagartea. There are about 300 species. Properties and Uses.—The plants of this order are said to be astringent, diuretic, and astringent of their bark. The fruit of *Deos* palustris is narcotic, and that of the plants generally of the order poisonous or suspicious ; but the seeds of Fig. 102. Vertical section of the flower-spike of *Turacranthus* spinosus. **840** AQUILARIACEAE. ELEAGNACEAE. Incorporus edulis are said to resemble Chestnuts in flavour when roasted. --See also Daphne, Pimelia, and other genera, are handsome shrubby plants. **Daphne.--The dried bark of D. moschata, Merserum, and D. Lancela, Spreta Lancela, is used in Japan for the manufacture of paper. The bark of D. Moschata is dark and stem-bark is official, but the former is generally regarded as the most powerful. The bark of D. Lancela is white and stem-bark is not very potent, and also as a medicine in toothache. It is however principally employed in Japan for the manufacture of paper. The fruit is a proper fruit to an acid resin and an acid volatile oil. The fruit is also very useful as a medicine in toothache. The leaves are official in the Far East and in some countries substituted in this country for our official herb, but they are not so valuable as the leaves of the former species. The leaves and other species is used in some parts of the world for making paper. See also Eleagnus europaea.--The bark is used in Japan for the manufacture of paper. **Eleagnus europaea.--The bark is used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum lucidum.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum japonicum.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum ovalifolium.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum vulgare.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum chinense.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum sinense.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum obtusifolium.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum lucidum.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum ovalifolium.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum vulgare.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum chinense.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum sinense.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum obtusifolium.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum lucidum.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum ovalifolium.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum vulgare.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum chinense.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum sinense.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum obtusifolium.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum lucidum.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum ovalifolium.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum vulgare.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum chinense.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum sinense.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum obtusifolium.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum lucidum.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum ovalifolium.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum vulgare.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum chinense.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum sinense.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum obtusifolium.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum lucidum.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum ovalifolium.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum vulgare.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum chinense.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum sinense.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum obtusifolium.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum lucidum.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum ovalifolium.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum vulgare.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum chinense.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum sinense.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum obtusifolium.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum lucidum.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum ovalifolium.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum vulgare.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum chinense.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum sinense.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum obtusifolium.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum lucidum.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum ovalifolium.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum vulgare.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum chinense.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum sinense.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum obtusifolium.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum lucidum.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum ovalifolium.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum vulgare.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum chinense.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum sinense.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum obtusifolium.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum lucidum.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum ovalifolium.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum vulgare.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum chinense.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum sinense.--The leaves are used in Japan for the manufacture of paper.** **Ligustrum obtusifolium.--The leaves are used inJapan PROTEACEAE. PENEACEAE. 611 United. Stemonae definite, perigynous. Female flowers with an inferior calyculus only, and a hardy disk ; antenation imbricate. One stamen superior, the other inferior, or both. Fruit enclosed in the succulent calyx, indehiscent. Seed solitary, ascendent with thin albumen ; embryo straight, with an interior radicle. *Distribution*, *Examples*, and *Numbers*. They are generally distributed throughout the whole of the southern hemisphere in the southern. Examples of the Genera—Hippocrepis, Elmagnum. There are about 300 species. *Properties* and *Use*. Unimportant. The fruits of Elmagnum *orientale* are esteemed in Persia under the name of *sineh* ; and they are used by the Persians to make a kind of wine, in certain parts of India. Those of Hippocrepis *chamaeleon*, the Sea- Honeysuckle, are esteemed in Persia for their medicinal virtues, and have been employed in the preparation of a sauce for fish, but their use requires caution from containing a narcotic principle. No other species of this genus is known in Europe. *Character*. —Small trees. Leaves hard, dry, exstinctive, ascending. Fruit dehiscent or indehiscent. Albumen hyaline or hyaline. *Distribution*, *Examples*, and *Numbers*. —Natives chiefly of Australia and the Cape of Good Hope. Examples of the Genera—Pentameris, Hakea, etc., about 500 species. *Properties* and *Use*. —They are chiefly remarkable for the beauty or singularity of their flowers and their evergreen foliage. But the fruits and seeds of some species are eaten ; and the wood is employed for making boxes and canoes ; also for burning, and occasionally for other purposes ; thus, that of Protea *caerulescens* is used at Cape Town for waggon wheels, hence the plant is named Waggonwood. Natural Order 196. PENEACEAE.—The Pensa Order. Characters. —Flowers perfect ; calyx inferior, imbricated ; bracteoles leaves. Flowers perfect. Calyx inferior, imbricated ; 4-lipped ; antenation imbricate or imbricate. Stemonae perigynous, 4 ; one stamen superior, the other inferior, or both. Fruit dehiscent or indehiscent. Seed solitary in position, exalbuminous ; embryo with very minute cotyledons. *Distribution*, *Examples*, and *Numbers*. —They are only found at the Cape of Good Hope. Examples of the Genera—Panna, Gompholus, etc., about 200 species. *Properties* and *Use*. —Unimportant. T T842 **Lauraceae** **Pomum.—The gum called Lauracum is commonly said to be derived from** *Pomum Sarcostylus.* It is sarcostylus, and other species of *Pomum.* It was lar- mately employed as an external application to wounds and ulcers, under the name, thus: *Lauracum,* *Lauracum officinale,* &c., but it is now generally un- known. It is imported into Bombay from the Persian part of Bashan, and Dharmata, where it grows wild. The tree is supposed to be a native of India, but to be a species of *Astrachia*, or of some allied genus. (See *Astrachia*.) Natural Order 197. **Lauraceae.**—The Laurel Order. —Char- acter.—Aromatic trees or shrubs. Leaves opposite, sometimes alternate, sometimes sessile. Flowers greenish-yellow, or white, or occasionally purplish. Figs. 1073. Fig. 1073. Vertical section of the female flower of *Laurus nobilis.* Flowers axillary, solitary or in cymes; calyx persistent; corolla imbricate; stamens distinct; the inner ones commonly with glands at their base; ovary 5-lobed; by recurved valves, a. Superior ovary; b. Inferior ovary; c. Stigma sessile; d. Stigma peltate; e. Peltate stigma; f. Filaments united; g. Glandular stipules; h. Stipules deciduous. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—They are chiefly natives of the Old World, and are found in Europe, Asia, and Africa (Laurus nobilis), and one (Laurus nobilis) in Europe. Examples of the Genera:—Cinnamomum, Magnoliopsis, Neotectra, Laurus. There are about 60 genera. Properties and Use.—The plants of this order are almost universally employed as aromatic stimulants; many of them are therefore employed as aromatic stimulants. Others are nar- cotic, sedative, emollient, diuretic, expectorant, and tonic. Stomachic, febrifuge, or antirrhotic. A few have edible fruits, and many yield valuable timbers. *Annona.—The fruit tree of the false nutmeg, which is called in Greece the *Akebou* or *Cameru Nymeg.* Its use is similar to that of the other fruit nutmegs (see *Ceylon Nutmeg*). (See also *Annona*.) *Aegle marmelos.*—This fruit contains a kind of false nutmeg, which is the Core-Nutmeg of Madagascar or Rumanie vud. It is used as a spice. (See *Annona*.) *Compassifolia.*—Compassifolia or Compassifolia Camphor tree is a native of Ceylon (see *Ceylon Nutmeg*). The Camphor tree is a native of India (see *Ceylon Nutmeg*). The Camphor camphor is derived entirely from the island of Formosa and Japan, the former being known as "Formosan camphor," and the latter as "Japanese" or Dutch Camphor. Camphor is procured from the wood in a crude state by tuber pressure; it is then refined by distillation with steam. It is exported to Europe, &c., in this condition, where it is sub- camphor. It is exported to Europe, &c., in this condition, where it is sub- camphor. Fig. 1073. LAURACEE. 623 woods parted by subdividing again, usually in this country after being treated with a little lime, after which they are dried in the air, and used for food, in which same it is official. Camphor is a strong resinous and solid volatile oil. This kind of camphor is called "Camphorum officinale" (C. officinalis Linn.). Camphorum officinale, Camphor, or General Camphor (see Zingiberaceae, p. 601). The essential oil of Camphor is obtained by distillation from the crude camphor which is stored in vats before shipment. It is used as a stimulant and antiseptic, and also as a mild analgesic. It has been employed in the treatment of various nervous affections and as an anodyne. It is also employed in the treatment of certain skin diseases. Cinnamon.—Cinnamon, which is so much employed as a condiment, is obtained from the bark of Cinnamomum verum Linn., a tree native to India, East Africa, and China. The bark is stripped off the tree in the spring and dried in the sun. The bark is then split into thin strips and packed in barrels or casks. The bark is then exposed to the influence of the sun and air until it becomes dry and hard. The bark is then cut into small pieces and packed in barrels or casks. The bark is then exposed to the influence of the sun and air until it becomes dry and hard. The bark is then cut into small pieces and packed in barrels or casks. Cinnamon.—Cinnamon, which is so much employed as a condiment, is obtained from the bark of Cinnamomum verum Linn., a tree native to India, East Africa, and China. The bark is stripped off the tree in the spring and dried in the sun. The bark is then split into thin strips and packed in barrels or casks. The bark is then exposed to the influence of the sun and air until it becomes dry and hard. The bark is then cut into small pieces and packed in barrels or casks. Cinnamon.—Cinnamon, which is so much employed as a condiment, is obtained from the bark of Cinnamomum verum Linn., a tree native to India, East Africa, and China. The bark is stripped off the tree in the spring and dried in the sun. The bark is then split into thin strips and packed in barrels or casks. The bark is then exposed to the influence of the sun and air until it becomes dry and hard. The bark is then cut into small pieces and packed in barrels or casks. Cinnamon.—Cinnamon, which is so much employed as a condiment, is obtained from the bark of Cinnamomum verum Linn., a tree native to India, East Africa, and China. The bark is stripped off the tree in the spring and dried in the sun. The bark is then split into thin strips and packed in barrels or casks. The bark is then exposed to the influence of the sun and air until it becomes dry and hard. The bark is then cut into small pieces and packed in barrels or casks. Cinnamon.—Cinnamon, which is so much employed as a condiment, is obtained from the bark of Cinnamomum verum Linn., a tree native to India, East Africa, and China. The bark is stripped off the tree in the spring and dried in the sun. The bark is then split into thin strips and packed in barrels or casks. The bark is then exposed to the influence of the sun and air until it becomes dry and hard. The bark is then cut into small pieces and packed in barrels or casks. Cinnamon.—Cinnamon, which is so much employed as a condiment, is obtained from the bark of Cinnamomum verum Linn., a tree native to India, East Africa, and China. The bark is stripped off the tree in the spring and dried in the sun. The bark is then split into thin strips and packed in barrels or casks. The bark is then exposed to the influence of the sun and air until it becomes dry and hard. The bark is then cut into small pieces and packed in barrels or casks. Cinnamon.—Cinnamon, which is so much employed as a condiment, is obtained from the bark of Cinnamomum verum Linn., a tree native to India, East Africa, and China. The bark is stripped off the tree in the spring and dried in the sun. The bark is then split into thin strips and packed in barrels or casks. The bark is then exposed to the influence of the sun and air until it becomes dry and hard. The bark is then cut into small pieces and packed in barrels or casks. Cinnamon.—Cinnamon, which is so much employed as a condiment, is obtained from the bark of Cinnamomum verum Linn., a tree native to India, East Africa, and China. The bark is stripped off the tree in the spring and dried in the sun. The bark is then split into thin strips and packed in barrels or casks. The bark is then exposed to the influence of the sun and air until it becomes dry and hard. The bark is then cut into small pieces and packed in barrels or casks. Cinnamon.—Cinnamon, which is so much employed as a condiment, is obtained from the bark of Cinnamomum verum Linn., a tree native to India, East Africa, and China. The bark is stripped off the tree in the spring and dried in the sun. The bark is then split into thin strips and packed in barrels or casks. The bark is then exposed to the influence of the sun and air until it becomes dry and hard. The bark is then cut into small pieces and packed in barrels or casks. Cinnamon.—Cinnamon, which is so much employed as a condiment, is obtained from the bark of Cinnamomum verum Linn., a tree native to India, East Africa, and China. The bark is stripped off the tree in the spring and dried in the sun. The bark is then split into thin strips and packed in barrels or casks. The bark is then exposed to the influence of the sun and air until it becomes dry and hard. The bark is then cut into small pieces and packed in barrels or casks. Cinnamon.—Cinnamon, which is so much employed as a condiment, is obtained from the bark of Cinnamomum verum Linn., a tree native to India, East Africa, and China. The bark is stripped off the tree in the spring and dried in the sun. The bark is then split into thin strips and packed in barrels or casks. The bark is then exposed to the influence of the sun and air until it becomes dry and hard. The bark is then cut into small pieces and packed in barrels or casks. Cinnamon.—Cinnamon, which is so much employed as a condiment, is obtained from 644 CASSIA TRACK. ATERRO-PERMACER. **Nerium** **o** **p** **i** **s**. *Rutier* the *Baboon* or *Greenheart* Tree of Guinea. The wood of which this hard tree is composed was employed in ship-building. All Baboons of Africa are obtained from this tree; it has been used by the natives for making canoes, and for making baskets, baskets, baskets, being like them, antiseptic, astringent and astringent properties. The bark of this tree is very much esteemed by the natives of Guinea, who have nearly similar medicinal properties to quinine, and is employed in the treatment of fevers. The leaves are also esteemed for ulcers of the mouth. It is, however, very inferior in its properties to quinine. Baboon is a native of Africa, and is found in the British Pharmacopoeia. The seeds of the Baboon tree contain starch; this when mixed with water forms a paste which is used in the preparation of certain papa, papa made into a kind of bread, and used as food by the natives of Africa. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. The leaves of this tree are also used by the natives as a medicine. **Nerium** **o** **p** **i** **s** **a** **n** **t** **r** **e** **g** **r** **u** **m** **a** **n** **t** **a** **c** **h** **a** **l** **a** **n** **d** **a** **r** **i** **a** **n** **a** **c** **h** **a** **l** **a** **n** **d** **a** The fruit is that which is most important in these trees; it is called *Nerium* ophiothamnus, and is very similar to that which grows on *Cassia* *trachyphylla*. This fruit is very similar to that which grows on *Cassia* *trachyphylla*. This fruit is very similar to that which grows on *Cassia* *trachyphylla*. This fruit is very similar to that which grows on *Cassia* *trachyphylla*. This fruit is very similar to that which grows on *Cassia* *trachyphylla*. This fruit is very similar to that which grows on *Cassia* *trachyphylla*. This fruit is very similar to that which grows on *Cassia* *trachyphylla*. This fruit is very similar to that which grows on *Cassia* *trachyphylla*. This fruit is very similar to that which grows on *Cassia* *trachyphylla*. This fruit is very similar to that which grows on *Cassia* *trachyphylla*. This fruit is very similar to that which grows on *Cassia* *trachyphylla*. This fruit is very similar to that which grows on *Cassia* *trachyphylla*. This fruit is very similar to that which grows on *Cassia* *trachyphylla*. This fruit is very similar to that which grows on *Cassia* *trachyphylla*. This fruit is very similar to that which grows on *Cassia* *trachyphylla*. This fruit is very similar to that which grows on *Cassia* *trachyphylla*. This fruit is very similar to that which grows on *Cassia* *trachyphylla*. This fruit is very similar to that which grows on *Cassia* *trachyphylla*. This fruit is very similar to that which grows on *Cassia* *trachyphylla*. This fruit is very similar to that which grows on *Cassia* *trachyphylla*. This fruit is very similar to that which grows on *Cassia* *trachyphylla*. This fruit is very similar to that which grows on *Cassia* *trachyphylla*. This fruit is very similar to that which grows on *Cassia* *trachyphylla*. This fruit is very similar to that which grows on *Cassia* *trachyphylla*. This fruit is very similar to that which grows on *Cassia* *trachyphylla*. This fruit is very similar to that which grows on *Cassia* *trachyphylla*. This fruit is very similar to that which grows on *Cassia* *trachyphylla*. This fruit is very similar to that which grows on *Cassia* *trachyphylla*. This fruit is very similar to that which grows on *Cassia* *trachyphylla*. This fruit is very similar to that which grows on *Cassia* *trachyphylla*. This fruit is very similar to that which grows on *Cassia* *trachyphylla*. This fruit is very similar to that which grows on *Cassia* *trachyphylla*. This fruit is very similar to that which grows on *Cassia* *trachyphylla*. This fruit is very similar to that which grows on *Cassia* *trachyphylla*. This fruit is very similar to that which grows on *Cassia* *trachyphylla*. This fruit is very similar to that which grows on *Cassia* *trachyphylla*. This fruit is very similar to that which grows on Natural Order 198. CARACASPERA.—The Dodder-Laurier Order. Caracaspera (Caracaspera) was first described from the Lauraceae, but Lindley. The only important differences between the Lauraceae and Caracaspera consist in the plants being more or less woody, having scales in place of green leavés; and in their fruit being enclosed in a succulent calyx. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—Natives of tropical regions There is only one genus, Cassicla, which contains about six species. Natural Order 199. ATHEROPERMACEAE.—The Plum Nut Order. Flowers axillary, racemose, branched, dichotomous or rarely perfect. Calyx inferior, tubular, with several divisions. Male flowers with stamens two or three. Female flowers with antheroid ovules two or three. Opening by recurved valves. Female flowers usually with antheroid ovules two or three. Opening usually closed. Stamens two or three. Male flowers with antheroid ovules two or three. Opening usually closed. Stamens two or three. Male flowers with antheroid ovules two or three. Opening usually closed. Stamens two or three. Male flowers with antheroid ovules two or three. Opening usually closed. Stamens two or three. Male flowers with antheroid ovules two or three. Opening usually closed. Stamens two or three. Male flowers with antheroid ovules two or three. Opening usually closed. Stamens two or three. Male flowers with antheroid ovules two or three. Opening usually closed. Stamens two or three. Male flowers with antheroid ovules two or three. Opening usually closed. Stamens two or three. Male flowers with antheroid ovules two or three. Opening usually closed. Stamens two or three. Male flowers with antheroid ovules two or three. Opening usually closed. Stamens two or three. Male flowers with antheroid ovules two or three. Opening usually closed. Stamens two or three. Male flowers with antheroid ovules two or three. Opening usually closed. Stamens two or three. Male flowers with antheroid ovules two or three. Opening usually closed. Stamens two or three. Male flowers with antheroid ovules two or three. Opening usually closed. Stamens two or three. Male flowers with antheroid ovules two or three. Opening usually closed. Stamens two or three. Male flowers with antheroid ovules two or three. Opening usually closed. Fruit—A nutlet of many seeds enclosed within persistent pericarp; at maturity splitting into several nutlets; each nutlet erect, with a minute embryo at base. 644 **MONIMIACEAE. MYRISTICACEAE.** 645 Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—Natives of Australia and Chili. There are but 3 genera, namely, *Afrormosia* and *Bursera* (of the Australian flora), and *Myristica* (of the East Indies); these last having 4 species. **Properties and Uses.**—They are fragrant plants. The schism of *Myristica* somewhat resembles common Nettles in their odour. *Afrormosia.*—A derivation of the bark of *Afrormosia* indicata is used by the Chinese to make a tea, which is considered excellent for China tea. This bark mingles nauseous in flavour and odour, hence it is employed only in small quantities. It was first introduced into this country; the direction is likewise employed as a stimulant. Natural Order 200. **MONIMIACEAE.** The Monimi Order. Diapensia.—Trees or shrubs, with opposite exstipulate leaves. Flowers regular, perfect, white, solitary or in cymes; stamens numerous; those of the *Afrormosia* species, but they differ in always being unisexual ; in the bigness of the calyx of their anthers; in the shape of the petals; in the form of the sepals; in the calyx and seeds being pendulous. *Myristica.*—Natives of South America, but are found also in Australia, Java, Madagascar, Mauritius, and New Zealand. Examples of the genus are: *M. officinalis*, *M. carriana*, *M. ceylanica*, &c. **Properties and Uses.**—They are aromatic fragrant plants, but their properties are not well known. *Pouteria boliviensis.*—Bolivian Pepper. The leaves of this plant, which is a native of Chili, under the name of Bolivi, have been lately introduced as a stimulant; but its effects are not so strong as those of the pepper, and it does not succeed in European practice. Natural Order **MYRISTICACEAE.** The Nutmeg Order. Chamaecyparis.—Leaves alternate, exstipulate, entire, stalked, sheathing. Flowers dioecious. Calyx inferior, bracteate, 5-lobed; corolla white; stamens numerous; pistil with 5 free styles; ovary with 1 or many superior carpels; or rarely 2 such carpels with 1 ovule each; fruit a drupe or berry; seeds numerous or occasionally rudimentary albumen; embryo small, with an inferior radicle. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—Natives of tropical India and America. Examples of the genus—*Myristica*, *Hydnocarpus*, &c. **Properties and Uses.**—Aromatic properties are almost universally found in the plants of this order, more especially in their seeds and fruits; but their uses are not generally known. *Myrtingus.*—The valuable and well-known ronje ronje from Namur and Java is borne on this tree. It is also called "the Indian Nutmeg-tree." This tree is a native of the Molucca and other Indian islands; but it is 616 **BEGONIACEAE** new cultivated in the Banda Islands, also in the Philippines, Bencoolen, Ternayang, and Sumatra. The species of this family are found in South America, at the Cape of Good Hope and Singapore, where formerly the best nursery stock was obtained, but cultivation has been introduced into other parts of the world. The Begonia is a very common sort about the streets of an ordinary town, with shiny periphrase; each plant contains a single flower, which is a beautiful scarlet, and is very fragrant. This is called Begonia, and begonias, but usually becomes yellow when dried, as in many other com- moners. Begonia is a very useful plant for the garden, because the seeds of the seed-vessel divided into two parts, one of which penetrates the earth and the other remains on the surface, and thus plants are easily grown. This nursery—so that the seed diverts of the shell and seed-vessel—is the most important part of the whole plant. The seed-vessel is divided into two parts by a thin membrane, and these parts are separated by a thin membrane, so that the seed diverts of the shell and seed-vessel is the most important part of the whole plant. The seed-vessel is divided into two parts by a thin membrane, and these parts are separated by a thin membrane, so that the seed diverts of the shell and seed-vessel is **Natural Order 202. BEGONIACEAE.** – The Begonia Order. **Character.** Herba or herba seminum abunda. Leaves alternate. unisexual or bisexual at the base (Fig. 303), with large stipules; flowers diocious. Calyx cup-shaped. Male flower with 5 sepals, 2 of which are smaller than the others, and placed internal to them. Stamens numerous, filiform; anther linear; pollen yellowish-white. Female flower with 5 or 8 sepals. Ovary inferior; winged, ciliated, with 2 or 3 stigmas; ovules numerous; fruit a capsule. Male flower: Fruit winged, angular; Seed with 2 or 3 stigmas; female flower: Fruit a capsule. This order and the Daiseniaceae are placed by some botanists near to Cucurbitaceae, to which in some of their characters they are closely allied. A diagram showing the structure of a begonia flower. DATINACEAE. SAMYDACAE. LACHITCHACEAE. 647 **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers—Native chiefly of India, South America, and the West Indies. Examples of the Genus.—Samyda.** **Properties and Use—They are generally reputed to possess some medicinal virtues, but they are not considered to be purgative. None, however, have any particular importance.** **Natural Order 205. DATINACEAE. The Datinae Order.** **Character.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, simple, evergreen, entire, or serrate. Flowers perfect, solitary or in cymes, axillary or terminal. Fruit a berry, indehiscent.** **Flowers ditinuous. Male flower with 3–4-cleft calyx; Samen 1–2; stamens numerous, filiform, inserted on the base of the corolla; Female flower with a superior 3–4-lobed calyx, and a 1-celled ovary with 3–4 polymeric partial placentas. Fruit dry, opening by a single apical lobe.** **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers—They are widely dis- tributed over the globe. Examples of the Genus.—Datinae.** **Datinae. The Datinae Tribe.** The above genus contains three species. **Properties and Use—Of little importance. Useful fibres might probably be obtained from the plants of this order.** **Datinae campanulata is bitter and purgative. The root is employed in Cautious medicine as a purgative.** **Natural Order 206. SAMYDACAE. The Samydae Order.** **Character.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, simple, ever- green, entire or serrate; stipules persistent at the base of the leaf-stalks. Flowers perfect. Calyx inferior; 4–6-partite. Stamens perigynous; filaments united into a tube at the base; anthers free; the style superior; stigma sessile; ovary superior; seeds numerous; fruit a berry, indehiscent; seeds numerous, ellipsoid or ovoid; embryo large.** **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers—Exclusively tropical, and principally American. Examples of the Genus.—Samyda, Sambucus, etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc., etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,,etc,.** **Properties and Use—Of little importance. They are com- monly bitter and astringent.** **Samyda indica is a native of Brazil; it is there highly esteemed as a remedy against malaria. Some species of Samyda have poisonous pro- perties; they are used in Cautious medicine as purgatives.** **Natural Order 206. LACHITCHACEAE. The Lachitchae Order.** **Character.—Shrubs or trees. Leaves simple, alternate, stipulate. Flowers perfect or imperfect; sepals 3–5-partite; petals few or none; with several divisions, enclosed by a bract. Samen 1–2; hypogynous, with a 2-lobed connate calyx, each lobule bearing 1 cell of ovary; stamens numerous; fruit a berry, indehiscent; seeds in a disk; loculicidal, with numerous ovules attached to parietal placenta; Fruit bapnumy; Endocarp deciduous; Seeds gen- erally 2 or 3, arillate, suspended, with flimsy albumen.** A small image of a plant.443 **CHAILETIACEAE.** *Ulmaceae.* **Description, Examples, Numbers, and Properties.—Natives of woody places, and of the Order of the Elm.** There are 6 genera, namely, Lecanota and Syzygiums, which contain 6 species. Their properties and uses are unknown. **Nature.—Trees or shrubs.** Leaves alternate, entire, stipulate, or pinnate. Flowers perfect or imperfect. Fruit a berry. **Character.—Trees or shrubs.** Leaves alternate, entire, stipulate, or pinnate. Flowers perfect or imperfect. Fruit a berry. **Semen.—Trees or shrubs.** The seeds are in the Order of the Cucurbitaceae. **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—Natives of tropical regions.** Examples—*Chailetiopsis*. Staphyliopsis. There are about 10 species. **Properties and Uses.—Unimportant.** The fruit of *Chailetiopsis* is used in medicine. **Nature.—Trees or shrubs.** Leaves alternate, entire, stipulate, or pinnate. Flowers perfect or imperfect. Fruit a berry. **Character.—Trees or shrubs.** Leaves alternate, entire, stipulate, or pinnate. Flowers perfect or imperfect. Fruit a berry. **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—Natives of tropical regions.** Examples—*Chailetiopsis*. Staphyliopsis. There are about 10 species. **Properties and Uses.—Unimportant.** The fruit of *Chailetiopsis* is used in medicine. **Nature.—Trees or shrubs.** Leaves alternate, entire, stipulate, or pinnate. Flowers perfect or imperfect. Fruit a berry. **Character.—Trees or shrubs.** Leaves alternate, entire, stipulate, or pinnate. Flowers perfect or imperfect. Fruit a berry. **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—Natives of tropical regions.** Examples—*Chailetiopsis*. Staphyliopsis. There are about 10 species. **Properties and Uses.—Unimportant.** The fruit of *Chailetiopsis* is used in medicine. **Nature.—Trees or shrubs.** Leaves alternate, entire, stipulate, or pinnate. Flowers perfect or imperfect. Fruit a berry. **Character.—Trees or shrubs.** Leaves alternate, entire, stipulate, or pinnate. Flowers perfect or imperfect. Fruit a berry. **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—Natives of tropical regions.** Examples—*Chailetiopsis*. Staphyliopsis. There are about 10 species. **Properties and Uses.—Unimportant.** The fruit of *Chailetiopsis* is used in medicine. **Nature.—Trees or shrubs.** Leaves alternate, entire, stipulate, or pinnate. Flowers perfect or imperfect. Fruit a berry. **Character.—Trees or shrubs.** Leaves alternate, entire, stipulate, or pinnate. Flowers perfect or imperfect. Fruit a berry. **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—Natives of tropical regions.** Examples—*Chailetiopsis*. Staphyliopsis. There are about 10 species. **Properties and Uses.—Unimportant.** The fruit of *Chailetiopsis* is used in medicine. **Nature.—Trees or shrubs.** Leaves alternate, entire, stipulate, or pinnate. Flowers perfect or imperfect. Fruit a berry. **Character.—Trees or shrubs.** Leaves alternate, entire, stipulate, or pinnate. Flowers perfect or imperfect. Fruit a berry. **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—Natives of tropical regions.** Examples—*Chailetiopsis*. Staphyliopsis. There are about 10 species. **Properties and Uses.—Unimportant.** The fruit of *Chailetiopsis* is used in medicine. **Nature.—Trees or shrubs.** Leaves alternate, entire, stipulate, or pinnate. Flowers perfect or imperfect. Fruit a berry. **Character.—Trees or shrubs.** Leaves alternate, entire, stipulate, or pinnate. Flowers perfect or imperfect. Fruit a berry. **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—Natives of tropical regions.** Examples—*Chailetiopsis*. Staphyliopsis. There are about 10 species. **Properties and Uses.—Unimportant.** The fruit of *Chailetiopsis* is used in medicine. **Nature.—Trees or shrubs.** Leaves alternate, entire, stipulate, or pinnate. Flowers perfect or imperfect. Fruit a berry. **Character.—Trees or shrubs.** Leaves alternate, entire, stipulate, or pinnate. Flowers perfect or imperfect. Fruit a berry. **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—Natives of tropical regions.** Examples—*Chailetiopsis*. Staphyliopsis. There are about 10 species. **Properties and Uses.—Unimportant.** The fruit of *Chailetiopsis* is used in medicine.
Fruit capitate or sessileCoryliform.
Sub-order 1. Celtis. Sub-order 2. Celtis.
Sub-order 3. Celtis. Sub-order 4. Celtis.
Sub-order 5. Celtis. Sub-order 6. Celtis.
Sub-order 7. Celtis. Sub-order 8. Celtis.
Sub-order 9. Celtis. Sub-order 10. Celtis.
Sub-order 11. Celtis. Sub-order 12. Celtis.
Sub-order 13. Celtis. Sub-order 14. Celtis.
Sub-order 15. Celtis. Sub-order 16. Celtis.
Sub-order 17. Celtis. Sub-order 18. Celtis.
Sub-order 19. Celtis. Sub-order 20. Celtis.
Sub-order 21. Celtis. Sub-order 22. Celtis.
Sub-order 23. Celtis. Sub-order 24. Celtis.
Sub-order 25. Celtis. Sub-order 26. Celtis.
Sub-order 27. Celtis. Sub-order 28. Celtis.
Sub-order 29. Celtis. Sub-order 30. Celtis.
Sub-order 31. Celtis.
```html
CHAILETIACEAE.
*Ulmaceae.*

Description
,Examples
,Numbers
,and Properties.
-Natives
of woody places,
and of the Order
of the Elm.

The Elms.

Semen.
-Trees
or shrubs.
Fruit a berry.

Distribution
,Examples
,and Numbers.
-Natives
of tropical
regions.

Nature.
-Trees
or shrubs.
Fruit a berry.

Distribution
,Examples
,and Numbers.
-Natives
of tropical
regions.

Nature.
-Trees
or shrubs.
Fruit a berry.

Distribution
,Examples
,and Numbers.
-Natives
of tropical
regions.

Nature.
-Trees
or shrubs.
Fruit a berry.

Distribution
,Examples
,and Numbers.
-Natives
of tropical
regions.

Nature.
-Trees
or shrubs.
Fruit a berry.

Distribution
,Examples
,and Numbers.
-Natives
of tropical
regions.

Nature.
-Trees
or shrubs.
Fruit a berry.

Distribution
,Examples
,and Numbers.
-Natives
of tropical
regions.

Nature.
-Trees
or shrubs.
Fruit a berry.

Distribution
,Examples
,and Numbers.
-Natives
of tropical
regions.

Nature.
-Trees
or shrubs.
Fruit a berry.

Distribution
,Examples
,and Numbers.
-Natives
of tropical
regions.

Nature.
-Trees
or shrubs.
Fruit a berry.

Distribution
,Examples
,and Numbers.
-Natives
of tropical
regions.

Nature.
-Trees
or shrubs.
Fruit a berry.

Distribution
,Examples
,and Numbers.
-Natives
of tropical
regions.

Nature.
-Trees
or shrubs.
Fruit a berry.

Distribution
,Examples
,and Numbers.
-Natives
of tropical
regions.

Nature.
-Trees
or shrubs.
Fruit a berry. ``` ```html
CHAILETIACEAE.
*Ulmaceae.*
CHAILETIACEAE.*Ulmaceae.*

Description,

``` **URTICAEE.** 619 It is not readily acted upon by water. The inner bark of *U. falcata*, the Nettle of Europe, is used in medicine, and is said to have a very powerful effect. In Pharmacopoeia, it is much used in this country as a demulcent for both external and internal use. It is also employed in the treatment of scurvy, and the emollient properties of the leaves are well known. Of *U. urens*, the Nettle of America, it is also stated to have the property of preserving the skin from the effects of sunburn, and when there are eruptions on the skin, it is applied with great benefit. Natural Order 208. **URTICAEE.**—The Nettle Order.— Character.—Herbs, shrubs, or trees, with a watery juice. Leaves alternate, usually rough or with stinging glands (fig. 103); fig. 103. Fig. 103. Fig. 104. Fig. 103. Male flower of the Small Nettle (*Pediculus urticae*). c. Calyx; r., r., stamens; d., pistil; e., ovary; f., fruit; g., calyx after falling off; h., vertical section of the plant of the same. p., Wall of the ovary. A Nettle. stimulate. Flowers small, unisexual (fig. 102) or rarely perfect, scattered or arranged in heads or catkins. Calyx inferior (figs. 102, b), persistent, with 5-7 teeth; corolla wanting; stamens (fig. 102, c), perigynous, and opposite the divisions of the calyx. Female flower with a superior 1-celled ovary (figs. 784 and 785), with a single stigma; male flower with a superior 2-celled ovary (figs. 786 and 787). Fruit indehiscent, surrounded by the persistent calyx. Seed solitary or several in a locule; embryo straight, enclosed in albumen; and with a superior radicle, r. Distribution. Examples, and *Nomenclature.*—These plants are more or less common in all parts of North America, except that of the Germ.-Urticaea, Barietaria, Parietaria. The order contains more than one hundred species. Properties and Use.—Chiefly remarkable for yielding valu- able threes, and for the acid stinging juice contained in their glands. Barietaria.—Several species yield valuable threes, as B. Page (Poach tree), in Nepal and Sikkim, and B. spinosa (Climbing Barietaria), which is much celebrated in India for its medicinal virtues. These three are also those that are used in the manufacture of the colored Chinese grass- cloth, and for other purposes. These threes are also now employed 619 850 **CANNABINACEAE.** this country for textile fabrics, &c. The Rhea fibre of Assam, one of the most important of the East, is a species of *Cannabis indica*. *Lepidoptera* pectinata, the Wood Nettle.—This is a native of the Allgauhany mountains, and is much esteemed for its medicinal properties. It is much recommended for cultivation in Germany, &c., as a scented plant. *Furcula* (or *Pterocles*) Pelletier, to be named regarded as a valuable disartic and lithorrhoic. Urtica dioica Linn. Stinging Nettle. A common weed. Some of the East Indian species, as *C. creascenta*, *C. sinensis*, and more especially *C. indica*, are cultivated for their fibre, which is used in making a bunch of nets (India does), or *Euphorbia*. This was formerly employed in paltry, and other articles of manufacture, but now it is almost entirely superseded by the root of *Polypodium* regarded as diuretic and stimulant; and its stratum, which is used in the preparation of the drug, is also employed in medicine, though only secondly as a plant of commerce as a purifier of the blood. Some species, as *C. indica*, have edible tuberous roots; others yield useful thorns, as *C. indica* and *C. sativa*. Natural Order 200.—**CANNABINACEAE.**—The Hemp Order. **Character.**—Hemp with a watery juice. Leaves alternate, late, linear-lanceolate, acuminate at the apex, sessile. Male flowers in racemes or panicles. Calyx entire, imbricate. Stamens 3 or 4; filaments united into a tube; stamens 6; anthers in spikets or strobiles (p. 410), each flower with 1 sepal surrounding the ovary, which is superior and 1-celled, and com- bined with the calyx into a tube; pistil 1; style 1; stigma of several lobes; ovary inferior, without albumen ; embryo hooked or spir- ally curved with a superficial radicle. **Deductional Note.**—The **Cannabaceae** are the tem- perate parts of the northern hemisphere in Europe and Asia. Exemplars are found in North America. **Properties and Uses.**—These are the only genus, and each contains but one species. **Cannabis sativa,** the Common Hemp.—The valuable fibre called Hemp is obtained from this plant. It has been cultivated since ancient times; but the best hemp is produced in Italy. Inferior hemp is obtained from the United States and Canada; but it is not so good as that from India. The seeds are intro- duced into Great Britain. Hemp is chiefly used for sacking, sacking, and oil-seeds; and it is also employed for rope-making purposes. The fruits, commonly termed hemp-seeds, are delicious and demure. They are used for food by the natives of India, who eat them raw, or boiled with water; they are also used for oil, which is extracted by boiling 2 per cent., or a fixed oil, which is employed as a varnish, and for other purposes. When heated to a high temperature they produce various effects on the human system; but their action is characterized by a condition of intense coldness. It is said that they are emollient and soothing to the skin; but C. sativa is not emollient or soothing to the skin. Indian Hemp. This latter plant produces less valuable fibres than the former, but it supplies numerous aromatic properties from several parts of its structure; and these properties are combined with the plant of Indian lettuce. The bark and roots are largely employed in India for medicinal purposes; and they are also employed in China, assisting the resin; Bhang, Sajir, or Sakee, the larger leaves and fruits without the stalks; and Churam, the concrete resinate solution which A black-and-white illustration of a hemp plant. **MORACEAE** 631 exudes spontaneously from the stem, leaves, and roots. The above forms are indigenous to the tropics, but the species of *Corylus* are widely employed in Arabia. The word "sennet" is usually said to be derived from the Sanskrit "senni," which is supposed to have been introduced into Europe, in use at Calcutta, supposedly at Cairo, and the discoverer of the Arabic. The name *Boswellia* is derived from Boswell, a physician who under the name of *Zizyphus* in Western Africa, where it is employed for internal diseases. The name *Boswellia* is also applied to a tree of India, and the name of an extract or tincture, Indian Hemp has been employed medicinally in this country. The plant is a native of India, and is used in the same manner as the stimu- lant, hypnotic or soporific, and sometimes as a narcotic; but its obtained effect is not so constant as that of opium. The efficacy of the drug cannot be depended upon with certainty, and it is consequently not much employed. The seeds of *Corylus* contain a bitter principle, which is extracted from which the resin has been removed, are officinal in the British Pharmacopoeia. The leaves of *Corylus* contain a volatile oil, which is an active antiseptic of the plant. Recently, however, a volatile alkaloid analogous to strychnine has been discovered in the leaves. **Hammerira Lapponica**, the Hare. The aggregate fruits of this plant are known by the name of "Hare's Buns." These fruits consist of leaves (bursa), and adhere to the litter of which they are surrounded by a white substance (mucilage). The leaves are covered with a white powder (mucilage), which adheres to the surface of the bursa. They contain a somewhat similar principle called "hairs," which adhere to the surface of the bursa. The leaves also appear to contain a very small proportion of sapin, and are therefore without any medicinal value. Hairs are used medicinally for purposes similar to those of opium; but they are not so efficacious as opium, especially when taken internally. The leaves are also used as a stimulant, and as a diuretic. The leaves contain a large quantity of alcohol and beer, to which they impart a pleasant aromatic taste and smell. The leaves are also used as a diuretic, and are employed in rapidly becoming sore. In Belgium, Aq., the young shoots of the Hare are eaten raw, and are properly prepared for human consumption; they are also made into a most delicate dish. **Natural Order 210. MORACEAE—The Mulberry Order.** Characters: Leaves alternate with simple or compound leaves; flowers with large stipules. Flowers unisexual. Fruct. figs. Fru. figs. **Morus alba Linné**, White Mulberry. A native of Asia Minor; cultivated in Europe with great success. **Morus nigra Linné**, Black Mulberry. A native of Asia Minor; cultivated in Europe with great success. **Corylus avellana Linné**, Hazel. A native of Europe; cultivated in America. **Corylus colurna Linné**, European Hazel. A native of Europe; cultivated in America. **Corylus maxima Linné**, Great Hazel. A native of North America; cultivated in Europe. **Corylus cornuta Linné**, Cornelian Hazel. A native of North America; cultivated in Europe. **Corylus avellana Linné**, Hazel. A native of Europe; cultivated in America. **Corylus colurna Linné**, European Hazel. A native of Europe; cultivated in America. **Corylus maxima Linné**, Great Hazel. A native of North America; cultivated in Europe. **Corylus cornuta Linné**, Cornelian Hazel. A native of North America; cultivated in Europe. **Corylus avellana Linné**, Hazel. A native of Europe; cultivated in America. **Corylus colurna Linné**, European Hazel. A native of Europe; cultivated in America. **Corylus maxima Linné**, Great Hazel. A native of North America; cultivated in Europe. **Corylus cornuta Linné**, Cornelian Hazel. A native of North America; cultivated in Europe. **Corylus avellana Linné**, Hazel. A native of Europe; cultivated in America. **Corylus colurna Linné**, European Hazel. A native of Europe; cultivated in America. **Corylus maxima Linné**, Great Hazel. A native of North America; cultivated in Europe. **Corylus cornuta Linné**, Cornelian Hazel. A native of North America; cultivated in Europe. **Corylus avellana Linné**, Hazel. A native of Europe; cultivated in America. **Corylus colurna Linné**, European Hazel. A native of Europe; cultivated in America. **Corylus maxima Linné**, Great Hazel. A native of North America; cultivated in Europe. **Corylus cornuta Linné**, Cornelian Hazel. A native of North America; cultivated in Europe. **Corylus avellana Linné**, Hazel. A native of Europe; cultivated in America. **Corylus colurna Linné**, European Hazel. A native of Europe; cultivated in America. **Corylus maxima Linné**, Great Hazel. A native of North America; cultivated in Europe. **Corylus cornuta Linné**, Cornelian Hazel. A native of North America; cultivated in Europe. **Corylus avellana Linné**, Hazel. A native of Europe; cultivated in America. **Corylus colurna Linné**, European Hazel. A native of Europe; cultivated in America. **Corylus maxima Linné**, Great Hazel. A native of North America; cultivated in Europe. **Corylus cornuta Linné**, Cornelian Hazel. A native of North America; cultivated in Europe. **Corylus avellana Linné**, Hazel. A native of Europe; cultivated in America. **Corylus colurna Linné**, European Hazel. A native of Europe; cultivated in America. **Corylus maxima Linné**, Great Hazel. A native of North America; cultivated in Europe. **Corylus cornuta Linné**, Cornelian Hazel. A native of North America; cultivated in Europe. **Corylus avellana Linné**, Hazel. A native of Europe; cultivated in America. **Corylus colurna Linné**, European Hazel. A native of Europe; cultivated in America. **Corylus maxima Linné**, Great Hazel. A native of North America; cultivated in Europe. **Corylus cornuta Linné**, Cornelian Hazel. A native of North America; cultivated in Europe. **Corylus avellana Linné**, Hazel. A native of Europe; cultivated in America. **Corylus colurna Linné**, European Hazel. A native of Europe; cultivated in America. **Corylus maxima Linné**, Great Hazel. A native of North America; cultivated in Europe. **Corylus cornuta Linné**, Cornelian Hazel. A native of North America; cultivated in Europe. **Corylus avellana Linné**, Hazel. A native of Europe; cultivated in America. **Corylus colurna Linné**, European Hazel. A native of Europe; cultivated in America. **Corylus maxima Linné**, Great Hazel. A native of North America; cultivated in Europe. **Corylus cornuta Linné**, Cornelian Hazel. A native of North America; cultivated in Europe. **Corylus avellana Linné**, Hazel. A native of Europe; cultivated in America. **Corylus colurna Linné**, European Hazel. A native of Europe; cultivated in America. **Corylus maxima Linné**, Great Hazel. A native of North America; cultivated in Europe. **Corylus cornuta Linné**, Cornelian Hazel. A native of North America; cultivated in Europe. **Corylus avellana Linné**, Hazel. A native of Europe; cultivated in America. **Corylus colurna Linné**, European Hazel. A native of Europe; cultivated in America. **Corylus maxima Linné**, Great Hazel. A native of North America; cultivated in Europe. **Corylus cornuta Linné**, Cornelian Hazel. A native of North America; cultivated in Europe. **Corylus avellana Linné**, Hazel. A native of Europe; cultivated in America. **C Corylus colurna Linnée, European Hazel**: Native A of Europe; cultivated in America and the United States and Canada, and in the West Indies, and in the Caribbean Islands, and in the West Indies, and in the Caribbean Islands, and in the West Indies, and in the Caribbean Islands, and in the West 632 ARTOCARPACEAE. **Examples of the Genera.** —Morus, Ficus, Dorstenia. There are over 500 genera. **Properties and Uses.**—The milky juice of some species pos- sesses astringent and poisonous properties, while in others it is bland, and is used as a food. The leaves of Morus are used as a source of some, Cassiopeia and India-rubber is obtained. The inner back of other species supplies fibre. Some possess a pleasant, indulging taste, and are used as food. Many yield edible fruits, while the seeds generally of the plants of this order are wholesome. **Rhamnaceae,** the paper Mulberry, is so named from its inner bark being used in China, Japan, &c., for the manufacture of a kind of paper. **Dorsteniaceae.** The rhinoceros and moths of several species have been sup- posed to be the ancestors of the elephant and horse. The many poisonous substances, those of D. Conopogonum et al., and Broadleaves have been likewise employed in their stomachs as diuretics and diaphoretics pro- vided they are not too strong. **Ficus,** the fig-tree, is a genus of fruit-bearing trees. Its leaves are nutritive, emollient, demulcent, and laxative; they are official, and are employed in the treatment of various affections of the skin and glands. —F. oppostatae and F. polygamae, natives of the East Indies, are said to possess astringent properties; but these are not very marked in the kind of India-rubber. It is known in commerce as Assam rubber. It is also sold under the name of "rubber" by the Chinese. The juice of F. marmarica and F. damiana is a very powerful poison.—F. spodopyrum is supposed to be the ancestor of the horse; but some authors have not yielded the wood from which man-manners were made. One Chinese author says that the wood was used in making the bow of F. papuan. The brown hairy covering of the leaves of F. amplexicaulis is so slippery that it has been used for making shoes. **Morus,** the West Indian mulberry, is native to the West Indies and South America. It is cultivated in England for ornament, but in this country and elsewhere as a dying agent. It is known as Ficus or Old Fig (Ficus carica). The fruit is edible; it resembles figs, although it is larger. The fruit is edible; it resembles figs, although it is larger. White Mulberry and others, are in common use for the silk-worms. The leaves of all species of mora are said to be emollient and anti- mucin. Natural Order 211. —ARTOCARPACEAE. —The Breadfruit Order.—Artocarpus communis Linn., Artocarpus altilis Linn., &c. Leaves alternate (fig. 597), simple, with large concave sti- pules. Flowers terminal, in dense heads (figs. 1027, a, c). Male flowers with 4 stamens; female with 2-4 stamens; or both, or 2-4-sepaled calyx. Stamens opposite the lobes of the calyx A diagram showing the structure of Artocarpus altilis Linn. **ARTOCARPACEAE.** 635 or to the scale. *Female flowers* arranged over a fleecy receptacle of varying form (see 1827, 3, c). Calyx interior, tubular, 2–4-cleft or entire. Corolla superior, 1-celled. Fruit com- monly a berry, globose, erect or pendulous, with little or no alinement; rarely straight, with a short radiculum. Distribution. -Examples of the great family of the tropical plants. Examples of the great family of the tropical plants. Examples of the great family of the tropical plants. Examples of the great family of the tropical plants. Examples of the great family of the tropical plants. Examples of the great family of the tropical plants. Examples of the great family of the tropical plants. Examples of the great family of the tropical plants. Examples of the great family of the tropical plants. Examples of the great family of the tropical plants. Examples of the great family of the tropical plants. Examples of the great family of the tropical plants. Examples of the great family of the tropical plants. Examples of the great family of the tropical plants. Examples of the great family of the tropical plants. Examples of the great family of the tropical plants. Examples of the great family of the tropical plants. Examples of the great family of the tropical plants. Examples of the great family of the tropical plants. Examples of the great family of the tropical plants. Examples of the great family of the tropical plants. Examples of the great family of the tropical plants. Examples of the great family of the tropical plants. Examples of the great family of the tropical plants. Examples of the great family of the tropical plants. Examples of the great family of the tropical plants. Examples of the great family of the tropical plants. Examples of the great family of the tropical plants. Examples of the great family of the tropical plants. **Artocarpus** is a favorite in its native country, and is also cultivated in many parts, especially in India and Ceylon, where it is extensively used for making a kind of sugar called "jaggery." The fruit is very sweet and nutritious, and is much esteemed by natives and Europeans alike. The **fruit** is a large, fleshy berry, which is usually eaten raw, but may be preserved in syrup or made into preserves. The **leaves** are large and handsome, and are often used as a substitute for tobacco. The **roots** are used as a stimulant and are said to be beneficial in certain diseases. The **bark** is used in medicine and is said to be useful in treating certain diseases. The **seeds** are edible and are often used as a source of food. The **flowers** are beautiful and fragrant and are often used in perfume and medicine. The **trees** are large and majestic and are often used as a source of shade and beauty. The **leaves** are large and handsome and are often used as a substitute for tobacco. The **roots** are used as a stimulant and are said to be beneficial in certain diseases. The **seeds** are edible and are often used as a source of food. The **flowers** are beautiful and fragrant and are often used in perfume and medicine. The **trees** are large and majestic and are often used as a source of shade and beauty. The **leaves** are large and handsome and are often used as a substitute for tobacco. The **roots** are used as a stimulant and are said to be beneficial in certain diseases. The **seeds** are edible and are often used as a source of food. The **flowers** are beautiful and fragrant and are often used in perfume and medicine. The **trees** are large and majestic and are often used as a source of shade and beauty. The **leaves** are large and handsome and are often used as a substitute for tobacco. The **roots** are used as a stimulant and are said to be beneficial in certain diseases. The **seeds** are edible and are often used as a source of food. The **flowers** are beautiful and fragrant and are often used in perfume and medicine. The **trees** are large and majestic and are often used as a source of shade and beauty. The **leaves** are large and handsome and are often used as a substitute for tobacco. The **roots** are used as a stimulant and are said to be beneficial in certain diseases. The **seeds** are edible and are often used as a source of food. The **flowers** are beautiful and fragrant and are often used in perfume and medicine. The **trees** are large and majestic and are often used as a source of shade and beauty. The **leaves** are large and handsome and are often used as a substitute for tobacco. The **roots** are used as a stimulant and are said to be beneficial in certain diseases. The **seeds** are edible and are often used as a source of food. The **flowers** are beautiful and fragrant and are often used in perfume and medicine. The **trees** are large and majestic and are often used as a source of shade and beauty. The **leaves** are large and handsome and are often used as a substitute for tobacco. The **roots** are used as a stimulant and are said to be beneficial in certain diseases. The **seeds** are edible and are often used as a source of food. The **flowers** are beautiful and fragrant and are often used in perfume and medicine. The **trees** are large and majestic and are often used as a source of shade and beauty. The **leaves** are large and handsome and are often used as a substitute for tobacco. The **roots** are used as a stimulant and are said to be beneficial in certain diseases. The **seeds** are edible and are often used as a source of food. The **flowers** are beautiful and fragrant and are often used in perfume and medicine. The **trees** are large and majestic and are often used as a source of shade 654 **PLATANACEAE.** Acer.—B. *Aceris* (Foucaut) Gmelin, a native of British Guiana, is the source of the beautiful fiery wood called Snake-wood, Laurel-wood, or Letter-wood. **A.** *Albomaculatum* yields ethyl alcohol, which is called Brand- wine in Jamaica, and is used in the manufacture of brandy. **A.** *Celtis* is the tree used by cabinet makers. Carvalho—The Carvalho is the common name given to the Caroba tree of Trin- cata, this species and C. *Marantae*, yield all the varieties of Indian rubber. Fors. 1908. **Platanus.**—The Platanus is a genus of trees belonging to the family Platanaceae. N. H. Breda, 1732. *Platanus acerifolia*.—This tree is found in the United States, New York, Grandma, and the West Indies; and known commonly under the name of Plane-tree. N. H. Breda, 1732. *Platanus orientalis*.—This tree is found from Carthage to Great Britain and the United States. *Platanus polypeda*.—This species is remarkable for its stems being hollow, and for the leaves that are used for wind instruments. Cows are said to eat this tree, and its bark has been recommended in Algeria as a forage plant. *Corylus*.—The heart-wood of a species of Corylus is used in making pipes in Africa, yielding a light yellow colour somewhat between that of oak and beech. *Pipturus*.—This genus is now commonly understood to belong to the family called Phytaceaceae. The plants belonging to it are mostly shrubs or small trees, le- gious, with dichlamydeous bisexual flowers, and seeds with two cotyledons only, which latter character at once distinguish them from other genera. "The juice of this plant contains a large quantity of water; juice when wounded, exudes a sweetish fluid." *Journ. Bot.* 1836. **Natural Order 212. PLATANACEAE.** The Plum-Tree Order—Character. Trees or shrubs with a watery juice. Leaves simple or compound, pinnate or shothook stipules (figs. 108). Flowers unisexual, monoeious, in globular (figs. 109), cylindrical (figs. 110), or capitate ous. Male flowers with 1 stamen and one or two linear anther. Female flowers with one stamen and one anther. Stamens 1–2; anthers 1–2; style 1–2; called corolla and a thick style; ovules many in many ovules in a single ovary. Spermatophytes. **1**, suspended. Fruit a capsule, consisting of calyx leaves with persistent style. **2**, pendulous; embryo in very thin albumen, with an inferior radicle. Distribution, Examples, and Names.—They are natives principally of North America and Europe. There are in this family only genera, of which there are 5 or 6 species. A branch of the Plane Tree (Platanus acerifolia) with compound leaves.














































































STILLAGINACEAE. CERATOPHYLLACEAE. CALLITRICHACEAE. 656 **Properties and Uses—Of no particular importance, except that, from its abundance in the woods, it is used to some extent in large towns, they are commonly planted in our parks and squares. The leaves resemble in shape those of the Syrnume vine, the leaves of which are very similar to those of the **Ceratophyllum**. Natural Order 213.—STILLAGINACEAE. —The Silagoe Order— Character.—Trees, shrubs, or herbs, usually with a succulent lea- thery, with deciduous stipules. Flowers minute, unisexual, in scaly spikes. Calyx 5-6-lobate. Male flowers consisting of 2 or more stamens, with a slender filiform filament, united, with a feebly connate and dichogamous transversely at the apex. Female flowers consisting of 2 or more carpels, with 2 suspended ovaries. Fruit sessile. Fruits sessile, albumi- nous ; embryo straight, with leafy cotyledon, and a superior radicle. **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—Natives of Madagascar, and South America. Species of the Genera—Stilagoea, Falcaria. There are about 20 species. **Properties and Uses.—Unimportant. The fruits of *Sedum* putamenum are said to be emetic. Natural Order 214. CERATOPHYLLACEAE. —The Hornwort Order. Character.—Aquatic herbs. Leaves opposite, entire. Flowers minute, axillary. Calyx 5-6-lobed or imma- ture of bennete infloresc. 5-12-14-petalled. Male flower consisting of 2 or more stamens, with a superior lobed anther, and a pendulous ovary. Fruit hard or nut-like, indistinct. Seed exalbuminous, pendulous ; embryo straight, with leafy cotyledon, and a superior radicle. **Distribution and Properties.—Natives of the northern hemi- sphere. Ceratophyllum is the only genus. The properties and uses of the species are unknown. Natural Order 215. CALLITRICHACEAE. —The Starwort Order. Character.—Small aquatic herb. Leaves opposite, entire. Flowers minute, axillary. Calyx 5-6-lobed or imma- turate of bennete infloresc. Male flower consisting of 1–2 stamens ; anthers uniforme. Female flower with a 4-celled, 4-celled ovary, with 1 suspended ovule in each cell ; fruit sessile ; seed exalbuminous. With leafy albumen ; embryo inverted, with a very long supe- rior radicle. **Distribution, Numbers, and Properties.—Natives of fresh- water pools in Europe and North America. Callitriche is the only genus known to me as to species and uses. Their properties and uses are unknown. Natural Order 216. SORBARIAEAE. —Supportwort Order.—Character.—Trees, shrubs, or herbs, usually with a acrid milky juice. Leaves alternate or opposite, simple (figs. 307) or nearly so (figs. 308), often deciduous ; flowers mono- sexual (figs. 619, 546, 622, and 1029), dioecious (figs. 1029) or 654 EUPHORBIACEAE. diculous, axillary or terminal, sometimes enclosed in a calyx-like involucre (figs. 1020, a); achlamydeous (figs. 519 and 622), or with a lobed (figs. 546, 636, c) inferior calyx, having on its inside glandular hairs (figs. 547, b), or with a tubular (figs. 438, b) or even evident petals (figs. 546, p and 636, p), which are either distinct or united. Male flowers consisting of 1 (figs. 524 and 1027, f) or 2 (figs. 546, p) and 2 (figs. 546, a) and 2 (figs. 546, a) and 2 (figs. 546, a) and 2 (figs. 546, a) and 2 (figs. 546, a) and 2 (figs. 546, a) and 2 (figs. 546, a) and 2 (figs. 546, a) and 2 (figs. 546, a) and 2 (figs. 546, a) and 2 (figs. 546, a) and 2 (figs. 546, a) and 2 (figs. 546, a) and 2 (figs. 546, a) and 2 (figs. 546, a) and 2 (figs. 546, a) and 2 (figs. 546, a) and 2 (figs. 546, a) and 2 (figs. 546, a) and 2 (figs. 546, a) and 2 (figs. 546, a) and 2 (figs. 546, a) and 2 (figs. 546, a) and 2 (figs. 546, a) and 2 (figs. 546, a) and 2 (figs. 546, a) and 2 (figs. 546, a) and 2 (figs. 546, a) and 2 (figs. 546, a) and 2 (figs. 546, a) and 2 (figs. 546, a) and 2 (figs. 546, a) and 2 (figs. 546, a) and 2 (figs. 546, a) and 2 (figs. 546, a) and 2 (figs. 546, a) and 2 (figs. 546, a) and 2 (figs. 546, a) and 2 (figs. 546, a) and 2 (figs. 546, a) and 2 (figs. 546, a) and 2 (figs. 546, a) and 2 (figs. 546, a) and 2 (figs. 546, a) and female flowers with an superior corolla of one to three petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or two to four petals or equal in number to the cells of the corolla; e.g., when the styles are divided corresponding in number to their divisions (figs. 1000, b38b), one order of one in each cell; suspended from the base of the flower; with the stamens inserted in the same manner as in the male flowers; which is particulated; Fruiting-fruit supported on an axis; Fruiting-fruit sessile; Fruiting-fruit pendulous; Fruiting-fruit sessile; Fruiting-fruit pendulous; Fruiting-fruit sessile; Fruiting-fruit pendulous; Fruiting-fruit sessile; Fruiting-fruit pendulous; Fruiting-fruit sessile; Fruiting-fruit pendulous; Fruiting-fruit sessile; Fruiting-fruit pendulous; Fruiting-fruit sessile; Fruiting-fruit pendulous; Fruiting-fruit sessile; Fruiting-fruit pendulous; Fruiting-fruit sessile; Fruiting-fruit pendulous; Fruiting-fruit sessile; Fruiting-fruit pendulous; Fruiting-fruit sessile; Fruiting-fruit pendulous; Fruiting-fruit sessile; Fruiting-fruit pendulous; Fruiting-fruit sessile; Fruiting-fruit pendulous; Fruiting-fruit sessile; Fruiting-fruit pendulous; Fruiting-fruit sessile; Fruiting-fruit pendulous; Fruiting-fruit sessile; Fruiting-fruit pendulous; Fruiting-fruit sessile; Fruiting-fruit pendulous; Fruiting-fruit sessile; Fruiting-fruit pendulous; Fruiting-fruit sessile; Fruiting-fruit pendulous; Fruiting-fruit sessile; Fruiting-fruit pendulous; Diagnose.--Herbs, shrubs, trees, commonly with an aerial portion of the stem bearing leaves simple entire serrate dentate obtuse acute acuminate obtuse acute acuminate obtuse acute acuminate obtuse acute acuminate obtuse acute acuminate obtuse acute acuminate obtuse acute acuminate obtuse acute acuminate obtuse acute acuminate obtuse acute acuminate obtuse acute acuminate obtuse acute acuminate obtuse acute acuminate obtuse acute acuminate obtuse acute acuminate obtuse acute acuminate obtuse acute acuminate obtuse acute acuminate obtuse acute acuminate obtuse acute acuminate obtuse acute acuminate obtuse acute acuminate obtuse acute acuminate obtuse acute acuminate obtuse acute acuminate obtuse acute acuminate obtuse acute acuminate obtuse acute acuminate obtuse acute acuminate obtuse acute acuminate obtuse acute acuminate obtuse acute acuminate obtuse acute acuminate obtuse acute acuminate obtuse acute acuminate obtuse acute acuminate obtuse acute acuminate obtuse acute acuminate obtuse acute acuminate obtuse acute acuminate obtuse acute acuminate obtuse acute acuminate obtuse acute acuminate obtuse acute acuminate obtuse acute acuminate obtuse acuminatedentate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate serrate obtuse acuminatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentatedentateden 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fefefefefefefefefefefefefefefefefefefefefefefefefefefefefefefefefefefefefefefefefefefefefefefefefefefee fefefee fefe fee EUPHORBIACEAE. 657 Distribution, Examples, and Wonders.—They are more or less distributed over the globe, and are especially abundant in Equatorial America. Examples of the genus—Euphorbia, Matthiola, Hottentot, Xylophyla, Buxus. There are above 2,500 species. Properties and Uses.—These plants generally contain an acrid juice, which is either bitter, pungent, or both, or less in all their parts. Some are very badly poisonous. But in practice they are used with great caution. The juice of Euphorbia, diuretic, or rubefacient. A pure starch, which is largely employed for food, may be obtained from some plants of the order; while others yield a gum, a resin, or a volatile oil, similar to that of others. A few are entirely devoid of any acrid or poisonous principle; and some have been employed as aromatic tonics. Some have edible roots; others yield dying agents; and several are valuable on account of their wood. *Ancistroloba indica*—The expressed juice of the leaves possesses emetic and purgative properties. *Anisocarum rubrum*, the Cardamom-Tree.—This plant is a native of the Mediterranean region; but it has been introduced into Europe by the *Bassaner* Nut or Cardamom-Net. The seeds yield by expression an oil called cardamom-oil, which is used in perfumes and medicines; and it has been imported into London. It is used as an article of food, and has also been employed as a stimulant. The leaves possess a strong aromatic smell. Corwinlder states that its illuminating power is superior to that of coal; and that it is useful for illuminating purposes. It is very feasible, and that it is suited for illuminating purposes. *Caryophyllus albus*, the White-flowered Cress.—The white flowers yield an oil which is used in making candles; and the leaves yield a pungent gum. The juice of the bark is used in bread for staving off fever. *Caryophyllus odoratus*, the Sweet-Cress.—The leaves are edible; which is much used by wood engravers. Its leaves are pungent; but it has like qualities to those of the *Caryophyllus albus*. *Caryophyllus odoratus*, the Turkey-Flower, also yields valuable timber. The best is known at Turkey; however, its distribution regions extend from the Middle and Caspian Seas. *Carthamus tinctorius*, C. Tinctorius (Linn.)—The seeds of this Medicinal Plant; these yield by expression the official cartham-oil, which is used in medicine as a vermifuge; and in perfumes as a tincture. With three drops, it is also employed externally, as a rubefacient and counter-irritant. The leaves yield a volatile oil under the name of Jambolana fruit. The seeds of *C. Rhaetica*, C. Punicea, and *C. Sylvestris*, Sylvestre (Linn.), natives of the Balearic Islands and Cuba, yield the aromatic bitter, bitter-sweet, and sweet-sour oil of jambolana fruit; and this is employed in the British Pharmacopoeia. It has an agreeable smell when burned; hence it is sometimes employed as a perfume. *Chloris sinensis*, Sinensis (Linn.)—The seeds yield the Quillipede seed of Persia; and *C. subsericea*, Subsericea (Linn.), native of Persia, yields a vegetable gum under the name of *Chloris*. Both these plants yield valuable gums; and their medicinal properties resemble querci-tilia. *Chrysanthemum indicum*, Indicum (Linn.)—It is a favourite medicine in India under the name of *Malamal*. It is a favourable medicine in Ushuaia under the name of *Malamal*, and as a vermifuge, and is likewise used externally in the form 658 **EUPHORBIACEAE** of an alcoholic texture in observation. It has been also employed with good effect in intermittent and some other fevers. In the United States it is reported to be found in the West Indies, in the house of a negro, a native of Leyon, and C. Drouan, a native of Mexico. It is said to be used for making a medicine for the treatment of the insane in the West Indies, as Ema de Monse, and used in irregular manias by the negroes of Jamaica. *Cynophalla tinctoria*, a native of the South of France, yields by expression a green juice which is employed for dyeing. This purplish dye is known under the name of *Indigo*. *Eucalyptus* deyronis is a native of China and Japan. The seeds yield a very expensive dye oil (the Wood Oil of China), which is employed in dyeing. China is the chief market for this wood, yielding various kinds of furniture, and in medicine. It is also largely exported from Hongkong. *Euphorbia*. Some of these plants have medicinal virtues, much resembling the Cardamomum and other aromatic plants. They are all rich in oils, and among them the *Actaea rosi*, commonly called pome euphorbia, the botanical name of which is *Euphorbia rosmarinifolia*. The leaves are used as an emetic, and *Euphorbia cyparissias*, an odoriferous plant, has been used to treat the dropsy. The *Euphorbia neriifolia*, or *Euphorbia neriifolia*, has a dangerous sort of emetic and cathartic when taken internally, and externally it is a powerful remedy for rheumatism and other affections of the veterinary practice. It is, however, very largely used as an ingredient in a kind of ointment for the treatment of skin diseases. The seeds of *E. Lapponica*, Cape Surpice, are purgative, and yield by expression a very strong emetic. The leaves are used in the treatment of dropsy and pulmonary eminosis. This plant is called the Cape Surpice, from one of its pickled roots being used as a substitute for that of the true Surpice. The use of this plant for purposes such as this purpose is not altogether free from danger, although the property may be useful in certain cases. The *Euphorbia peperomia* is a purgative native which the fruit produces in a fresh state. The root of *E. peperomia* is used in medicine; it is found in the United States as an emetic. The root of *E. corollata*, called Milk-wort in the United States, is used as an emetic; but it is not so powerful as *E. peperomia*. Both plants are very poisonous. The root of *E. trifolia* yields in great quantity in India an emetic which is not so powerful as that of *E. peperomia*. *Euphorbia neriifolia* and *E. Turgida* produce an emetic and antisepticic effect; they are also used as a stimulant to the appetite. The leaves of *Euphorbia lathyris* are used in Europe to stop bleeding. *Euonymus alatus*, a native tree of this plant, which is a native of New California, a diuretic may be extracted, which Dr. Heikel says does not contain any alkaloid. *Hem Conopeum (Sphacelosia alba)*, Hem Conopeum, H. Spruceana, and *Pentaphylax* (Pentaphylax) are both natives of Java. For Para Indaharabah, the best commercial variety and the one most used in this country, see page 307. The leaves are used as an emetic; but this com- mercial kind of rubber known as Manchurian is also probably obtained from one or more species of *Euonymus*. *Hippomane Manchuriana* is the famous Manchurian tree. The juice is a virulent poison; but it has no medicinal virtue whatever. An example of this plant is volatile, as it has been asserted that some persons have died from simply drinking its juice; but it has been shown that it does not cause death until it comes into contact with the eyes when affected by it; it also lays the inflammation in an official sense. *Jambu*: The genus of 27 species (Cocca genus), and those of J. multiplicata (Cocca multiplica), are united under Java State. They yield oil EUPHORBIACEAE. 639 preeminent food oil, and both the seeds and the plant are of domestic extraction. The seeds of *M. multifida* yield the oil of *Purpurea* or *Purpurea* seed, and are largely exported from the Cape de Verde Islands. They are almost all sent to India, where they are used in the preparation of the well-known Indian oil, and may also be used for burning, as it is known as Purpurea Oil, and in English literature is sometimes called "Cape Oil." The seeds of *M. multifida* are commercially distinguished as Oil of Wild Cassia Seed or Jambolha Oil, and in well-kept stores it is said to keep for years without deterioration. It is also known as Indian Croadea oil. A decoction of the leaves is used by the natives of the Cape de Verde Islands, and is said to be a good remedy for scurvy. The oil is also used in the French and Basque French Physic Oil, also known purgative properties. **Cassia** (Cassia): A plant belonging to the genus *Cassia*, which is a native of India, is obtained by grating the roasted seeds, and then subjecting the pulp to pressure with water. The oil thus obtained is very similar to that of the true Cassia, but contains no poison owing chiefly to the presence of hydrocyanic acid, but this poison is destroyed by heating. The leaves are also used medicinally. **Tapioca** (Manioc or Arrowroot): Tapioca and Tapioca are also pre-eminent among the tropical oils, and are obtained from the roots of the manioc plant. The oil is extracted from the peeled roots after the latter has been exposed, when dried, to the sun until it becomes hard and white. It is used in cooking, especially in Africa, where it is called "white butter," and is also employed as a substitute for butter. It is also called Gassoum in the West Indies. As it is the principal constituent by heat and moisture of the manioc root, it possesses many of its medicinal properties. It is now grown extensively in South America, and is one of the most important articles of food in that continent. It is also grown in some parts of India, and in Java. The leaves are used medicinally. **Camara** (Camara): Camara beans and Tapioca are also prepared from the roots of this plant. The oil obtained from these roots is used medicinally, and is said to possess some of the virtues of Cassia. **Goura** (Goura): This plant yields a valuable extract from its seeds, which is said to possess some of the virtues of Cassia. **Olive** (Olive): The juice of olives sometimes employed in Goanas as a substitute for black ink. **Black Ink**: The seed from which the ink was so extensively used in India does not refer to this species. This plant and other species of varieties are largely cultivated in India for their seeds, which are commonly called Cassia Seeds. These seeds contain a substance which can be extracted from them by boiling with water or by the aid of alcohol. The oil obtained in India is known as Indian Cassia Oil, and is said to be more efficacious than that obtained solely by expression. Cassia Seeds when taken whole are extremely toxic, but when ground into powder they are harmless and afford efficient anti-suffocating purgatives. This oil is supposed to owe its purgative properties to the presence of some acrid principle. A page from a botanical book. 680 SCEPACE. EMPETRACE. which is contained in both the elms and oaks, and leaves, but at present this matter has not been included. The so-called "macerated water of," which is said in plantar exsiccis, is generally administered with vitriol or acid, and hence may produce a very dangerous effect. The leaves of the plant are used in the treatment of plants cultivated in Algeria for the purpose of feeding silkworms upon its leaves. The leaves are also employed in the preparation of a liquor. **Rutiera melitensis (Meliltae Philippinens.)** -The fruit of this plant is covered by a hard, smooth, greenish-brown skin, which is very thick and long been employed as a dye for silk; for this purpose it is commonly mixed with the leaves of the same plant. The leaves are very beautiful in their orange or crimson color. The dye is known at Aten under the name of "meliltae," and is derived from the fruit of Rutiera melitensis. **Kamal** -The plant of this root is also used to make a medicine for the treatment of leprosy. Kamal is a very rare plant, and is found only in the island of Cyprus, particu- lary in certain cutaneous diseases. The Arabic also use it in leprosy. Ar. Kamal is a very rare plant, and is found only in the island of Cyprus, particu- larly in certain cutaneous diseases. The Arabic also use it in leprosy. Ar. Kamal is a very rare plant, and is found only in the island of Cyprus, particu- larly in certain cutaneous diseases. The Arabic also use it in leprosy. Ar. Kamal is a very rare plant, and is found only in the island of Cyprus, particu- larly in certain cutaneous diseases. The Arabic also use it in leprosy. Ar. Kamal is a very rare plant, and is found only in the island of Cyprus, particu- larly in certain cutaneous diseases. The Arabic also use it in leprosy. Ar. Kamal is a very rare plant, and is found only in the island of Cyprus, particu- larly in certain cutaneous diseases. The Arabic also use it in leprosy. Ar. Kamal is a very rare plant, and is found only in the island of Cyprus, particu- larly in certain cutaneous diseases. The Arabic also use it in leprosy. Ar. Kamal is a very rare plant, and is found only in the island of Cyprus, particu- larly in certain cutaneous diseases. The Arabic also use it in leprosy. Ar. Kamal is a very rare plant, and is found only in the island of Cyprus, particu- larly in certain cutaneous diseases. The Arabic also use it in leprosy. Ar. Kamal is a very rare plant, and is found only in the island of Cyprus, particu- larly in certain cutaneous diseases. The Arabic also use it in leprosy. Ar. Kamal is a very rare plant, and is found only in the island of Cyprus, particu- larly in certain cutaneous diseases. The Arabic also use it in leprosy. Ar. Kamal is a very rare plant, and is found only in the island of Cyprus, particu- larly in certain cutaneous diseases. The Arabic also use it in leprosy. Ar. Kamal is a very rare plant, and is found only in the island of Cyprus, particu- larly in certain cutaneous diseases. The Arabic also use it in leprosy. Ar. Kamal is a very rare plant, and is found only in the island of Cyprus, particu- larly in certain cutaneous diseases. The Arabic also use it in leprosy. Ar. Kamal is a very rare plant, and is found only in the island of Cyprus, particu- larly in certain cutaneous diseases. The Arabic also use it in leprosy. Ar. Kamal is a very rare plant, and is found only in the island of Cyprus, particu- larly in certain cutaneous diseases. The Arabic also use it in leprosy. Ar. Kamal is a very rare plant, and is found only in the island of Cyprus, particu- larly in certain cutaneous diseases. The Arabic also use it in leprosy. Ar. Kamal is a very rare plant, and is found only in the island of Cyprus, particu- larly in certain cutaneous diseases. The Arabic also use it in leprosy. Ar. Kamal is a very rare plant, and is found only in the island of Cyprus, particu- larly in certain cutaneous diseases. The Arabic also use it in leprosy. Ar. Kamal is a very rare plant, and is found only in the island of Cyprus, particu- larly in certain cutaneous diseases. The Arabic also use it in leprosy. Ar. Kamal is a very rare plant, and is found only in the island of Cyprus, particu- larly in certain cutaneous diseases. The Arabic also use it in leprosy. Ar. Kamal is a very rare plant, and is found only in the island of Cyprus, particu- larly in certain cutaneous diseases. The Arabic also use it in leprosy. Ar. Kamal is a very rare plant, and is found only in the island of Cyprus, particu- larly in certain cutaneous diseases. The Arabic also use it in leprosy. Ar. Kamal is a very rare plant, and is found only in the island of Cyprus, particu- larly in certain cutaneous diseases. The Arabic also use it in leprosy. Ar. Kamal is a very rare plant, and is found only in the island of Cyprus, particu- larly in certain cutaneous diseases. The Arabic also use it in leprosy. Ar. Kamal is a very rare plant, and is found only in the island of Cyprus, particu- larly in certain cutaneous diseases. The Arabic also use it in leprosy. Ar. Kamal is a very rare plant, and is found only in the island of Cyprus, particu- larly in certain cutaneous diseases. The Arabic also use it in leprosy. Ar. Kamal is a very rare plant, and is found only in the island of Cyprus, particu- larly in certain cutaneous diseases. The Arabic also use it in leprosy. Ar. Kamal is a very rare plant, and is found only in the island of Cyprus, particu- larly in certain cutaneous diseases. The Arabic also use it in leprosy. Ar. Kamal is a very rare plant, and is found only in the island of Cyprus, particu- larly in certain cutaneous diseases. The Arabic also use it in leprosy. Ar. Kamal is a very rare plant, and is found only in the island of Cyprus, particu- larly in certain cutaneous diseases. The Arabic also use it in leprosy. Ar. Kamal is a very rare plant, and is found only in the island of Cyprus, particu- larly in certain cutaneous diseases. The Arabic also use it in leprosy. Ar. Kamal is a very rare plant, and is found only in the island of Cyprus, particu- larly in certain cutaneous diseases. The Arabic also use it in leprosy. Ar. Kamal is a very rare plant, and is found only in the island of Cyprus, particu- larly in certain cutaneous diseases. The Arabic also use it in leprosy. Ar. Kamal is a very rare plant, and is found only in the island of Cyprus, particu- larly in certain cutaneous diseases. The Arabic also use it in leprosy. Ar. Kamal is a very rare plant, and is found only in the island of Cyprus, particu- larly in certain cutaneous diseases. The Arabic also use it in leprosy. Ar. Kamal is a very rare plant, and is found only Natural Order 217.—SCAPECE.—The Scapa Order.—Disposi- tion.—The Scapa Order includes all plants from which may be distinguished by its flowers being emersed or subemerged. Distribution., Numbers., and Properties.—Natives of the East Indies., Tropical Africa., South America., Australia., New Zealand., (Lepidodactylus.) Lepidodactylus borbonicus was called Cocun de Kokorik.. It's very hard, and was chiefly employed for flutes and similar musical instruments. Natural Order 218.—EMPETRACE.—The Crowberry Order.—Characteristics.—The leaves are simple or compound; they are either stipulate, or stipulate; flowers axillary; unisexual; Calyx of 4—6 per- centate intercalary; corolla usually emersed or occasionally petiolate and combined; Stamina alternate; stamen inserted on number to two; inner sessile; Corolla imbricated; petals from 2—5 mm.; Seed solitary or several; seedling ; embryo with an indefinite cotyledon. Distribution., Examples., and Numbers.—Mostly natives of Northern Europe and North America.; Examples of the Genera : Empetrum.-Empetrum nigrum. Properties and Uses.—The leaves and fruit are generally slightly acid; they are used by Empetrum nigrum as food; the Crowberry are eaten by the very cold people living on islands situated near Greenland in the preparation of a fermented liquor In Por **TURGIDAE. NEPENTHEACEAE. ARISTOTELOCHIACEAE.** 661 *Turgescent*, the berries of *Corsonia* are used in the preparation of a beverage which is said to be useful in fabrica complaints. *Neptenthe*, the Pitcher-Plant, is a genus of the order. This supposed distinct order only contains a single plant, the *Batia maradama*, a succulent shrubby species, native of the West Indies, and belonging to the family of the *Horned-piñons*. Its ashes also yield barilla. Some authors regard this genus as belonging to the order of *Aristolochiaceae*. Natural Order 220. **NEPENTHEAE.** —The Pitcher-Plant. Order.—Character.—Herba or some other shrubby plants. Family.—Aristolochiaceae. Pitcher-plant (fig. 1031). Pitcher, which is provided with an articu- lated lid, and with a long neck, and a broad rhombose, concave, columnar interior, with 4 divisions. Stems usually 1–6, united into a cluster, or solitary. Leaves opposite, Ornary superior, 4-angled, 4-lobed; leaves of the Ornary inferior, 5-angled, 5-lobed; leaves of the Coryne inferior, 7-angled, 7-lobed; leaves of the Coryne superior, very few, minute, numerous, albu- minous ; embryo with an inner rudiment. *Batia maradama*. —Native of swampy ground in China and Brazil. The genus contains about 14 species. Their properties are unknown. Pitcher-plant (fig. 1031). Birthwort Order—Character.—Herba or some other herbaceous plants. Flowers axillary, perfect (fig. 1031), dull-coloured. Columna tubular, superior (Ornary) or inferior (Coryne), with 4 or more divisions (6–12), arising from the top of the columna (Ornary) or from the base of the columna (Coryne) (figs. 1032 or 1033); anthocarps exterior. Ornary inferior (figs. 1031), 5–6-celled; Coryne inferior (figs. 1032), 7–8-celled; and corresponding in number to the cells of the columna. Coryne superior (figs. 1032), 4-celled. Seeds numerous, albuminous (figs. 1033); embryo very minute (fig. 1033). Species.—Batia maradama, and *Nepenthes*. —Sparsely distributed in several parts of the world, but most common in tropical North America and South America. There are about 130 species. Properties and Uses.—Birthworts contain a bitter principle, and are employed in medicine as purgatives and acridous medicines. Many of the species are regarded in various parts of the world as useful in curing the effects of snake- bites. A pitcher plant with its lid open. Fig. 1031. Vertical section through a pitcher-plant showing its compound columnar interior with four divisions. A pitcher plant with its lid closed. Fig. 1032. Vertical section through a pitcher-plant showing its compound columnar interior with seven divisions. A pitcher plant with its lid open. Fig. 1033. Vertical section through a pitcher-plant showing its compound columnar interior with four divisions. A pitcher plant with its lid open. Fig. 1034. Vertical section through a pitcher-plant showing its compound columnar interior with five divisions. A pitcher plant with its lid open. Fig. 1035. Vertical section through a pitcher-plant showing its compound columnar interior with six divisions. A pitcher plant with its lid open. Fig. 1036. Vertical section through a pitcher-plant showing its compound columnar interior with eight divisions. A pitcher plant with its lid open. Fig. 1037. Vertical section through a pitcher-plant showing its compound columnar interior with four divisions. A pitcher plant with its lid open. Fig. 1038. Vertical section through a pitcher-plant showing its compound columnar interior with five divisions. A pitcher plant with its lid open. Fig. 1039. Vertical section through a pitcher-plant showing its compound columnar interior with six divisions. A pitcher plant with its lid open. Fig. 1040. Vertical section through a pitcher-plant showing its compound columnar interior with eight divisions. A pitcher plant with its lid open. Fig. 1041. Vertical section through a pitcher-plant showing its compound columnar interior with four divisions. A pitcher plant with its lid open. Fig. 1042. Vertical section through a pitcher-plant showing its compound columnar interior with five divisions. A pitcher plant with its lid open. Fig. 1043. Vertical section through a pitcher-plant showing its compound columnar interior with six divisions. A pitcher plant with its lid open. Fig. 1044. Vertical section through a pitcher-plant showing its compound columnar interior with eight divisions. A pitcher plant with its lid open. Fig. 1045. Vertical section through a pitcher-plant showing its compound columnar interior with four divisions. A pitcher plant with its lid open. Fig. 1046. Vertical section through a pitcher-plant showing its compound columnar interior with five divisions. A pitcher plant with its lid open. Fig. 1047. Vertical section through a pitcher-plant showing its compound columnar interior with six divisions. A pitcher plant with its lid open. Fig. 1048. Vertical section through a pitcher-plant showing its compound columnar interior with eight divisions. A pitcher plant with its lid open. Fig. 1049. Vertical section through a pitcher-plant showing its compound columnar interior with four divisions. A pitcher plant with its lid open. Fig. 1050. Vertical section through a pitcher-plant showing its compound columnar interior with five divisions. A pitcher plant with its lid open. Fig. 1051. Vertical section through a pitcher-plant showing its compound columnar interior with six divisions. A pitcher plant with its lid open. Fig. 1052. Vertical section through a pitcher-plant showing its compound columnar interior with eight divisions. A pitcher plant with its lid open. Fig. 1053. Vertical section through a pitcher-plant showing its compound columnar interior with four divisions. A pitcher plant with its lid open. Fig. 1054. Vertical section through a pitcher-plant showing its compound columnar interior with five divisions. A pitcher plant with its lid open. Fig. 1055. Vertical section through a pitcher-plant showing its compound columnar interior with six divisions. A pitcher plant with its lid open. Fig. 1056. Vertical section through a pitcher-plant showing its compound columnar interior with eight divisions. A pitcher plant with its lid open. Fig. 1057. Vertical section through a pitcher-plant showing its compound columnar interior with four divisions. A pitcher plant with its lid open. Fig. 1058. Vertical section through a pitcher-plant showing its compound columnar interior with five divisions. A pitcher plant with its lid open. Fig. 1059. Vertical section through a pitcher-plant showing its compound columnar interior with six divisions. A pitcher plant with its lid open. Fig. 1060. Vertical section through a pitcher-plant showing its compound columnar interior with eight divisions. A pitcher plant with its lid open. Fig. 1061. Vertical section through a pitcher-plant showing its compound columnar interior with four divisions. A pitcher plant with its lid open. Fig. 1062. Vertical section through a pitcher-plant showing its compound columnar interior with five divisions. A pitcher plant with its lid open. Fig. 1063. Vertical section through a pitcher-plant showing its compound columnar interior with six divisions. A pitcher plant with its lid open. Fig. 1064. Vertical section through a pitcher-plant showing its compound columnar interior with eight divisions. A pitcher plant with its lid open. Fig. 1065. Vertical section through a pitcher-plant showing its compound columnar interior with four divisions. A pitcher plant with its lid open. Fig. 1066. Vertical section through a pitcher-plant showing its compound columnar interior with five divisions. A pitcher plant with its lid open. Fig. 1067. Vertical section through a pitcher-plant showing its compound columnar interior with six divisions. A pitcher plant with its lid open. Fig. 1068. Vertical section through a pitcher-plant showing its compound columnar interior with eight divisions. A pitcher plant with its lid open. Fig. 1069. Vertical section through a pitcher-plant showing its compound columnar interior with four divisions. A pitcher plant with its lid open. Fig. 1070. Vertical section through a pitcher-plant showing its compound columnar interior with five divisions. A pitcher plant with its lid open. Fig. 1071. Vertical section through a pitcher-plant showing its compound columnar interior with six divisions. A pitcher plant with its lid open. Fig. 1072. Vertical section through a pitcher-plant showing its compound columnar interior with eight divisions. A pitcher plant with its lid open. Fig. 1073. Vertical section through a pitche 682 **FANTALACE.E.** Aristolochia, Birthwort—Several species have been employed for centra- lize the mind, and to procure a sedative effect on the nerves and nervous properties, and hence the name of Birthwort which is applied to the genus. The root of this plant is used in medicine, and is employed in the form of tea. All these plants are stimulant and tonic properties. The powdered root is supposed to be a remedy for the dropsy, and is also used as a poultice for the feet. Several of the species have been reputed species for make- ments, but none of them have been found to possess any medicinal virtue by Lindley to be the celebrated Genus of the Columbines. The juice of its root, when applied to the skin, is said to be emollient. The flowers of this plant are very beautiful, and may be handled and placed with J. Seppenow, Virginia Strook-root. The Humming-birds are fond of its flowers, and are often seen hovering over it. The root is very bitter, and is employed in medicine as a purgative; however, a valuable stimulant, tonic, and diaphoretic and is especially useful in fevers of a low type. The leaves are also employed in medicine as a stimulant. The Wreath-plant, as it is called in the United States is Phanerogamia. It yields the juice of its leaves which is employed in medicine as a stimulant, and the oil of its seeds which is employed in medicine as a purgative, and in commerce—namely, it is high in fat content. It is also used as a stimulant, tonic, and emollient. The leaves are also employed in medicine as a stimulant. A.—recorded, in the Genus of the Columbines, it is highly esteemed by the Chinese, and is employed in medicine as a stimulant, emollient, purgative, emetic and anthelmintic. It is principally employed as an emollient and anthelmintic. It is also largely used for the purpose of making incense sticks. **Aurora.—a**, **aurora**, Aurora, aurora, aurora, aurora, aurora, aurora, aurora, aurora, aurora, aurora, aurora, aurora, aurora, aurora, aurora, aurora, aurora, aurora, aurora, aurora, aurora, aurora, aurora, aurora, aurora, aurora, aurora, aurora, aurora, aurora, aurora, aurora, aurora, aurora, aurora, aurora, aurora, aurora, aurora, aurora, aurora, aurora, aurora, aurora, aurora, aurora, aurora, aurora, aurora, **Bromelia.—the juice of the leaves of B. multiflora is regarded as an emollient and anthelmintic. It is also used for the purpose of making incense sticks.** **Natural Order 722. FANTALACE.E.** **CANTHARIS.—Cantareum,** Cantareum,** cantareum,** cantareum,** cantareum,** cantareum,** cantareum,** cantareum,** cantareum,** cantareum,** cantareum,** cantareum,** cantareum,** cantareum,** cantarem **Flowers usually perfect. Calyx cupular—4—5-leaved; petals 4—5; stamens 4—5; and opposite the segments of the calyx. Corolla 1-celled; inflo- rescence—umbels; usually sessile; placentae free-central. Fruit indehiscent; seeds numerous; embryo straight; minute; radicle superior.** **Distribution:** Europe and Asia. Native to various parts of the world. **Uses:** Used in medicine as a stimulant. **Properties:** Stimulant; used in medicine as a stimulant. **Fascion ommatidium (Santalinum ommatidium) is the Quandang Nut of Aus-** A small illustration showing a plant with white flowers. LORANTHACEAE. 663 tralia. The fruit is edible and resembles Almonds in flavour. This tree also yields a kind of sweet gum, known as Sandalwood. Santalum-8.s.palm is a native of India. The wood called Sandal Wood is renowned for its fragrant odour, which is said to be the most valuable, but its chief consumption is for income in the Chinese temples, and in India in the temple of the Ganges. The wood is also used by the Chinese, who employ it by the wealthy in the funeral pile. The wood is also much used by cabinet makers and carvers, and is employed in the manufacture of the East is also employed medicinally as a relative and for its rejuvenator properties. The wood is also employed in perfumery, being considered as a perfume, and has recently been recommended as a remedy in gonorrhoea. S. Fagara, a tree of the East Indies, is a native of the Sandwich Islands; S. Rata, a kind of Sandal-wood from the Fiji Islands, is also employed medicinally. S. Sambucifolium (see Sambucus), S. Vahura (ramonera), and S. quinquefolia, that from Western Australia. (See Fagara.) Natural Order 223. LORANTHACEAE—The Mistletoe Order. Character.—Fern-like leaves. Leaves commonly opposite, extending from the base of the stem; stipules wanting. superior, with 3–5 divisions: arillets valvate; sometimes linear or linear-lanceolate; rarely ovate or obovate; lobes of the calyx. Inferior inflorescence: 1-celled, with 1–3 ovaries, erect or suspended, and a free-central placenta. Fruit commonly succulent or fleshy; pericarp thin or thick; seeds usually flat or deeply albumen, with the radicle remote from the hilum. Many species are parasitic on trees such as Eucalyptus, Casuarina, and near Carpinifoliae, as the genus Loranthus has a cup-like expansion external to the floral envelopes, which is regarded by many as an inferior flower, and by others as a calyx or calyce; so-called. We follow the arrangement of Lindley, who re- gards this cup-like structure as an expansion of the peduncle. Mires, galls, leaf-scales, and other structures are here respec- tively termed, Loranthaceae and Visaceae: Loranthaceae being because they are parasitic on trees; Visaceae because perfect flowers, long stamens, and an ovary with a solitary suspended ovule; and Visaceae by its small sessile dioecious nematophytes. The leaves are simple or compound, entire or serrate, and 1-celled ovary with 3 ovaries attached to a short free-central placenta. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—They are principally found in the hotter parts of America and Asia. Three species are natives of North America: L. americanus, L. floridanus, and L. virginicus. Examples of the Genera.—Myrtenodendron, Viaccia, Loranthus. Properties and Uses.—Unimportant. Some are stimulant. Loranthus terebinthus, a native of Chile produces a black dye. Plants allied to this genus are found in many trees in this country, as Willows, Thorns, Lines, Elm, Oaks, Firs, and especially the Ashes. They are often seen growing on trees in the form of jets of supercession very near to the branches. The fruit has a viscid pulp, which is esteemed euphoric for making amuletts; but it is not fruit when some people swear possessing omens,the effects resembling 664 DELPHINIACEAE. GABRIETACEA. JUGLANDACEA. those of botanical investigation. Its bark has antiseptic properties. The plant is now out of use, but its seeds have been used with great success as an antiseptic. The leaves of T. monosperma, parasiticum Sibthorp. Nat. Soc., are said to be emollient and diuretic, and the oil of the fruit of that plant, from growing upon it, and to be useful in like case as in medicine. Natural Order 224. HELIOTROPIUM. The Heliotrope Order. **GABRIETACAE.** - The genus Gabrietum, of which species, Heliotropium maculatum ; this is a shrubby plant found in Japan, the leaves of which are employed as an emollient vegetable, similarly employed by the Chinese, and the oil of the fruit, which it is chiefly known by its alternate stipulate leaves, fascicled flowers, and seeds. Natural Order 225. GARRYACEA. - The Garry Order. **Character.** Evergreen shrubs. Leaves opposite, stipulate. Flowers perfect, solitary, axillary, or terminal, regular, bisexual and stamens alternating with them. Female flower with a superior 2-lobed calyx; male flower with a superior 3-lobed calyx; filaments filiform stalked ovules. Fruit indehiscent, baccate, 2-seeded. Seed with a very minute embryo, albuminous. **Distribution.** North America and South America natives of the temperate parts of North America, or of the West Indies. Examples of the following genera are Fagopyrum. These are the only genera; they include six species. **Properties and Uses.** But little is known of the properties of these plants; but the bark of the Walnut tree (Juglans regia), as known as the Quinine bush from its leaves being used in fevers and syphilis. Natural Order 226. JUGLANDACEA. - The Walnut Order. **Tree.** Leaves alternate, pinnate, exstipulate. Flowers bisexual. Fig. 1054. Stipulate stamens of one of the Walnut trees (Juglans regia) showing their sessile position on each bracteole. Fig. 1055. Seed of the same. ( fig. 1054). Male flowers in axils (fig. 1054); calyx 2—6- partite, irregular. Female flowers solitary, or in small terminal A diagram showing the structure of a walnut tree leaf. CORYLACEAE OR CUPULIFERAE. 658 clusters ; calyx superior, regular, 3-lobed ; corvey inferior, 2-4-celled at the base, 1-celled above ; corolla subulate, erect. Fructification : cupule, cup-shaped, 2-4-celled, 1-celled below, without albumen ; embryo with sinuous axis cotyledons, and a short shoot arising from the base. Distribution. Examples, and Numbers.—Chiefly natives of North America, but a few are found in the East Indies, Persia, and China. The following are examples of the species native of the countries between Greece and Casamance. Examples of the genera.—Juglans, Carpya. There are about 30 species. Properties. The wood is very valuable for its handsome timber, and for their oily edible seeds. Carpya. Carpya alba is the common Hessian nut valuable for its timber, and for the oil of its seeds. It is a tree of the forest woods of Europe. C. alba forms a thick olive-shaped or elliptical and resembles the Walnut and Hickory trees. The fruit is a cupule which contains two seeds. The seed has flavors of any species of this genus ; they also yield a fixed oil or presene, and are used in cooking. The oil is extracted by pressing the seeds im- ported into this country. C. persica yields an edible oil which is termed Persian Oil. The seeds are used in cooking. The wood is valued as regarded as superior to that of either of the other species of Carpya. The bark is used in medicine. The wood is hard and heavy, with deep brown beautifully marked wood. This is much employed in ornamental workings, and is also used for making boxes and other articles useful for picking. The seed of this plant is a well-known edible oilseed. This species is cultivated in many parts of Europe, and is extensively used. It may be employed for burning in lamps and in cookery. The pericarp has many uses in medicine. The seeds are used in cooking. The tree has possessed certain properties.—A. agria, the Black Walnut, a native of North America, is a large tree with a straight trunk and spreading branches. White Walnut or Butternut is another useful timber tree. The inner bark is used medicinally. The wood is hard and heavy, and is valued as a mild pungent. When applied to the skin it also acts as a refrigerant. The leaves are useful for picking ; and the ripe seed is edible like our common walnut. Natural Order 227. CORYLACEAE OR CUPULIFERAE.—The Oak Order.—Corylaceae.—Trees or Shrubs. Leaves (Fig. 105) alter- Fol. 1056. Fol. 1057. Fol. 1058. A stylized illustration of an oak leaf with serrated edges. Fig. 1056. Male flower of a species of Oak (Quercus). A stylized illustration of an oak leaf with serrated edges. Fig. 1057. Female flower of the same. A stylized illustration of an oak leaf with serrated edges. Fig. 1058. Transverse section of the female flower. mate, usually feathered veined (Fig. 392), simple, with deciduous stipules. Flowers monoeccious. Male flowers (Fig. 1056) clustered or in axillary corylaria (Fig. 392); stamens 5—6 (Fig. 1056), inserted into 605 **CORYLACEAE OR CEPULIFERAE.** The base of a numerous valves calyx, or of scales. Female flowers (fig. 107) solitary or clustered, and surrounded by an involucre, which is often persistent, and forms a cupule (figs. 398 and 399) round the ovary and fruit; an inferior, acuminate, sessile calyx, with several segments; stamens, corolla 2 in each cell or solitary, pendulous or plicate; stigma almost sessile. Fruit a glans or nut (figs. 398 and 399). Seeds 1 or 2. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—They abound in the forests of Europe, Asia, and America, in all kinds of tropical and hot climates. Examples of the Genera—Corylus, Carpinus, Quercus. There are nearly 300 species. Properties and Uses.—The Corylaceae are one of their valuable timber. Many yield edible seeds, and some have highly salubrious barks and cupules. **Corylus avellana,** the Hazel, is well known for its nuts, which is principally employed for making agricultural im- purities. **Corylus canariensis,** the Spanish Chestnut, which is much valued for its wood, is also employed for the same edible properties. They are principally imported from Spain, where they are largely cultivated. The **Corylus avellana,** the Hazel of the United States, also yields a much smaller, but very valuable nut. **Carpinus betulus,** the Hornbeam, is the only of the most ancient and useful trees of Europe. It is found in many countries. There are several varieties of the Hazel, as the White, Red, and Jerusalem Filberts (fig. 107), which are used for food purposes. The **Quercus,** or Oak, and the **Buxus,** or Buxus, are important trees in this country. Many Japanese species yield valuable timber. Some of them are employed by artists and watchmakers. **Quercus robur,** the English Oak, is a tree of great importance in North America. It yields a very good timber yielding from its being used for making livers. **Ostrya virginiana,** the American Hazelnut, which is very hard wood, is used for making livers. **Quercus** (the oak) is the most ancient and useful tree of Europe. Its leaves are regarded as distinct species and called Q. pedunculata and Q. suber- gina; that of the **Quercus robur,** the English Oak; that of the **Quercus pubescens,** the Black Oak; that of the **Quercus palustris,** the Live Oak (Q. virginiana); and others. Many Japanese species yield valu- able timber. The **Quercus** is employed in medicine as an astrigent and tonic. The **Phellodendron amurense,** a tree native to China, is employed by natives of this country have been also generally recommended as food for their health. The **Cephalotaxus harringtonia,** a tree native to Japan, is employed in medicine as an astrigent and tonic. The outer bark of *Quercus* Sassafras, the Cork Oak, constitutes the cork of oaks. A page from a botanical book showing illustrations of various plants. MYRICACEAE. 687 the same tree is also imported into this country from Spain. It is commonly known as European Amur cork, and is used for tanning purposes. (See also under Cork.) The bark of the tree is very hard, and its texture is fine and uniformly smooth. -Quercus cuprea. The North-american (cuprea) is a tree of the same genus, but differs from the European in having a more slender trunk, and in the dried half-matured acorns of the same plant are also imported under the name of "American cork." The American cork is much less esteemed than the European, and these articles are valuable for their tanning properties. -Quercus falcata, the Black Oak, is a large tree, with a spreading crown, and a straight trunk. Its bark is called Quercus bark, as it is used for tanning, and in this country it is sometimes employed for making paper. -Quercus palustris, the Swamp Oak, is a large tree, with a spreading crown, and a straight trunk. Its bark is called Swamp Oak bark, as it is used for tanning, and in this country it is sometimes employed for making paper. The following species of Quercus are valuable for their tanning properties: Q. alba, the White Oak, is a large tree, with a spreading crown, and a straight trunk. Its bark is called White Oak bark, as it is used for tanning, and in this country it is sometimes employed for making paper. Q. bicolor, the Red Oak, is a large tree, with a spreading crown, and a straight trunk. Its bark is called Red Oak bark, as it is used for tanning, and in this country it is sometimes employed for making paper. Q. bicolor var. montana, the Mountain Oak, is a large tree, with a spreading crown, and a straight trunk. Its bark is called Mountain Oak bark, as it is used for tanning, and in this country it is sometimes employed for making paper. Q. bicolor var. montana var. purpurea, the Purple Mountain Oak, is a large tree, with a spreading crown, and a straight trunk. Its bark is called Purple Mountain Oak bark, as it is used for tanning, and in this country it is sometimes employed for making paper. Q. bicolor var. montana var. purpurea var. rubra, the Red Mountain Oak, is a large tree, with a spreading crown, and a straight trunk. Its bark is called Red Mountain Oak bark, as it is used for tanning, and in this country it is sometimes employed for making paper. Q. bicolor var. montana var. purpurea var. rubra var. rubra var. rubra var. rubra var. rubra var. rubra var. rubra var. rubra var. rubra var. rubra var. rubra var. rubra var. rubra var. rubra var. rubra var. rubra var. rubra var. rubra var. rubra var. rubra var. rubra var. rubra var. rubra var. rubra var. rubra var. rubra var. rubra var. rubra var. rubra var. rubra var. rubra var. rubra var. rubra var. rubra var. rubra var. rubra var. rubra var. rubra var. rubra var. rubra var. rubra var. rubra var. rubra var. rubra var. rubra var. rubra var. rubra var. rubra var. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. Q. The following species of Quercus are valuable for their tanning properties: **Quercus alba**, the White Oak, is a large tree, with a spreading crown, and a straight trunk. **Quercus bicolor**, the Red Oak, is a large tree, with a spreading crown, and a straight trunk. **Quercus bicolor** *var.* *montana*, the Mountain Oak, is a large tree, with a spreading crown, and a straight trunk. **Quercus bicolor** *var.* *montana* *var.* *purpurea*, the Purple Mountain Oak, is a large tree, with a spreading crown, and a straight trunk. **Quercus bicolor** *var.* *montana* *var.* *purpurea* *var.* *rubra*, the Red Mountain Oak, is a large tree, with a spreading crown, and a straight trunk. **Quercus bicolor** *var.* *montana* *var.* *purpurea* *var.* *rubra* *var.* *rubra*, the Red Mountain Oak *var.* *rubra*, the Red Mountain Oak *var.* *rubra*, the Red Mountain Oak *var.* *rubra*, the Red Mountain Oak *var.* *rubra*, the Red Mountain Oak *var.* *rubra*, the Red Mountain Oak *var.* *rubra*, the Red Mountain Oak *var.* *rubra*, the Red Mountain Oak *var.* *rubra*, the Red Mountain Oak *var.* *rubra*, the Red Mountain Oak *var.* *rubra*, the Red Mountain Oak *var.* *rubra*, the Red Mountain Oak *var.* *rubra*, the Red Mountain Oak *var.* *rubra*, the Red Mountain Oak *var.* *rubra*, the Red Mountain Oak *var.* *rubra*, the Red Mountain Oak *var.* *rubra*, the Red Mountain Oak *var.* *rubra*, the Red Mountain Oak *var.* *rubra*, the Red Mountain Oak *var.* *rubra*, the Red Mountain Oak *var.* *rub* **Quercus alba**, the White Oak, **Quercus bicolor**, the Red Oak, **Quercus bicolor** *var.* *montana*, the Mountain Oak, **Quercus bicolor** *var.* *montana* *var.* *purpurea*, the Purple Mountain Oak, **Quercus bicolor** *var.* *montana* *var.* *purpurea* *var.* *rubra*, the Red Mountain Oak, **Quercus bicolor** *var.* *montana* *var.* *purpurea* *var.* *rubra* *var.* **Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro Rubro **Quercus alba**, the White Oak, **Quercus bicolor**, the Red Oak, **Quercus bicolor** *var.* **Montana**, the Mountain Oak, **Quercus bicolor** **Montana Purpurea**, the Purple Mountain Oak, **Quercus bicolor** **Montana Purpurea Varia**, the Red Mountain Oak, **Quercus bicolor** **Montana Purpurea Varia Varia**, the Red Mountain Oak, **Quercus alba**, the White Oak, **Quercus bicolor**, the Red Oak, **Quercus bicolor** **Montana Purpurea**, the Purple Mountain Oak, **Quercus bicolor** **Montana Purpurea Varia**, the Red Mountain Oak, **Quercus alba**, the White Oak, **Quercus bicolor**, the Red Oak, **Quercus bicolor** **Montana Purpurea**, the Purple Mountain Oak, **Quercus bicolor** **Montana Purpurea Varia**, the Red Mountain Oak, **Quercus alba**, the White Oak, **Quercus bicolor**, the Red Oak, **Quercus bicolor** **Montana Purpurea**, the Purple Mountain Oak, **Quercus bicolor** **Montana Purpurea Varia**, the Red Mountain Oak, **Quercus alba**, the White Oak, **Quercus bicolor**, the Red Oak, **Quercus bicolor** **Montana Purpurea**, the Purple Mountain Oak, Excerpt from page 687 of Myricaceae. Nature Order 208: MYRICACEAE—The Gage or Hog-Apple Family The Gage or Hog-Apple Family includes several small trees or shrubs with simple opposite leaves; flowers numerous; stamens many; fruiting body an aggregate of small berries; seeds few; embryo without albumen; radicle superior. \textit{Extravagantum}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans}, \textit{Extravagans} 688 CASEARINACEAE. RETULACEAE. bark of the root is extensively used in the United States as a stimulant and narcotic to diminish the effects of opium. The dried root yields the kind of was known as Myrrh Wood. Other species of Myrrh yield a somewhat similar wood, but are not so valuable as the true Myrrh Wood. Its bark is an aromatic stimulant, and is employed in some parts of India as a rubefacient. The fruit is used in Japan for the edible fruit, which is eaten both raw and when cooked. Natural Order 229. CASEARINACEAE.—The Beef-wood Order.—Charactes.—Trees, with pendulous jointed stratiated branches, often with a terminal leafless shoot. Leaves simple, entire, or broad, unisexual. Male flowers with 2 ovules united at their base, and 1 stamen opposite each ovule; female flowers with 1 stamen opposite each ovule; pistillate flower with 1 ovule and either 1 bracteole or 2 bracteoles. Stamens 2 or 3, but each having 2 bracts; ovule 1-celled, with 1—2 ascending ovules, and 5 stigma-like appendages. Fruit a capsule, opening into a cone-shaped body under the thickened bracts. Seeds without albumen; seeds without endosperm. Indigenous Plants and Numbers.—These plants are principally natives of Australia. They are called Beef-wood trees from the colour of their bark, which resembles that of beef. In general appearance they much resemble the branched Eucalyptus. Casearinaceae is the only genus it contains in this country. Proprietary Medicines.—The bark of Casearinia yield very hard and heavy timber, and the bark of some is said to be tonic and carminative. Casearinia—several species produce valuable timber, which is chiefly used in this country for inlaying and marquetry. The wood is known under the name of "Casearinia" in England, and "Cassia" in India. The bark of C. cordata is an excellent antispasmodic, and is used in India. Natural Order 230. BRYOPHYLLACEAE.—The Birch Order. Charactes.—Trees or shrubs. Leaves simple, alternate, with deciduous stipules. Flowers unisexual, axillary, with no true calyx; stamens 2 or 3; pistillate flower with 1 ovule and 1 bracteole; male flowers with 2 or 3 stamens opposite each bracteole. Female flowers with a 2-celled ovary, and 1 or more stigmas; pistillate flower with a 1-celled, 1-seeded, without a cupule. Seed pendulous, exalbuminous. Indigenous Plants and Numbers.—They are principally natives of the colder regions in the northern hemisphere. Zerumbet is the only species of this genus which are the only genera; there are about 75 species. Proprietary Medicines.—The bark is valuable for their timber, and for their astrigent, tonic, and febrifugal barks. Astraea—gloriosa, the common Aster.—Its wood is valuable for the gilt of ships, and in other cases where entire straightness in water of damp earth is required. Its bark is astrigent, and has been used in medi- **LiquiDAMARACEAE. SALICACEAE.** 689 cites, and for tanning and dyeing. The leaves and catkins have similar properties. The bark of the tree is used in medicine, which is much valued for the manufacture of gunpowder. The bark of A. secaleum is used in Germany to make a kind of beer. *Balsam,* B.-a., of the common Birch, yields the timber known as Norway Birch, and is employed in the manufacture of paper. *Balsam,* B.-a., of a kind of oil, which gives the peculiar odour to Russian leather. The sepia consists of a kind of oil, which is employed in the manufacture of ink. The preparation of a kind of wine, this is commonly known as Balsam wine, and is employed in Germany for medicinal purposes. *Balsam,* B.-a., of the Black Birch of North America, is also valuable for its timber. Its sap, that is collected by the Indians, is employed in making a kind of syrup, may also be prepared from *B.-a.* papawosee, which is a thick black bark, which is used by the Indians in making a kind of syrup, and is also employed for purgative purposes. The bark of *B. bicolorum* is employed in India as a kind of pepper. The bark of *B. bicolorum* is also employed in India. *B.-a.* American Arrow-Birch, yields by distillation a volatile oil, which is said to be identical with that of the Gunpowder Tree. **Natural Order 327. LIQUIDAMARACEAE or ALSTROEMERIEAE.** The Liliifolius Order. **Character.--Baumannianum trees,** with simple or lobed alternate leaves, and deciduous stipules. Flowers regular or irregular; perianth persistent; stamens numerous; ovules naked, with numerous nearly sessile ovaries. Female flowers with a 2-celled ovary, the whole flowers collected into a globose head; sepals 5-lobed; petals 5; stamens numerous; antheric locule 2-celled capsules enclosed in hard scales. Seeds winged, peltate or nut-like; embryo large and well developed. This order is now frequently included in the Hamamelidaceae. **Distribution and Numbers.--Natives of North America and Asia.** There are about 10 genera and 4 species. **Properties and Uses.--Chiefly remarkable for fragrant balmatic properties. The species have warm bitter barks.** *LiquiDAMARACEA (Baill.)* L.-species of Miller, according to official Liquid-Saxon. The leaves are simple, alternate, deciduous, and the petiole is obtuse at the inner fork, which is afterwards used by the Turks for making their tobacco pipes. The bark has a bitter taste. *LiquiDAMARACEA* L.-synonym, a native of the United States and Canada; it yields a bitter balmatic bark. *LiquiDAMARACEA* L.-synonym, a native of Europe; it yields a bitter balmatic bark. In their effects and uses both Liquid-Saxon and Liquidamaraceae resemble other balmatic plants. **Natural Order 328. SALICACEAE.--The Willow Order.--Character.--Trees or shrubs. Leaves simple, alternate, stipu- late; stipules often persistent; flowers regular or irregular; perianth persistent; (4)5 (4)5-petalled; stamens numerous; ovules naked or in a few cases with a membranous or cuplike calyx. Male flowers (Fig. 109), (109) with 2-3 distinct or monodiscal phyllaries (Fig. 109). Female flowers (Fig. 109) with 2-3 distinct or monodiscal 1-celled corry, and numerous erect ovalets. Fruit 1-celled, 2- -670 **Salicaceae.** valved. Seeds numerous, covered with long silky hairs (fig. 745), exstipulate, embryo erect, with an inferior radicle. Fig. 1639. Fig. 1640. *Salix*. *Eriogonum*, and *Nemera*. -Chiefly natives of cold and tempe- rate climates. *Examples of the Genera* --- Salix, with about 250 species, is only genera ; there are about 250 species. The bark of these trees is either valuable as timber, or for eco- nomic purposes. The bark commonly is used for tanning, and for other sub- tural purposes. The leaves which in- clude the flowers, are used for stuffing cushions, and for other purposes. The buds of some species secrete an exceedingly abundant substance of a stimulating nature. Fig. 1638. Male flower of a species of *Salix*. (See also figs. with two stamens, and one anther.) Fig. 1639. Female flower of the same species. *Populus*. *Papaver*. Several species have been used by the ancients as a medic- totic, antitussive, and febrifugal, which proper- ties are still retained in the modern use of poppy-seeds. *Salix*. -Several species are used for timber, and for basket-work ; and also for the manufacture of umbrella is, however, wanting in strength and durability. A peculiar neutral plant, *Salix* (fig. 1638), has been found to be useful in this respect. Its medicinal properties, called salice, has been obtained from the bark, leaves, or flowers of almost all the species of this genus. The bark of *Salix* *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *S. *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*, *canadensis*. Lastly, however, salice has been successfully in some rhizomation salice is now prepared from the bark of the willow tree, and is used table substances, but is now commonly prepared from carobic acid, has essentially the same properties as that obtained from the bark of the willow tree. It is essentially and successfully used in domestic salicylism and has also been employed in the treatment of gout and rheumatism. The derivation of willow bark has likewise been found useful as an aper- tum in colds and indolent sores and in psoriasis and some other chronic skin affections. The three succeeding orders, namely, the Balanophoraceae, Cytinaceae, and Rafflesiaceae, have been frequently put by botan- ists in one family ; but they differ from each other in several respects the Cryptogamia and the Phanerogamia, and so the name of Balanophoraceae is given to them. The most remarkable charac- teristic of the plants of this class have been stated to be their axylodendous embryo, fungoid texture, and peculiar parasitic habit. In addition to these characters they differ from sev- eral other orders of the Dicotyledons, there does not appear to be any close affinity between them and any other group of these plants. By Sir Joseph Hooker, the Balanophoraceae have been most intimately examined, and he has arrived at the opinion BALANOPHORACEAE. CTINACEAE. 671 that they are allied to the Haloxeraceae; but other botanists regard the Rafflesiaceae as related to the Arrostochloecae. We place these orders here, not because we believe them to have any connexion with each other, but because they are so simple, that as their position in the Natural System has not been definitely determined, they may well be described at the end of the Angiosperms. The Diosciolaceae, a division of the Vegetable Kingdom they evidently belong. Nature of the Order.—Character.—Leaves root-paraflax with amorphous fungoid stems of a greenish colour, but green lower; and under- ground parts very finely tufted with short, slender, naked or scarcely bearing spikes of flowers, which are commonly unisexual, brocketted, and sessile on a short peduncle; sepals 3—5, linear, each with a tubular calyx, which is either entire or 3—5 lobed. Stamen usually 3—5, or sometimes 1, in the former case more or less numerous; pistil 1, with a long style and a globular superior cupule; the latter either wanting or present and bilabiate. Corolla infundibuliform, with 3—5 lobes; petals 3—5, free, pen- dulous. Fruit small, more or less compressed. Seed solitary, aluminous, with a lateral undivided or amorphous embryo. Distributio.—The order is cosmopolitan. Some species are parasitical on the roots of various Diosciolodendron plants, especially those of the genera D. corymbosum and D. alatum in South America. Other species are found in different parts of Africa, Australia, &c. Example of the genus—Cymonorhiza, Luehmann (Luehmannia), a plant of the Andes of Peru and Bolivia. 37 species. *Proprietaries* and *Uses.*—Many are remarkable for their astrin- gent properties; others are siblede, as Ondrochloa, a native of Peru, and Luehmannia of Bolivia; and some secrete a kind of wax. Balansophora—is the mountainous districts of Japan the natives make candles from a species of Balansophora, as follows: The parasite is heated in an iron pan until it becomes soft; then it is cut into small pieces and dispersed into the melted wax when the varying substance of the plant adheres to them. Thus one can obtain from this plant two kinds of mixture at least two kinds and a vegetable fat. Luehmannia—is a native of Peru and Bolivia. It has had a great reputation as a syrup. Luehmannia.—Some botanists say that this species yields to large a quantity of wax, that candles are made of it in New Grenada. The stem is about 10 feet high; leaves oblong-lanceolate and under the name of Sopra, and used as candles on saints' days. Natural Order 234. CTINACEAE. The Ctenium-order. Character.—Root-paraflax with a fungoid texture. Floreae perfect or imperfect; corolla regular or irregularly so; calyx persistent at the top of a sepal only. Calyx 3—5—partite. Anthers sterile, opening longitudinally. Corolla 1-celled, inferior ; ovules very 672 ANALYSIS OF THE ORDERS IN THE MONOCHLAMYDEE. **numerorum : placentae parasitic.** *Fruit* 1-celled, with numerous seeds imbedded in pulp. *Seeds* with or without albumen, **enlarged** amorphous. **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.** *Parasitic on the roots of Citrus, upon feebly Ephorbiaceae, and upon other suc- cient plants.* They occur in the South of Europe and Africa. *Examples.* — Citrus, Hydnocarpus. There are about 7 species. **Properties.** *Fruits* are of a sweetish, agreeable taste. *Citrus Hypocarpeae.* A kind of extract is made from this plant in the South of Europe, and used, under the name of *Secum Hypocarpeum*, in the treatment of dropsy. The *Citrus* *Hypoca- nera africana* has a putrid-annular odour, but when roasted it is eaten by the natives of the East Indies. Natural Order 35. RAPHAERIAE.—The Raffiales Order. **Character.** — Stemless and leaves parasitic (figs. 203) on a fleshy root, which is often very large (figs. 202). The *seeds* are sessile upon the branches of trees, and surrounded by scaly bracts. The leaves are simple or compound, diacanthous. *Calyx* 4-partite (figs. 203); tubular ; the throat surrounded by a number of thickened scaly procumbent, which are either distinct from each other or united into a single tube; the calyces are numerous, which adhere to the calyx, 5-celled; and either distinct, and each opening by a pore, or united into a mass oval body, and opening by a pore; or they are sessile upon the *seeds* numerous; *placentae parasitic*. *Fruit* indiscernible. *Seeds* very numerous; the embryo is large. **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.** — Parasitic upon the stems of Cissus in the East Indies, and on Leguminous plants in South America. There are about 16 species. **Properties.** — Some have styptic and astringent proper- ties. They are chiefly remarkable for their flowers, some of which are of gigantic size. (See page 127.) Artificial Analysis of the Natural Orders in the Sub-class MONOCHLAMYDEA OR INCOMPLETA—Modified from Lindley. (The Numbers refer to the Orders as previously described.)
A. Lavre stipulata I. Achlamydones Flowers.
*Flowers* unisexual.
*Leaf* simple.
Ovules numerous, conose Sallowes. 293.
Orbicular
Orbicular Mimoseae. 298.
Dichotomous
Pentameres 117.
Orbicular
Orbicular Lilacifloraeae. 291.
Orbicular
Orbicular Asphodelaceae. 216.
**ANALYSIS OF THE ORDERS IN THE MONOCHLAMYDEAE. 673** **A. Flowers hermaphrodite.** Carpel: 1. Ornate stem. Embryo in a vitilis : Pigeonœa. 188. Chlorocarpaceae. 189. Carpel several. Ornate stem. Embryo in a vitilis : Sauræcarpeae. 190. **B. Leaves stipulate.** a. Flowers unisexual. Ornate stem, unisexual, or very few. Flowers in a vitilis : Pedunculaceae. 191. Thelyae: Cylindraceae. 225. Ornate stem, unisexual, or very few. Flowers in a vitilis : Myriocarceae. 228. Ornate stem, unisexual, or very few. Flowers in a vitilis : Atherocarpaceae. 230. Anthera valles : Lomariocarpaceae. 230. Embryos included in the albumen : Monocarpaceae. 230. Embryos included in the albumen : Euphorbaceae. 234. **B. Flowers hermaphrodite.** Embryo in a vitilis : Pigeonœa. 188. Pedunculaceae. 191. **2. Monochlamydeae. Flowers.** **A. Ovary inferior, or partially so.** a. Lemas stipulate. 1. Flowers hermaphrodite. Ornate stem, unisexual, or very few. Flowers in a vitilis : Aristolochiceae. 225. Ornate stem, unisexual, or very few. Flowers in a vitilis : Coriaceae. 227. Many-seeded : Boviscarpeae. 207. One-seeded : Atherocarpaceae. 211. **B. Ovary superior.** a. Lemas stipulate. 1. Flowers hermaphrodite. Ornate stem, unisexual, or very few. Flowers in a vitilis : Aristolochiceae. 225. Ornate stem, unisexual, or very few. Flowers in a vitilis : Lomariocarpaceae. 230. Many-seeded : Santalaceae. 237. One-seeded : Chrysopideae. 181. **B. Flowers unisexual.** Amenotoma : Leaves stipulate. Leaves opposite. Simple leaves : Geraniaceae. 237. Compound leaves : Jupiparaceae. 236. Non-membranous seeds : Dianthaceae. 263. Membranous seeds, pericarpial : Helianthaceae. 234. **B. Ovary superior.** a. Lemas stipulate. 1. Flowers hermaphrodite. Carpel: Coriaceae. 227. Ornate stem, unisexual, or very few. Stipules distinct : Polygonaceae. 179. Stipules distinct : Peucedanaceae. 186. X X 674 ANALYSIS OF THE ORDERS IN THE MONOCHLAMYDEE. A. Carpels more than one, combined. Seeds one, two, or three. Calyx imbricate. Calyx imbricate. Seeds diademate. Styles or stigmas 1. Leaves usually dentate. Styles or stigmas 2. Leaves not dotted. Flowers unisexual. A. Carpels one, united. Cells either perpendicular to the filaments. Cells of either parallel to the filament. Embolium wanting. Seed silky; Stipules small. Seeds smooth. Style silky; Stipules large. Seeds smooth. Embolium hook-like. Style silky; Seeds with albumen. B. Carpels more than one, combined. Flowers bisexual. Seeds alliterative. Seeds alliterative. Stigmae more than 1. Seeds smooth. Flowers not amonsticous. Stigmae less than 1. Seeds smooth. Flowers not amonsticous. B. Leaves simple. A. Carpel solitary. Anther erect or recurved. Leafy Anther recurved. Leafy Anther erect or recurved. Leafy Leaves covered with scales Leaves not covered with scales C. Calyx cyme or tubular. Calyx cyme or tubular. Tube hemispherical. Tube hemispherical. D. No flowers in my part No flowers in my part E. Stamen in the points of the calyx Stamen in the points of the calyx F. Calyx not, not inflexible or but slightly inflexible Calyx not, not inflexible or but slightly inflexible G. Flowering in brocades Flowering in brocades H. Flowers not in involucres Flowers not in involucres I. Calyx herbarious or accrescent. Calyx herbarious or accrescent. J. Flowers in involucres or nearly so Flowers in involucres or nearly so K. Stamens pedicellate A. Carpels more than one, other distinct or combined. Carpels combined. Seeds diademate. Calyx tubular. Carpelae 207. Calycium 306. Stigmas 204. Stigmas 204. Stigmas 215. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stigmosae 213. Stiaglosaceeæ. 8 Utricaceæ. 8 Arionaceæ. 8 Cassianaceæ. 8 Cassianaceæ. 8 Lariciaceæ. 8 Scopariæ. 8 Scopariæ. 8 Exophylloceæ. 8 Lariciaceæ. 8 Lariciaceæ. 8 Lariciaceæ. 8 Lariciaceæ. 8 Lariciaceæ. 8 Lariciaceæ. 8 Lariciaceæ. 8 Lariciaceæ. 8 Lariciaceæ. 8 Lariciaceæ. 8 Lariciaceæ. 8 Lariciaceæ. 8 Lariciaceæ. 8 Lariciaceæ. 8 Lariciaceæ. 8 Lariciaceæ. 8 Lariciaceæ. 8 Lariciaceæ. 8 Lariciaceæ. 8 Lariciaceæ. 8 Lariciaceæ. 8 Lariciaceæ. 8 Lariciaceæ. 8 Lariciaceæ. 8 Lariciaceæ. 8 Lariciaceæ. 8 Lariciaceæ. 8 DICOTYLEDONES.—GYMNOSPERMAE. 675 | Quary 2-celled | Aquifoliaceae. 193. | |---|---| | Quary 4-celled | Berberidaceae. 194. | | Calyx tubular, or imperfect | Podostemaceae. 195. | | Seeds numerous | Picrodendraceae. 196. | | 2. Flowers unisexual | Picrodendraceae. 196. | | a. Carpel solitary, with distinct calyx | Allophoranthaceae. 197. | | b. Carpel united by recurved lobes | Myricaceae. 901. | | c. Lobes spreading by recurved lobes | Myricaceae. 901. | | Leaves entire; anthers opening longitudinally | Myricaceae. 901. | | Leaves entire; anthers straight | Chloranthaceae. 214. | | Leaves entire; no evident leaves | Cucurbitaceae. 221. | | Seeds numerous; embryo curved round the albumen | Cheirolepidiaceae. 181. | | Embryo curved round the albumen | Monimiaceae. 200. | | a. Carpels more than one, combined | Ovate-leaved plants; leaves with pits | Nepenthesiae. 220. | | b. Carpels separate | Fruit dry; seeds suspended | Euphorbiaceae. 216. | Artificial Analyses of the Rhizomes of Lindley. A. Ovules few, in a single locule; leaves entire | Cytinaceae. 233. | |---|---| | B. Ovules indefinite, in several locules; leaves entire | Cytinaceae. 234. | | Aa. Anthers opening by pores | Refugiales. 235. | Monochlamydeous or Achlamydeous flowers also occasionally occur in plants belonging to the following orders of the Sub- classes Thalassomorpha, Caryophyllidae, and Corollifera. 1. Thalassomorpha—Ceratophyllum, *Papaver-* acum, *Flacciflorae*, *Glycophylax*, *Sterculiae*, *Bitternaceae*, *Lobeliae*, *Hedysarum*, *Coryno- phorae*. 2. Corollifera—*Celtis*, *Rhamnaceae*, *Anacardiaceae*, *Leguminosae*, *Rosaceae*, *Lythraceae*, *Saxifragaceae*, *Osmancieae*, *Fernandinae*, *Celastraceae*, *Berberidaceae*, *Chrysopoe- cae*, *Haloragaceae*, *Combreteae*, *Hamamelidaceae*, and *Araliacea*. 3. Corollifera—*Oleana* and *Prunus*. Class I. DICOTYLEDONES. Division II. GYMNOSPERMAE. Natural Order 296. CONIFERI OR PINACEAE.—The Coniferae or Pine Orders are represented by trees or shrubs armed with branched continuous stems. Leaves linear, narrow, -shaped (figs. 390) or lanceolate, parallel-venined, fascicled (figs. 285) or scattered (figs. 388), and usually in cones arranged in deciduous axils (Stanoea) or several, in the latter case monosporophyll; **buds** or **young leaves** opening longitudi- nally; female flowers in axils (figs. 380, 415, and 1041), con- 678 CONIFERAE OR PINACEAE. scion of flattened imbricated carpels or scales arising from the axil of membranous bracts (figs. 1041, 1042) or more, on the upper surface of each carpet. Fruit a woody cone (figs. 288 and 1041) or a gallsule (figs. 710 and 717). Seeds naked. Fig. 1041. Fig. 1042. Fig. 1043. Fig. 1043. A view of one of the leaves (Pinus Pumila). Larre. Large, narrow, linear to lanceolate, entire, pubescent on the upper surface. Flower ovoidal, with two stamens; stamens erect. Leaves: Pinus Pumila, ca. 1043 one of the Larch bearing naked seeds has been removed. (figs. 1042 and 1043), with a hard crustaceous integument, albu- minous or albuminous. Division of the Order and Examples of the Genus.--This order has been subdivided as follows: Suborder I. Coniferae, with inverted, with the micropyle next the base of the capsule (fig. 72). Pollen oval. Examples: *Pinus*, Abies, Araucaria. Suborder II. Cupressaceae.--Ovule erect. Pollen spheroidal. Examples: *Juniperus*, Cupressus, Taxodium. Distribution and Numbers.--The plants of this order occur all over the world, but are most abundant in the moist temperate climates. There are about 155 species. *Pinus*.--The genus *Pinus* contains some very valuable trees. Many supply valuable timber, and most of the species contain an oleo-resinous juice or turpentine, which is composed of a volatile oil. *Abies*.--Several species supply valuable timber, as *Abies* (Pinus) excelsa, the Norway Spruce, *Abies* (Pinus) excelsa, the White Spruce, *A.* (Pinus) canadensis, the Canadian Spruce, *A.* (Pinus) pungens, the Red Spruce, the Common Larch, *A.* (Pinus) laricina, the Pines Sawara de Da Rui, yield by their wood valuable timber; and *A.* (Pinus) glauca, the Larch of the Maritime States. This when mature and straight constitutes our official larch timber; and its wood is used for many purposes in our trade. Good paper has been made from the wood of this species. The best larch trees are found in the Maritime States; they are also found in New England, which is employed in shipbuilding and chemistrical appliances.--Abies or Picea balsamea, the Hemlock Spruce Fir, yields an A diagram showing a pine cone with two stamens. 1043 CONIFERS OR PINACEAE. 677 eleo-redin resembling Canada Balsam. This is official in the United States Pharmacopoeia, and is known as "Eleo-cord." The wood is very light, and "Picea" of Linnaeus, the Picea of the Silv., the Silver Fir, yields Strangula carpenteri, a resinous gum, which is used in medicine. The bark, pe- tation of a kind of beer, which is used for similar purposes.--Eleo- (Picea) sap, the juice of the tree, is used in medicine. The wood is light and soft in water, and the solution afterwards concentrate, yield Essence of Spruce, which is used in medicine. The bark is also used in medicine. --Eleo- (Picea) or Picea Loric, the Large spruce of De Candolle, yields Larch or Venice Larch, a tree of great value in medicine. It is official in the United States Pharmacopoeia. The bark is sometimes used in tanning. This bark, deprived of its outer bark, is used in medicine. The wood is light and soft in water, and is imper- fect, and distinguishe. It has been recommended to check produce excretion in chronic bronchitis, and for various diseases of internal mem- branes. Balsam Fir.--Abies balsamea Michx. A tree of the Maritime Provinces. Bay, have edible seeds. Those of the former are usually used for food and those of the latter are used for medicinal purposes. The seeds of one large tree will maintain eighteen persons for a year. Both species also yield Balsam Fir Tannin. Juniper.--Juniperus communis Linn. The Ame Tree yields the resin called Sandaracop, which is used in medicine. The wood is very durable, and is used by the Turks for the fins and ceilings of their mosques. Larch.--Larix laricina Michx. The Larches are valuable timber trees. The turpentine obtained from the tree is very valuable for medicinal purposes. The bark is a good diuretic and as an application to ulcers, under the name of "deodar." Cypress.--Cupressus sempervirens Linn. A very durable tree. It is supposed to be the native of the Bible and was introduced into Europe and other countries by the Dutch. The Kawah or Cepelie Pine of New Zealand, produces a timber which much values for making masts and spars. The same species grows wild in South America, and in Europe and Australian Desert, but largely imported into this country; it is chiefly used in the construction of ships and boats. The wood is very durable, similar gum-resin, such as Indian Gum. American Juniper.--Juniperus communis Linn. The fruit and the va- tile oil obtained from it and other parts of this plant, have eminent and useful medicinal properties; they are official in the British Pharmacopoeia. Old Juniper is also used to flavour the wine of France. The oil obtained from it is valuable for the former on account of its comparative cheapness. Juniper wood has considerable medicinal properties; it is official in the British Pharmacopoeia. Fraser's tarry oak, called Hulst de Lande, is stated by dry distillation to yield a spirit which is said to be useful for certain affections. The wood is very durable.--Sawdust from the Red or Pencil Cedar, called "Cedar," is used for making pencils; it is also used for Cedar pitch, that of the former is considered the best. The tops or leaves of spruces are used for similar purposes, and in like proportion as sawdust they are used for similar purposes, and in like proportion as sawdust they are used for similar purposes; but they are not so valuable as sawdust. The fresh and dried tops and the oil obtained from the former are official ; but they have not been found so valuable as sawdust; but large trees they are irritant plants, and have been frequently taken to cause eczema; but when they are applied externally they are not so irritating as a dressing to blisters and to sores and sores; they keep up and promote the discharge. A page from a book with text about coniferous trees. 678 TAXACEAE. Plants.—Several species of this genus are valuable timber trees : as Pinus strobus, the White Pine ; P. strobus, the Eastern White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine of the United States; P. strobus, the Eastern White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White Pine; P. strobus, the White pine **GNETACEAE. CYCADACEAE.** 679 naked circle, which is either terminal or placed in the axil of a branch. Seed usually large, with a hard, fleshy endosperm (figs. 718 and 1045), aluminous (fig. 1045, ab); embryo straight (fig. 1040, p.). *Characters.* *Examples, and Numbers.*—Natives of the moun- tains of tropical countries, and of temperate regions. *Examples* of the Order are found in the United States, but few species. *Properties and Uses.*—In their general properties they re- semble the Conifer. *Use.*—The *Cycas* is cultivated, the Hua Pino of Australia—the wood is valuable for ship-building. Other species, as *S. turbinifolia*, the Kakaduus of Australia, and *C. revoluta*, the Australian cycad, are valuable timber trees. *Furcula.*—Trees of this name other New Zealand plants are valuable timber-trees. *P. compressa* (infructescence), a native of Java, yields a crystal- line gum. *Furcula serrata,* the Common Yew, produces extremely durable and valu- able timber. It is said to be the most beautiful tree in all temperate regions, both in the human subject and other animals. But they would seem to be mistaken in this opinion, for it is said that the leaves of this tree, and turkeys will crop Yew trees with impunity. But this is certainly incorrect for the following reasons: The Yew is a poisonous plant, causing vomiting and death. Leaves. It is also frequently said that animals may feed upon it without injury; but this is not true, for it has been observed that when these have been out of it, and left upon the ground for a short time, they become violently ill; and if they eat any part of it at all, they die; so the shoots are poisonous to all conditions. Fatal cases of poisoning have been observed among sheep and cattle. The fruit is very disagreeable; but a scanty cup of this fruit is harmless, however, harmless, the contained seed being uninjured by the action of the stomach; but it is not safe to eat it, especially for their emmenagogue, sedative, and antipertussive effects. According to Dr. Taylor, "Tree-trees" are taken on account only by those who know how to use them. Natural Order 29th. GYMNOSPERMIA. Filix Fler Order. *Character.*—Small trees or shrubs, with jointed stems and broad leaves; flowers naked or with scales; seeds large or minute; or sometimes small and scale-like. *Flowers unisexual, in catkins or heads. Male Flowers with a 1-leaved calyx; anthers 2-3- celled; stamens 2-3; ovary sessile or nearly so; style sur- rounded by 1 or 2 scales; ovules 1-2; nucellus, pointed by a scale-like body; ovary succulent; embryo dicotyledonous, in the axis of flesh albuminous. *Distribution.* *Examples, and Numbers.*—These plants occur in both hemispheres; but chiefly in the tropics—Ephedra, Weltwitschia, and Gymnospermia, and about thirty species. *Properties and Uses.*—The leaves are used as food and leaves of several species are medicinal. Some Ephedrae are astrigent. Natural Order 29th. CYCADACEA.—The Cycas Order— *Characters.*—Large trees or shrubs with compound leaves, or occasionally dichotomous, with their surface marked by the presence of leaves. *Leaves clustered at the summit, pinnae, pinnules, and leaflets alternate or opposite; petioles long; stipules obsolete in vernation. *Flowers quite naked, unisexual, dioecious.* Male 680 **MONOCOTYLEDONES—ORCHIDACEAE.** **Flowers in cones, consisting of scales, from under surface of which 1-celled anthera emerge. Female flowers consisting of naked ovules placed on the margin of altered leaves, or of ovules arising from the base of the leaves, and enclosed in a cup of petalate cover. Seeds hard or succulent, with 1 or several embryos contained in flesh or usually in a hard seed-coat.** *America.*—The Genera: **Numbered.**—Natives principally of the temperate and tropical parts of America and Asia; and occasionally found in the West Indies, South Africa, and Australia. *Examples of the Genera:* —Cypria, Zama. There are about 50 species. *Propagating the Plants.*—The stems and seeds of the plants of this order yield mucilage and starch. *Cypria.*—From the stems of Cypria circinata C. reichardt a starch may be obtained, which is used by the natives of Java, that from C. pendula is said to constitute Japan Sago. But this sago is not an article of European commerce. The seeds of Cypria are very small, and are used by the Palma (See Monocotyledon). Japan sago and other kinds are esteemed by the natives of the West Indies as a valuable food. Dioscorea has large meal-like seeds from which the Mexicans prepare a kind of bread. *Euphorbiaceae.*—Various species contain starch, and from what is called "Coffee bean" is made a beverage. *Zamia.*—In the Bahamas and other West Indian Islands, excellent arrowroot is obtained from the roots of Zamia pumila, a native plant, and also from other plants. It is sold in the West India markets, but is not known as such in Europe. Another plant yielding arrowroot is also obtained from this plant. **Artificial Analysis of the Natural Orders in the Division GYMNOSPERMIAE.**
1. Sperm joined, branched. Gymnospermae. 388.
2. Sperm not joined. Cycadaceae.
Cycads collected in Florida. Confervaceae. 296.
Seed-unity, usually surrounded by a suc- culent leaf. Turfieraceae. 297.
Naked-fruit or dichotomous. Lavates jointi Gymnospermae. 297.
**Class II. MONOCOTYLEDONES.** Sub-class I. *Pleurodendron or Florida.* **1. Epiptym.** Natural Order 240.—Orchidaceae.—The Orchid Order. Characterized by:—1. The flower with one stamen (Fig. 259) or epiphylial (Fig. 260). Roots rhizomes or tuberous-rooted (figs. 256 and 267); no true stem or a pseudo-stem (Fig. 261). Leaves entire (Fig. 259), simple (Fig. 260), or compound (Fig. 261). Flowers (Fig. 259, 260, and 261) solitary or numerous, with a single stamen, herma- phrodite. *Perianth superior* (figs. 261 and 264), usually perka- lized. A diagram showing the structure of an orchid flower, including its stamen and perianth. ORCHIDACEAE. 681 loid and composed of six pieces (fig. 1047), which are commonly arranged in two wheels; the central wheel, $a$, $b$, $d$, formed of three pieces, one anterior, one posterior, and one lateral; the outer wheel, $c$, $e$, $f$, usually consists of three pieces (petals), (or rarely of but one), alternating with the pieces in the outer wheel; the inner wheel, $g$, $h$, $i$, usually consists of three pieces (stamens), (or rarely of but one), alternately different to them in form (fig. 1048), often spurred, and sometimes with a median lobe. Fig. 1046. Fig. 1047. Fig. 1048. Fig. 1047. Front view of the flower of the Two-wheel (Liriope odorata), showing the three divisions of the perianth, the two stamens, and the essential organs of reproduction forming a column (gonostylum). Fig. 1048. Front view of the flower of the Two-wheel (Liriope odorata). The three divisions of the perianth: $a$ being anterior or interior, $b$ being interior or posterior, $c$ being lateral; the two stamens, $d$ and $e$; the three stigmas, $f$, $g$, and $h$. The superior or posterior division (anterior of the inner wheel) $i$ is in this figure represented by a single piece, but in reality it is divided into three parts. The lower or anterior division (posterior of the inner wheel) is represented by a single piece, but in reality it is divided into three parts. The lower or anterior division (posterior of the inner wheel) is represented by a single piece, but in reality it is divided into three parts. The flower is an orchidoid, having three perianth-placentae (fig. 1049). Front or Corolla indicating how these perianth-placentae are distributed on the corolla-scales. Fig. 1049. Seed of an Orchid, with a more reticulated surface. exhibit a division into three regions of which the lowest is then termed the hypostylium, the middle the mesostylium, and the upper the epistylium (figs. 539-541, 542-543, and 546) and forming with it a central column (sympodium) which supports the stamens and stigma and two lateral abortive ones, or rarely two lateral perfect stamens and one abortive anther in the centre. Folius powdery, or more or less collected into a tubular sheath (spathe) at base (spadix). (figs. 539, p.) The masses free, or attached by their stalks, e (sympodium) to the apex (spadix) of the spadix (spadix). Fungus inferior, Lipped, with 3 perianth placentae (figs. 617 and 682 **ORCHIDACEAE.** 1047) bearing a number of antherous ovules; **style united with the antherium and forming with it a column or gynoecium (figs. 540 and 541); stigma a viscid space in front of the column; stamens two, one on each side of the column (fig. 1048), the valves bear the placenta in their middle, and sepa- rating when the fruit is ripe from the central part or midrib of the compound ovary; seeds minute, smooth, hard, dry, or rarely fleecy and indolent. Seeds very minute and nume- rous, often loose in the fruit; leaves usually hard coriaceous tends, exalbuminous; embryo a fleshly solid mass. **Diagnosis.** This order is known by its irregular flowers ; by the peculiarities of the stamens and pistils; by the numerous, so as to cause the flower to resemble some insect, reptile, bird, or other living object ; by its gynandromous stamina ; by its frequently being pollinated by insects; by its well defined inferior ovary with three parietal placentae. **Economic Uses.** The Orchidaceae. These are more or less abundantly distributed in nearly every region of the globe, except in those which have a very cold or hot climate. Some species are used as ornamental plants; others are either epiphytic and are confined to hot climates. Ecom- mum, Orchis, Cypripedium, and Asparagus officinalis are Shan- hopes, Orchis, Cypripedium. The order contains about 3,000 species. **Properties and Uses.** These plants, which present so much interest from the singularity, beauty, and fragrance of their flowers, are used medicinally for various medicinal point of view. Some are aromatic and fragrant, and are used as flavouring agents, several possess nutritious roots, and a few are antispasmodic and aphrodisiac. **Asparagus officinalis.** The dried leaves of this herbaceous plant are used as a kind of tea in Europe and America commonly as Asafo tea. It has been introduced into London and Paris but is not much used there. It is said to be a stimulant and is recommended to be taken with milk and rum. It is said to produce a soothing effect, but should not be used in large quantities. **Cypripedium calceolus.** The root is official in the United States Phar- macopoeia. It is used as a diuretic and expectorant; its mild purgative properties are valuable, but it is not powerful. In the Chicago Pharmacopoeia for 1893 it is stated that it possesses "the most powerful purgative properties; the effects produced resembling the poising from Aconite." The root contains a glucoside similar to that of C. pseudobulbaceum, and probably also of C. speciosum and C. kewense, the eolicotic "tremor" treatment being employed in cases of nervous excitement and mania in epilepsy, spasms, and other nervous diseases. Asparagus officinalis is used in some parts of India in the preparation of the nutritious substance known by the name of "Asafo tea," which is considered to be very highly valuable (see Origanum). **Orchis mascula.** Of several species, as those of O. masuca, O. inflexa, O. Maura, and others, form European of Indigenous Salvia; that prepared from O. masuca is said to be the best. Salvia contains benzene and **APOSTASIAELE. BURMANNACEAE. ZINGIBERACEAE.** 685 a little starch, and possesses similar properties to those of other amylo- carpus, but is more delicate. *Indica.* The fruit of a species of *Solanus*, a native of Panama, is said to be very similar to that of the *Cubeb*. It is also called *Cubeb*. *Famille plantae.* F. aromaticum. F. aromaticum. F. purpureum. F. pompona. F. odoratissima. F. odoratissima. F. odoratissima. F. odoratissima, which constitute the *Famille* of the ship's vanilla. Vanilla is extensively used in the manufacture of chocolate, and in the preparation of medicines. It has also been employed in the treatment of a medicinal agent, i.e., hyoscine, &c. The species *F. odoratissima* is the most valuable, and *F. aromaticum* are commonly regarded as the most fragrant. (See also *Solanum*.) **Natural Order 241. APOSTASIALE. — The Apostasia Order.** **Character.** Herbs, with regular hermaphrodite flowers. *Pseudocarpus superius*, regular, with 6 divisions. *Sassaena 2 or 3, united into a column; adnate sessile upon the column, 2 or 3. *Oreos*, irregular, with axile placenta; *androsum* numerous; stipules united into a filiform process. *Coryne* 3-celled, 3-valved. Seeds very numerous. **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—Natives of damp woods in tropical India. Examples of the Genera.—Apocynum, Nen- tularia, *Sassaena*, *Pseudocarpus*, *Oreos*, &c.; but these are al- though unknown. **Natural Order 242. BURMANNACEAE. — The Burmannia Order.** **Character.** Herbaceous plants, without true leaves, or with tufted radical ones. *Flowers* hermaphrodite, regular; *Fe- male* staminate; *Male* staminoid; *Stamen* distinct, inserted into the tube of the calyx; either with 3 or 6 stamens, or with 3 or 6 stamens only on each side; or with or 6 with exserta anthers. *Oreos* inferior, 1-lobed with 3 parietal placentae, or 3-celled with axile placenta; style 1; sepals persistent; petals deciduous; ovary bivalve; endo- endo solid. **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—These are principally found in the tropical parts of Asia, Africa, and America. Examples of the Genera.—Burmanna, Thunia. According to some authors, this order includes all the genera of this family, but some are reported to be better and stratagem. **Natural Order 243. ZINGIBERACEAE. — The Ginger Order.** **Character.** Aromatic herbs, with a creeping rhizome, and broad simple stalked sheathing leaves, with parallel veins; flowers regular or irregular; sepals in a spiked or meconoe manner, and arising from among aspathophy- lous leaves; ovary bivalve or trilobed; fruit in 3 whorls, each whorl consisting of 3 pieces; *Sassaena* 3-stipled, the 2 lateral abortive, and the posterior one perfect ; adnate 3- valved; seeds numerous, albuminous; endocarps enclosed in a viscidium. A small illustration showing a cross-section of a ginger flower. 854 ZINGIBERACEAE. **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—Chiefly natives of tropical countries, but also found in the East Indies—Zingiber, Curcuma, Eleutherine. There are about 300 species.** **Properties and Uses.—They are principally remarkable for the stimulative and aromatic properties of their roots, rhizomes, and seeds, owing to the presence of resin and volatile oil; hence several are used as condiments, and in medicine as stimulants. The seeds are also used in large quan- tities, when extracted as employed for food.** **Aginin.—The root or rhizome known as the great or Jom Golenkam and Zingiber officinale is a native of India. The name of this Chinese Gardenia has been found by Hance to a new species, which he terms Zingiber officinale var. chinense. It is a very rare kind known in European commerce. It is largely imported but not used in this country. The seeds are used as a condiment, and are employed for flavouring the liquor called samosa, and vinegar; and also as a cattle medicine. The leaves are used in the preparation of tea, and pro- vide a kind of tea. The source of the fruit Gardenia of Guttermann is alto- gether different from that of Zingiber officinale. The name given to what China calls Gardenia is the fruit of a tree, and its seeds are used as a condi- ment in cooking. **Anemone.—Several species of this genus have aromatic and stimulant properties, which render them useful in medicine. They are natives of the world. The only species which is employed in this country is the J. mertensii, which grows wild in the United States, and is also a native of the Western Coast of Africa. These seeds are much employed in Africa as a spice for food. In Europe they are used as a stimulant. They are principally employed in this country in veterinary medicine, and for giving relief to the stomach after overeating. The seeds of A. hirta yield the fruits known as the round Gordonia. The fruits of A. marmar- coides are employed in the same way as those of A. hirta; and those of A. pinnata the large round seed and the small round China Carac- ments. The seeds of A. cernua and A. crenulata are also used as have similar properties. **Curcuma.—The dried rhizome or chilum of this plant comple- tate the tumeric of the shops. Turmeric is used as a condiment, as a tea, and for giving relief to the stomach after overeating. It is one of the parts of the Lant. It forms an ingredient in Curry powder, &c. Unlisted white pepper is made from it. The seeds are employed in medicine to act as direct free alkaline, which change its colour from yellow to red-blu- enew. Curcuma is also employed in veterinary medicine as a stimulant. This kind of curcuma is cultivated on the island of Java under the name of C. ramosa, C. rubra, &c. Its effects and uses it resemble Wormwood (Artemisia absinthium). This plant is not so strong as to be pure a stimulant; C. amomum yields the Round Zestery of pharma- cogists—C. zeylanica yields the Zestery or Zestery Root; C. longa, the Long Zestery; and the Zestery root of curcumum; they all possess analgesic and antispasmodic properties; while C. amomum and Curcumum are derived from C. zeylanica (see Zestery). **Eleutherine.—The roots or rhizomes of this plant produce a species which constitute the meal or Mastic Cardamomum, the seeds of which are official in this country; but they are not so strong as to be pure stimulant. This country on account of their analgesic and stimulating properties, and also as Serviettes (see Serviette), they are used as condiments; but they are not so strong as to be pure stimulant.
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**MARANTACEAE.** Germany, &c., they are also much used in perfumery, and in the pre- paration of liqueurs, &c.; but the Maranta, or Carthamum, which is much employed on the Continent; their uses and effects are similar, but they are not so well known. **Maranta - Zinnia, the Ginger Plant.** The so-called Ginger-plant or Ginger-flower (Zinnia) is a plant of the family of the Marantaceae. It is very young, or the young shoots of the old plants, are used for preserving, and form in this respect a kind of ginger. The flower-stalks are long, and divided in two states, one being called white ginger or amaranth ginger, and the other, yellow ginger. The flowers are yellow, and have a peculiar smell. The root of about a year old, when dug up are washed, scraped, and dried; this kind is generally used in Europe, and is esteemed to be as good as that in some cases similar manner, but not submitted to the screening process. The young shoots of the old plants are also used for preserving; the ginger having its thorns removed, while in Black Ginger it remains on the surface on account of its use in cooking. The root of this plant is very com- mon, and the amaranth kind is also used, and used in medicines as a stimulant. The Maranta is supposed to be the plant from which Conyassarum root is obtained. Normal Order 364. **MARANTACEAE.** **The Maranta or Arrow- root Order.** Character. - Herbaceous plants, without aromatic properties. They have a close resemblance to the Zingiberaceae. Their flowers are perfect; two stamens only are wanting; in one of the latter stamens being fertile, and the other two stamens barren; in the former there is a single fertile illi- ment, an entire or 2-leaved arboric, one lobe of which is sterile, and the another therefore 1-celled; in the style being petaloid or swelling at its base; with a short stigma; with 5 sepals. - India. Distribution. - Examples, and Numbers. - Exclusively natives of tropical America. - Species of the Genera - *Maranta*, *Canna*. There are about 100 species. Properties and Uses. - The rhizomes of some species contain starch, which is used for making bread and cakes. Canna. - One or more species of this genus yield "Tusas de maza," a very pure and useful starch, although little used in this country or elsewhere. The exact nature of this starch has not been determined; it is not positively known whether it is made by C. indica or C. esculenta; it is just possible to he called "the Indian Arrow-root." The name "Tusas de maza" is given to "Bam- boo Flora" to yield "Tusas de maza." Canna indica - C. indica and Canna indica also yield a, very pure and useful starch; it is called "Tusas de maza." It is grown in many parts of Indian States, from their black colour and hardness. These seeds and their products are used for making bread and cakes. Some other species are eaten as vegetables; they contain much starch, which, as starch itself, is used for making bread. *Maranta* - Maranta. - The rhizomes or tubers of this plant con- tain a large quantity of starch; they are used for making bread in West India Arrowroot, one of the purest and best known of the enigmaticous species of this order. It is cultivated for that purpose over several parts of the world; it is also used for making bread in West India Arrowroot. It forms a very fine jelly, and as perhaps the most palatable acid- dissolving jelly ever known; it is becoming more popular every year. The name arrowroot is given to
885
658 **MUSACEAE. IRIDACEAE.** to have been derived from the fact of the braded rhizomes of this plant having been employed by the ancients as a substitute for application to the pernicious wounds inflicted by arrow. Others give, however, different descrip- tions of the plant, which are not agreeable to the mind. The species here treated from the Indian word *anu-ruha*, a term signifying "merry name". The name of another is *anu-ruha* (figs. 230, 231), a species of Musa, which are used as food in this country and elsewhere. **Natural Order 245. MUSACEAE.—The Banana or Plantain Gourd.—Cucurbitaceae.**—Leaves often of large size. Leaves large with pendulous curved veins, the midrib (fig. 233), and long sheathing petioles, which together form by their length and shape a very conspicuous feature. The flowers are small, tubular, spathaceous. *Ferocaria* irregular, 6-pearate, petaloid, superior, arranged in 2 whorls. *Stemma* 6, inserted upon the divisions of the petiole, and terminated by a short peduncle. Fruit cuculoid, dehiscing longitudinally, or succulent and indehiscent. Seed cup-shaped, containing mucilaginous juice; rarely 3, with nearly albumen ; embryo not enclosed in a vesicle. **Distribution. Examples, and Numbers.—Generally diffused throughout tropical regions.**—Species of the Genus.—Musa. Rarissima. There are about 20 species. Propagated by suckers and seeds; the former being the most productive; form important articles of food in tropical regions. Others yield valuable textile materials; and the large leaves of many are used for thatching roofs, for making mats and baskets, for build- ing for cottages, etc. The seeds and fruits of others are used as dyeing agents in some countries. Years ago it was thought that all species of Musa paradisiaca, the Plan- tain, and M. sapientum, the Banana, of both of which there are several varieties, were indigenous to India; but recent investigations show that they owe their value in this respect chiefly to the presence of some other species which are now known to be native only in tropical regions. They over their value in this respect chiefly to the presence of some other species which are now known to be native only in tropical regions. They over their value in this respect chiefly to the presence of some other species which are now known to be native only in tropical regions. They over their value in this respect chiefly to the presence of some other species which are now known to be native only in tropical regions. They over their value in this respect chiefly to the presence of some other species which are now known to be native only in tropical regions. They over their value in this respect chiefly to the presence of some other species which are now known to be native only in tropical regions. They over their value in this respect chiefly to the presence of some other species which are now known to be native only in tropical regions. They over their value in this respect chiefly to the presence of some other species which are now known to be native only in tropical regions. They over their value in this respect chiefly to the presence of some other species which are now known to be native only in tropical regions. They over their value in this respect chiefly to the presence of some other species which are now known to be native only in tropical regions. They over their value in this respect chiefly to the presence of some other species which are now known to be native only in tropical regions. They over their value in this respect chiefly to the presence of some other species which are now known to be native only in tropical regions. They over their value in this respect chiefly to the presence of some other species which are now known to be native only in tropical regions. They over their value in this respect chiefly to the presence of some other species which are now known to be native only in tropical regions. They over their value in this respect chiefly to the presence of some other species which are now known to be native only in tropical regions. They over their value in this respect chiefly to the presence of some other species which are now known to be native only in tropical regions. They over their value in this respect chiefly to the presence of some other species which are now known to be native only in tropical regions. They over their value in this respect chiefly to the presence of some other species which are now known to be native only in tropical regions. They over their value in this respect chiefly to the presence of some other species which are now known to be native only in tropical regions. They over their value in this respect chiefly to the presence of some other species which are now known to be native only in tropical regions. They over their value in this respect chiefly to the presence of some other species which are now known to be native only in tropical regions. They over their value in this respect chiefly to the presence of some other species which are now known to be native only in tropical regions. They over their value in this respect chiefly to the presence of some other species which are now known to be native only in tropical regions. They over their value in this respect chiefly to the presence of some other species which are now known to be native only in tropical **Natural Order 246. IRIDACEAE.—The Iris or Corn-Flag** Order.—Iridaceae.—Plants with erect stems bearing terminal flowers (figs. 240 and 241), or rhizomes (figs. 229). Leaves with IRIDACEAE. 687 parallel straight venation, generally equitant. Flowers spatheous (figs. 1003, 1005) ; sepals 3, often petaloid (figs. 1003, 1005), persistent (fig. 1004) ; petals 6, in 2 whorls (figs. 1003). Stamens 3, inserted on the outer segments of the perianth (figs. 1003); anthers 2-celled, extrorse. Ovary inferior. Fig. 1053. Fig. 1054. Fig. 1053. Section of the flower of a species of Iris, showing a solitary bract below the flower, and the three sepals united at their base into a tube (cross-section). The three sepals are shown in two planes to show the three extreme stamens attached to them (longitudinal section). The three stamens are shown in two planes to show the stigma of the same with the root of the style (fig. 1054). Vertical section of the flower of a species of Iris, showing the three sepals and the three stamens of the perianth, at one of the internal directions. Tube formed by the union of the three sepals. Three stamens attached to the three pointed stamens of the perianth. Fig. 1054. Vertical section of the style and ovary of a species of Iris, showing the three sepals, p. Alchemilla s. Euphrasia, m. Microspora. (From Jussieu.) (figs. 1003, 1004). -Sepaloid (fig. 1003) ; style 2 (figs. 1051 and 1052) ; stigma 3, often petaloid (figs. 1053 and 1054). Fruit cupular, baccate, -septate, with numerous seeds (figs. 1055, 1056). Numerous, with horny or hard albumen (figs. 1054). 688 **IBIDACKE** **Diopsisis—Herbs.** Leaves with parallel straight veins. Perianth petaloid, superior, 3-lobate, in 3 whorls. Stamens 5; anthers extrorse. Ovary 3-celled, inferior. Fruit capsular, with loculicidal dehiscence, 3-seeded. Seeds numerous, albu- minous. **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—Chiefly natives of temperate regions, but also found in the warmer parts of the globe, but are most abundant at the Cape of Good Hope. Example: *Cynara cardunculus*, Gladiolus, Crocus. There are about 600 species.* **Proprietas et Uso.—The rhizomes of several species possess antiseptic properties; they are used in medicine as astringents, etc. Some are poisonous, and a few have fragrant rhizomes. Others are employed as colouring agents, and some are commonly re- garded as poisonous. The leaves are used in salads and as a spice in large quantities, but as this is usually combined with bread, it is not considered a useful food, although some are stated to be thus employed in Africa.* **Cynara sativa—the Saffron-Tree.—This plant is the *Kawam* of the Tibetans. It yields stigmas with the end of its leaf (fig. 1023) constituting *Hey Saffron*. These are used to make a spice called *Saffron* or *Fresno* The latter, however, is not native to the land and must be brought from foreign countries (see Cynara). In the shops in this country, the wholesale dealer that sells it is obliged to state that it is not genuine tincture (see Cynara), and it is said to be obtained by the tincturing process. *C. Sellowii*, and the dried rhizome of other species of *C. Sowerby*, *Culvera*, *Culvera*, etc., are also used in medicine. The dried rhizome of *C. parasitum* in other parts of the Continent, &c., Saffron is much used in cooking, especially in Spain and Italy. It is also frequently used in this country for a similar purpose, but at pre- sent it has been largely replaced by the artificial product made in the British Pharmacopoeia, and is principally used as a colouring agent for this covering material. The flowers are sometimes used as a spice, and as an emmenagogue. Bird-catchers also use it, as they believe it assists the mating. Irao, Flower of Lace.—The rhizomes of several species are more or less purpurtive; they are used in medicine as astringents and stimulants; the dried aerial rhizomes of *Chironium*, *Pistacia*, and *Pimonia*. These rhizomes are also used as astringents; they are also employed as stimulants, and also for imparting a pleasant odour to the breath; and lastly the French es- tablishment of *Lycium barbarum* (fig. 1024), which is known under the name of the Yellow Flag (fig. 1025), have been recommended as a substitute for coffee; but these plants are alien to our climate. The Yellow Flag (fig. 1025), which has been recommended as a substitute for coffee; but these plants are alien to our climate. **Morma (Hemera).—Some species of this genus, more especially that of *M. nigrum*, are very injurious to horses; and those who have seen them at the Cape, have experienced previous effects and have been the cause of fatal re- sults on horses which have been exposed to their influence. A small illustration showing a plant with yellow flowers. **AMARYLLIDACEAE.** 689 Natural Order 247. **AMARYLLIDACEA.** —The Amaryllis Order—Bulbous of fibrous-rooted plants, without any aerial stem, or with a very short one, and with leaves in the form of a strap, straight-venation, linear-uniform. Flowers usually on scape, and spatheaceous (figs. 397). Perianth regular or nearly so (figs. 397 and 398), or irregular (figs. 400 and 401); corolla regular, and with (figs. 497 and 1065) e or without a corona (figs. 1067 and 1068); corona regular, and with (figs. 1067 and 1068); anthers introrse. *Corona inferior* (fig. 1067). 3-celled (fig. 1055). Fruit capsular, 3-celled, 3-valved, with loculicidal dehisceence, and numerous seeds ; or a berry with 1–3 seeds. Fig. 1053. Fig. 1054. Fig. 1053. Diagram of the flower of the Spring Snowflake (Leucocoryne cerulea). The perianth is represented by the three white segments, the stamens are not a bud-like array with sterile plantlets—see fig. 1054. The perianth is represented by the three white segments, the stamens are not a bud-like array with sterile plantlets—see fig. 1054. Fig. 1054. Fig. 1058. Fig. 1057. Vertical section of the flower of the Spring Snowflake (Leucocoryne cerulea), showing the two free stamens and the vertical section of the seed of this genus. Seeds with fibrous or horny albumen ; corona with the radicle next the hilum (fig. 1068). Distribution, Europe, Asia, and America—Natives of many parts of the world; in Africa the Iridaceae most abundant in the Cape of Good Hope. Examples of the Genera—Galanthus, Amaryllis, Narcissus, Agave. There are above 600 species. TT 800 **HYPOXIDACEAE. HEMODORACEAE.** **Properties and Uses.—Several plants of this order possess homogenous qualities. This property is especially evident in *Hemodorum coccineum*, a plant of the East Indies, which has been used to poison its arrow-heads. Some yield excellent fibres. The juice of *Hemodorum* is employed in the preparation of fermented liquors. Starch may be obtained from some species of *Alstroemeria*. Medicinally, several have been used as purgatives.* **Agave americana, the American Aloe, Maguey, or Hundred-years' plant.** The native inhabitants of Mexico and Central America have long known the medicinal properties of this plant, which grows wild in limited areas of the United States. The leaves of Agave live about two years before flowering. From the leaves of this and other species of Agave, a juice is obtained which is employed for textile fabrics and for peccary-nesting. The juice of the leaves is also used by the Indians as a medicine for various diseases, including leprosy, and as a remedy for snake-bites. The juice of *Agave americana* is called "maguey" because it is eaten as an alcoholic drink like pulque juice. It is also used to make pulque, a beverage made from the juice of this plant. **Amaranthus pustulatus, and other species with succulent roots contain substances similar to those found in the blood root (Rumex acetosella) and in the blood root (Rumex acetosella) and in the blood root (Rumex acetosella) in certain parts of South America.** **Corydalis solida, the Corydalis of Herbart.** The fresh root (or more properly bulb) is official in the Pharmacopoeia of India. It possesses emetic and diuretic properties, and is employed in the treatment of dropsy and of squill. The dry root has similar qualities, but it is not so powerful in its action. **Narcissus pseudonarcissus.—From the bulbs of this plant A. W. Gerard has described a drug which he calls "narcissin," which he says "which has no name except narcissin." This alkaloid was found to produce profound sedation, and to cause a temporary paralysis of the respiratory muscles, which is useful in cases of bronchial asthma and bronchial congestion." **Natural Order 246. HYPOXADEAE.—The Hypoxia Order—Dioecious, or having a small order of hermaphroditic plants, closely allied to the Amaryllidaceae, but distinguished by their habit; their dry leaves being smooth on both sides; their stamens being of coarse texture than the inner; by their seeds being commonly carnassiate; and by the radicle of their embryo being remote from the base of the seed-capsule, which is important in importance.** **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—They are scattered over various warm parts of the globe. Examples of the Genera:—Forbaceus, Hypoxia. There are about 60 species. Properties.—The roots are said to be bitter and aromatic. The roots of *Coriopsis viscosa* are used in Tavancore by the natives as a remedy for snake-bites and other affections. The fresh roots of some species are eaten.** **Natural Order 249. HEMODORACEAE.—The Blood Root Order—Character.—Herbs or rarely shrubs, with sheaves** A page from a botanical book showing illustrations of various plants. TACACACEAE. BROMELIACEAE. 89 roots. Leaves usually equitant, ensiform. *Fertile* superior, tubular, 6-ribate, regular; the divisions usually 3 or 5, rarely 6; the outer segments of the perianth 3 or 6, when they are opposite the inner segments of the perianth; *abaxial* internoth; *Stylus* long, slender, with a short, thickened base; *Fructus* smooth or indistinctive, covered by the withered perianth; *Seeds* few or numerous, with cartilaginous albumen, and radicles remote from the hilum. **Distribution**, **Examples**, and **Numbers** - Natives of America, the Cape of Good Hope, and South America. The following are Species of this Genus: -Hemerocallis, Velutina. There are about 50 species. **Properties** and **Uses** - The roots of some species are used as dyeing wood in South America, where they are sold, and a few are bitter and astringent. *Acorus calamus* is remarkable for its bitterness. It is reputed to possess tonics and stimulants. *Hemodorum* - The roots of several species, as those of *H. punctatum* and *H. multiflorum*, are used as a medicine in parts of Australia. The roots contain a red-colouring matter. *Echinodorus cordifolius* has a blood-red root which is used for dying in North America. Natural Order 250. TACACACEAE-The Tacacca Order. Cha- racteristics - The herbaceous plants with parallel veins, radical; *Petiole* slender, regular, 6-, 7-, or 8-ribate; *Stylus* long, slender; *Perianth* divi- sions of the perianth, with petaloid filaments hooded at the apex ; *abaxial* internoth; placed in the convolvulus below the apex (the leaves being sessile); *Fructus* a berry-like body; phan- citas projecting more or less into the interior; styles 3. Fruit baccate. **Distribution**, **Examples**, and **Numbers** - Natives of mountainous regions in India, the Malayan Archipelago, the Philippines, Australia, New Zealand, and South America. In China and Hance, there are three genera, Tacca, Acorus, and Schizocarpus, which contain starch. **Properties** and **Uses** - The roots are bitter and sour, but when cultivated they become larger, and lose in some degrees their astringency. They contain much starch, which when separated is used for food. *Tacca* - The roots of *T. semicaulis* yield the starch known as Tacca Brawn. The roots of *T. leontopetalum* are used as a sub- stitute for Maranta Starch. Cakes made from these starchy roots are eaten by the natives of South America. The roots of *T. leontopetalum* are commonly cultivated... *Tacca semicaulis* is by some considered to be identical with the Chinese "Cochin" starch. This root is used as starch by the inhabitants of China, Cochinchina, Trucavieja, &c. Natural Order 251. BROMELIACEAE.-The Pine-Apple or Bromeliad Order. Characteristic - Plants or monstrosities deeply pinnate, commonly epiphyllous. Leaves persistent, crowded, V Y 2 692 BROMELIACEAE. rigid, sheathing at the base, and frequently scurfy and with spiny margins. Flowers showy. Perianth superior, or nearly so, or corolla inferior, or nearly so, and usually with the tube or tube-like part its parts commonly united into a tube; and the inner has its nerved tube (fig. 37) and the outer one (fig. 38) of the outer whorl. Stamens 5; anthers introrse. Ovary 3-celled; style 1. Fruit (fig. 287) capitate or indistinct, 3-celled. Seed numerous, minute, and often very small, sometimes with the radicle next the hilum. **DISTRIBUTION.**—North America. Numbered. They are mostly found in the tropical regions of America, West Africa, and the East India. They appear to have been originally natives of America, but many of them have been introduced into British colonies in West Africa and the East Indian. Examples of the Genera:— Amazonea, Bromelia, Bromellia, Cryptanthus, Dendroseris, Hypodendron, Neoregelia, Nidularium, Pinguicula, Tillandsia. **Properties and Uses.**—They are chiefly important for yielding edible fruits and useful fibrous materials. Some are anthelmintic, and others are diuretic. **Amazona,** the Pine-apple.—The fruit of this species is the well- known and delightful pineapple. It was first brought from South America into Britain chiefly from the Bahama Islands, but in favour they have been cultivated by cultivation in the United States. The fruit is very palatable and is used for food obtained from the leaves of this plant. The leaves are known under the name of "Bromeliad," because they are used for making pots, and have been used for various textile fabrics, and for the manufac- ture of paper. **Tillandsia,** in Brazil a yellow colouring agent is obtained from the roots of this plant. **Bromelia,** grows on vermiculite grounds. Its leaves yield useful fibres. The leaves are used for making pots and baskets. The leaves are used for making mats, sacks, and textiles fabrics, and would pro- bably form a useful source of employment. **Tillandsia,** assamica is commonly called Tree-pear or Old Man's Beard. from the shape of its leaves which resemble those of a tree from the trees in South America like cacti of the Joshua in cold climate. This article is used for making baskets and mats. The leaves are used for storing cushions, etc., mixed with horsehair. It has been also used for making paper. The following genera:—Bromelia, Bromellia, Cryptanthus, Tillandsia, Dendroseris, and Philodendron were included by Lindley in a class by themselves which he termed the Dio- gygonaceae. But in their characteristics they do not approach so closely to the Tillandsia as to warrant their approach so closely to the Lindley class; except that the Diogygonaceae have a superior ovary, that we have now placed them here in accordance with the views of Dr. Hooker who regards them as allied to those which have, however, more or less netted-veined leaves, and hence the name Diogygonaceae which was applied to the class and sub- class in which they were formerly grouped. A diagram showing a flower with three petals. A diagram showing a flower with five stamens. A diagram showing a flower with three petals. A diagram showing a flower with five stamens. DISCOCRACEAE. SMILACEE. 693 Natural Order 202. DISOCRACEAE.--The Year Order. Character.--Herbs or shrubs, more or less climbing (fig. 160). Leaves simple, entire, or lobed, alternate, or opposite, and often compound; flowers regular, bisexual, axillary, or terminal. Perianth 5-parted, with all its divisions alike. Stamens 5, in one series; pistil 1, superior. Fruit a capsule, 3-angled; stigma 5. Fruit baccate (fig. 160), few or many-seeded. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.--The species of this order are scattered over various parts of the world, both in tropical and temperate regions. The genus Smilax is most abundant in tropical America. Examples of the Genera: Smilax. DISCOBRACTEA. SMILACEE. Natural Order 253. SMILACEE.--The Sarsaparilla Order. Character.--Herbs or shrubs, more or less climbing (fig. 160). Leaves simple, entire, or lobed, alternate, or opposite, and often compound; flowers regular, bisexual, axillary, or terminal. Perianth 5-parted, with all its divisions alike. Stamens 6, in two series; pistil 1, superior. Fruit a capsule, 3-angled; stigma 6. Fruit baccate (fig. 160), few or many-seeded. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.--The species of this order are scattered over various parts of the world, both in tropical and temperate regions. The genus Dioscorea is most abundant in tropical America. Examples of the Genera: Dioscorea. DISCOCRACEAE. SMILACEE. Natural Order 202. DISOCRACEAE.--The Year Order. Character.--Herbs or shrubs, more or less climbing (fig. 160). Leaves simple, entire, or lobed, alternate, or opposite; flowers regular, bisexual, axillary, or terminal. Perianth 5-parted, with all its divisions alike. Stamens 6, in two series; pistil 1, superior. Fruit a capsule, 3-angled; stigma 6. Fruit baccate (fig. 160), few or many-seeded. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.--The species of this order are scattered over various parts of the world, both in tropical and temperate regions. The genus Dioscorea is most abundant in tropical America. Examples of the Genera: Dioscorea. DISCOBRACTEA. SMILACEE. Natural Order 253. SMILACEE.--The Sarsaparilla Order. Character.--Herbs or shrubs, more or less climbing (fig. 160). Leaves simple, entire, or lobed, alternate, or opposite; flowers regular, bisexual, axillary, or terminal. Perianth 5-parted, with all its divisions alike. Stamens 6, in two series; pistil 1, superior. Fruit a capsule, 3-angled; stigma 6. Fruit baccate (fig. 160), few or many-seeded. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.--The species of this order are scattered over various parts of the world, both in tropical and temperate regions. The genus Dioscorea is most abundant in tropical America. Examples of the Genera: Dioscorea. DISCOCRACEAE. SMILACEE. Natural Order 202. DISOCRACEAE.--The Year Order. Character.--Herbs or shrubs, more or less climbing (fig. 160). Leaves simple, entire, or lobed, alternate, or opposite; flowers regular, bisexual, axillary, or terminal. Perianth 5-parted, with all its divisions alike. Stamens 6, in two series; pistil 1, superior. Fruit a capsule, 3-angled; stigma 6. Fruit baccate (fig. 160), few or many-seeded. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.--The species of this order are scattered over various parts of the world, both in tropical and temperate regions. The genus Dioscorea is most abundant in tropical America. Examples of the Genera: Dioscorea. DISCOBRACTEA. SMILACEE. Natural Order 253. SMILACEE.--The Sarsaparilla Order. Character.--Herbs or shrubs, more or less climbing (fig. 160). Leaves simple, entire, or lobed, alternate, or opposite; flowers regular, bisexual, axillary, or terminal. Perianth 5-parted, with all its divisions alike. Stamens 6, in two series; pistil 1, superior. Fruit a capsule, 9/22 894 TRILLIACEE. Ripogonum. There are probably about 120 species, but some botanists make the number considerably more. **Properties and Uses.** The plants of this order generally possess alterative properties. Fig. 1036. A portion of a branch, with leaves and fruit, of *Smilax* *pseudoxylon*. Ripogonum peruvianum is a native species to Surinamville, (the South.) It is a native of New Zealand, where it is much used as a remedial agent. **Smilax.**—The roots of several species of varieties of *Smilax* constitute the *Sarsaparilla.* The root of *S. officinalis* is the most valuable, and in some countries justly so, as a valuable alterative. It is extensively em- ployed in aphrodisia, various cutaneous diseases, rheumatism, and many other ailments. The root of *S. aspera,* which is very similar, has been as- teemed that called *Jamaica Sarsaparilla,* although it is not the produce of that island. The root of *S. ovata* is also employed in the same manner. This kind is alone official in the British Pharmacopoeia. Other kinds of sarsaparilla are found in the West Indies, and in South America. The Cyn. from *R. sedoides* Linnæus, Para, or Brazilian, from *S. purpurea*, and pro- bably also from *S. aspera,* are also employed in the same manner. The root of *S. peruviana* I believe, S. *purpurea* and Guayabu from an unknown species. Several other species are found in the West Indies and parts of the world, as S. capensis in the South of Europe, whose roots are termed Italian sarsaparilla; S. officinalis in India; S. australis in Australia; S. Macassarensis in the Philippines, and &c.; among which I have not mentioned one which grows wild in the south of China; the root of the materia medica; but others refer to it as *Jew's of Wallis* or *Jew's of Tahiti.* Order No. 254. TRILLIACEE.—The Trillium or Paris Order. Character.—Unbranched herbs, with rhizomose or tuberous root-stocks. Leaves whorled, not articulated, net-veined; stem short or long; flowers regular or irregular; perianthine. Ferns: inferior, with 0–6 parts, arranged in 2 rows; the parts usually all alike, or those on each side somewhat larger and smaller than the others. Ovary superior, 3–5-celled, with a corresponding Nature's Booklet No. 254 ROXBURGIACEAE. PHILESIACEAE. LILIACEAE. 895 number of styles and stigmas; *pistillate* axile. Fruit succulent, 3-5-celled. Seeds numerous, albuminous; embryo minute. **Distribution.** Examples, and Numbers. —Natives of the tem- perate parts of the Northern Hemisphere. Species of the Genus — Paris, Trillium. There are about 30 species. **Properties.** The leaves are diuretic; the roots are supposed to be narcotic, astringent, or purgative, but none are employed in regular practice. **Trillium.** The root of *Trillium erectum (panaxum)*, under the name of Bettina, is used in the United States as a remedy against astomatosis, tonic, and antispasmodic. It is especially used in menorrhagia. Natural Order 255. ROXBURGIACEAE. —The Roxburghiae Order. Characters. —Flowers regular, 6-parted; perianth with 6 free petals; Leaves net-veined, leathery, broad. Flowers large and showy, solitary, hermaphrodite. Perianth inferior, with 4 petaloid divisions; ovary superior, 1-celled, with a basal placenta; stigma sessile. Fruit a berry or drupe; seeds numerous, clustered, anatropous; embryo in the axis of flaky albumen. **Distribution.** Examples, Numbers, and Properties. —They are natives of the temperate parts of the Northern Hemisphere, but not yet in this country. Natural Order 256. PHILESIACEAE. —The Philesiaceae Order. Diagnosis. —The plants of this order are closely allied to the Roxburghiaceae; but they differ from them in being distin- guished by their hexamerous perianth and androecium, perigynous stamens, and anatropous ovules. They are natives of Chile. There are 2 genera, — Philemis and Lagarostegia, and 2 species. In their properties they are said to be diuretic and purgative. Natural Order 257. LILIACEAE. —The Lily Order. —Chama- liliums (Ag.) 257–258; *Lilium* (Ag.) 259–260; *Hymenocallis* (Ag.) 260; with bulbs (Ag.) 255–256), rhizomes (Ag.) 259–260), or tuberous or fibrous roots. Stem simple or branched (Ag.) 257). Leaves with parallel veins (Ag.) 257–258); or palmate (Ag.) 257–258); or pinnate (Ag.) 257–258); or compound (Ag.) 257–258). Flowers regular (Ag.) 257–258); or irregular (Ag.) 257–258). Perianth with 6 free petals (Ag.) 257–258); or with 3 free petals (Ag.) 257–258); or with 3 free petals and a median sepal (Ag.) 257–258). Stamens 6 (Ag.) 257–258); or with one sepal (Ag.) 257–258); or with one sepal and one lateral petal (Ag.) 257–258). Ovary superior (Ag.) 257–258); or with a basal placenta (Ag.) 257–258); or with a basal placenta and a median sepal (Ag.) 257–258). Fruit a berry or drupe; seeds numerous, clustered; embryo in the axis of flaky albumen. Flowers regular. Perianth inferior, 6-leaved or 6-parted. Ovary superior; 3-celled. Species 6 ; authors introrse. 696 LILIACEAE. 1. undivided. Fruit indehiscent or a loculicidal capsule. Seeds numerous, albuminous. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—They are widely dis- tributed throughout the temperate, warm, and tropical regions. Fig. 1063. Fig. 1061. Fig. 1062. Fig. 1065. Fig. 1064. Fig. 1063. Fig. 1065. Fig. 1064. Fig. 1063. Fig. 1065. Fig. 1064. Fig. 1065. Fig. 1064. Fig. 1065. Fig. 1063. Fig. 1064. Fig. 1065. Fig. 1063. Fig. 1064. Fig. 1065. Fig. 1064. Fig. 1065. of the globe. Examples of the Genera:—Tulipa, Lilium, Aloe, Scilla, Hyacinthina, Asparagus. There are about 1,300 species. Proprietary drugs of plants are frequently possess important properties, but there is no great unifor- mity in their chemical composition; some yield alkaloids, diaphoretic, stimulant, acrio, &c. Several yield astrigent substances, and many produce valuable fibres. The bulbs, 9/22 LILIACEAE. 697 young shoots, roots, and seeds of which are highly esteemed, and largely consumed as articles of food and condiments. **Allium.—The bulbs of several species of this genus are well known medicinal articles, and are extensively used as condiments under the names of "onions," "shallots," "garlic," etc., and are also employed as flavorings in medicine; thus, externally applied, they are rubefacients, i.e., and inter- nally, emetics, diuretics, and stimulants. The bulb of Allium sativum is what we call garlic. Garlic is still official in the United States Pharmacopoeia. All the species of Allium are aromatic, but the most important of its ingredients. Some species when cultivated in warm dry regions lose much of their aromatic qualities. The following species are commonly cultivated: Allium cepa, or **Onion**, a. **Allium sativum**, the Common Garlic; A. cepa, the Onion; A. fistulosum, the Wild Onion; A. ramosum, the Shalot; A. fistulosum var. bulbosum, the Scurvy root; A. fistulosum var. bulbosum, the Scurvy root has succulent leaves (q.v. 1061). The perigynous type of flower is the inspissated juice obtained from the perianth of the flower. The bulb is a modified stem. The bulb of several commercial varieties of Allium are known, but the origin of some is not known with certainty. The common onion, Allium cepa L., is called *Bartholomaei Allium*. *Perry* has been recently proved to be the same as *Bartholomaei Allium*. The wild onion, *A. ramosum*, is a native of Europe, for, as was first shown by Dr. Fries, the difference between these two species is only in the shape of the leaves and in the number of stamens respectively. *Scurvy root*, *A. fistulosum*, and *A. fistulosum var. bulbosum* are natives of North America and are not found in any other part of the world. Other commercial varieties of Allium are known as *Natal onion*, *Natal onion*, *Natal onion*, *Natal onion*, *Natal onion*, *Natal onion*, *Natal onion*, and *Natal onion*. Their sources are not accurately known. *Albus* is used in meal as a substitute for wheat flour. **Agromyza.—A. officinale,** Agromyzine.—The young, merchant shoots called "cabbage" or "cabbage" are used in cooking as a vegetable. These, and the flowers, and flowering stems, are sometimes employed as diuretics. The young shoots are also used medicinally as a diuretic. The source of more attention than it has of late years received. Agromyza is also popu- larly known as a substitute for coffee beans in making coffee. **Baccharis.—A native of Turkey—Baccharis is called Turkish Schabracke, which is employed as a diuretic and emmenagogue. The Morocco drug called "Baccharis" is a plant which grows wild on the banks of the Nile. Common Baccharis has edible bulbs, which are used by the North American Indians as a vegetable. **Daucus carota.—Daucus carota,** Daucus carota (q.v.) yields a root resembling Dragon's Blood; but it is now little known in commerce. (See **Dragon's Blood**.) It is said that it was formerly used by sailors who were taked, and remains largely by the inhabitants of the Sandwich Islands. A horseradish-like root is obtained from this plant, and its leaves are employed as fodder for cattle, and for cleaning and other domestic purposes. **Liliaceae.—The bulbs of several species, as those of *Lilium longiflorum*, L., ammi- tis*, L., *Lilium candidum*, L., *Lilium bulbiferum*, L., *Lilium longiflorum*, *Phalaris arundinacea*—This plant is a native of New Zealand. The fibre known as flax is obtained from this plant (q.v.). It was introduced into New Zea- land under the name of New Zealand Flax. It is much used for twine and cordage. The fibre contains about 35% cellulose and 65% lignin; hence, one hun- dredth of the annual value of about $5000 is prepared from it. It was re- cently discovered that this fibre can be made into paper instead of flax paper which may be made from it; very little commercial progress has been made 698 **MELANTHEACEAE.** with this material. Its root has been recommended as a substitute for henbane. *Polypogonum officinale* (Linné) **(synonym)**. The rhizome of this, and probably that of *P. virgatum*, is used as a stimulant by the natives of the South- American States. They are employed as a valuable application to remove the means from the body of the poison, and to prevent its effects. *Hevea brasiliensis*, Butcher's Broom (fig. 404), has apertine and diuretic virtues, while its leaves have been used as a purgative. The roasted seeds have been used as a substitute for coffee. *Rourea* species, with their large, showy flowers, are very strong and tough thorns, which are known under the names of African Hemp and Bowstring Hemp. *Pentarrhenium* (Sm.) or Scilla or Scilla species. The bulb of this species is the most valuable medicinal plant of the genus. It is a bulbous perennial, with erect and pectinate and divaricate, and in larger sizes also as ericoid and carthifera. In executive duties it is employed in the treatment of affections of the brain, and possesses analgesic properties. Two active principles have been known for some time as being present in the bulb, but they have not yet been found to possess excurrent and diuretic properties, and not poisonous; and the ether with- out any value in medicine. The bulb is also employed in the treatment of the former has been called scillae, the latter scillae. Scilla has recently, how- ever, found a new use in medicine, as a remedy for certain affections of the ner- vius, and he infers that the medicinal activity of scillae depends upon the two forms of the plant. *Keitartorum* (Sm.). The species of this genus are commonly known in New South Wales as "Bull's Blood" or "Bloodroot." The roots are red or purple; those afford fodder for cattle, and their young leaves and buds are eaten as a vegetable. One species is cultivated in England for its ornamental qualities; one of which is known as the Tulip root of New Holland or Bombay Root. The other is known as the Bloodroot or Blood-Root Gum. The latter appears to be the product of A. acidae. Both roots excite purgative action, and are employed in the treatment of affections against blamalnous odor. They have been recommended for use in the preparation of patchi, and particularly in those cases where tincture and whole bulbs are employed. A few plants belonging to this tribe which contain red or purple substances belong to the name of Adonis nivalis, yield thorns, but these are little used. The leaves of *J. hirsutum*, *J. cernua*, *J. alpina*, *J. sylvestris*, *J. alpina*, *J. alpina*, *J. alpina*, *J. alpina*, *J. alpina*, *J. alpina*, *J. alpina*, *J. alpina*, *J. alpina*, *J. alpina*, *J. alpina*, *J. alpina*, *J. alpina*, *J. alpina*, *J. alpina*, *J. alpina*, *J. alpina*, *J. alpina*, *J. alpina*, *J. alpina*, *J. alpina*, *J. alpina*, *J. alpina*, *J. alpina*, *J. alpina*, *J. alpina*, *J. alpina*, *J. alpina*, *J. alpina*, *J. alpina*, *J. alpina*, *J. alpina*, *J. alpina*, *J. alpina*, *J. alpina*, *J. alpina*, *J. alpina*, *J. alpina*, *J. alpina*, *J. alpina*, *J. alpina*, *J. alpina*, *J. alpina*, *J. alpina*, *J. alpina*. **MELANTHEACEAE.** 89 sexual. Perianth inferior, 6-partite or 6-leaved. Stamens 6 ; anthers extrorse. Ovary superior; style 3-branching. Fruit a sessile capsule, usually 3-valved, rarely 2-valved, seeds numerous, almonious. *Dahlias.* Examples, and Names.—Generally diffused, but most abundant in Europe, North America, and the northern parts of Asia. *Examples of the Genus:* Amaryllis, Veratrum, *Veratrum album*, *V. nigrum*, *V. officinale*. Properties and Use.—The plants of this order are almost Fig. 1065. Fig. 1067. Fig. 1065. Flowering plant of the *Meadow Saffron* (*Crocus sativus* var. *sativus*). Fig. 1067. The flower of *Veratrum album*. The perianth is arranged in two whorls; six stamens; and a single ovary. Fig. 1068. Fig. 1069. naturally poisonous owing to the presence of powerful alkaloids. Both *Crocus* and *Veratrum* several are valuable medicines, possessing emetic, purgative, diuretic, acrid, and narcotic properities. *Amaryllis officinalis* or *Schizanthus officinalis.*—This plant, a native of Mexico, is the source of the official Cruddasia or Sabadilla, of the British Pharmacopoeia. The leaves are used medicinally; the bulbs, which are sold alone are now, however, commonly exported. Cruddasia is principally em- ployed as a diuretic; its action is similar to that of the common diuretic in the seeds. Veratrum has been used externally as a rubefacient, in rheu- matism, and in cases of dropsy; it is also employed internally in similar affections in doses of one-twelfth to one-eighth of a grain. It is a most pow- erful poison; it is fatal in doses of one-tenth of a grain; it is highly toxic. They are called *ice seeds* by the Germans, because when powdered and applied externally, they destroy vermin. A close-up view of a flower bud with six petals and a central cluster of stamens. A close-up view of a flower bud with six petals and a central cluster of stamens. 700 GILLIESACEAE. PONTEDERACEAE. Calycium—The stemless, Culmum or Meadow Saffron—Both the seeds and corals of this plant are official in the British, Indian, and United States Pharmacopoeia. The seeds are used in the treatment of rheumatism; but in improper doses they act as a narcotic and irritant poison. They cause throbbing pain, headache, and vomiting. The leaves are also official in the United States Pharmacopoeia. The once celebrated French nostrum for good, called Loci medicamenti of Hahnenkamm, was made from the leaves of Calycium. The leaves, especially the latter, are irritable to the touch, and hence this plant, which is more valuable than its name implies, is not often used. The leaves could be eradicated as far as possible from the pasture in which it is found. The flowers are said to have been used by the ancient Egyptians, and are largely employed by them in diseases of the brain, have been shown by French authors to be a powerful stimulant, and are official in the Pharmacopoeia of the present day. Some other Herba medicinae had a different origin. Ceratonia—the species of this genus do not possess the usual poisonous properties of the Solanaceae, but appear to be simply astringent in their effects. Pistacia—The species of this genus are official in the United States Pharmacopoeia. The Holunder berries contain several barks, the most important being the blackberry (Rubus fruticosus), which contains a bitter tannin. The Holunder is a poisonous-pesticide plant. It has been used internally as an emetic, and externally as a purgative and antiseptic. The berries of Holunder are now used in the preparation of a syrup for the treatment of American colic and bronchial asthma, as an antiseptic under the name of American Holunder. 24-hour Holunder syrups are acting as a purgative and anti-inflammatory adhesives. 24-hour Holunder syrups are acting as an expectorant and antiseptic. The following species of Holunder are official in the British, Indian, and United States Pharmacopoeias: Natural Order 250. GILLIESACEAE.—The Gilliesia Order— Characteristics—Flowers perfect, umbellate, spatheaceous. Persons in two whorls, the outer consisting of 6 or 8 petaloid leaves, the inner sessile or stalked; petals usually 3 or 5; sepals 3 or 6; calyx tubular and 6-toothed. The outer portion of the perianth is regarded by Lindley as a calyx; but it is not so in all genera. The flowers are 3 or 5 staminate. (Genera superior, 3-celled.) Fruit a loculicidal capsule, 3-seeded. Seeds numerous, with a black brittle testa; embryo curved in one plane. Districhium, Examples, and Numbers—they are natives of Chili. Thalictrum, Examples, Numbers, and Numbers—their uses are unknown. Natural Order 251. PONTEDERACEAE.—The Pontederia Order— Characters—Plants aquatic or semi-aquatic; growing at the base, with occasionally distichous petioles. Flowers irregular, spatheaceous; sepals 3 or 6; petals 3 or 5; stamens 3 or 6; pistil persistent; anthers interne. Fruit capulose, occasionally somewhat subulate; seeds numerous with many albumen. Jussiaea, Examples, Numbers, and Numbers—they are natives of the East India Islands, Africa, and America. Examples of the Genera.—Leptanthus, Pontederia. There are above 30 species. Their properties are unimportant. A small illustration showing a plant with long stems and narrow leaves. **MATACEE.** COMMELINACEE. XYRIDACEE. 701 Natural Order 261. **MATACEE.**—The Mayace Order.--Inoperculate, herbaceous, with opposite leaves. They are closely allied to Commelinaeae, from which they differ in their habit; their 1-celled anthers; their 1-celled ovary and fruit; and in the position of the stamens being opposite to the inner segments of the perianth. *Osmorhiza* (Osmorhizaceae).—These are found in America from Brazil to Virginia. *Mariposa* is the only genus, of which there are 4 species. Their properties and uses are unknown. Natural Order 262. **COMMELINACEE.**—The Spider-Wort Order.---Herbaceous, with opposite leaves, usually sheathing base. Inferior inflorescence, more or less irregular, in 6 parts arranged in two whorls; the outer parts being green, perianth-segments 3-5, the inner ones white or yellow. Stamens 3 or 6, some generally abortive, hypogynous; anthers 2-celled, the upper cell long-stalked, the lower sessile. Capsule 2-3-celled, 2-1-valved, with loculicidal dehiscentis and axile placentation. Seeds few, with a linear hilum; embryo endospermous; a pulley, remote from the hilum, in dense bulky albumen. *Dichorisandra.*—Native of South America; chiefly natives of India, Africa, Australia, and the West Indies. Examples of the Genera:--Commelina, Tradescantia. There are about 100 species. Properties and Uses.—Their properties are unimportant. The rhizomes of some species are used as a vegetable; others are poisonous. The fruits contain much starch; when cooked are edible. Others have been reputed antirheumatic and vulnerary. Natural Order 263. **XYRIDACEE.**—The Xyris Order.--Character.--Sedglike herbs. Leaves radical, sheathing, erect or ascending; petiole short or wanting. Inflorescence: Perianth inferior, 6-partite, arranged in two whorls; the outer whorl of petals usually white or yellowish; the inner petals united and loided. Stamens 6; 3 fertile and inserted on the peltoidan portion; anthers exserte. Ovary superior, 1-celled, with parietal placentation; seeds numerous, orthotropous; embryo minute, on the outside of fleshly albumen. Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—Exclusively natives of tropical and subtropical regions. Examples of the Genera:--Xyris, Heteropogon. Properties and Uses.—Unimportant. The leaves and roots of some species of Xyris have been employed in cutaneous affections. Natural Order 264. **PHLEBODEACEE.**—The Water-wort Order.--Characters.--Herbaceous plants with opposite leaves; endormic, sheathing. Flowers surrounded by spathaceous perianth bracts, salutary. Perianth inferior, in 1 whorl, 2-leaved, A small illustration of a plant from the Xyridaceae family. 703 PHILYDRACEAE. JUNCACEAE. petaloid. *Sesame* 3, of which are abortive; *filandra* united, *Oenothera* superior, 3-celled, with axile placenta. Fruit a loculicidal capsule. Seeds numerous with an embryo in the axis of filaria, abortive. Distribution. *Examples*, *Numbers*, and *Properties*.—They are natives of China, Cochin China, and New Holland. There are two genera, but only one species is known to us. The proper properties and uses are unknown. **Nuttall's Juncus** (Juncus nuttallii). The Book Order (figs. 1070 and 1071). Sedge or grass-like herba with tufted or fibrous roots. Leaves with parallel veins, petiolate or more or less flattened and green, or sometimes purplish; *Petiole* persistent. *Perianth* inferior, 6-partite (fig. 1070), persistent. *Sesame* 3 (fig. 1070), or 5; pterygous ; anthers. Figs. 1070. Figs. 1071. Fig. 1070. Flower of a species of Wood-sedge (*Luzula*), having an inferior perianth with 6 segments and a persistent corolla with a style and stigma (fig., Fig. 1071). Vertical section of the base of the stem. Interno-2-celled. *Oenothera* superior (fig. 1070). 1–3-celled : style 1 (fig. 1070) or 2 (fig. 1071); ovary sessile or pedicellate; loculicidal capsule, 3-valved, and with 1 or many seeds in each cell ; rarely 1-celled, 1-seeded, and indolent ; embryo very minute, in filaria or abortive fruit. Distribution. *Examples*, *Numbers*,—few are found in tropical climates; most are found in temperate and warm-temperate climates. *Examples* of the Green—*Luzula*, *Juncus*, *Nardus*. There are about 500 species. Properties.—The medicinal properties of the juncaceae are unimportant, although some have a reputation as antihistamines and diuretics; they are used in the treatment of gout and dropsy in India. The pale cellular tissue at the base of some of the leaves of certain species is occasionally eaten. The chief use, however, to which these plants are put is for making rush mats and the bottoms of chairs, etc. The leaves of the species of *Juncus* are used for making rush mats; the internal cellular substance of the leafy leaves of *Juncus*, which is commonly called the pith, is also employed for the wicks of rushlights. ACORACEAE. PALMAE. 703 In China, a description of this cellular matter is also much used as indicating medicinal properties of plants. It is likewise em- ployed in the manufacture of sun-hats, resembling those made in India from *Achrocephale* species, but they are not so durable as the latter, which are made of the leaves of the *Corylus*. Natural Order 96. ACORACE Or OROCHTACE.——The Sweet Flag or Ostrum Order.—Character.—Herbs. Flowers per- fect, usually with 5 petals, usually without stamens, without calyx. Perianth absent, or composed of scales, which are inferior. Flowers regular, or irregular; corolla regular; calyx regular or irregular; stamens 5, hypogynous or perigynous. Corolla regular, or irregular; calyx regular or irregular; stamens 5, hypogynous or perigynous. Corolla regular, or irregular; calyx regular or irregu- lar; stamens 5, hypogynous or perigynous. This order is commonly regarded as a division of the Lindleyan order of the Liliaceae, on account of its plants possessing perfect flowers. **Dichrostachia**, *Eranthis*, and *Numbers*.—They are found in cold, temperate regions. The first two are natives of Europe; —*Calla*. *Orontium*. There are about 70 species. Proprietary names. The following genera have acrid properties, but this acridity may usually be got rid of by drying and by heat, and then the rhizomes of certain species are employed in medicine; such as *Caulis*, *Caulis*, *Caulis* modic., expectorant., or diaphoretic. **Calamus**. *Caulis*. Sweet Flag.——The rhizome is an aromatic stimulant, and is used in medicine as a stimulant to the heart and nerves, and useful adjacent to other stimulants and bitter tonics. It is reputed to be sometimes effective against the plague. The rhizome is used in India against the Turkeze as a preventive against contagion. In India the rhizome is occasionally used in medicine as a stimulant to the heart and nerves, and for the relief of flatulence. The volatile oil which may be obtained from it by distillation is used for medicinal purposes. **Caulis** pectoralis has anal choler, but by drying, washing, grinding, and heating it becomes a stimulant to the heart and nerves. **Dichrostachia**.——The roots from *D. polyphylla* are in vogue in Malabar for the treatment of flatulence. **Symphorema** falcata. Skunk Cabbage.—The root has a very fast action upon the stomach, and is said to be an excellent remedy for all noxious nervous stimulants, and hence used in ophthalmia, asthma, hooping-cough, and other diseases. Its properties are much improved by keeping. Natural Order 267. PALMAE.——The Palm Order.—Char- acter.—Trees or shrubs, with simple unbranched (Fig. 188, 1), or compound branched (Fig. 188, 2) stems; leaves alternate or ter- minal (Fig. 188, 1), large, with sheathing stalks. **Flowers perfect** (Figs. 1074 and 1075) or unisexual (Figs. 1072 and 1073), arranged in terminal panicles (Figs. 1074 and 1075); stamens usually by a apathus. Perianth inferior in two whorls, each of which is composed of one part (Figs. 1072 and 1073). **Stamens** (Figs. 1072 and 1074), 5 or numerous, hypogynous or perigynous 704 PALMACEAE. Ovary superior (figs. 1074 and 1075), 1—3. (fig. 1073) celled. Fruit (figs. 1076 to 1080). The fruit is a berry with a minute umbellicum (figs. 1076, e, and 1077), in a cavity of the albumen (fig. 1076, a; albumen, flabby or horny (figs. 1076, and 1077); fig. 1078). Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—Most of the plants are tropical, but a few occur in temperate regions. Examples of the genera are: *Cocos* (fig. 1079), *Caryota* (fig. 1080), *Caryota* (fig. 1081), *Caryota* (fig. 1082), *Caryota* (fig. 1083), *Caryota* (fig. 1084), *Caryota* (fig. 1085), *Caryota* (fig. 1086), *Caryota* (fig. 1087), *Caryota* (fig. 1088), *Caryota* (fig. 1089), *Caryota* (fig. 1090), *Caryota* (fig. 1091), *Caryota* (fig. 1092), *Caryota* (fig. 1093), *Caryota* (fig. 1094), *Caryota* (fig. 1095), *Caryota* (fig. 1096), *Caryota* (fig. 1097), *Caryota* (fig. 1098), *Caryota* (fig. 1099), *Caryota* (fig. 1100), *Caryota* (fig. 1101), *Caryota* (fig. 1102), *Caryota* (fig. 1103), *Caryota* (fig. 1104), *Caryota* (fig. 1105), *Caryota* (fig. 1106), *Caryota* (fig. 1107), *Caryota* (fig. 1108), *Caryota* (fig. 1109), *Caryota* (fig. 1110), *Caryota* (fig. 1111), *Caryota* (fig. 1112), *Caryota* (fig. 1113), *Caryota* (fig. 1114), *Caryota* (fig. 1115), *Caryota* (fig. 1116), *Caryota* (fig. 1117), *Caryota* (fig. 1122). Figs. 362. Fig. 362. Fig. 363. Fig. 364. Fig. 365. Fig. 366. Fig. 367. Fig. 368. Fig. 369. Fig. 370. Fig. 372. Fig. 373. Fig. 374. Fig. 375. Fig. 376. Fig. 377. Fig. 378. Fig. 379. Fig. 380. Fig. 382. Fig. 383. Fig. 384. Fig. 385. Fig. 386. Fig. 387. Fig. 388. Fig. 389. Fig. 390. Fig. 392. Fig. 394. Fig. 395. Fig. 396. Fig. 397. Fig. 398. Fig. 422. Figures of the Palm Family 422 Figs., page No. 422 Figs., page No. 422 Figs., page No. 422 Figs., page No. 422 Figs., page No. 422 Figs., page No. 422 Figs., page No. 422 Figs., page No. 422 Figs., page No. 422 Figs., page No. 422 Figs., page No. 422 Figs., page No. 422 Figs., page No. 422 Figs., page No. 422 Figs., page No. 422 Figs., page No. 422 Figs., page No. 422 Figs., page No. 422 Figs., page No. 422 Figs., page No. 422 Figs., page No. 422 Figs., page No. 422 Figs., page No. 422 Figs., page No. 422 Figs., page No. 422 Figs., page No. 422 Figs., page No. 422 Figs., page No. 422 Figs., page No. 422 Figs., page No. 422 Figs., page No. 422 Properties and Uses.—Of all orders of plants, there is none, with the exception of the palm, which has been so much used by man as regards their dietetical and economic applications as that of the Palms: These plants supply him with sugar, starch, oil, wax, wine, vinegar, and many other articles of food and seeds: Their terminal leaf-buds, when boiled, are eaten as a vegetable: Their leaves are employed in various ways, as for thatching, materials for writing upon, and in the manufacture of PALMACEM. 705 hate, matting, &c.; their wood is applied to many useful pur- poses; the flowers of these trees yield fruits, properly maturable for coirage, cloth, and various other textile fabrics; and the hard albumen of their seeds is applicable in many ways. But it is a mistake to suppose that the fruits of these trees are of impor- tance; indeed, they do not supply any important article of the material world; but the seeds of some of them are very valuable, and are more value, and in frequent use as medicinal agents. **Arecus.—A. Catechu, the Betel Nut Palm.** The seeds known under the name of Betel nuts or Areca Nut; they are offered in the British Pharmacies under the name of Betel Nut, and are used in India as a substitute for Ceylon nutmeg. The fruit of this tree, Arecus catechu, which is said to constitute the commercial variety of catechu, known as Columba catechu, is prepared in Ceylon. It is the Betel Nut Cassia of Persea. In its pe- culiar form it is called "Betel Nut" (see page 386). In India, the Catechu and the official Catechu from Ceylon (see Decumus). Arecus nuts on account of their high price are imported into India mainly in diseases. The powdered seeds or nuts have been long employed as an ingredient in medicines. They are also used in India as a substitute for Pharmaceuticals, on account of its supposed efficacy in promoting the expe- lution of worms. The seeds are also used in India as a substitute for Charcoal, prepared from the Areca nut is termed Areca charcoal and is used for this purpose. The Areca nut is a very valuable article of commerce, over that of ordinary charcoal. The Betel Nut is one of the ingredients in the famous Indian medicine called "Chamrak," which is made by mixing the finest leaflets with the leaves used in making its opium. **Areca nut,** when being eaten being eaten as a vegetable. **Arecus.—A. Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the Gummi-Carminative, the GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI CARMINATIVE THE GUMMI Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinatives The Carcinativos.** **Arecus.—A. Fimbriata Mart.**—The fruits of this species are largely im- ported into India from Ceylon and other countries where it grows wild. Their pericarp is very hard and firm a useful material for making baskets and other articles of workmanship. These fruits of this species supply another variety of Phalsa (known in commerce as Columba Fimbriata), which is used in India as a substitute for Catha edulis Fimbriata. (See Decumus.) This fruit is obtained from Ceylon. Other species of Arecus are cultivated in India. One kind of A. Catechu (the Betel Nut) a fatty oil may be obtained. They have been used for this purpose since ancient times. Another species (A. Fimbriata) are much esteemed in India; and their leaves are also used for making tea. Ac- cording to tradition they were introduced into India by Alexander and his troops and are now grown in large quantities in India. Palmyra trees also yield a kind of palm-leaf fiber which is used for making baskets. **Colona.—Several kinds of walking-canes are obtained from species of** 12 708 PALMACEAE. this genus, as C. Sempervirens the Palmae canae ; C. Rotundifolia and C. Rudbeckia. Bastian's name. Furfuraceae, can be seen in the savannas are also the plants of unidentified species—C. Sempervirens, C. Sempervirens, and other species, are like- wise botanically unknown. The leaves of these trees are large, broad, and flat, and for both bottoms, are. About twenty miles are annually im- ported, the palm oil is used in the manufacture of soap, and is proba- bly only one species, in the chief source of the antarctic regions between lakes, as well as in the manufacture of soap, and is probably only one species, in the chief source of the antarctic regions between lakes, as well as in the manufacture of soap, and is probably only one species, in the chief source of the antarctic regions between lakes, as well as in the manufacture of soap, and is probably only one species, in the chief source of the antarctic regions between lakes, as well as in the manufacture of soap, and is probably only one species, in the chief source of the antarctic regions between lakes, as well as in the manufacture of soap, and is probably only one species, in the chief source of the antarctic regions between lakes, as well as in the manufacture of soap, and is probably only one species, in the chief source of the antarctic regions between lakes, as well as in the manufacture of soap, and is probably only one species, in the chief source of the antarctic regions between lakes, as well as in the manufacture of soap, and is probably only one species, in the chief source of the antarctic regions between lakes, as well as in the manufacture of soap, and is probably only one species, in the chief source of the antarctic regions between lakes, as well as in the manufacture of soap, and is probably only one species, in the chief source of the antarctic regions between lakes, as well as in the manufacture of soap, and is probably only one species, in the chief source of the antarctic regions between lakes, as well as in the manufacture of soap, and is probably only one species, in the chief source of the antarctic regions between lakes, as well as in the manufacture of soap, and is probably only one species, in the chief source of the antarctic regions between lakes, as well as in the manufacture of soap, and is probably only one species, in the chief source of the antarctic regions between lakes, as well as in the manufacture of soap, and is probably only one species, in the chief source of the antarctic regions between lakes, as well as in the manufacture of soap, and is probably only one species, in the chief source of the antarctic regions between lakes, as well as in the manufacture of soap, and is probably only one species, in the chief source of the antarctic regions between lakes, as well as in the manufacture of soap, and is probably only one species, in the chief source of the antarctic regions between lakes, as well as in the manufacture of soap, and is probably only one species, in the chief source of the antarctic regions between lakes, as well as in the manufacture of soap, and is probably only one species, in the chief source of the antarctic regions between lakes, as well as in the manufacture of soap, and is probably only one species, in the chief source of the antarctic regions between lakes, as well as in the manufacture of soap, and is probably only one species, in the chief source of the antarctic regions between lakes, as well as in the manufacture of soap, and is probably only one species, in the chief source of the antarctic regions between lakes, as well as in the manufacture of soap, and is probably only one species, in the chief source of the antarctic regions between lakes, as well as in the manufacture of soap, and is probably only one species, in the chief source of the antarctic regions between lakes, as well as in the manufacture of soap, and is probably only one species, in the chief source of the antarctic regions between lakes, as well as in the manufacture of soap, and is probably only one species, in the chief source of the antarctic regions between lakes, as well as in the manufacture of soap, and is probably only one species, in the chief source of the antarctic regions between lakes, as well as in the manufacture of soap, and is probably only one species, in the chief source of the antarctic regions between lakes, as well as in Corypha areca.—From this palm sugar may be produced; and its juice forms a kind of today or palm wine. From this tree comes also a kind called "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "Corypha" or "C Coryphahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahahaha 708 Palmaceae. This genus includes several genera which are known to contain oils. The leaves are large and broad. The leaves are large and broad. The leaves are large and broad. The leaves are large and broad. The leaves are large and broad. The leaves are large and broad. The leaves are large and broad. The leaves are large and broad. The leaves are large and broad. The leaves are large and broad. The leaves are large and broad. The leaves are large and broad. The leaves are large and broad. The leaves are large and broad. The leaves are large and broad. The leaves are large and broad. The leaves are large and broad. The leaves are large and broad. The leaves are large and broad. The leaves are large and broad. The leaves are large and broad. The leaves are large and broad. The leaves are large and broad. The leaves are large and broad. The leaves are large and broad. The leaves are large and broad. The leaves are large and broad. The leaves are large and broad. The leaves are large and broad. The leaves are large and broad. The leaves are large and broad. The leaves are large and broad. The leaves are large and broad. The leaves are large and broad. The leaves are large and broad. The leaves are large and broad. The leaves are large and broad. The leaves are large and broad. The leaves are large and broad. The leaves are large and broad. The leaves are large 708 Palmaceae. This genus includes several genera which are known to contain oils. The leaves are large 708 Palmaceae. This genus includes several genera which are known to contain oils. The leaves are larg 708 Palmaceae. This genus includes several genera which are known to contain oils. The leav 708 Palmaceae. This genus includes several genera which are known to contain oils. The leav 708 Palmaceae. This genus includes several genera which are known to contain oils. The leav 708 Palmaceae. This genus includes several genera which are known to contain oils. The leav 708 Palmaceae. 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The leav 708 Palmaceae. This genus includes several genera which are known to contain oils. The leav 708 Palmaceae. This genus includes several genera which are known to contain oils. The leav 708 Palmaceae. This genus includes several genera which are known to contain oils. The leav 708 Palmaceae. This genus includes several genera which are known to contain oils. The leav 708 Palmaceae. This genus includes several genera which are known to contain oils. The leav 708 Palmaceae. This genus includes several genera which are known to contain oils. The leav 708 Palmaceae. This genus includes several genera which are known to contain oils. The leav 708 Palmaceae. This genus includes several genera which are known to contain oils. The leav 708 Palmaceae. This genus includes several genera which are known to contain oils. The leav 708 Palmaceae. This genus includes several genera which are known to contain oils. The leav 708 Palmaceae. This genus includes several genera which are known to contain oils. The leav 708 Palmaceae. This genus includes several genera which are known to contain oils. The leav 708 Palmaceae. This genus includes several genera which are known to contain oils. The leav 708 Palmaceae. This genus includes several genera which are known to contain oils. The leav 708 Palmaceae. This genus includes several genera which are known to contain oils. The leav 708 Palmaceae. This genus includes several genera which are known to contain oils. The leav 708 Palmaceae. This genus includes several genera which are known to contain oils. The leav 1078 1079 **EUTOMACRE. PANDANACEAE.** 709 **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—These plants are prin- cipally found in the northern parts of the world. Examples of the genera are found in all the principal countries, but only general; there about 50 species. **Properties and Uses.—Of little importance. Many have flabby or malty rhizomes, which are edible when cooked. Others possess astrigent properities. **Pandanus** plumopogon had formerly a reputation for being poisonous, but this is not true. **Natural Order 270. EUTOMACEAE.—The Botanists or Flowering Bushes, or Flowering Plants—Aquatic plants with parallel- veined leaves, sometimes milkies. Flowers perfect (Fig. 83) and either solitary or in cymes of six pieces, arranged in a whorl (Fig. 84). (Cf. 1080), the inner being coloured. Stamens few (Fig. 1080) or mu- norous. Carpels few (Fig. 1080), 3–6 (Fig. 867) or more, more or less united into a tube, numerous, arranged all over the inner surface of the ovaries (Fig. 831). The ovary inferior, separating more or less when ripe into two parts; the seeds are component (Fig. 1081) or without albumen (Fig. 1081). **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—A few plants of this order occur in tropical countries, but the greater number inhabit the northern parts of the world. Examples of the Genera — Botanum, Pandanus.—There are about 7 species. **Properties and Uses.—Of little importance. Botanum uned- lated, the leaves used as a substitute for coffee; Pandanus car- pels, or baccate, and many-edded, and many-seeded. Embryo mineral soil; at the base of many-leaved trees. **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—Exclusively tropical** 1 **Character.—Plants like trees (Fig. 185, 2) or shrubs. Leaves shallowly lobed or pinnatifid; flowers perfect or imperfect; petals single or plural. Flowers universal or polygonous, numerous, arranged on a peduncle or stalked head (Fig. 186); sepals one or two; petals one or two; stamens or scales. Stamens numerous; anthers 2—4-celled. Ovaries 1-celled; ovules solitary or numerous, on parietal placentas. Fruits compound; berries, drupes, or capsules; seeds hard, carpels, or baccate, and many-edded, and many-seeded. Embryo mineral soil; at the base of many-leaved trees. **Natural Order 271. PANDANACEAE.—The Screw-pine Order.** 2 **Character.—Plants like trees (Fig. 185, 2) or shrubs. Leaves shallowly lobed or pinnatifid; flowers perfect or imperfect; petals single or plural. Flowers universal or polygonous, numerous, arranged on a peduncle or stalked head (Fig. 186); sepals one or two; petals one or two; stamens or scales. Stamens numerous; anthers 2—4-celled. Ovaries 1-celled; ovules solitary or numerous, on parietal placentas. Fruits compound; berries, drupes, or capsules; seeds hard, carpels, or baccate, and many-edded, and many-seeded. Embryo mineral soil; at the base of many-leaved trees. **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—Exclusively tropical** A black-and-white illustration of a plant with long leaves and a central stem. .710 TITFAC.E. ARACEE. plantae. Examples of the Genera—*Pandanus*, *Carludovica*. There are about 300 species. **Properfertumus Ums.—None possess any very active properties.** *Pandanus* has edible seeds. The juice which flows from the wounded stem is used by the natives of the Malay Archipelago to make a drink similar to that of wine. The fruit of *Nipa fruticosa* is the staple of India. The young plantain leaves are used in the same way as the leaves furnish the material employed in the manufacture of Panama hats. Natural Order 272. TYPHACEAE. The Bulbush Order— *Charantia*, a genus of tropical shrubs and trees, with rigid, linear, sessile, parallel-veined. Flowers monochlamydes, arranged on a spadix, or a spathe (figs. 1085, 1086). No true perianth, merely long hairs. Male flower with 1 or 2 stamens, one monochlamyde stamen, with long filaments, and innate anthers. Female flower with 1 or 2 stamens, one monochlamyde ovule. Fruit indistinct. Seed with many albumen; embryo axial with a cleft on the side; radicle next the albumen. *Dolichos*, a genus of tropical and warm climates, but they are most abundant in the northern hemisphere. They are mostly herbaceous, except *Dolichos biflorus*, a shrub, and *Spariganum*. These are the only genera; they include about 13 species. **Properties and Uses.—Unimportant.** *Tigges.*—The young shoots of *T. lotifolia* and *T. angustifolia* are some times boiled, and eaten like Asparagus; their rhizomes are also edible; but their roots are poisonous. The young shoots of *T. gigantea* are edible; then that of *S. elephantina* is made into a kind of bread in South America, and that of *S. alba* in New Zealand. Some species are said to be emeticous and diuretic. Natural Order 273. ARACEE.—The Arum Order.—Cha-racter.—Herbs or shrubs with an axon stem, and subterranean tubers, or bulbs, or rhizomes, or corms (figs. 1087, 1088), usually net-venined, simple or rarely compound. Flowers monochlamydes, arranged on a spadix (figs. 389). Perianth none (figs. 1085). Male flower—Stamens few or numerous; anthers extrorse, sessile (figs. 499, or open); unisexual; or rarely 3 or more coiled. Fruit monocarpel (figs. 1082, c). Female flower—Stamens few or numerous; anthers extrorse, sessile (figs. 499, or open); unisexual; or rarely 3 or more coiled. Fruit monocarpel (figs. 1082, c). Anther exalbuminous; embryo axial; slit on one side (See Araceae.). Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—They abound in tro- pical countries throughout the world; but they are rare in temperate regions. Examples of the Genera—*Arum*, *Caladium*, *Richeria*. **Properties and Uses.—The plants of this order are all more or less acid, and often highly poisonous. But this acid principle is frequently neutralized by the presence of other substances which may be in such cases more or less destroyed by drying or exposing to heat** ARACEE. 711 the parts in which it is found. The boat method of getting rid of the acidity is, however, by boiling in water, as the acid matter is commonly soluble in this fluid. Starch is usually A plant with long, thin leaves and a central stem with a bulbous base. Fig. 1082. A plant with long, thin leaves and a central stem with a bulbous base. Fig. 1083. A plant with long, thin leaves and a central stem with a bulbous base. Fig. 1084. A plant with long, thin leaves and a central stem with a bulbous base. Fig. 1085. Fig. 1085. A plant of the Carduaceae (Linn. - Araceae). - A. Form. 1 Leaf. - The bulbous base of the stem. - Fig. 1084. The roots of the same - Fig. 1083. The roots of the same - Fig. 1082. The roots of the same - Fig. 1082. The roots of the same. associated with the acid principle, and when extracted may be used for food like other starches. The underground stems or cornea of many species, when cooked, are eaten in different parts of the world. *Arum* arundinaceum, Dragon Root, Indian Turnip.--From the cornea of this plant a nutritious fascia is obtained in the United States. The cornea is also given to the treatment of certain diseases, and has other effects, and is likewise used extensively as an application to aphthous affections. *Arum*.--The underground stems or cornea of some of the species of this genus are used as food in various parts of the world, such as the *Waké- Rohni*, Cuckoo-pit, or Lentil and Ladin, a native species of this country, are the plants most frequently used for this purpose. I have seen 1 peck of cornea yielding about 3 lbs. of starch. But the preparation of this starchy substance is very laborious, and it is difficult to determine whether the cornea were used medicinally as diuretics and expectorants. When fresh, these plants are an irritant poison.--A. compressum and *A*. *sambucum* produce edible cornea. A plant with long, thin leaves and a central stem with a bulbous base. Fig. 1086. 711 712 **PISTILACEAE OR LEMNACEAE.** Caladium Alopeco.--The corona of this and other species, when worked on with a knife, are white. They are found in the West Indies and in "Tawa" in tropical countries. (See Dioscorea.) Caladium bicolor and other species have large fleshy corona which are used much in the West Indies, Madeira, &c., as food, under the name of Tawa (see Dioscorea). The leaves are also eaten raw, and are considered an edible corona. They are used for food in the Himalayas.--C. antarctica is applied to a plant growing in the South Sea Islands, and is known there as the South Sea Island Tawa. *Hemianthus callitrichoides.*--This plant, which is a native of R. peruvianus, is stated by Holmes to be the botanist's source of the thorny portion of the thorn apple. It is a very common plant in the West Indies, and is often used as a remedy in rheumatism. Its native name is "na yala," or "wala." A. W. Gervais has given it the name *Hemianthus callitrichoides*, which he has named erroneously. The other constituent of Tawa is said to be the inner bark of *Fremontia*. (See Dioscorea.) Natural Order 274. PISTILACEAE OR LEMNACEAE.--The Duck-wood Order.--Character.--Floating aquatic plants (figs. 247), with lenticular or lobed leaves or fronds. Flowers 2 or 3, en- closed in a spadix (figs. 1086), inclosed, or on the margin Fig. 1086. A numerous head of flowers of a species of Duckwood (Lemna) showing the spadix enclosed in a spathe (fig. 1087). The spathe is greenish-yellow, and the spadix is white, with a few yellow stamens at its base; it is surrounded by a spathe, which is white and surmounted by a spathe. --Fig. 1087. Vertical section of a flower-head of Lemna. (fig. 247) or surface of the frond, or in the axils of leaves. Pri- mordium none. Male flower with (fig. 1086) or few stamens, which are often monadelphous. Female flower consisting of a 1-celled ovary (fig. 247) with one or two carpels, which may be more sepalated, membraneous or lacinate, indehiscenl or dehiscent. Distribution: Tropical and Subtropical regions. Examples: Lemna, Nymphaea, and Proserpinaca.--They in- habit cool, temperate, and tropical regions. Examples of the genus Lemna are given below, where there are twenty species. These properties are unimportant. Fig. 1086 Fig. 1087 **NADACACEAE. ZOSTERACEAE.** 718 Natural Order 275. **NADACACEAE.**—The Pondweed Order. Character.—Aquatic plants with jointed cellular stems. Leaves linear, simple, alternate, sessile, and usually small, unisexual (Ags. 1088 and 1089). Perennials either wanting or present (Ags. 1088 and 1090). Flowers small, solitary, hypogynous ; pollens globular. Genuses 1 or more, superior (Ag. 1089) ; creole solitary (Ags. 1090). Fruit 1-celled, 1-seeded (Ag. 1091). Shoots of the perennial variety with a distinct bud. Fig. 1088. Fig. 1089. Fig. 1090. Fig. 1091. Fig. 1088. Two flowers of the Horned Pondweed (Zosteraeae palustris), one showing the perianth and stamens, the other the pistil and ovary, com- posed of four jointed carpels, and the fruit, Impertus. Fig. 1090. Vertical section of a flower of the same plant, showing the structure of the fruit and seed. All magnified. After Lindley. Distribution, Examples, and Properties.—Chiefly found in extra-tropical regions. Examples of the Genera.—Naiaa, Zami- chelus, Zosteraea. Natural Order 276. **ZOSTERACEAE.**—The Sea-wrack Order. Diagnose.—This is a small order of marine plants with the leaves jointed and alternate, but differing from those of the Nadacaceae, but from which they are principally distinguished by the shape of their leaves, which are linear, and also, commonly, by the complete absence of a perianth. Distribution, Numbers, and Numbers.—They are widely dis- tributed over the seas and oceans, but are not very common examples of the Genera—Amphibolia, Zosteraea. There are about 12 species. Properties and Use.—Their properties are of little importance. Zosteraea marina, Sea-wrack, is in common use for packing, and for stuff- ing baskets and bags for fish and other purposes, as well as for making fishnets ; it has been used for paper-making, but it is a very unsuitable material for that purpose. A diagram showing two flowers of Zosteraea palustris. 714 HYDROCHARIDACEAE. RESTIACEAE. ERIOCALULEACEAE. Natural Order 277. TRUSSIDACEAE—The Truiris Order. **Dorostemone,** a genus of the family, is allied to Naidacaea, but usually to be distinguished by its rudimentary embryo. The flowers are, also, sometimes perfect. **Rutaceae,** a large family of plants. **Fruites,**—Exclusively found in warm and tropical regions. *Examples of the Genera.*—*Caryotum.* There are 8 species. Their pro- perties and uses are unknown. Natural Order 278. HYDROCHARIDACEAE.—The Hydrocharis or Euphorbia Family. Plants with simple leaves, powers epiphytous, regular, dioecious or polygamous. *Pericapsula supe- rare,* in which the seeds are contained in a cup-like interior petiole. *Senna* seems few or numerous. *Oxyria* inferior, 1–9-celled. *Ficus* indiscincta. *Senna* numerosa, exalbidumum. **Rutaceae,** a large family of plants. **Fruites,**—Inhabi- tant of the fresh water in Europe, North America, East Indies, and New Holland. *Examples of the Genera.*—*Astraeus* Vatilla- mentis, *Hedera* Hederifolia. The properties and uses of these pro- perties are unimportant. Natural Order 279. RUTACEAE—The Rutaceae Order. **Character,**—Herba or under-shrub. Leaves simple and nar- row, or entire. Flowers small, often fragrant. Plants with gla- cious leaves, spikled or aggregated, generally unisexual. No true pericarp present. *Pericapsula* superare, in which the seeds are contained in a cup-like interior petiole. *Senna* stenose 2–3, adherent to 4–6 glumes; or the latter are some- times absent; —and/or generally indiscident. *Oxyria* 1–9-celled, with periblades present; or without them. *Ficus* indiscincta. *Senna* albunosa, without hairs; *Eriocaulon* henticulatum, terminal. **Rutaceae,** a large family of plants. **Fruites,**—Natively of South Africa, South America, and Australia. Some are also found in the tropical parts of Asia; but none occur in Europe. *Examples of the Genera.*—*Eriocaulon.* There are about 180 species. **Properties** and **Uses,**—Unimportant. The vital uses of some species have been used for basket-making, &c., and for thatching. Natural Order 280. ERIOCALULEACEAE.—The Erionocae or Pignewet Family. Plants with simple leaves. Leaves clustered, linear, usually grass-like. Flowers minute, unisexual, or rarely bisexual; with a single leaflet of a membranous bract. *Pericapsula tubular,* 2–3-toothed or lobed. *Senna* stenose 2–3; and/or other 2-celled; intrusive. Superior ovary, 2–3- celled; follicles 1–3-celled; or without them. *Eriocaulon* albunosa, albusinae, hairy or winged; —embryo terminal, terminal. **Erionocae,** a large family of plants. **Fruites,**—Natively natives of tropical America, and the North of Australia. One species is found in Britain.—*Erionocae septangulata.* The order contains about 50 species. Natural Order 281. DEVASTAXACEAE.—The Bristlewort DESAVIAUCIACEAE. CYPERACEAE. 716 Order. -Character. -Small Sedge-like herbs, with setaceous sheathing leaves, and with a single terminal leafy axis. *Glumace* 1 or 2. False axes or 1 or 2 scales parallel with the glumes. *Glumace* 1 or very rarely 2; *arista* 1-celled. Carpels 1-3, diadelphous, with a short pedicel, and 1 pendulous ovule in each ovary. Fruit composed of as many as three to several carpels. Seed albuminous; embryo lenticular, terminal. *Subdivision*. -Euphorbiae. Numbers, Numbera, and Protoptera. -Natives of Australia and New Zealand. *Desaviaucia*. -Aphelia. There are about 15 species. Their properties and uses are unknown. Sub-class II. Glumaceae or Glumiferae. Natural Order 282. CYPERACEAE. The Sedge Order. -Character. -Grass-like or Rush-like herbs (figs. 231). *Nema* solid, without joints or partitions, frequently angular (fig. 1092). *Leaves* without ligules, but with entire or cleft tender sheaths. Fig. 1092. Fig. 1093. Fig. 1094. Fig. 1095. A portion of the angular stem of a species of *Desaviaucia*. The upper part of the stem is shown, showing the angles formed by the joints of the leaf-sheaths. *Flaments* and pendulous lateral anthers (fig. 232). *Sperma* or pollen grains (fig. 233). *Stylus*, consisting of a glume at the base, and a stalk terminating in a cup-shaped body (fig. 234), which is inserted into the style, terminated by three stigmas. *Glumace* (figs. 1092) or undifferentiated (figs. 1093) or with a single scale (figs. 1094) arising from the axil of 1–3 bracts or glumes. The lowermost glume is frequently empty, that in, without flowers in their axils. Perianth absent; flower solitary on a short pedicel; fruit a single seed (perigynium) (figs. 1094, v); or as hypogynous scales or brialia 716 716 CYPERACEAE. (fig. 1065, b). Stenosea hypogynous (fig. 1065), 1–10, commonly 2 (fig. 1065, a) to 30 (fig. 1088), 1–2 mm long, with a short pedicel (figs. 1095 and 1096). Ovary 1-celled, superior (fig. 1095), with 1 erect anatomo- porate ovule. Fruit indehiscent, 1-celled (fig. 1096). Seed with finely or coarsely reticulate testa (figs. 1095, 1096, p. 1097), enclosed in the base of the albumus (figs. 1095, 1096, p. 1097). Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—Natives of all parts of the world, and found especially in marshes, ditches, and about running water. The following are common: *Carex*—2 species; *Bryo- spora*, Schomus, Cladium, Sairurus, Papyrus. There are about 2,000 species. Fio. 1065. Fio. 1066. Fio. 1067. Fig. 1065. Terminating the flower of a species of Chlo- rastrum (fig. 1065, a) is a short pedicel bearing a single ovule. A *Hypogynous* is a fertile forming a kind of cup or hollow which contains the ovules; it is often called an inmate ovary. In *Carex*, a fig. 1065, b shows the fruit of a species of this genus with the base of the fruit enclosed by the albumus, at the top of which is seen the lateral ovule. A lateral ovule is a rudiment. Properties and Use.—Although closely allied in their botani- cal characters to the Graminae, the Cyperaceae are also better deficient in the nutritive and other qualities which render the plants useful to man than are the Graminae and other animals. Indeed the order generally is remarkable for the absence of any nutritive value whatever; but some of its members are slightly aromatic, aromatic, and diuretic; others de- mulcent and alterative, and a few have been used for economic purposes. Some of the species by spreading through the soil, when roasted or boiled, prevent it from being washed away by the receding waves, and in this way protect the neighbouring coast from encroachments of the sea. (See also Properties and Use of the Graminae, page 719.) Fig. 1065. Fig. 1065. Terminating the flower of a species of Chlor- rastrum (fig. 1065, a) is a short pedicel bearing a single ovule. A Hypogynous is a fertile forming a kind of cup or hollow which contains the ovules; it is often called an inmate ovary. A Carex showing the fruit of a species of this genus with the base of the fruit enclosed by the albumus, at the top of which is seen the lateral ovule. A lateral ovule is a rudiment. GRAMINACEAE. 717 Chase.—The creeping stems of C. arenaria and some allied species have been used medicinally, and are supposed to possess the same virtues as the common German Sarracenia (C. atrorubens). C. praecox, and culinaris, are known in different districts as "wild onions," and are supposed to possess medicinal properties. They have been supposed to cause the disease termed "Rot in sheep." Of the species of C. arundinacea, C. arenaria, C. pratensis, C. perennis, and C. vulgare, have been employed in medicine, and regarded as possessing the same virtues as the common Sarracenia. The leaves or tubers of C. vulgare, under the name of Chafa or Earth Almonds, used in India, are supposed to possess medicinal properties. Other species have been proposed as a substitute for coffee and cocoa. They are known by the names of "coffee grass" and "coffee bean." Coffee is a native of Africa; but the European climate is favourable to vegetant, a verdant shrub, rich in its leaves and fruits, which is supposed to possess the same virtues as coffee. To taste like potatoes—C. scariosa is used for making rope, as is in India. The species of C. arundinacea are also employed in medicine under the names of Cotton-grass, from their fruits being surrounded on bottom or sides with a cotton-like substance; and of Sarracenia, from their stamens, flowers, etc. Their leaves are reputed to possess astrigent properties. In 1806, a paper was published by Mr. Nitzsch on the Paper-flax of the ancients, i.e. the true Papaver of the Egyptians, and the Papaver of the Greeks and Romans; and on the Papaver of the Syriac or Sicanian system (P. grusonii or P. sicanum). The plant is celebrated on account of its use in making paper; but it is not so commonly used by the ancients for making a kind of paper. Those sheets of pappyr were made from the leaves of this plant; and it is probable that this Papaver was also used for making rope, boats, etc., etc. Fig. 1098. Nitzsch's Paper on Gramineae. The Grass Order.—Character. Heeds, rhizomes, or arborescent plants, with jointed stems (Fig. 300), alternate leaves, with stipules (Fig. 300), gynoecium with the style prolonged into a long filament (Fig. 413), panicked (Fig. 414) or racemose loculicidum ; or solitary. No true perianth. The flowers are usually hermaphrodite; imbricated bracts, of which there are usually two kinds only : one at base of the flower (Fig. 1); these glumes are placed at the base of the solitary flower, Fig. 1098. A portion of the stem of the Carex-Grass (Poaceae) showing the jointed stem with persistent leaves and a split perianth. 1098 718 GRAMINACEAE. at the base of each locula (figs. 400 and 1099, p. 54, and 1100, p. 55). Occasionally the two petals altogether absent. Each flower is also usually furnished with two other alternate bracts (palae) (figs. 400, ps. 54, and 1102 and 1103), (or sometimes) Fig. 1099. Fig. 1100. Fig. 1101. Fig. 1102. Fig. 1103. Fig. 1106. Fig. 1106. Diagram of a section of the Oat (Avena). (From Mantel.) $x$ = diameter of the outermost two perfect flowers, and $y$ = one, or shorter. A The outer palea, which is often wanting in the lower part of the spike, is here marked $z$. B The inner palea (antheroid or staminate); the dotted curved line on the latter indicates its position in relation to the anthers. C The pistil; $a$, $b$, $c$, $d$, the four segments of the pistil; $e$, the style; $f$, the stigma. G Inner glume; $g$, inner lemma; $h$, outer palea of the fertile flower; $i$, hairy palae; $j$, sterile flower of the oat without the palae; $k$, Graminaceae; $l$, florets of a species of Melica (Poa pratensis). (See fig. 1108, one of the forms of this plant.) $m$, Filaments of a grass-flower; $n$, stamens; $o$, ovary; $p$, ovule; $q$, anther; $r$, pollen-grain; $s$, filaments corresponding to the palae. The inner palea is wanting ; and at 2 or 3 scales (lobulate, aquarum, or glomerata) (figs. 1099, p. 54, and 1101, p.), these scales also furnish two other alternate bracts (palae) (figs. 400 and frequently 3 (figs. 1101-1103); filaments capillary (figs. 500 and GRAMINACEAE. 719 (1105); authors variales (figs. 500 and 501). Quercusipetum (fig. 1101), coiled with a short, thick, erect, or ascending, or hairy frond (figs. 694 and 695). Ficus a carposa (figs. 697 and 698). Need with nearly albusum (fig. 698, a); aertum lenticularum (fig. 698, b) lying on the leaf-surface (fig. 698, c); aertum (fig. 698, d, e, f). Dactylis glomerata, alternate, with split sheaths and a ligule at the base of the lamina. Flowers generally arranged in spikes leta or loose, or rarely solitary. Flowers geniculatum: panicle anythous: paniculum: spiculum: spicula: spiculae: spiculae: with capillary filaments, and verticillate authors. Gravy superior: stigmas foetidus or hairy: Fraxinus carposa. Leaf with nearly albusum. Distribution, Enumeratio, and Numbers.—Grasses are universal- ly distributed over the whole world; they are herbaceous and of moderate height, while in tropical countries they become very large and immense, and sometimes grow to the height of 30 or 40 feet. In temperate climates they grow together in large masses, and thus form the verdure of great trees and forests. The following are the principal examples of examples of the Grases:—Phalaris, Stipa, Arundo, Avena, Festuca, Trisetum, Hordeum. In these there are from 200 to 300 species, and probably more than 2000 in the whole Kingdom. In this country Kingdom this is the most important of man, as it affords the chief food of all animals; it furnishes the straw which supplies the principal material of the daily bread in most countries of the world; besides being eminently serviceable in other regards; it is also employed for making paper and other very useful products. It is a remarkable fact that the vegetables which supply our table have been cultivated by these plants are altogether unknown. A few of the Grasses yield fragrant volatile oils. 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and straw is now largely employed for a like purpose in this country; and straw is now largely employed for a like purpose in this country; and straw is now largely employed for a like purpose in this country; and straw is now largely employed for a like purpose in this country; and straw is now largely employed for a like purpose in this country; and straw is now largely employed for a like purpose in this country; and straw is now largely employed for a like purpose in this country; and straw is now largely employed for a like purpose in this country; and straw is now largely employed for a like purpose in this country; and straw is now largely employed for a like purpose in this country; and straw is now largely employed for a like purpose in this country; and straw is now largely employed for a like purpose in this country; and straw is now largely employed for a like purpose in this country; and straw is now largely employed for a like purpose in this country; and straw is now largely employed for a like purpose in this country; and straw is now largely employed for a like purpose in this country; and straw is now largely employed for a like purpose in this country; and straw is now largely employed for a like purpose in this country; and straw is now largely employed for a like purpose in this country; and straw is now largely employed for a like purpose in this country; and straw is now largely employed for a like purpose in this country; and straw is now largely employed for a like purpose in this country; and straw is now largely employed for a like purpose in this country; and straw is now largely employed for a like purpose in this country; and straw is now largely employed for a like purpose in this country; and straw is now largely employed for a like purpose in this country; and straw is now largely employed for a like purpose in this country; and straw is nowlargely engaged with the sea. Almost all Grasses are wholesome, but one or more species are poisonous to man or animals. The first of these species, namely, and one Lomum tenuifolium, as said to be narcotic and poisonous to man. This plant may possibly be due to its becoming excreted, as its effects upon the system closely resemble those produced by the common Erythronium. Another species of Lomum tenuifolium was once times wholesome. Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Strips albusum (Kalmia). Further experiments upon Lomusnus nusnus nusnus nusnus nusnus nusnus nusnus nusnus nusnus nusnus nusnus nusnus nusnus nusnus nusnus nusnus nusnus nusnus nusnus nusnus nusnus nusnus nusnus nusnus nusnus nusnus nusnus nusnus nusnus nusnus nusnus nusnus nusnus nusnus nusnus nusnus nusnus nusnus nusnus nusnus nusnus nusnus nusnus nusnus nusn us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us us um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um um am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am am ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama ama amaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamaamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasamasasmasmasmasmasmasmasmasmasmasmasmasmasmasmasmasmasmasmasmasmasmasmasmasmasmasmasmasmasmasmasmasmasmasmasmasmasmasmasmasmasmasmasmasmasmasmassmassmassmassmassmassmassmassmassmassmassmassmassmassmassmassmassmassmassmassmassmassmassmassmassmassmassmassmassmassmassmassmassmassmassmassmassmassmassmassmassmassmassmassmassma mass mass mass mass mass mass mass mass mass mass mass mass mass mass mass mass mass mass mass mass mass mass mass mass mass mass mass mass mass mass mass mass mass mass mass mass mass mass mass mass mass mass mass mass mass mass mass ma massa masa masa masa masa masa masa masa masa masa masa masa masa masa masa masa masa masa masa masa masa masa masa masa masa masa masa masa masa masa masa masa masa masa masa masa masa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa massa masse masse masse masse masse masse masse masse masse masse masse masse masse masse masse masse masse masse masse masse masse masse masse masse masse masse masse masse masse masse masse masse masse masse masse masse masse masse masse masse masse masse masse masse masse masse masse masse masse masse mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mase mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas mas ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa sasa ssas ssas ssas ssas ssas ssas ssas ssas ssas ssas ssas ssas ssas ssas ssas ssas ssas ssas ssas ssas ssas ssas ssas ssas ssas ssas ssas ssas ssas ssas ssas ssas ssas ssas ssas ssas ssas ssas ssas ssas ssas ssas ssas ssas ssas ssas ssasssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssss 720 GRIMACINACEAE. on the neighbouring coast. (See also Properties and Uses of the Cupressaceae, page 716.) 1*Euglena* crescenta—This grain has of late years become noted in com- merce. Of *Euglena* Falbo having stated that the varieties of cultivated *Brassica* were not always identical with those of the wild species. However, for the plants grown by M. Falbo, and the grains of which almo- st all are derived, are identical with those of the wild species. The distinc- tion between a species of *Triticum* and *Euglena* comes, the result being the formation of a new variety of wheat. This variety has been cultivated for about twelve years, and is said to produce a grain like wild *Euglena*. It is probable that this variety will prove useful, as it has for many years has shown any tendency to revert towards improvement. 2*Lemon-grass*—The plant known as *Cymbopogon citratus*, their agreeable odour. This fragrance is due to the presence of volatile oils, of which there are two kinds, one of which is called *Citral*, and is gen- erally known under the general name of *Clove Oil* or *Indian Clove Oil*. These oils are obtained from the leaves of the plant, which are grown in India, Java, Sumatra, and Ceylon. The leaves are dried and powdered, and the oil is extracted by steam distillation. The other oil is called *Lemongrass Oil*, and is also obtained from the leaves of the plant. Lemon-grass Oil is used in perfumery and in medicine. It is applied externally in cases of neuralgia, rheumatism, and sciatica; internally in cases of dyspepsia, and in medicine generally. Its application in rheumatism, sciatica, and neuralgia is well known. It possesses antiseptic properties, and is used in medicine as a stimulant and sedative. It possesses antiseptic properties, and is used in medicine as a stimulant and sedative. It possesses antiseptic properties, and is used in medicine as a stimulant and sedative. It possesses antiseptic properties, and is used in medicine as a stimulant and sedative. 3*Cymbopogon citratus*—The plant known as *Cymbopogon citratus*, their agreeable odour. This fragrance is due to the presence of volatile oils, of which there are two kinds, one of which is called *Citral*, and is generally known under the general name of *Clove Oil* or *Indian Clove Oil*. These oils are obtained from the leaves of the plant, which are grown in India, Java, Sumatra, and Ceylon. The leaves are dried and powdered, and the oil is extracted by steam distillation. The other oil is called *Lemongrass Oil*, and is also obtained from the leaves of the plant. Lemon-grass Oil is used in perfumery and in medicine. It is applied externally in cases of neuralgia, rheumatism, and sciatica; internally in cases of dyspepsia, and in medicine generally. Its application in rheumatism, sciatica, and neuralgia is well known. It possesses antiseptic properties, and is used in medicine as a stimulant and sedative. 4*Cymbopogon citratus*—The plant known as *Cymbopogon citratus*, their agreeable odour. This fragrance is due to the presence of volatile oils, of which there are two kinds, one of which is called *Citral*, and is generally known under the general name of *Clove Oil* or *Indian Clove Oil*. These oils are obtained from the leaves of the plant, which are grown in India, Java, Sumatra, and Ceylon. The leaves are dried and powdered, and the oil is extracted by steam distillation. The other oil is called *Lemongrass Oil*, and is also obtained from the leaves of the plant. Lemon-grass Oil is used in perfumery and in medicine. It is applied externally in cases of neuralgia, rheumatism, and sciatica; internally in cases of dyspepsia, and in medicine generally. Its application in rheumatism, sciatica, and neuralgia is well known. 5*Cymbopogon citratus*—The plant known as *Cymbopogon citratus*, their agreeable odour. This fragrance is due to the presence of volatile oils, of which there are two kinds, one of which is called *Citral*, and is generally known under the general name of *Clove Oil* or *Indian Clove Oil*. These oils are obtained from the leaves of the plant, which are grown in India, Java, Sumatra, and Ceylon. The leaves are dried and powdered, and the oil is extracted by steam distillation. The other oil is called *Lemongrass Oil*, and is also obtained from the leaves of the plant. Lemon-grass Oil is used in perfumery and in medicine. It is applied externally in cases of neuralgia, rheumatism, and sciatica; internally in cases of dyspepsia, and in medicine generally. 6*Cymbopogon citratus*—The plant known as *Cymbopogon citratus*, their agreeable odour. This fragrance is due to the presence of volatile oils, of which there are two kinds, one of which is called *Citral*, and is generally known under the general name of *Clove Oil* or *Indian Clove Oil*. These oils are obtained from the leaves of the plant, which are grown in India, Java, Sumatra, and Ceylon. The leaves are dried and powdered, and the oil is extracted by steam distillation. The other oil is called *Lemongrass Oil*, and is also obtained from the leaves of the plant. Lemon-grass Oil is used in perfumery and in medicine. It is applied externally in cases of neuralgia, rheumatism, and sciatica; internally in cases of dyspepsia, and in medicine generally. 7*Cymbopogon citratus*—The plant known as *Cymbopogon citratus*, their agreeable odour. This fragrance is due to the presence of volatile oils, of which there are two kinds, one of which is called *Citral*, and is generally known under the general name of *Clove Oil* or *Indian Clove Oil*. These oils are obtained from the leaves of the plant, which are grown in India, Java, Sumatra, and Ceylon. The leaves are dried and powdered, and the oil is extracted by steam distillation. The other oil is called *Lemongrass Oil*, and is also obtained from the leaves of the plant. Lemon-grass Oil is used in perfumery and in medicine. It is applied externally in cases of neuralgia, rheumatism, 8*Cymbopogon citratus*—The plant known as *Cymbopogon citratus*, their agreeable odour. This fragrance is due to the presence of volatile oils, of which there are two kinds, one of which is called *Citral*, and is generally known under the general name of *Clove Oil* or *Indian Clove Oil*. These oils are obtained from the leaves of the plant, which are grown in India, Java, 9*Cymbopogon citratus*—The plant known as *Cymbopogon citratus*, their agreeable odour. This fragrance is due to the presence of volatile oils, 10*Cymbopogon citratus*—The plant known as *Cymbopogon citratus*, their agreeable odour. This fragrance is due to the presence 11*Cymbopogon citratus*—The plant known as *Cymbopogon citratus*, their agreeable odour. This fragrance is due to 12*Cymbopogon citratus*—The plant known as *Cymbopogon citratus*, their agreeable odour. This fragrance 13*Cymbopogon citratus*—The plant known as *Cymbopogon citratus*, their agreeable odour. This fragrance 14*Cymbopogon citratus*—The plant known as *Cymbopogon citratus*, their agreeable odour. This fragrance 15*Cymbopogon citratus*—The plant known as *Cymbopogon citratus*, their agreeable odour. This fragrance 16*Cymbopogon citratus*—The plant known as *Cymbopogon citratus*, their agreeable odour. This fragrance 17*Cymbopogon citratus*—The plant known as *Cymbopogon citratus*, their agreeable odour. This fragrance 18*Cymbopogon citratus*—The plant known as *Cymbopogon citratus*, their agreeable odour. This fragrance 19*Cymbopogon citratus*—The plant known as *Cymbopogon citratus*, their agreeable odour. This fragrance 20*Cymbopogon citratus*—The plant known as *Cymbopogon citratus*, their agreeable odour. This fragrance 21*Cymbopogon citratus*—The plant known as *Cymbopogon citratus*, their agreeable odour. This fragrance 22*Cymbopogon citratus*—The plant known as *Cymbopogon citratus*, their agreeable odour. This fragrance 23*Cymbopogon citratus*—The plant known as *Cymbopogon citratus*, their agreeable odour. This fragrance 24*Cymbopogon citratus*—The plant known as *Cymbopogon citratus*, their agreeable odour. This fragrance 25*Cymbopogon citratus*—The plant known as *Cymbopogon citratus*, their agreeable odour. This fragrance 26*Cymbopogon citratus*—The plant known as *Cymbopogon citratus*, their agreeable odour. This fragrance 27*Cymbopogon citratus*—The plant known as *Cymbopogon citratus*, their agreeable odour. This fragrance 28*Cymbopogon citratus*—The plant known as *Cymbopogon citratus*, their agreeable odour. This fragrance 29*Cymbopogon citratus*—The plant known as *Cymbopogon citratus*, their agreeable odour. This fragrance 30*Cymbopogon citratus*—The plant known as *Cymbopogon citrata GRAMINACEAE. 721 made from it. The very young shoots are boiled and eaten like Ageropera, and are also used as a vegetable. The leaves are variously employed. In India and China the leaves are reputed to possess medicinal properties, but this has never been proved. The young shoots of a very large kind of Bamboo is used for water-baskets, another for quivers, a third for bow-springs, while a fourth is made into a kind of arrow-stick, a starch for arrows; while a larger sort serves for bows. The young shoots of another species are used for making baskets, mats, and brooms, and are made into a fermented drink. In China the Bamboo is used for numerous purposes, such as for making brooms, baskets, mats, and broomsticks, sale-of-shoes, baskets, cups, paper, matting-beds, twills-rolls, stools, covers of coffins, and for making bamboo boats. In Japan some sort of Bamboo is used in the manufacture of paper. In some parts of China the leaves are used in the manufacture of paper. In some parts of China the leaves are used in the manufacture of paper. In some parts of China the leaves are used in the manufacture of paper. The young shoots of the Bambusa vulgaris are used by the inhabitants of the island of Java for making brooms. The young shoots of the Bambusa vulgaris are used by the inhabitants of the island of Java for making brooms. The young shoots of the Bambusa vulgaris are used by the inhabitants of the island of Java for making brooms. The young shoots of the Bambusa vulgaris are used by the inhabitants of the island of Java for making brooms. The young shoots of the Bambusa vulgaris are used by the inhabitants of the island of Java for making brooms. The young shoots of the Bambusa vulgaris are used by the inhabitants of the island of Java for making brooms. The young shoots of the Bambusa vulgaris are used by the inhabitants of the island of Java for making brooms. The young shoots of the Bambusa vulgaris are used by the inhabitants of the island of Java for making brooms. The young shoots of the Bambusa vulgaris are used by the inhabitants of the island of Java for making brooms. The young shoots of the Bambusa vulgaris are used by the inhabitants of the island of Java for making brooms. The young shoots of the Bambusa vulgaris are used by the inhabitants of the island of Java for making brooms. The young shoots of the Bambusa vulgaris are used by the inhabitants of the island of Java for making brooms. The young shoots of the Bambusa vulgaris are used by the inhabitants of the island of Java for making brooms. The young shoots of the Bambusa vulgaris are used by the inhabitants of the island of Java for making brooms. The young shoots of the Bambusa vulgaris are used by the inhabitants of the island of Java for making brooms. The young shoots of the Bambusa vulgaris are used by the inhabitants of the island of Java for making brooms. The young shoots of the Bambusa vulgaris are used by the inhabitants of the island of Java for making brooms. The young shoots of the Bambusa vulgaris are used by the inhabitants of the island of Java for making brooms. The young shoots of the Bambusa vulgaris are used by the inhabitants of the island of Java for making brooms. The young shoots of the Bambusa vulgaris are used by the inhabitants of the island of Java for making brooms. The young shoots of the Bambusa vulgaris are used by the inhabitants of the island of Java for making brooms. The young shoots of the Bambusa vulgaris are used by the inhabitants of the island of Java for making brooms. The young shoots of the Bambusa vulgaris are used by the inhabitants of the island of Java for making brooms. The young shoots of the Bambusa vulgaris are used by the inhabitants of the island of Java for making brooms. The young shoots of the Bambusa vulgaris are used by the inhabitants of the island of Java for making brooms. The young shoots of the Bambusa vulgaris are used by the inhabitants of the island of Java for making brooms. The young shoots of the Bambusa vulgaris are used by the inhabitants of the island of Java for making brooms. The young shoots of the Bambusa vulgaris are used by the inhabitants of the island of Java for making brooms. The young shoots of the Bambusa vulgaris are used by the inhabitants of the island of Java for making brooms. The young shoots of 723 GRAMINACEAE. Melinis onuiae is said to be equal in value to Equisetum Grass (see Sipe) for peeping-cream. Its especial value resides in the tenacity of its fiber, and the fact that it can be used for making paper. Organisms of the Rice plant, the grain of which is most extensively used for food throughout the world, are very numerous, and are nearly all prepared from rice. From forty to fifty varieties of the rice plant are known, and only a few of these are cultivated. The most important of these varieties. Rizus appears to be less nutritious than the other cereal grains, and to be more liable to disease. The rice plant is a native of China. Species is sometimes distinguished from the fermented infusion of this. This spirit is regarded by some as a substitute for wine, but is used only in reference to the spirit distilled from Palm wine or Tody. Panicum miliaceum, Linn., the Millet, is a native of Asia Minor, and Kainakeh in the East Indies. P. graminifolium, a species of Panicum, grows as a weed in many parts of Europe. A species of Panicum, known as the Angora grass, P. panamericana is another fodder grass called Millet. It is a native of North America. P. vulgare, Linn., the Millet, is a species of Panicum, and is also known as Millet-grass. It is found abundantly in Africa and Asia. P. italicum, Linn., the Italian Millet-grass, is a species of Millet, which is called Borsa, Molla-borsa, but this is probably not olden by them from a species of Panicum, but from a species of Anagallis. Echinochloa crus-galli Linn., the Millet-grass, is a species of Panicum, and yields the millet known under the name of Fodder or Fodder-millet. It is also called in Sorra Leona, Kudura, and Kudura-kuwa. It is also called in Zanzibar and in Kenya or Yoruba. A variety of this grass is reputed to be injurious to cattle. Panicum virgatum or Panicum virgatum is called Calfe Grass. It yields a nutritious fodder for cattle and horses. It is also used for making beer. Panicum dichotomiflorum - The grain of this grass are known in some parts of Western Asia as "Bakul," and are used for making beer. In Egypt and Arabia this grass is employed as fodder for camels and other animals. In India it is used for making beer. Phalaris cornuta Linn., the Corn Millet-grass, is cultivated for its grain, which in England is called Millet-grass. The leaves are also valued as fodder for cattle. Phalaris aquatica Linn., an Alkelosee grass plant, known under the name of Trig. The grain are sometimes employed in the preparation of Beers or Millet-beer. Sorghum vulgare Linn., the Sorghum or Millet-grass - Sorghum vulgare is common in the German Sugarcane, as extensively used for brewing beer as for making sugar; it has been introduced into many countries from raw sugar; and though the thick juice which has drained from it must be boiled before it can be made into sugar, yet it may be pulped easily; hence sorghum and Acorus-Aquaticus are all familiar preparations of beer. Both these plants yield a nutritious fodder for cattle and sheep; and then yield by distillation rum. Sorghum bicolor Linn., which is much cultivated in the northern parts of the world for its grains, which are extensively employed for making bread. Both bread and beer made from this grain are very popular; bread made from Rice or Oats is a favourite drink in Russia. Rice is also used by the dwellers in China; but it does not yield so good a drink as coffee. Rice is subject to a disease called Ergot, produced by the attack of a fungus (see Coccidioides), which causes it to become poisonous when eaten. The diseased grains are commonly known as Ergot of Rice or Sours Rice; but they are not always poisonous; when they are eaten medicinally, ergot is given to cattle as an article contraband in labour; and for such use see Satura. Sorghum - S. panamericana - the source of German Millet; and S. italicum - S. italicum **ANALYSIS OF THE ORDERS IN THE MONOCOTYLEDONES**, 723 Italian Millet. The latter is also much used in India. The Millets are largely cultivated in India. Species. —S. trachyantha or *Morusca trachyandra* yields the flour known under the name of *Bajra*. It is a very important cereal crop of India, of late years, very extensively employed for paper-making. The import of Esparto grass, previously imported from the West Indies, into India, for the manufacture of paper, has been stopped by the Government. The *Amaranthus* species is largely used in India for making matting, card-baskets, etc., and is also employed in the manufacture of paper. The seeds are said to have used it extensively for like purpose.—The grain of *S. pennata*, *Eriochloa* *sp.*, is a native of India. **Pennisetum** (Cattail) (Cattail) (Cattail) (Cattail) (Cattail) (Cattail) (Cattail) (Cattail) (Cattail) (Cattail) (Cattail) (Cattail) (Cattail) (Cattail) (Cattail) (Cattail) (Cattail) (Cattail) (Cattail) (Cattail) (Cattail) (Cattail) (Cattail) (Cattail) (Cattail) (Cattail) (Cattail) (Cattail) (Cattail) (Cattail) (Cattail) (Cattail) (Cattail) (Cattail) (Cattail) (Cattail) (Cattail) (Cattail) (Cattail) (Cattail) (Cattail) **Pennisetum** **vulgare** **L.** **(Common Cattail)** **(Common Cattail)** **(Common Cattail)** **(Common Cattail)** **(Common Cattail)** **(Common Cattail)** **(Common Cattail)** **(Common Cattail)** **(Common Cattail)** **(Common Cattail)** **(Common Cattail)** **(Common Cattail)** **(Common Cattail)** **(Common Cattail)** **(Common Cattail)** **(Common Cattail)** **(Common Cattail)** **(Common Cattail)** **(Common Cattail)** **(Common Cattail)** **(Common Cattail)** **(Common Cattail)** **(Common Cattail)** **(Common Cattail)** **(Common Cattail)** **(Common Cattail)** **(Common Cattail)** **(Common Cattail)** **(Common Cattail)** **(Common Cattail)** **(Common Cattail)** **(Common Cattail)** **(Common Cattail)** **(Common Cattail)** **(Common Cattail)** **(Common Cattail)** **(Common Cattail)** **(Common Cattail)** **(Common Cattail)** **(Common Cattailed Grass)** **Pennisetum** *vulgare* L. [Syn. *Pennisetum* *arundinaceum* L.] [Syn. *Pennisetum* *arundinaceum* L.] [Syn. *Pennisetum* *arundinaceum* L.] [Syn. *Pennisetum* *arundinaceum* L.] [Syn. *Pennisetum* *arundinaceum* L.] [Syn. *Pennisetum* *arundinaceum* L.] [Syn. *Pennisetum* *arundinaceum* L.] [Syn. *Pennisetum* *arundinaceum* L.] [Syn. *Pennisetum* *arundinaceum* L.] [Syn. *Pennisetum* *arundinaceum* L.] [Syn. *Pennisetum* *arundinaceum* L.] [Syn. *Pennisetum* *arundinaceum* L.] [Syn. *Pennisetum* *arundinaceum* L.] [Syn. *Pennisetum* *arundinaceum* L.] [Syn. *Pennisetum* *arundinaceum* L.] [Syn. *Pennisetum* *arundinaceum* L.] [Syn. *Pennisetum* *arundinaceum* L.] [Syn. *Pennisetum* *arundinaceum* L.] [Syn. *Pennisetum* *arundinaceum* L.] [Syn. *Pennisetum* *arundinaceum* L.] [Syn. *Pennisetum* *arundinaceum* L.] [Syn. *Pennisetum* *arundinaceum* L.] [Syn. *Pennisetum* *arundinaceum* L.] **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** **Grain of the Common Millet** 723 --- ### Sub-class I. Petaloidae #### 1. Flowers with an evident Perianth. ##### a. - Ovary inferior (indistinct). - Flowers glabrous. - Stamens 6, filaments united at base. - Anther 2-celled, with 4 filaments, not persistent. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. - Pistil sessile. ##### b. - Ovary solidified. Filament united at base. ##### c. - Vessels two-leaved diverging from middle, without a common base. ##### d. - Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### e. Anther 2-celled, with 4 filaments, not persistent. ##### f. Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### g. Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### h. Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### i. Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### j. Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### k. Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### l. Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### m. Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### n. Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### o. Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### p. Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### q. Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### r. Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### s Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### t Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### u Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### v Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### w Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### x Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### y Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### z Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### aa Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### ab Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### ac Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### ad Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### ae Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### af Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### ag Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### ah Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### ai Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### aj Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### ak Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### al Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### am Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### an Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### ao Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### ap Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### ar Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### as Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### at Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### au Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### av Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### aw Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### ax Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### ay Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### az Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### ba Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### bb Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### bc Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### bd Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### be Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### bf Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### bg Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### bh Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### bi Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### bj Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### bk Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### bl Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### bm Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### bn Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### bo Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### bp Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### bq Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### br Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### bs Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### bt Embryo enclosed in a viscidium. ##### bu Embryo enclosed in an epicalyx, not persistent, not persistent, not persistent, not persistent, not persistent, not persistent, not persistent, not persistent, not persistent, not persistent, not persistent, not persistent, not persistent, not persistent, not persistent, not persistent, not persistent, not persistent, not persistent, not persistent, not persistent, not persistent, not persistent, not persistent, not persistent, not persistent, not persistent, not persistent, not persistent, not persistent, not persistent, not persistent, not persistent, not persistent, not persistent, not persistent, not persistent, not persistent, not persistent, not persistent, not persistent, not persistent, not persistent, not persistent, not persistent, not persistent, not persisten 724 ANALYSIS OF THE ORDERS IN THE MONOCOTYLEDONES. Athera-leafed. Filaments more than one. 2. Vines with tendrils from the base, and parallel to the midrib. Saxifraga. 365. Anthure extorse. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anthure extorse. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Bromus. 381. Leaves interneat. ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... Leaves interneat. ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... Leaves interneat. ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... Fruit-leafed. Tussacum. 256. Fruit-leafed. One leaf of the pericarp petaloid. Radicle remote from the hilum. Leaves-... Radicle remote from the hilum. Leaves-... Outer whorl of the pericarp not pe- rimediate. Rhamnaceae more than 6. A. Vines with tendrils scattered. Flowers unisexual. B. Ovary sessile or subsessile. Leaves parallel- veined. 1. Leaf of the pericarp herbaceous or plas- ticous. Carpels few or less distinct. Seeds attached to axile or basal placenta. 2. Flowers polygamous, without a slit Eucalyptus macropunctata. Embryospernum. Carpels with a slit. Embryospernum. Carpels with a slit and with a lateral slit. Inner whorl of the pericarp different from the outer whorl. Flowers axile. Anthure-leafed. Cap- sule-leafed. Anthure-leafed. Capsule-leafed. Anthure-leafed. Capsule-leafed. Capsule-leafed The outer whorl leaves of the pericarp alike. Flowers on a spadix. Embryo-sack a la- teral slit. Flowers on a spadix. Embryo-sack a la- teral slit. b. Outer whorl of the pericarp petaloid, or whith petaloid only one blade present. Caryophyllaceae. 387. Seeds solitary. Flowers on a spadix. Seeds solitary. Flowers not on a spadix. Anthure extorse. Anthure extorse. Pericarp of 6 parts. Seeds without al- ternation. Pericarp of 2 parts. Seeds with albumen. Anemone. 365. Anemone. 365. Anemone. 365. Anemone. 365. Anemone. 365. Anemone. 365. Anemone. 365. Anemone. 365. Anemone. 365. Anemone. 365. Anemone. 365. Anemone. 365. Anemone. 365. Anemone. 365. Anemone. 365. Anemone. 365. Anemone. 365. Anemone. 365. Anemone. 365. Amaryllidaceae. 247. Hypoxisaceae. 248. Bromeliaceae. 251. Hydrocharitaceae. E.B. Dioscoreaceae. 302. Batemanaceae. 270. Alismaceae. 293. Juncaginaceae. 708. Gymnocarpaceae. 262. Epidendraceae, E.B. Myopogon, E.B. Acacanthaceae, E.B. Juncaceae, E.B. Palmae, E.B. Melastomaceae, E.B. Pistacium, E.B. Philodendraceae, E.B. 14 ANALYSIS OF THE ORDERS IN THE MONOCOTYLEDONES. 725 Carpels combined. Perianth united inwardly after flowering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fimbriataeae. 260. Perianth not united inwardly after flowering. . Laminae externally connate externally. Perianth not united towards after flow- ering, conspicuous, without conned. Carpel united. . Lilium. 327. C. Ovary superior. Leaves net-veined. . Flowers perfect. . Placentae axile. . Leaves not stipulate, articulate. Leaves not whitish, arillated. Placentae parietal. B. Flowers entire, named or with a wrinkled scale calyx Phaneranthus. A. Flowers on a pedicel. Flowers perfect. . Embyrae closed. . Embyrae open. . Embyrae closed on one side. Embyrae with two trusses. Fruit succu- lent. Anther with 2 cells or nearly so. Flowers without a true calyx. Fruit dry. Anther with 3 cells. B. Flowers not arranged on an evident spadix. A. Flowers perfect. Ovary superior. . Ovary central. Flowers unisexual. Ovary sessile. Embyrae perfect. Seed with albumen alluvial. Seed with albumen alluvial. Embyrae perigynous. Ovarium pendulous. Carpel united. Seed without albumen. Pollen monosulcate. Pollen filamentous or coniferous. Seed with albumen alluvial. Carpel sessile, distinct. Adaxial stamens with short style, Anther-1-celled, Embyrae solid. Carpel united, combined. Anther-1-celled, Embyrae solid. Stamens 2-3. Shank very narrow than 2-coiled Anther-1-celled, Phaneranthus central. Shoots with leaves entire Seeds without row of hairs Anther-1-celled, Phanera purpurea Aemonae. 265. Aemonae. 271. Fimbriataeae. 271. Fimbriataeae. 271. Aemonae. 273. Tychotheae. 273. Jasminaceae. 268. Hygrochordaceae. 278. Nidulariae. 275. Platanaceae. 274. Fimbriataeae. 277. Nidulariae. 275. Nidulariae. 275. Nidulariae. 275. Nidulariae. 281. Dioscoreaceae. 281. Eucosmaea. 290. Hedysarum. 279. Aegopodium. 293 716 ACOTYLEDONER.--FILICES. Sub-class II. Glauceae or Glauwefera. Stem solid. Leaf-braheits not dit. Embrya be- sides within the albumen. -- Cypereae. 282. Stem hollow. Leaf-braheits dit. Embrya basilar, outside the albumen. -- Gramineae. 283. SUB-ORDER II. CRYPTOGAMIA, ACOTYLEDONES, OR FLOWERLESS PLANTS. CLASS III. ACOTYLEDONES. Sub-order I. Filicales.--The Fern Order.--Charac- ter.--Herbs with rhizomatous stems (fig. 12); or orchideaceous plants (fig. 15), usually unbranched, but sometimes with a forked stem (fig. 16). The leaves are simple, entire, or pinnate, or divided, arising irregularly from the rhizome (fig. 12), or placed in tufts at the apex of the stem (fig. 15). The fructification consists of sporangia or cupules (figs. 13, 15, and 298); simple (figs. 108, a) or com- posed (figs. 12 and 794). Fructification consisting of sporangia or cupules (figs. 13, 15, and 298); simple (figs. 108, a) or com- posed (figs. 12 and 794). Sporangia or cupules are placed usually on the under surface (figs. 795, a) or at the margin of the leaf (figs. 13, 15, and 298). They are occa- sionally arranged in a spiral manner on a simple or branched rachis (figs. 794); the sort are either naked (figs. 793) or covered by a non-vascular sheath (figs. 795, b). Cupules are naked (figs. 790) or sessile (figs. 1108, b), and either annulate (figs. 790) or exannulate (figs. 795, c). The fructification is either annulate (figs. 790). For further particulars upon the fructification of Ferns, see pp. 284 to 286. Order I.--The Order and Examples of the Genera.--This order is commonly divided into three sub-orders, which are frequently referred to as the Polypodiales, Asparagales, and Ophioglossales. Their charac- ters are as follows :- Sub-order I.--Polypodiales.--Polypodic Sub- order or Fertus proper.--Froma circinate in vernalism. Sporangia or cupules more or less annulate (figs. 795), usually naked (figs. 790), or occasionally arranged in a spiral manner on a simple rachis (figs. 792 and 793), or occasion- ally arranged in a spiral manner on a simple or branched rachis (figs. 794); the sort are either naked (figs. 793) or covered by a non-vascular sheath (figs. 795, b). Benedicta.--Polypodicum.--Asplenium.--Hymenophyllum.--Dre- manda. Sub-order 2.--Danaceae, Danacearum, or Morotulaceae.--The Danace 716 **FILICUS.** 727 Sub-order.—Fronds circinate in vernalization, and all fertile. Sporangia or capsules arising from, or imbedded in, the under surface of the frond, and opening by a single pore. *Examples*—Danaea, Marattia. Sub-order.—Fronds erect, or spreading. *Ophioglossum.* *Example*—Danaea. Sub-order.—Fronds not circinate in vernalization, barren or fertile. Sporangia or capsules arranged in a spike-like form (Fig. 1105), or in a cluster (Fig. 1106), or in a head, distinct, 2-valved (fig. 1105, b), exanimate. *Examples*—Ophioglossum, Betula. **Distribution.**—The plants of this order are more or less distributed over the globe, but they are most abundant in moist regions. In the northern hemisphere they are herbaceous plants, but in the southern hemisphere they are sometimes arboreous, having stems occasionally as much as forty feet in height, and with leaves as long as two feet; and their fruits are upwards of 2,000 species. **Fragrans.*—*Fragrans*. Several species have farinaceous rhizomes or stems, which, when roasted or boiled, are used as articles of food by the natives of the South Sea Islands; generally only in times of scarcity. The rhizome of *Cephalotus follicularis*, *Nephrolepis exaltata*, and *Marattia aleo*, are those which are thus principally employed; but the rhizome of *Cephalotus* possesses slightly bitter, astrigent, and aromatic taste; that of *Nephrolepis* is very insipid; and that of *Marattia* is mucilaginous. The rhinome of some are astrigent and tonic, and a few possess well-marked medicinal virtues. The long silky hairs found on the rhizomes and lower percurrent branches of some species have been used for stiffening the hair, and as mechanical styptic. *Aerodendron Haurae.*—The rhizomes of this species constitute the medicinal plant known as Little Cord, which is used medicinally in Peru. (See *Pulpepidae*.) *Aerodendron* was formerly thought to be a hybrid of *A. Capitatum* Tree Medicin- hair; and those of *E. pedunculatum*, Canadian Mad-dant-hair; but recent investigations show that these plants are distinct. The former is a very tall tree with large compound leaves; the latter is a small shrub with simple leaves. Both are used medicinally for the same sugar and orange-bower water; but it is now commonly made by simply adding to the water a little of the dried leaves. It has been supposed that this plant has many virtues; and various qualities have been attributed to other species of *Aerodendron*. 728 EQUISETACEAE. Aquilegia fragrans—The former possess a somewhat bitter per- sort, and have been used as a medicine for tea. Cultum.—The silky hair covering the lower portion of the canes of C. horrida, when dried, is employed by the natives of India to be- ing imported under the name of Puka Kudap. This has great reputation in India as a remedy for many diseases. It is also used in Holland, Germany, and other countries. It has also been employed for earache, catarrh, and other complaints. The leaves of this plant, imported from the Sandwich Islands, under the name of Puka, may be em- ployed in the same manner as the above. The roots of C. cristata differ from those species of C. cristata, viz. of plenosa, C. chamissoi, and C. me- nziesii; but they are very similar in their medicinal properties. Cynara.—From the canes of C. Sarda, a native of Sumatra, white hair is obtained which is used in the preparation of a medicine for Djajakai; they are used for similar purposes as Puka Aduka and Puka Laruma. The leaves of C. cardunculus are used in the preparation of the root of three species (Aquilegia or Nepenthes) Fila—two constitute the official medicine for the treatment of dropsy; one comes from the earliest times as an antidote; it possesses most activity in a recent state; while the other is employed in a fresh state; both are used in the commune; but our experience and that of others is that the latter autumn is the best time to use them. The leaves of C. cardunculus, being native of the United States, is said to possess similar properties. The rhi- zome of Lomatium is said to possess similar properties. Umbonocereus, is also much esteemed by the Indians as an antidote. Ophryanthus—The leaves of Ophryanthus are employed by the Indians as a salad ingredient. Oregano—oregano, the flowering or Royal Ferns—in Westmorland and some parts of England—is employed by the Indians as a substitute for Yogi onion. The rhizome when heated and macerated all night in cold spring water on account of its pungency is employed as a medicine. Polypodium—the rhizomes of P. colpodes, Gomphus or Stainer Calda- cera—of P. vulgare, and P. polypodioides are employed by the Indians as a show of Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi (see Arctostaphylos). They are used medicinally in Peru, and are said to possess similar properties to those of Euphorbia and Pseudophytum—the fronds, under the names of Male Ferns, and Female Ferns—are employed in Bolivia for myopia, gouty feet, and other kidney complaints. For example, the common Broom, is reputed to possess analgesic properties. Natural Order 293. Equisetaceae.—The Horsetail Order. Clasped Equisetum hyemale—The stem is simple or vertically branched aerial siliceous stem, arising from slender creeping rhizomes or underground stems. The joints contain a large amount of silica (Fig. 33), which are regarded by some botanists as modified leaves, but generally considered as a special form of stem. When matured, the branches arise in a whorled manner from beneath the axis of the teeth of the sheaths and correspond in number with those on each side of the stem. The young plants are in con- like or club-shaped masses at the termination of the stem ( figs. 11). Each mass is composed of parallel scale leaves surmounting a central shoot on their upper surface (figs. 790). each of which deliquesce internally by a longitudinal fissure. A diagram showing the structure of Equisetum hyemale. **MARSILEACEAE.** 729 Spores surrounded by elastic club-shaped elaters (figs. 800 and 801). (See page 369 for a more detailed account of the fructifera- tions.) **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—These plants are found in marshy or wet places in most parts of the world. They are cosmopolitan, but are most abundant in 10 species, most of which are indigenous. From the botanical point of view, they are of no importance either in a medical or economic point of view. They were formerly regarded as slightly strigous, diuretic, and emmenagogic, but are now regarded as worthless. The leaves contain a good deal of starchy matters in the winter months, and might be considered as a source of food for cattle and sheep in some forms. Silice is abundant in their epidermal tissues: this is especially the case in *Equisetum aquatile*, Rough Horse-tail, which is used in the manufacture of glass, and in that of *Dutch Rubus*, and employed by cabinet makers, ivory turners, and other craftsmen. Natural Order 298. **MARSILEACEAE.** —The Pepperwort Order. Pepperwort herb with small floating or creeping Fig. 1106. Fig. 1106. The Creeping *Pillwort* (*Pedicularis salicifolia*). The stems are creeping, and the leaves are sessile on short petioles. The flowers are few, and placed at the sides of the leaves. stems (fig. 1106), from which arise sessile (figs. 1106) or stalked leaves (figs. 1107), and from which arise many small flowers (figs. 1108). Fructification at the base of the leaves (figs. 1106) and con- sisting of stalked valvate sporocarps (figs. 802, 803, and 806) attached to the stem by a stalk (figs. 805, 807, and 808). The *sporo- carps* are contained (figs. 803), and sporangia (figs. 804), both of which are attached to the stalk (figs. 805) or in separate sacs (figs. 806). (See pages 360—362.) **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—They are widely dis- tributed, but are most abundant in temperate regions. Ee 780 **LYCOPODIACEAE.** *amphi of the Genera --- Pilularia, Marsilea.* There are about 20 species. **Properties and Uses.—Of little importance. Marsilea Ma- cropoda is known in Australia as the Nardoo plant. The spor- meps can be used for water-matter; these are also used in the same way as flour. Natural Order 267, Lycopsidae—The Club-moss Order. *Club-mosses,* the *Lycopsidae,* are generally resembling Mosses, and either terrestrial with creeping stems (fig. 1107) and forked ramification (fig. 10), or aquatic plants with corn-like stems. Fig. 1107. Fig. 1107. *Lycopus tridentatus.* North Carolina. The stem is creeping, ( fig. 1108). *Lycopus sessilis,* usually small and imbricated (fig. 1107), but sometimes tufted (fig. 1108) and linear-cylindrical. *Fruitification in the axil of leaves or scales* (figs. 807 and 808), or immersed in the soil, consists of two kinds of sporangia—consisting of either one kind of sporangium only, called the *autheridium* or *microsporangium* (fig. 810), or consisting of both kinds of sporangia—the *macroporangium,* as just mentioned, and others called the *macroporangium* (fig. 810). The *microsporangium* (fig. 809) consists of a single cell, which contains four nuclei; the *macroporangium* encloses 4 large spores (*macropores*) (fig. 810). (See pages 532, 533, and 534.) **Distribution, Examples, and Numbers.—They are almost** Lycopodium. 731 universally diffused, occurring in cold, temperate, and warm climates. Examples of the genus---Lycoptidum, Inosites. There are about 300 species. Properties. Many species contain an acriod principle. In moderate doses they are frequently emetic and purgative, Fig. 1108. but in large doses they occasionally produce poisonous effects. Some are reputed to possess aphrodisiac properties. The spores of several are inflammable. Lycoptidum.--L. clavatum, the Common Club-moss, possesses well-marked emetic and purgative properties. It is also the source of a valuable and nauseogenic. The spores have been employed externally for their abortive qualities, but are now largely superseded by the more efficacious Talcum. In India, they are sold as the diuretic, sedative, and demulcent. These spores are of a yellowish color, and are used in medicine as a diuretic. Although of short use in medicine, as just alluded to, they are occasionally employed in phar- macology as a demulcent. They are also employed in the preparation of medicines and prevent their adhering together. Lycoptidum spores, however, from their nauseogenic nature, are not generally employed in the preparation of deco- works, and for the production of artificial lighting at the theatre. Ac— Z. Ledge has similar medicinal properties, but it sometimes acts as a nar- 733 **MUSCLE** **estimable peloid. The spores are of a like indistinguishable nature to those of *Chondrus* (q.s.), but the plant is a powerful pteridine.** **Natural Order 298. MUCUS.---The Moss-Order.** **Character.** **Cellular plants (figs. 8, 9, and 10), terrestrial or aquatic, with great or peculiarly large leaves (fig. 110). Reproductive organs of two kinds, called anthocerous and arthroporic (see pages 365-366), which are either placed on the same axis or on different axes. The leaves of these plants are monoserial or disserial. The anthocerous (fig. 81) is a more or less rounded, elliptic, or cylindrical sac, containing a mass of minute cells (nucleus), each of which en- 110 capsulates a single spore (sporophore). The arthroporic is usually a flask-shaped body (figs. 812, 813), which after fertilization becomes a sporangium (figs. 813-815), with a central columella (figs. 814 and 815), and with the walls of the sporangium being occupied by spores, without any stalkers among them. The sporangia are usually attached on stalks (seta) (figs. 813, f, and 814, b), or they are sessile (figs. 815, c, d, e, and 816), and at first is covered by a hood (calyptra) (figs. 814 and 815, c), beneath which is a short stalk (peduncle) (figs. 813, f). The sporangium usually opens when ripe in one of two ways: either by the separation of the operculum (figs. 816, o, and 817), or sometimes by splitting vertically into four parts (figs. 816, o'), or finally by the summit by the persistent operculum (figs. 816, o'). At the dehiscence of the sporangium, its mouth (stoma) is seen to be either sur- 816rounded by a hood (calyptra) of one (egyptiaria) or two leaves (diploper- 816, o') or the mouth is naked (gametophora) (fig. 815). **of the Genera:** This order includes several sub- 816orders, the principal distinctive characters of which are as follows: Sub-order I. **Sporophore or Sphagnaceae---Bag-mosses---Capsule** globular, surrounded at the base by the calyptra; the colu- 816mella does not reach to the apex of the capsule. The only genus in this sub-order is *Sphagnum*, which is found on boggy moors and in damp woods. **Fig. 100. A portion of a dense tuft of *Sphagnum*. The leaves are long and narrow, with smoothened ends; the leaf-blades are long and narrow; the margin serrate; growth in fertile plants after death occurs; the leaves are erect; the leaves are arranged in opposite pairs; the leaves are smooth except at the base where they are roughened; the leaves are green; the stems are green; the stems are hollow; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; the stem is tubular; **HEPATACEAE.** 723 Sub-order 5 *Androceres* or *Androceres*.—Split mosses. —Sporan- gium splitting vertically into two parts, but remaining con- nected at the summit. *Examples* : *Androsa* (fig. 1109). Acorochnia. Sub-order 6 *Phasceres* or *Phasceres*. —The capsule does not burst ; the spores escaping by the decay of the wall of the sporangium. *Examples* : *Phasceres* (fig. 1110). Sub-order 7 *Bryoceris*.—Urn-mosses. —Sporangium, which is generally borne upon a seta of considerable length, detaching traversing the air, and then falling to the ground. This sub- order includes very many genera, e.g. Funaria, Polytrichum. Distribution and Numbers.—They are generally diffused over the globe, but are most abundantly in temperate climates. There are about 1250 species. Properties and Use.—Of little importance either in a medi- cal or commercial point of view, they are used only to possess antiseptic and diuretic properties, but none are employed by the human race. The leaves of *Funaria*, and those of *Sphagnum* furnish food to the reindeer, and even to man in the polar regions. Natural Order 289. **Hepataceae**.—The Liverwort Order (see pages 366-369).—Character.—Small cellular plants, either with a simple or with bearing minute leaf-like appendages (figs. 1110) or with a lobed thallial expansion (figs. 820 and 822). Repre- Fig. 1110. Fig. 1110. Fig. 1111. Fig. 1111. Fig. 1112. Fig. 1112. Fig. 1113. Fig. 1113. Fig. 1114. Fig. 1114. Fig. 1115. Fig. 1115. Fertile organs of two kinds, called anthocerous and achrocerous, which are either on the same plant or on different ones ; hence these plants are termed hermaphrodite. The sporangia are small, oval, globular, or flask-shaped, cellular sac (fig. 823), stretched out between two plates of thallus, or imbbed in the upper surface of pellate or diacoid stalked ductive organs of two kinds, called anthocerous and achrocerous, which are either on the same plant or on different ones ; hence these plants are termed hermaphrodite. The sporangia are small, oval, globular, or flask-shaped, cellular sac (fig. 823), stretched out between two plates of thallus, or imbbed in the upper surface of pellate or diacoid stalked 734 ANALYSIS OF THE ORDERS IN THE ACROGENE. reciprocates (fig. 803, p.). The arborescence (fig. 823) are usually somewhat flat-shaped bodies, which are imbedded in the fronds, or contained in reciprocates (fig. 822, r) which are elevated on stalks (fig. 821, s), and which may be either simple or compound de- velop after fertilisation a sporangium, which either bursts by valves (fig. 111), or by a single irregular sinus. The generative organs generally without a collumella, sometimes mixed with clastos (fig. 824), or it is furnished with a thread-like collumella (fig. 825), but this latter is imperfect; or it has neither clastos nor collumella. Division of the Order and Examples of the Genera.—This order may be divided into three sub-orders. Sub-order 1. *Jungfermannose* or *Jungfermannia*. — Scale- monas—Sporangium oval; without a collumella; splitting ver- tically in two parts; with one or more lateral branches; with imperfect clastos. Examples.—Blattis, Jungfermannia. Sub-order 2. *Marchantia* or *Marchantia*. — Leaf-shape. Valved ; with a filiform collumella. Spores either mixed with imperfect clastos, or they are absent. Examples.—Anthoceros, Monoceros. Sub-order 3. *Marchantiose* or *Marchantia*. — Liverworts. Sporangium oval; without a collumella; splitting vertically; without a collumella. Spores mixed with clastos (fig. 824). Examples.—Fimbriata, Marchantia. Sub-order 4. *Monoceros* or *Monoceros*. — Hydropylae—Sporangium without valves; bursting irregularly; without a collumella. Spores not mixed with clastos. Examples.—Riccia, Sphaero- carpus. Distribution and Numbers.—The plants of this order are generally diffused over the globe, but they are most abundant in damp shady places. The number of species is about 700 species. Proper Names and Uses.—Of no importance, although some have been used in liver complaints, and other species, as Marchantia hemispheraica, have been employed, in the form of pulloites, in dropsy. Artificial Analysis of the Natural Orders in the Sub-class Arborescentae. (The Numbers refer to the Orders.) 1. With a distinct stem or axis. a. Leafy plant. b. Spore-plant, on the back or margins of the fronds, or on metamorphous leaves. Filices. 104. b. Spore-plant, on the back of the axis of leaves, or immersed in their substance. A diagram showing the structure of a plant in the Arborescentae class. THALLOPHYTA.---FUNGL. 735
1. Not enclosed in sporangia. Lycoperidaceae. 287.
Sporangia semi, without a calyptrae. Mucoraceae. 386.
Sporangia on axis, with a calyptrae. Mucoraceae. 386.
2. Enclosed in sporangia. Mucoraceae. 386.
Vesicles Mucoraceae. 386.
Sporae in mixed with clavaria. Mucoraceae. 386.
Vesicles Hypocreae. 285.
Spores mixed with clavaria. Hypocreae. 285.
B. Lepidomycetes. Hypocreae. 285.
Stem simple or with whorled branches. Equisetaceae. 285.
Fruiting bodies of one kind only. Equisetaceae. 285.
With true leaves, but forming a green thallus expansion. Hypocreae. 285.
Sub-class II. Thallophyta or Thalloglossa. Natural Order 200. Fungi.---The Mucromycetes (Mucorales)---Discomycetes (Discomycetales). The Mucorales are those fungi which produce their fruiting bodies in the air; growing in or upon decaying organic matters (in which case they are termed saprophytes), or on living organisms (when they are termed parasites). The Discomycetes have their vegetative structure called the sporeous body (see figs. 929, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z). They grow by means of green colouring matter and starch. Fruitional varieties (See pages 370-374, and figs. 925-938). **Classification of Species and Numbers:** They abound in all parts of the world except the very coldst, where their spawn would be destroyed by the cold; but they are found in Africa, Australia, America, and Europe. Aegilops; Turula; Puccinia; Uredo; Bredmyx; Mucorella; Tubulic; Muscorum. The number of species is estimated at over 4,000. There are about half as many genera. **Properties and Uses:** Fungi have very variable properties. Some are medicinal; some are poisonous; some are useful; some are more or less poisonous. Many deaths have occurred from poisonous Fungi having been mistaken for edible ones; and apart from their beneficial effects on the soil they may be used as a substitute for the chemicals by which they may be distinguished. Some general characters, however, will enable us in most cases to do so: these may be tabulated as follows: **Edible Mushrooms** 1. Grow solitary or dry airy places. 2. Generally white or brownish. 3. Have no smell. 4. Do not change color when cut by the action of the air. 5. Juice white. 6. Odour agreeable. 7. Taste not bitter, acid, salt, orstringent.
1.Grow solitary or dry airy places.
2.Generally white or brownish.
3.Have no smell.
4.Do not change color when cut by the action of the air.
5.Juice white.
6.Odour agreeable.
7.Taste not bitter, acid, salt, orstringent.
736 FUNGUS. Poisonous Mushrooms. 1. Grow in clusters, in woods or dark damp places. 2. Usually with bright colours. 3. Find no use in cooking. 4. Acquire a black, green, or blue tint, when cut and exposed to the air. 5. Juice is bitter. 6. Their smell commonly powerful and disagreeable. 7. Have an acid, amoniaic, acid, salt, or bitter taste. All Fungi which are poisonous will not be touchable, and those which have scales or spots on their surface; and, whatever may be their apparent properties, all those which have nerves, veins, or other parts of the body visible, without any signs of change, should be used with caution. When there is any doubt as to the quality of a Fungus, it is advisable to boil them in water for about an hour, then wash them in boiling water previous to their being eaten; but this is not always necessary. Poisonous Fungi lose their poisonous properties when thus treated. It is quite true that, by following strictly the above rules, edible species will be distinguished from those which are not; but little comparative importance, as by so doing all injurious ones will certainly be avoided. The best rule is to avoid all Fungi which have a milky, or which have a biting or acrid taste, or those which have a powerful or disagreeable odour. Colour will not always be a guide; for instance, some Fungi are poisonous, others, which are highly coloured, as, for instance, Aporus (Pleurotus) cantharellus at least one of the most splendid and the best of the excellent Fungi. Professor Schiff, of Florence, states that the poisonous mushrooms are generally found in the mountainous regions, and that its effects are counteracted either by striaea or datura; and he adds that the consumption of these alcohols in the rural districts where the consumption of these poisonous Fungi is probable But no confirmation of these results has been obtained at present. The species or variety of Fungi most commonly consumed in this country are: Agaricus (Pallidus) arvensis (Gyromitra), the morel; the Truffle; and several species of Boletus. Dr. Batham and others have stated that the consumption of these Fungi in this country by the rejection of edible Fungi. Dr. Batham enumerates no less than thirty species of Fungi which are natives of Britain; but it is doubtful whether they are eaten and in the first part of Cooke's "Handbook of British Fungi," no less than sixteen are mentioned as being poisonous; but none of them are stated to be so in practice. In France, Russia, Italy, Germany, and other countries, several Fungi are also eaten which are regarded FUNGI. 737 by us as poisonous. It is difficult to account for these conflicting statements, but we believe that the differences observed in the effects of Fungi are due to variations of soil and climate, the conditions under which they are grown, the different states, fresh, dried, or in other forms, in which they are used, the mode of working, and the peculiar idiosyncrasies of individuals who partake of them. In England, France, Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and in Italy, Hungary, and elsewhere, is generally avoided. We consider, therefore, that with our present knowledge, it is better to abstain from using Fungi than to attempt to estimate the slightest doubt of their qualities. In a large proportion of Fungi are remarkable for the large proportion of water which enters into their composition, by containing much nitrogen, and being rich in phosphates. Medicinally they are employed as diuretics, purgatives, laxative, nauseous, tonic, astringent, emetic, purgative, d. Egot of rape (see seeds) is employed as a diuretic; and the leaves of the white uterine contractions in labour; and for other purposes, is now proved to be the astringent (complexum mycoidum or spawm) of the Dioscorea. The leaves of the hawthorn and a number of other grasses are also frequently employed. Fungi are very destructive to living plants and animals by growing on them. Thus, in planta, the diseases known as blight, mildew, rust, smut, potato-disease, ergot, and so forth are often attributed to Fungi. By the agency of Fungi many valuable communications attempting to prove that Fungi are not responsible for the means of propagation various diseases in the human body have been made during the last few years, and there can be no doubt that this is true. But it is equally true that there are other diseases to which the human body is liable. In some cases of diphtheria recently referred to in the British Medical Journal Dr. J. H. Balfour has stated that one of the chief sources of the disease was the mouldiness of the walls caused by the presence of Fungi. In 1856 Mr. W. H. Symons published a paper in which he stated that Dr. John Taylor had informed him that when he was at Lille in 1858, at which time influenza was very fatal, it was supposed to be due to Fungi. This statement was confirmed by the great success of the antiseptic treatment first introduced by Professor Lister into practice. The power of Fungi to destroy life and ability is also due to its preventing the growths of such Fungi as the Bacillus in the discharges of wounds; in which otherwise they may become pathogenic. The cause of many diseases is now under investigation by accurate and discriminating observance; but it is impossible to form any general knowledge of the causes and propagation of various diseases; it is one replete with interest, but which cannot be entertained further in this work. In the same way various diseases of animals generally are 3 a 728 **FUNGAL** either caused, or accelerated, by the attacks of Fungi. Thus the disease in the silkworm, known under the name of **ma- caridum**, is produced by one or more species of *Botrytis*. Similar diseases also occur on the leaves of many other plants, frequently attacked by species of *Sphaera* or *Chrysops*, in China, Australia, New Zealand, and elsewhere, and ultimately destroyed. The mucous masses which are formed by these fungi are often rich in Fungi of various kinds. The disease called *Dry Rot*, which fre- quently occurs in the woodwork of old buildings, is due to the action of Fungi such as *Mucor* and *Penicillium*. The subsequent develop- ment of the spores of such Fungi as those of *Merismus* ferrugineus and *M. vodarol*, and *Pseudofactor* destructu. The different species of *Botrytis* produce a variety of diseases; preserves, fruit, paper, books, and various other substances, are also Fungal. The fungus *Mucor*, Botrytis, Aspergillus, Peni- cillium, Oidium, etc. An interesting matter connected with the action of Fungi on organic bodies is that of the development of fermentation, which is now commonly regarded as being essentially caused by Fungi. The fermentation of sugar cane is due to the action of sacharomyces fluids is due to the development in them of the Yeast plant, and the butyric fermentation to the growth of *Butyric acid*. *Agaricus* agriocarnus, the Common Mushroom, and its varie- ties: *A. arvensis*, *A. erraticus*, the Chagrinamut, *A. cinnamoneus*, *A. cinnamoneus, and *A. pomaceus*, are among the most important products of the world. (See Properties and Uses of Fungi, page 36.) The mushroom mucilage is used in medicine as a stimulant; it is also employed as a preservative. *A. erraticus*, *A. cinnamoneus*, and others, and all of them develop, in a rotting state, a substance which is very poisonous. This substance, causes the grass in our meadows, in such places, to grow in a very luxuriant manner in a few days. *Ammonia (Agaricus)* amaricus is a very poisonous species. It possesses narcotic qualities; it is employed as a sedative; it is also employed as a stimulant. And some other parts of the human empire are as nutritious and interesting agents. The following table shows how much food is obtained by injurious qualities to the final excitements of those who partake of it. When people eat this kind of food they become so excited that they lose their senses; they become delirious and even die from fright; hence its specific name "ammonia". Another species of this "amide" is found in several countries in Europe and America. *Chrysops*, another fungus, described earlier which grows in the grains of Rye and many other grasses, is produced by *C. purpureus*. The official English name for this fungus is "Rye Mould". The **Conio- mycetum or mawen** (spores) of this fungus, produced within the piths of the Coniferous trees, are capable either of causing death by poisoning of the straw in cases of sudden partition, or to prevent flooding after delivery. The **Cordyceps** fungus produces a substance which is very poisonous, and sometimes causes death. Taken for a length of time as an inward medicine with great benefit to many persons suffering from weakness, *c. sinensis*, and other species, frequently attack caterpillars in a living state, while others destroy them entirely. The **Cordyceps** fungus has been used by the earthworm with the developed fungal form of *C. sinensis* is a highly esteemed drug in China, where it is much used as a tonic.
**FUNGL** Cynara scolymus and C. cardunculus are employed for food, the former in Terra dei Fiori, and the latter in the Levant. Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) and E. arvensis are used in Coverd Garden Medicines, as well as in the preparation of the "Milk of the Grass," a more aphrodisiac property, and to promote parturition and the secretion of milk. Echinacea Americana (Doe's Ear), is reputed to possess antirheumatic and diuretic properties, and is employed in the treatment of rheumatism, affections, or pusilities. E. kopala is used in China as a stimulant, and as a food for children. The root is also employed in the treatment of scurvy, a wasting disease of ears of trees. The American "Peanut" - What is Lepidoptera? - is supposed to contain, in its volatile emanations arising from it, possess a narcotic effect on the nerves, and to be emetic. It is also said to possess honey from the hive, and has been also recommended as an anthelmintic remedy. This plant is very similar to the "Peanut" of Europe, but is possessed by some other species. The "Beech" - What is Beech? - is one of the Fagaceae which occurs in the diseases called Dry Leaf (See Properties and Uses of Fagus, p. 708). The leaves are employed in the treatment of bronchitis, which is principally employed for favouring. It is imported as a dry state from the United States. **Myrtle americana** is native to New Zealand. In Australia, where it is largely cultivated, it is sold at three shillings per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound, or at one shilling per pound. **Osmunda regalis** - The Vine Funaria is commonly supposed to be a species of this plant. It grows in woods and on banks near water. The leaves are called funaria. Osmunda is a general form of Fuciplexe. The leaves are called funaria. Osmunda regalis is a general form of Fuciplexe. The leaves are called funaria. Osmunda regalis is a general form of Fuciplexe. The leaves are called funaria. Osmunda regalis is a general form of Fuciplexe. The leaves are called funaria. Osmunda regalis is a general form of Fuciplexe. The leaves are called funaria. Osmunda regalis is a general form of Fuciplexe. The leaves are called funaria. Osmunda regalis is a general form of Fuciplexe. The leaves are called funaria. Osmunda regalis is a general form of Fuciplexe. The leaves are called funaria. Osmunda regalis is a general form of Fuciplexe. The leaves are called funaria. Osmunda regalis is a general form of Fuciplexe. The leaves are called funaria. Osmunda regalis is a general form of Fuciplexe. The leaves are called funaria. Osmunda regalis is a general form of Fuciplexe. The leaves are called funaria. Osmunda regalis is a general form of Fuciplexe. The leaves are called funaria. Osmunda regalis is a general form of Fuciplexe. The leaves are called funaria. Osmunda regalis is a general form of Fuciplexe. The leaves are called funaria. Osmunda regalis is a general form of Fuciplexe. The leaves are called funaria. Osmunda regalis is a general form of Fuciplexe. The leaves are called funaria. Osmunda regalis is a general form of Fuciplexe. The leaves are called funaria. Osmunda regalis is a general form of Fuciplexe. The leaves are called funaria. Osmunda regalis is a general form of Fuciplexe. The leaves are called funaria. Osmunda regalis is a general form of Fuciplexe. The leaves are called funaria. **Larch** - Larches belong to the genus Larix (Larix decidua), which grows in the forests of Germany and Switzerland; they have been introduced into England and America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been introduced into America; they have been Introduced 740 LICHENES. By Rutherford to be F. Fial. Lichenum, Sceletinum, a native of Canada, is said to be a tonic bitter, and is sometimes used as an application to wounds. Pseudoria granulosa is the fungus which produces the Millet of Wheat. Trachia is a genus of Lichen, and the so-called Lichenous form of T. coriacea, and the so-called Vinegar plant is also a more developed form of this genus. Tuber, the Truffle.—The species of Truffle, several of which occur in Britain, are very useful in medicine, being employed as a stimulant or favouring agents. The best are imported from France, Algeria, and Italy; they are also made into a wine by fermentation with yeast. Monotropos is one of the more frequently used species. Natural Order 291. LICHENES.—The Lichen Order—Chro- matophyta—contains plants of the phylum thallophytes resem- bling that of Fungi, ending in its meshes cells, known as gonidia (see 841, 201, and 843, 201), which contain chloro- phylls and other pigments. The Lichens are parasitic upon which the Fungus is parasitic. (See page 578.) The whole is greenish-yellow or brownish-green, and somewhat woody, scaly, crustaceous, or leporeus thallus; living and fructifying in the air; and growing on the bark of trees, or on old stones or rocks. They are mostly epiphytic upon exposed surfaces of rocks; usually epiphytic; but sometimes parasitic; and commonly found in moist situations. They have little or no leaf appearance. Reproduction either vegetative by means of spores (see page 369); or by true fructification, consisting of, 1. apothecia (see 840, 201) or 2. perithecia (see 840, 201) or 3. of a rounded (see 840, 201) or linear form (see 840, 201), and com- posed of two layers of cells containing spores; or 4. of 16 spores; 2. of peritheciomata containing spores (see 840, 201 and 842, 201); and 3. of rarely, peridinae enclosing stroma- (see 840, 201). See also page 378-380. Dahlias are examples; and Numbers—Lichens—are distrib- uted in all parts of the world. The pulverulent species 'are the first plants that clothe the bare rocks newly formed islands in the middle of the ocean; and they are often seen on the shores of Moassas and Liverworts. Lichens also form a considerable pro- portion of the vegetation on the mountains and high plateaus. Examples of the Genera—Ophryogonium, Verrucaria, Leccinum, Cladonia, Pelliturna, Usnea. There are above 2500 species. Properties—Lichens are generally considered to possess properties from containing amylaceous substances, and such are also smooth and pleasant to the taste; but many are bitter and astringent which render them tonic and astrigent; and many are important as drying agents. A few possess aromatic properties. Some Lichens, as species of Cladonia, contain a large amount of calcium oxalate. None are known to be poisonous. Cetraria.—Cetraria islandica. Lichenum—This lichen contains about 75 parts of water to one part of dry substance; it is also called the pseu- dople termed cerreto acid or refractum. It is official in the British Pharma- 9/22 LICHENES. 741 epoia, and is employed as a nutritious food, and as a mild medicinal agent to the stomach. It is also used in the manufacture of soap, and it should be preferably deprived of its bismuth; this may be done either by heating it with a little water, or by boiling it in a solution of nitrate, still better, by digesting it in a weak alkali solution formed by adding sodium carbonate to water until the solution attains about a gallon of cold water and afterwards washing it with water. Chlorophyllum (Chlorophyllum).—Several species of this genus are found in the British Isles, but only one is known to be of any importance. Chlorophyllum molybdites is the most common species, and is found in the woods and on the ground. The name of this genus is derived from the Greek words chloros, green, and phyton, plant; and this name is applied to all plants which need to produce a brown colour. Gypsothra (Gypsothra).—Several species, denominatied tripe de roche, possess nutritive qualities. The following species are of great importance: Gypsothra alba, which was introduced into Great Britain in 1821, as a direct measure, to the use of those who had lost their food. The Gypsothra also possesses nutritive qualities. The following species are of great importance: Gypsothra alba, one of the Lichens used in this country by the manufacturers of certain medicines. This Lichen is employed as a remedy for diseases which need to produce a brown colour. The preparation of the dye called Caudex, but caudex in now obtained not from the Lichen Caudex, but from the root of the plant Caudex officinalis of Borealis, etc. (See Rumex and Gyrophora). Perilla yields a similar dye to that obtained from the root of Caudex officinalis. These two important articles of food both to man and animals generally, in Persia, Arabia, and India. In Persia, however, they are not so much used as questions; that in certain districts they over the ground at the depth of several feet. The dye obtained from these roots is very valuable. The dye is also found in Algeria. Ains Minor, etc., and Dr. O'Beirne has enhanced value to his patients by employing this dye in cases of leprosy which did them with regularity for forty years in the wilderness. Furcifera (Furcifera).—This Lichen is employed as a yellowish sulphurete, antiseptic, and tonic. It contains a yellow crystallising colouring matter, which is employed in medicine as a substitute for saffron. The principle of Furcifera, i.e., furcella, is employed by the manufacturers of certain medicines for purposes similar to those for which saffron is domestic proper. Pulverula (Pulverula) species and F. furcella are known to be the herb base of this country under the name of Ground-Liverwort. This plant is employed as a remedy for various diseases; it is also a specific in hydrophylaxis. Borealis (Borealis) Wanda.—R. victoriae. R. fuciferae. et Algomonae, under the common name of Orchiella Wanda, are the species actually met with in this country. They are found in many parts of Europe; in Spain, the Canary Islands and Cape de Verde Islands; the Azores, Anguilla, Madagascar, Mauritius, etc., where they grow on rocks and trees; they receive the name of these countries from whence they have been derived. Orchiella Wanda is employed as a remedy for diseases and for colours called aurum or aurum acidum. In Holland the blue colour, called aurum acidum, is obtained from this Lichen; but in England the best kind is said to be made from R. furcella. Lithium is also known under the name of Lithium Wanda; it is employed as a remedy for various diseases; it is also used as a test for alkaline acids, and sometimes with a basic reaction. It is official for this purpose in the British Pharmacopoeia. A description of Lithium Wanda will be found under Lithium. Orchil (Orchil).—Orchil and outearl are used for staining and drying pearls; they are also used for making dyes; they are employed as a remedy for various diseases; they are also used as a test for alkaline acids; and sometimes with a basic reaction. It is official for this purpose in the British Pharmacopoeia. A description of Orchil will be found under Alum. Lithium (Lithium).—Lithium Wanda is employed as a remedy for various diseases; it is also used as a test for alkaline acids, and sometimes with a basic reaction. It is official for this purpose in the British Pharmacopoeia. A description of Lithium will be found under Lithium. Lithothamnion (Lithothamnion).—Lithothamnion Wanda is employed as a remedy for various diseases; it is also used as a test for alkaline acids, and sometimes with a basic reaction. It is official for this purpose in the British Pharmacopoeia. A description of Lithothamnion will be found under Lithothamnion. Lithothamnion Wanda (Lithothamnion Wanda).—Lithothamnion Wanda is employed as a remedy for various diseases; it is also used as a test for alkaline acids, and sometimes with a basic reaction. It is official for this purpose in the British Pharmacopoeia. A description of Lithothamnion Wanda will be found under Lithothamnion. Lithothamnion Wanda (Lithothamnion Wanda).—Lithothamnion Wanda is employed as a remedy for various diseases; it is also used as a test for alkaline acids, and sometimes with a basic reaction. It is official for this purpose in the British Pharmacopoeia. A description of Lithothamnion Wanda will be found under Lithothamnion. Lithothamnion Wanda (Lithothamnion Wanda).—Lithothamnion Wanda is employed as a remedy for various diseases; it is also used as a test for alkaline acids, and sometimes with a basic reaction. It is official for this purpose in the British Pharmacopoeia. A description of Lithothamnion Wanda will be found under Lithothamnion. Lithothamnion Wanda (Lithothamnion Wanda).—Lithothamnion Wanda is employed as a remedy for various diseases; it is also used as a test for alkaline acids, and sometimes with a basic reaction. It is official for this purpose in the British Pharmacopoeia. A description of Lithothamnion Wanda will be found under Lithothamnion. Lithothamnion Wanda (Lithothamnion Wanda).—Lithothamnion Wanda is employed as a remedy for various diseases; it is also used as a test for alkaline acids, and sometimes with a basic reaction. It is official for this purpose in the British Pharmacopoeia. A description of Lithothamnion Wanda will be found under Lithothamnion. Lithothamnion Wanda (Lithothamnion Wanda).—Lithothamnion Wanda is employed as a remedy for various diseases; it is also used as a test for alkaline acids, and sometimes with a basic reaction. It is official for this purpose in the British Pharmacopoeia. A description of Lithothamnion Wanda will be found under Lithothamnion. Lithothamnion Wanda (Lithothamnion Wanda).—Lithothamnion Wanda is employed as a remedy for various diseases; it is also used as a test for alkaline acids, and sometimes with a basic reaction. It is official for this purpose in the British Pharmacopoeia. A description of Lithothamnion Wanda will be found under Lithothamnion. Lithothamnion Wanda (Lithothamnion Wanda).—Lithothamnion Wanda is employed as a remedy for various diseases; it is also used as a test for alkaline acids, and sometimes with a basic reaction. It is official for this purpose in the British Pharmacopoeia. A description of Lithothamnion Wanda will be found under Lithothamnion. Lithothamnion Wanda (Lithothamnion Wanda).—Lithothamnion Wanda is employed as a remedy for various diseases; it is also used as a test for alkaline acids, and sometimes with a basic reaction. It is official for this purpose in the British Pharmacopoeia. A description of Lithothamnion Wanda will be found under Lithothamnion. Lithothamnion Wanda (Lithothamnion Wanda).—Lithothamnion Wanda is employed as a remedy for various diseases; it is also used as a test for alkaline acids, and sometimes with a basic reaction. It is official for this purpose in the British Pharmacopoeia. A description of Lithothamnion Wanda will be found under Lithothamnion. Lithothamnion Wanda (Lithothamnion Wanda).—Lithothamnion Wanda is employed as a remedy for various diseases; it is also used as a test for alkaline acids, and sometimes with a basic reaction. It is official for this purpose in the British Pharmacopoeia. A description of Lithothamnio 742 CHARACEAE. ALGAE. Ordinarily, well possesses mucilaginous, emollient, and demulcent properties, and their leaves are used in medicine. Nerite palustris. Tree-Lungwort; Oak-leaves. This little plant grows on the banks of ponds and streams, and is supposed to possess antiparasitic properties. Chara cordiformis. In Siberia, it is used also for the purpose of imparting bitterness to beer. It is also employed in France as a remedy for the symptoms of a brown dye. Further, F. vulgare and F. vulgare are used for the production of tannin in France. Fig. 1112. The Chara Order. - **Diagnosis**. - Water plants, with a distinct axis branching at the base (figs. 864, 1112), and either transparent or coated with a mucilaginous substance; the reproductive organs of two kinds arising at the base of the branches (figs. 864, a, b), and either united or separate; the different branches of the same plant, or on separated plants, are termed gladiolus (figs. 864, a, c, and 860) and anemones (figs. 864, a, 947, and 848). See page 395 for a detailed account of their structure.) **Diagnosis.** Examples of Chara and Nema- taceae. These plants grow in stagnant fresh or salt water in all parts of the world, but are more abundant in temperate climates. Examples of the Genera: There are two genera, Chara and Nematoceros. - **Properties and Uses**: These plants are used medicinally for their astrigent odour, which is regarded as most injurious to animal life. They have no value as food. Natural Order 293. **Algae**. The Sea-water Order. - **Diagnosis**. - Plants growing in sea or fresh water, or in moist places; they are branched (figs. 5), or filamentous (figs. 849 and 880), or pulvulent. Many Algae are green; some are yellow; in colour they are usually greenish, rose-coloured, or brown. They are reproduced in various ways (see pages 382-389). **Description**. - The order is commonly divided into three sub-orders, which are frequently regarded as distinct orders themselves; but they are known under the name of the **Melobasomorpha**, or **Fucoidae**; Rhodophytae; Rhodophyceae; or *Phycidae*, and *Chlorophytae*. The first contains the following genera: Image of algae may be added two others, called respectively *Diatomeae* and A.G.M. 743 Volvocinae. Numerous other arrangements of the Algae have been proposed in recent years, but as these must be regarded as trivial, we have not included them in this work. Apart from their being generally used in this country in works treating on the algae, they are of little interest, and their distinctive characters may be briefly described as follows: Sub-order 1. *Melanosporae*, *Melanogramma*, *Pseudocar*, or *Brown-coloured Algae*. - Multicellular Algae, growing in salt water, forming colonies of various shapes, and having either a direct green or olive-brown colour. Examples :- *Sargassum*, *Fucus*, *Ectocarpus*. Sub-order 2. *Rhodopseae*, *Rhodophyceae*, *Porphyrae*, or *Rose-coloured Algae*. - Marine multicellular Algae, with a foliaceous or branched form, and having a bright red, scarlet, rose-coloured, or reddish-brown colour. Examples :- *Corallina*, *Chondrus*, *Porphyra*. Sub-order 3. *Chlorophyseae*. - *Chlorophyta* or *Multicellular Algae*. Growing in fresh water, and having a bright green, yellow-green, or rarely red. Examples :- *Caulerpa*, *Palmita*, *Zygoma*. Sub-order 4. *Brilliataceae*. - Brilliartia. The following dia- gnosis is from Henryfy :- Microscopic unicellular plants, occasionally occurring in fresh water. When grown in a sur- rounded by a gelatinous investment, the cells exhibiting more or less regular geometrical outlines and enclosed by a mem- brane, which is often thickened at the ends. Long and con- tinuous (figs. 1114), or impregnated with siliceous and phosphatic matter (figs. 1115). The cells are formed after conjugation of the cells (figs. 1114), and the sporos formed from the cell contents, and by division (figs. 1115). The body is divided into two sections : 1. Diatomeæ (figs. 1116). - Nucleus of fresh salt or water, or of moist ground, of a brownish colour, and surrounded by a siliceous membrane. Eo- mymo.- Diatoma, Navicula, *Euglena* (figs. 1114). Found only in fresh water, of green colour, containing starch, and not invested by a siliceous mem- brane. - Dendromium. Sub-order 5. *Diatomaceae* (figs. 1115). - Henryfy diagnoses them as follows :- Microscopic bodies swimming in fresh water. Fig. 1118 A species of Diatomaceous Algae (diatoms marine) divided into two parts by a membrane "The parts are seen to be straited." 744 A.G.M. by the aid of cilia arranged in pairs upon the surface of a common semi-gelatinous envelope, the pairs of cilia each belonging to a green corpuscle resembling the mouth of a common worm, embedded in the periphery of the common envelope. Repeatedly, this corpuscle is carried into a new colony, the whole being set free by the solution of the parent envelope. The members of this group are encysted resting-spores like those of Cryptomonas, but they do not resemble them. The members of this group are frequently regarded as Influenzae Animalcules, but in many respects they closely resemble the Conoidae. Fig. 1114. Two Dendriscaceae Algae (Dendriscum Brevifolium) after enmange- tion, with a view of minute spots between them. (After Radd.) Fig. 1115. The Revoluta Distribution and Numbers.--Algae are more or less distributed throughout the world, in salt or fresh water, or in moist situations. Some species are found in the boiling springs of Iceland, &c.; others occur in mineral springs, and some are found in hot springs where the water temperature have their own peculiar forms. It is impossible to estimate accurately the number of species of species of Algae, but they may be roughly guessed at 3,000. Properties and Uses.--Several species are employed for food in different parts of the world. For example, L. digitata, L. potatorum, &c., Alaria esculenta, Dorellia utica, Sargassum muticum, Sargassum crispatum and C. menziesii. Golden corallinum, &c., Gynogonium pinnatum, papillosa, &c., Gracilaria lichenedes and other Gracillariae, Echinoplasma, Echinodorus, Euphorbia, Utricularia, Utriculina, Compressa, &c., Noctua nuda, Hymenophyllum arborescens, and many others. The nutritious properties of the above are due to the presence of albumen-like substances, mucilage, and albumen. M. Payen also discovered a principle in Goldenseal (Goldenseal officinalis), which he gave the name of gelise. To this substance the Fig. 1116. The Revoluta Distribution and Numbers.--Algae are more or less distributed throughout the world, in salt or fresh water, or in moist situations. Some species are found in the boiling springs of Iceland, &c.; others occur in mineral springs, and some are found in hot springs where the water temperature have their own peculiar forms. It is impossible to estimate accurately the number of species of species of Algae, but they may be roughly guessed at 3,000. Properties and Uses.--Several species are employed for food in different parts of the world. For example, L. digitata, L. potatorum, &c., Alaria esculenta, Dorellia utica, Sargassum muticum, Sargassum crispatum and C. menziesii. Golden corallinum, &c., Gynogonium pinnatum, papillosa, &c., Gracilaria lichenedes and other Gracillariae, Echinoplasma, Echinodorus, Euphorbia, Utricularia, Utriculina, Compressa, &c., Noctua nuda, Hymenophyllum arborescens, and many others. The nutritious properties of the above are due to the presence of albumen-like substances, mucilage, and albumen. M. Payen also discovered a principle in Goldenseal (Goldenseal officinalis), which he gave the name of gelise. To this substance the ALG. 745 nutritious proportion of Algae are likewise, to a great extent, due, according to Payne, 1 part of pown dissolved in 500 parts of boiling water, will afford, upon cooling, a colourless, transparent jelly,—which is the most agreeable and nutritious part of the best animal gastrina. In order, therefore, to produce a jailal of equal consistency, it would be only necessary to employ the tenderest parts of the plant, and to prepare the same jelly prepared from species of Gelidium, Laurencia, &c., are much employed by the Chinese. The sea-plant *Gelidium* is the same substance which is employed by the Chinese, but is specially of Ge- lumis corneum, Gloeocystis tenue, and Endocladus verrucosa. The chlorophyll contained in these plants has a peculiarly strong per- petious probably in part to certain species of Algae, but essentially to the secretions of the awnalls by which they are constructed. In some cases, however, the juice of the plant may also be used for their emollient and demulcent properties. Several species of *Laminaria*, for instance, are employed as remedies in goitre and scrofulous diseases. They owe their beneficial effects in such cases, principally, to the presence of iodine in the juice. This element is obtained by burning many species of Algae in the open air form the substance called *kelp*. It is thus obtained in a state more pure than that of carbonate of soda; but this is now more cheaply obtained from sea-salt. Iodine is, however, still prepared from kelp. Some Algae are known to be poisonous; others are not known to be poisonous. Never can we expect any use for importing colours to water, snow, etc. Thus, Prodoecia (Fucoides) atlantica gives a red colour to certain parts of the Atlantic ; it likewise contributes to consummation of the marriage of the *Cyclops* with its kind ; Dichotomospermum Temporensi imparts a green colour to some Irish salt-water fish; and *Chondrus* crispus is also in part attributed to the presence of Trachodendrum erythraum, dc. dc. Dr. Robert Brown, has also shown that the discolora- tion of certain species of *Chondrus* is owing to the presence of Melos avicula, and that these form the brown-staining matter of the rotting seaweed. Some Algae are met with in diseased animal tissues. The *Achlya prolifera*, which attacks the gills of gold fishes, &c., and thrives on them in a very remarkable manner, may be enumerated as amongst the most remarkable of such forms. The latter, however, is now more commonly regarded as a fungus. * See a valuable communication by E.C. Stanford, read before the Society of Arts, for a detailed account of a new process for preparing iodine from sea-salt. See also "The Chemical Journal," vol. xiv., p. 386; "Experiments and Observations" from Algae; and see A Report on the Exhibits at the Paris Exhibition in 1851; "Scientific American Magazine"; "The Times"; "The Economist"; and "Transactions" Journal; ser. iii. vol. ix. p. 801. A page from a scientific journal or textbook. 746 A.L.G. *Alaria esculenta*, Bladderwort, Man-wan, or Honey-wort, contains man- na. It is employed for food in Ireland, Scotland, Iceland, and other numbers of countries. Berkel says that it is the best of all the Algae when eaten raw. Chlorophyceae are the green plants of Canada and of Irish Manna. It possesses nutritive, emollient, and demulcent properties, and is employed to treat various affections. *Blepharidium* or *Blepharis*, used for stimulating the hair, and other pur- poses, is a plant which is employed in the United States as a stimulant for paper, cotton goods, and other purposes. *Carragheen* is likewise employed in the United States as a stimulant for paper, cotton goods, and other purposes. *Carrageen* is also used in America for fixing beer, coffee, &c., manu- facture of tea, and as a stimulant for paper. *Mannose* is a sweet substance of commerce. Its properties are similar; &c. *Eriocaulon* is another species of the same genus. Dorillaceae is used for food by the poorer inhabitants in the western counties of England. *Fucus*. Several species contain manna, as *F. vesiculosus*, F. sordidus, and *F. vesiculosus var. sordidus*. The latter is a very good source of pro- tection of life, and are now collected on our shores for manna—*F. vesiculosus*. On the West coast of Ireland, *Fucus* is employed as a food for the poor land for feeding horses and cattle. Built in water and mixed with a little salt water, it forms a very good food for cattle. In the West Indies, where the plant is there called *sawdust*. It also forms excellent manure for land. The *Fucus* has been employed internally in glaucoma and scrofulous affections. In China it has been employed externally in glaucoma and scrofulous affections. It is also employed in the treatment of certain affections of the skin similar to those of the *Fucus*. The substance called Vegetable Equisetum, which has been introduced into this country from Europe, has been found to be beneficial by the incineration of this Alga in close vessels. The beneficial effects in these include not particularly due to the presence of a small quantity of manna. This is not only because it is not a vegetable but because it is very easily digested for value such for a purpose seems to be its true trait. It is the essential ingredient of the famous *Fucus*. *Codium* occurs as already noticed, in nutritive. It is the *Alga de Suecia*, from which the name of Sweden was derived. It has formed a favorite article of food in Japan, and other countries, and is also used as a stimulant. *Gingipera* species (Fucus) occurs in the Jolly Point Plant of Australia. It is employed as a stimulant. *Gracilaria* (Phycus). G.-Hedelmata (Phycus) and C.-confer- mata are the sources of Corian Wood, which is offered in the Phycospermatum India. It is employed as a stimulant in India and elsewhere. The most im- portant is G.-Hedelmata. Corian Wood is nutritive, emollient, and demulcent, and may be employed as a stimulant in various affections such as colic, involutes, and also meatalia, in pulmonary complaints, diarrhoea, and other affections. The wood has been imported under the name of *Corian* wood but Gingipera wood has been imported under the same name. Both species are highly nutritive and emollient and have been employed as stimulants. For example, corian wood may be used as a stimulant.—Ghedelmata The Chinese use this plant as a stimulant but it has been used principally as a vermifuge but its properties have been much overrated by some writers who have made it into a remedy for worms. It is also employed by the Chinese doctors to give a stimulus to their blood. Hummocks are marine grasses (Nostoc), which are very common in the North Sea region. They are eaten raw or cooked with salt water. A.L.M. 747 which is far preferable to the Tripe de Roche (see Gyrophora), as it has none of its bitterness or pernicious quality. Pepper-Jalap is a plant of the same family as the large quantity of man- sile it contains, upwards of 10 per cent. Its young parts, mixed with those of the pepper-corn, are used by the natives of South America, and in some parts of India. The latter species also contains much man-sile. L. amachora is called Sambou in the East Indies, and is used in the same manner as the former. It is likewise employed for food in Australia, and other species possess similar properties. The man-sile contained in the leaves of the Sambou is very large extent for man-sile and for the preparation of kets. The latter is also used in the same manner as the pepper-jalap, but it is less bitter than eight times more lodeous than Fava man-sile. L. amachora is a plant of the same family as that possessing pungent proper- ties. It is called Pepper-Jalap in Scotland, where it is occasionally eaten, but which is not so common as the pepper-jalap. It is also used in India, and sold in the shops at Cordova, Mexico. (See Granatina.) J. j. populifolia (Tansweel) is a plant of the same family as that containing man-sile, and is a gil- tineous substance called Fung-Tan. J. j. populifolia is a plant of China, &c. Other species possess similar properties. (See Hormaphora arbores.) The pepper-jalap is employed in the preparation of a kind of sauce or pukeh, which in terms Stole, Stolos, Stolos, etc., are called "Pukas." This sauce is called "Pukas" by the Indians along the Pacific coast of America. *Pukas* (Pukas) is an article of food in Scotland, Ireland, Iceland, &c., 31 per cent. of which consists of man-sile. Sambou—S. amachora is the Gall-wood of the Atlantic. This and other species contain man-sile, and are employed for medicinal pur- poses in various countries, for which purpose stems of S. amachora are used in India. *Fung-Tan* (Fung-Tan) is employed in the preparation of Green Laver. It is very effective against scurvy; but it may be dangerous to eat too much of these lavers might be beneficial in scrofulous affections, &c., as they contain lactose. BOOK III. PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS; OR PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. HAVING now examined the structure, classification, properties, and uses of plants, we have still to consider them in a state of life and activity, and to investigate the laws which regulate their life, growth, and reproduction. The department of Botany which investigates these phenomena is termed Physiological Botany. The processes which go on in the plant, and which are the necessary accompaniments of its life, are subdivided into two classes. These classes are naturally divided into classes, called, respectively, the functions of the organs of nutrition or vegetation, and the functions of the organs of reproduction or propagation. The former are concerned in preserving the life of the particular plant, and the latter in continuing the species. The first class includes that part of the life of the whole plant, when it is termed general ; and that of the particular organs, in which case it is called special. The precision with which the different facts connected with the physiology of plants is so imperfect that there is some difficulty in determining what may be considered as belonging therefore, the functions of the different organs, the order of arrangement adopted in treating of their structure and morphology will be found to be such as to lead to a discussion on the phenomena in the life of the whole plant will conclude the subject. FUNCTIONS OF PARENCHYMA—CELL-FORMATION. 748 CHAPTER 1. SPECIAL PHYSIOLOGY. Section 1. PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ELEMENTARY STRUCTURES OF PLANTS. 1. FUNCTIONS OF PARENCHYMATIC CELLS AND PARENCHYMA. ---As the simplest forms of vegetative life, such as the Red Snow Plant (Protoporococcus nanae) manna) (fig. 1), consist of a single cell, all of which are in some way or other individually capable of performing all the actions appertaining to plant life. However, these cells are not so simple as they appear, as well as the soft portions of all plants above them; hence the physiology of parenchymatous cells is of first importance. The functions of parenchymatous cells are: Formation of new cells; 2. Absorption and transmission of fluids; 3. Maintenance of the turgor pressure; 4. Storage of fluid contents, and production of the different materials necessary for development and secretion. In every case, as we have seen (p. 21), in their earliest conditions, are composed of one or more cells, whose activities are limited by the nature of their environment must be produced by the modification of such cells, or by the formation of new ones. 2. Functions of cell-formation or epigenesis has for many years engaged the attention of allied physiologists, and by their united labors, have been able to make certain definite con- clusions upon the main points of inquiry; yet although many of the subordinate ones are still involved in obscurity, yet the processes themselves are known with certainty in animals. Our limits will not allow of a description in detail of all the processes that have been brought forward by different observers; neither is such a course, since all are now agreed upon the essential principles of the process and shall therefore only be mentioned briefly at the end of the subject. Cells may be formed from the thickened diallial protoplasts which contain in their interior, or has been elaborated by their agency; hence cells can in no case be formed without this process. The formation of new protoplasts has been already fully described. By various observers this formation matter of cells has been shown a permissible matter, possible even in the absence of living protoplasts. The cell-wall itself is made up entirely of cellulose takes no part in the formation of cells. 750 FREE CELL-FORMATION FROM A NUCLEUS. Each cell or elementary part consists of two kinds of matter, or of matter in two states: the one termed by some general name, matter, which is vitally active; the other, or med-matter, which is physically inert. The former is the protoplasm, or cellular substance, and nucleus of vegetative cells are of the first kind, and the cell-wall—which Dr. Benda has shown to be not a necessary part of the cell—is of the second kind. The latter may have very various appearances, whilst vegetative cells are always simple. In vegetative tissues the formed material is generally thin, but it must in every case have been at once germinal matter, from what we know of the nature of the process. This characteristic is effected by the constant passage of nutrient matters from with- out into within the cell, and by the presence of the germinal matter, whilst the direction of growth is from within outwards. Thus the new formed material being interior to that of longer existence. Dr. Benda has shown that in all cases of nutrition and growth formed from the palbumus within one already exist- ing cell, there is a tendency to form a new more nearly what is usually called gemmation or budding, all these processes being capable of division and increase, and of producing forms similar to that from which they arise. Cells originate in one of two ways : either free in the cavities of older cells, or by a process of cell formation elaborated by their agency; or by the division of such cells into two, called Free Cell-formation or original cell-formation, being the first phenomenon observed in any living plant. There are also Fusions or Col-multiplication, which is the usual mode of growth in the nutritive tissues. A. Free cell-formation.—We may distinguish two modi- fications of free cell-formation: 1. Free cell-formation from a nucleus or from a bud. 2. Free-formation without the previous formation of a nucleus. 1. Free cell-formation from a nucleus.—This mode was dis- covered by Schleiden, who at first considered it as only process of cell formation that occurred in plants. Subsequently he modified his opinion on this point, and found another man- ner in which it took place, but also as to its universality, and ad- mitted that it was only one principal mode of cell-formation. The manner in which this occurs will be best understood by allu- sions (figs. 1116 and 1117)—A portion of the protoplasm collects into a more or less spherical mass, which is surrounded by a defined outer border, thus forming the nucleus of the cell; upon this a layer of protoplasm is deposited, which assumes the form of a membrane; then a second layer is deposited on each side of this a cellulose membrane is secreted, and the formation of the cell-wall takes place. In this way, therefore, in this case forms the subsequent lining of the young cells, and constitutes the "primordial stratum" of Mohl. FREE CELL-FORMATION WITHOUT A PREVIOUS NUCLEUS. 751 b. Free Cell-formation without a previous nucleus.—In the process of free cell-formation, as described above, we have Fig. 1116. Fig. 1117. Fig. 1118. Cells from the epidermis of Chondrus crispus. The large, irregular part, consisting of many small cells, is newly formed cells, c-c. Cells forming from the wall, with nuclei adhering to their sides (as in figs. 1093 and 1094). Fig. 1117. The same as fig. 1116, but magnified. A nucleus is seen between two cells. A nucleus with the cell forming from it is shown at a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z. The nucleus is slightly magnified. b is the same as a. The smaller cells are those which have been formed by the division of the larger ones after the destruction of the original one. Fig. 1118. d is a higher degree of magnification than figs. 1093 and 1094 having already united. (After Waddington.) Alluded to the production of the nucleus as the first step of the process, and it is regarded to be so in most instances by those who have studied this subject; but I do not consider the nucleus of any physiological import in free cell-formation, which process he thus describes—"The essential characteristic of free cell-formation," says Waddington, "is that the protoplasm which produces the primary cellulose wall of the new cell previously becomes separated from the wall of the parent cell so that the new cell is free (or loose) in the cavity." 752 CELL-DIVISION OR MERISMATIC CELL-FORMATION. of the parent cell.¹ In some cases, it is certain, no nucleus can be detected in the daughter cells, but the daughter cells are free in its cavity ; hence the presence of the nucleus cannot be regarded as essential, but the portion of protoplasm, which in such cases is separated from the nucleus, is capable of covering itself with a membrane and forming a cell. This, according to Hertwig, frequently occurs in the formation of the spores of the Algae, &c. In flowering Plants free cell-formation occurs in the embryo-sac, in the pollen-grain, and in the pollen-vessel and cells of the albumen (endosperm) originate in this way. The protoplasts of these cells are regarded as the mode by which the spores of Lichens, and some of the Algae and Fungi originate. Modifications of this process are found in the formation of the pollen-cells, and also in the parthenogenetic origin of the ovules and seeds of other plants. In the ordinary course of vegetative reproduction, free cell-formation can only take place in the protoplasm contained in the interior of cells formed by division. B. Cell-division. — This mode of cell-formation is also called merismatic cell-formation. Cell-division may only take place in cells in which an active protoplasm is an active state, as in the cells of the meristems, a name given to them because they are always active. These cells are thus capable of multiplying by division. It may be treated of under two heads namely, Cell-division without absorption of water by the protoplasm; and Cell-division with absorption of water by the protoplasm; and finally, Cell-division with absorption of water by the protoplasm, and the setting forth of the new cell. a. Cell-division without absorption of water by the walls of the parent cell.—This mode of cell-formation was first observed by Mohl, whose observations were confirmed by Hertwig and Mitchener. According to these physiologists (and their observations have been confirmed by numerous subsequent observers), this process is the one by which all the vegetating or growing parts of plants, whether flowering or not, increase in mass. The increase in mass is due to all increases in the mass of the different organs; so that increase in any one organ does not necessarily imply an increase in all others; for example, all increase in the mass of the different organs is therefore due to its agency. According to Hertwig and Mitchener, when a cell divides, the preplasmic utricle becomes gradually constructed on the sides as a sort of wall between two daughter cells; and thus to divide the original contents into two distinct portions (fig. 113). The utricle then becomes filled up with protoplasm from both sides; and thus a layer of protoplasm is deposited between each daughter cell; and this layer forms a distinct partition between them. The original cell thus becomes divided into 113 **MESOMORPHIC CELL-FORMATION.** two, and forms two cells, each of which has the power of growing until it reaches the original size of its parent, and then either, or both, may again divide, and each of the newly-formed cells grows to the same size as that of its parent cell. (It should be noticed that the primordial utricle of Holbe here referred to differs from that described by us at page 35 of this Manual. This, according to the views adopted in this volume, Fig. 1118. the primordial utricle is characterized as the very thin layer of protoplasm which lines the cell-wall after the cell has grown too large to be contained within it. Most authors regard it as more or less thickened layer of protoplasm, having the appearance of a membrane (cell-wall), and enclosing the ordinary protoplasmic contents of the cell. Cell-diameter is best observed in water-plants of a low grade of organization, such as mosses and ferns. In these plants also, such as *Polypodium*, in which the newly formed cells separate and become independent, they are usually of great size, but in the higher plants, where they remain permanently united to form tissues of greater or less solidity, it is with difficulty discerned. In this mode of cell-formation, it is by no means evident what function any nucleus may have. In many cases it is unimportant as clear, because cell-division, as above described, may take place, as it does in some of the lower orders of plants. In other cases, however, when the new layers of plant-cells, however, the original nucleus of the cell appears to be changed into a new nucleus, and thus to control the other contents so that a nucleus is thus formed for each new cell into which the parent cell has been divided. But in other cases, apparently, each new cell contains only one cell, instead of the original nucleus dividing into two. From recent observations at Strasbourg considers that the 30 734 CELL-DIVISION.—GRAMMATION OR BUDDING. division of the nucleus and cell-formation are two processes which are quite distinct, and may be separated from each other, although in many cases they may come into contact. In some plants, such as the higher flowering Plants, the above described process of cell-division takes place essentially as a method of reproduction ; but in most plants, the forma- tion of secondary cells, as has been already mentioned on the primary cells, either at their extremities, or in its immediate neighbourhood (Fig. 119), by which the plant is in- duced to increase in size, or on the side of the primary cell when branches are formed (Fig. 120), is also a common occurrence in Ferns, Lichens, and in other cases, probably much more frequent than is generally supposed. a. The point at which this bud- ding occurs is different from that described. At a certain point the proplasm or primordial nucleus appears to be elongated and develops into a bud, which is detached from the parent cell by a bulge out, carrying the cell-wall of the cell before it, by which a new cell is formed internally (Fig. 119, b); this continues to elongate until it forms a complete cell, on the side of the primary cell. The cavity of this projection is at first filled with protoplasm, which gradually diminishes but after it has acquired a certain definite length, its proplasm becomes concentrated at the point of contact with the primary cell, d and utilizes itself for the formation of a new cell. In the ordinary process of cell-division. This process of cell- division is very rare in flowering Plants, but in some cases, as in the formation of the bifilarium cells of Fungi and Lichens, no partitions are formed, but all the branches con- nected with one another. b. Cell-division with absorption of the walls of the parent cell, and the formation of secondary cells, as in the case of all Flowering Plants, and the spores of most Flowering Plants, are formed by this process, which only occurs in connection with the organs which have been described as being commonly taken places in the production of pollen cells has already been described. In some cases, however, a similar arrangement in which spores are formed in the higher Flowering Plants is substantially the same in most cases. It sometimes happens, Fig. 119. Fig. 119. Young plant in process of development.—Fig. 119a. Bud forming on a young progressive stages of germina- tion. (After Haeckel.) Fig. 120. Fig. 120. Young plant in process of development.—Fig. 120a. Bud forming on a young progressive stages of germina- tion. (After Haeckel.) CELL-DIVISION. 755 however, that in the development of pollen and spores, the special parent cells are not formed, as has been shown by Fig. 1181. a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Schacht in the pollen of *Euthera* and in the spores of *Anthoceros polyphyllus* (fig. 1182). In other cases, instead of the development of four secondary cells in the cavity of the parent, we have a wall-like structure formed (fig. 1122, A), which either escapes (fig. 1123). Fig. 1123. Sporangium and anthocerous spore of *Anthoceros* with cell-division. The lobes a to E indicate the position of the primary cell at different stages of division. The primary cell divides into two daughter cells, one of which becomes a wall-like structure, or branch of a wall-like structure, or a branch of a cell outside into a filament, or finally into a sporangium (fig. 1124). In this case the formation of a spore is by means of an outgrowth from the parent cell (fig. 1125), or by means of an outgrowth from the parent cell (fig. 1126), or by means of an outgrowth from the parent cell (fig. 1127), or by means of an outgrowth from the parent cell (fig. 1128), or by means of an outgrowth from the parent cell (fig. 1129), or by means of an outgrowth from the parent cell (fig. 1130), or by means of an outgrowth from the parent cell (fig. 1131), or by means of an outgrowth from the parent cell (fig. 1132), or by means of an outgrowth from the parent cell (fig. 1133), or by means of an outgrowth from the parent cell (fig. 1134), or by means of an outgrowth from the parent cell (fig. 1135), or by means of an outgrowth from the parent cell (fig. 1136), or by means of an outgrowth from the parent cell (fig. 1137), or by means of an outgrowth from the parent cell (fig. 1138), or by means of an outgrowth from the parent cell (fig. 1139), or by means of an outgrowth from the parent cell (fig. 1140), or by means of an outgrowth from the parent cell (fig. 1141), or by means of an outgrowth from the parent cell (fig. 1142), or by means of an outgrowth from the parent cell (fig. 1143), or by means of an outgrowth from the parent cell (fig. 1144), or by means of an outgrowth from the parent cell (fig. 1145), or by means of an outgrowth from the parent cell (fig. 1146), or by means of an outgrowth from the parent cell (fig. 1147), or by means of an outgrowth from the parent cell (fig. 1148), or by means of an outgrowth from the parent cell (fig. 1149), or by means of an outgrowth from the parent cell (fig. 1150), or by means of an outgrowth from the parent cell (fig. 1151), or by means of an outgrowth from the parent cell (fig. 1152), or by means of an outgrowth from the parent cell (fig. 1153), or by means of an outgrowth from the parent cell (fig. 1154), or by means of an outgrowth from the parent cell (fig. 1155), or by means of an outgrowth from the parent cell (fig. 1156), or by means of an outgrowth from the parent cell (fig. 1157), or by means of an outgrowth from the parent cell (fig. 1158), or by means of an outgrowth from the parent cell (fig. 1159), or by means of an outgrowth from the parent cell (fig. 1160), or by means of an outgrowth from the parent cell (fig. 1161), or by means of an outgrowth from the parent cell (fig. 1162), or by means of an outgrowth from the parent cell (fig. 1163), or by means of an outgrowth from the parent cell (fig. 1164), or by means of an outgrowth from the parent cell (fig. 1165), or by means of an outgrowth from the parent cell (fig. 1166), or by means of an outgrowth from the parent cell (fig. 1167), or by means of an outgrowth from the parent cell (fig. 1168), or by means of an outgrowth from the parent cell (fig. 1169), or by means of an outgrowth from the parent cell (fig. 1700) 716 REJUVENESCENCE.—RAPIDITY OF CELL-PRODUCTION. 1125. n) that is clothed by a cellulose coat, as is ordinarily the case, or that cell is secured after their death, comes from the parent cell, or in the scapulae of the lower Ager. Some of these modes of reproduction are very rapid, and are analogous to the ordinary process of free cell-formation (fig. 1125), to which by many authors they are referred. (See also page 702.) 6. Anomalous cases of cell-division may be termed rejuvenescence or renewal of a cell, where the whole contents of a cell are renewed, and the old cytoplasmic wall is sloughed off. In such cases, when the chlorophyll cap is expelled, the chlorophyll becomes disarranged, and its contents are forced out into the scapulae from the cell-wall and even sometimes through the cell-wall. This process may be well seen in the swarm spores of *Eobionium* (fig. 1126). Fig. 1126. **Rapidity of Cell-production.** The most remarkable method of cell-division in cells are those instancies produced almost immediately after fertilization. It has been stated that a fungus of the *Pycnodendron* genus has been known to produce one million eight thousand seven hundred thousand cells, in less than two hours; and that another fungus has been known to produce one million four hundred thousand millions per hour, and another fungus one million six hundred millions per minute. Another illustra- tion of the rapid production of new cells is afforded by the alpine regions, where it frequently happens that the snow over an extensive area melts away in a few days, leaving only a thin plant (fig. 11). Again, it would readily be ascertained that in a favour- able growing season, many stems will increase three or four inches in length every day, and that in some species of *Alstroemeria* Aloe, when flowering in our conservatories, has been known to develop a stem two feet high in ten days; and in the warm climates where it is indigenous, as in the Mauritius, it will grow at least two feet in the same period of A diagram showing a cell with various parts labeled: A - Chloroplast; B - Cell wall; C - Cytoplasm; D - Nucleus; E - Vacuole. Fig. 1125. a, n. Because of the enormous number of cells produced by this plant, it is free from disease. The plant grows rapidly and has attained the astonishing size shown in the figure. The number of a gem plant of *Alstroemeria* in the open air is shown on page 386. [Note: "Gem" refers to a young plant.] ABSORPTION AND TRANSMISSION OF FLUIDS BY CELLS. 787 time. Leaves also in some cases develop very rapidly; thus Muller states that he has seen the leaf of Urospis species grow through 300 lines in one day, and the leaf of the Corydalis, which grows through 500 lines in one day, at a half line per hour, and even as much as from four to five inches per day. In all these cases of rapid growth in size, it must be remembered that the increase in size is due not only to the formation of new cells, but also to the expansion of those pre- viously formed. 2. Absorption and Transmission of Fluids.—The cell-wall of all young and vital actively parenchymatous or procenchymatous cells, as well as of the young leaves, is permeable to liquids. We find, accordingly, that liquid matters can come into the cells by trans- mission through such cells. The power which thus enables oils to absorb and transmit moisture is called absorption. This physical force, as will be afterwards shown, is not confined to the plant- life, for its for agency plants are enabled, not only to absorb crude food by their roots in order to assimilate it further or it upwards, from cell to cell, to the leaves and other parts of the plant, but also for the purpose of being elaborated by the action of light and air. It is, moreover, by a some- what analogous process (see page 16), that the cells on the surface of leaves absorb atmospheric moisture to absorb and transmit gaseous matters. Osmosis may be explained as follows:— Whenever two solutions of different densities are separated by a permeable membrane which is not permeable to gases, there is always a tendency to equalisation of density between the two, from the forma- tion of a diffusion current. This current will be modified by the action of the mem- brane as well as by the nature of the diffusion. This osmotic action may be easily observed, by filling a bladder with coloured syrup, attaching to its open end a glass tube, and then immersing this bladder in a vessel containing water. When the bladder is immersed, stances the volume of the denser fluid in the interior of the bladder will be less than that of the thinner fluid (for example, rose syrup in the tube), by the more rapid passage through the membrane of the thinner fluid than of the thicker, though at the same time a difference in density exists between them. The passage of this current of thinner fluid, as may be proved by the sweet taste and colour which the latter generally acquires. This osmotic current will continue as long as there is any material difference of density Fig. 1125. Fig. 1125. Apparatus to show osmosis. A bladder filled with water (or syrup) is placed in a vessel full of water (or syrup), and both are kept at room temperature. The bladder will expand until it contains more water (or syrup) than it originally contained. 758 MOVEMENTS IN THE CONTENTS OF CELLS. between the two liquids. The stronger in-going current is termed endosmose, and the weaker outgoing current exosmose. If the protoplasm of a cell be placed in a liquid which will be reversed in like manner, the preponderating current, in almost all cases, being that which acts from the thinner to the denser liquid. The absorption and transmission of liquid matters through cells is now well known. It has been shown by experiments on the cells of the roots of plants that these are denser than the water con- tained in the medium in which they grow; they will consequently absorb the lighter fluid, and this is exactly what is going on in the cells by evaporation, assimilation, and other pro- cesses as we shall see. In order to understand how in such liquids, there will also be a constant passage of the absorbed fluids from cell to cell towards those parts where such processes are taking place, it is necessary to consider the ordinary attraction and of the diffusion of fluids also regulate the flow of the juice, and that this attraction may take place either by one or both of these means. The action, however, of the intervening membrane (cell-wall), in greatly modifying or even overcoming osmotic action, as well as its effect upon the rate at which neighbouring cells contain different substances without their intermixture. In dilute solutions of salts, for example, it is found that no take place at any part of the thallus ; while in vacuolar plants it occurs principally through the roots, though all the green parts may contribute to its formation. This is due to the presence or absence of stomata. However, it must be remembered that in many cases, and probably in all at a particular period of their life, when they are in a vitally active state, a kind of movement of a portion of their contents takes place. This movement has sometimes erroneously considered as a kind of rotation of the watery cell-sap, but it has been proved by experiments that it is due to a circulation of the protoplastum, which is rendered visible by the opaque granular particles which it contains (A. H. Huxley). This movement does not consist in rotation, it does not pass from one cell to another, but is strictly confined to the cell itself. It has been called Endolysis, or Internal Circulation : it is common, in the general case, in cells when they have attained a certain size; but in smaller cells this phenomenon is absent throughout their life. The phenomena presented by these movements vary in different cases. Thus, in the cells of many hairs, as in those of the Common Spiderwort (Dodecaneum virginicum), the Potato (Solanum tuberosum), and other similar plants, the protoplast becomes hollowed out, and the motion is in reconstituted curves, rolling apparently from, and returning to, the mid- dle ; so that this action the protocirculation is applied. In the MOVEMENTS IN THE CONTENTS OF CELLS. 759 cells of the leaves of the *Vallisneria* (fig. 1127) and *Anacharis*, and in those of other parts of the same plants, intracellular movements have been observed which may be attributed to a moderate microscopic power ; here, however, the protoplasm does not circulate round the walls of the cell, but continues to pass round the interior of the walls of each cell, retaining its activity permanently ; which movement is called *radial circulation*. This is shown by the following figures, as seen when magnified 2,800 diameters (*How to Work with the Microscope*); he describes the circulating stream as consisting of Fig. 1126. ![Diagram showing radial circulation] Fig. 1127. ![Diagram showing radial circulation] extremely minute apparently spherical particles of a granular matter, endowed with active motive power, and with them the larger masses of chlorophyll are carried. In the Characeae, on account of their structure, it is evident that moving protoplasm does not rotate round the walls, nor in reticular streams, but passes through the cells in a straight line (figs. 1128) until it reaches the extremity, and then flows down in an opposite direction on the other side. Another difference in these two groups of plants is that while in the chlorophyll-corpuscles embedded in it remains attached to the cell-wall and is hindered from passing through it, in the water-leaf-cells within is the part that circulates. No satisfactory explanation has yet been brought forward to account for this curious phenomenon, which is connected with the vitality of the cell-contents, and all agents that actually 750 FUNCTIONS OF PROBESCHYMATOUS CELLS AND VESSELS. injure the cell will generally stop it at once, and permanently, though in some cases it may remain paralyzed for several hours across the middle with the effect of stopping the circulation tempo- rarily; but after a short time it will recommence in each half. The movements of the protoplasm are described on page 386, and figs. 72-74, and those of the ciliated *protoplasta* or *endodermis* of Alga (see page 387 and fig. 387), and of the higher *Cyanophyta* (see page 390 and fig. 390). The latter are usually regarded as analogous to the rotation of the protoplasts. 4. Each cell, whether it be green or yellow, sensitive to light and air which contain protoplasm, have the power of producing in their contents the various compounds which are concerned in the development of the tissues and organs, and in that of the various secretions of the plant. (See *Regeneration* and *Amelioration*. In old cells the secretion of the plant are also, in part, deposited.) 2. Functions of Probeschymatous Cells and Protoplasta— The functions of these cells depend upon their construction and mode of combination into a tissue, for giving strength and support to the plant, and for its protection, but this is one of the offices which they perform. In a young state, also, before their walls are thickened, they appear to be the main means by which the sap is conveyed. When they are carried upwards to the leaves and other external organs, to be elaborated there into food substances, they are called *vesicles* by Hoffmann, Unger, and others, seem to prove this. Tuna, Hoff- man, by placing plants in such a situation as to cause them to short a certain distance from the earth's surface, and by adding a paillet of iron to sections of them, found that the prussian blue which he used was carried up through the probeschymata thus applied, was principally deposited in the probeschymata cells. Unger also came to the same conclusion, by causing plants to be placed in a position so that water could not pass the passage. But other experimenters, such as Link, Röminger, and Ostenfeld, have shown that this is not so. (See *Functions of Vesicle*.) The down current of elaborated sap is generally believed to pass through the liber-cells of the inner bark. 3. Functions of Vesicles and Vesicular Tissue.—The functions of these cells have been a subject of much dispute from an early period, and have been repeatedly investigated. Hales, Bischoff, and others have shown that when plants are exposed to air, there were carriers of air; and it is certain that air alone is found in old vessels; but it has been shown by experiments that their essential function was to carry fluids from the root up- wards, which views from recent observations appear to be cor- rect. Amelioration has been obtained by keeping plants for several days with a solution of ferrocyanide of potassium, and after- FUNCTIONS OF LATICIFEROUS VESSELS. 741 wards with a solution of permutalate of iron, prussian blue is found in the vessels, and not in the parenchymatous cells, as the experiments of Hertel and of the author have shown. One of the functions of parenchymatous cells, seem to indicate it; and, more recently, the experiments of Hartung Spencer, conducted with great care, have shown that the vessels themselves contain the vessels are the chief sap-carryers, whence the fluid exudes into the tissues. Functions of Laticiferous Vessels or Tissue. The physi- ological importance of these vessels has given rise to much discussion among botanists. It has been observed by many further is absolutely known, than that they contain a watery granular body, which is supposed to be the product of the laticiferous or coloured oil character, which becomes milky on exposure to air, and to which the name of latex has been given. When the tissue is cut or injured, a considerable quantity of this becomes a transparent viscid substance. Lindley, and some other writers, have supposed that this is a secretion from the epidermis of a plant to the place where it is needed, and especially down the inner part of the bark of Eucalyptus. (See also page 45.) Voltaire has spoken of it as a "secretion" from the leaves of the laticiferous leaves cinerariae, because he believed that he had discovered its origin in the leaves. This is a mistake in all parts of the latex, to which he gave the name of opalescence. Lathyrus has also made out a circulation of the contents of laticiferous vessels. This movement is very similar to that which takes place in the leaf of the common Calendula (Chrysanthemum majus), previously dipped in oil, and then exposed to light. In both cases we find that Lathyrus so resemble in many respects the appearance presented by the circulation in the web of a frog's foot. We have, however, never succeeded in finding any such circulation in any laticiferous tissue examined by us, although we agree with Schulze, that there is a certain amount of movement of fluid movement of the latex does occur in the unimpaired plant. Amid, Trevisani, Mohr, Henning, and others, altogether deny the existence of such movements. They suppose that disease, and describe the circulation as depending upon a disturbance of nutrition; but they do not see how this can be produced and heat, and may be produced at will in any direction by making an incision, towards which the juice flows. Tissues are often said to be "vessels," as if they were as such, as well as being so called because they are filled with liquid. This physiological state that he has seen them to be filled with many milky pluses communicating freely with the other vessels through which they act as venous reservoirs to the circulating fluid. 46 Four special functions of epidermal tissue are -to protect the tissues beneath from injury, and from being too rapidly affected by atmospheric changes -to regulate the transpiration or exhibition of watery FUNCTIONS OF EPIDERMAL TISSUE. fluids; to absorb and exhale gaseous matters; and probably, to some extent, to absorb water. The epidermal tissue is specially adapted for this purpose. It is thin, and thus finds matter from the tissues beneath, and hence we find that it is variously modified to suit the different conditions to which plants are exposed. In the case of aquatic plants, the submer- sessed parts of plants, which are always exposed to similar influences, are usually covered with a thick epidermis, whilst in aerial plants submitted to ordinary influences in cold and temperate climates, we generally find an epidermis with only one layer of cells, or at most two layers of cells of moderate thickness. Callusae is rarely, and then only with difficulty, found on the surface of the plant. The epidermis membrane extends uninterruptedly over the boundaries of the subjacent epidermal cells. It is coloured yellow or yellow-brown on the upper side, and reddish brown on the lower side; it is soluble in boiling concentrated potash, but insoluble in concentrated acids. The epidermis is often very thin, however, growing in the same latitude, such as the Box, etc., and generally also in those of a succulent nature where there is but a moderate amount of water. In the case of succulent plants, the epidermis cells especially thicken, or protected by a dense layer of cuticula; while in those plants which live in arid regions, as the Oleander (fig. 13), we have frequently an epithe- lima of two, three, or more layers of thickened cells, and other special modifications of the epidermis for the retention of fluid. For instance, Dr. Bary states that wax may be de- posited in the form of drops on the leaves of Cucurbita; it separates out in the form of drops. This wax may be associated with resin, and assists in preventing the aerial parts of plants from becoming too dry. The epidermis is also well fitted for growth in houses, where the air is usually very dry. With regard to the function of the epidermis as an object the restraining of a too abundant exhalation, the stomata are especially designed to facilitate and regulate the passage of fluid matter into and out of the plant. They are minute, upon the different organs and parts of plants; certain parts, as will be seen later on (p. 105), are specially adapted in which the stomata act not readily explained, but it may always noticed, that when plants are freely supplied with moisture, they become so much more active than when they are tended with fluid, elongated, and curved, so that the orifices between them are open; whilst in those cases where there is a deficiency of moisture, they are closed up by their edges against their inner surfaces, and thus close the orifice. Under the former condition a free exhalation takes place; whilst in the latter state, the exhalation is more or less prevented. As a rule, stomata are open ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF STOMATA. 763 during the day when circumstances are favourable, and closed at night when the plant is asleep. 1. In the morning, before the epidermis, and more especi- ally through the stomata, that certain gaseous matters are absorbed from, and exhaled into, the atmosphere, in the pro- cess of respiration. This is disputed question whether the epidermal tissue also absorbs water from, and expels it into, the liquid, such as water. Some authors, as Unger and Duchartre, only deny the possession of such a power, but also that of taking up moisture by absorption. The results of these investigations with the same result and conclusions. Recent researches of the Rev. G. Henslow seem, however, to prove that leaves can absorb moisture from the atmosphere by absorption through the epidermis. 2. It is difficult to account for the immediate recovery of dropping plants in a general manner. The reason why this occurs is due to the re- vival in nature of vegetation when a mist follows a long succession of dry weather—except on the supposition that watery vegetation is capable of absorbing moisture from the air alone, unless the presence of moisture acts only in the way of checking transpiration. The experiments of W. H. Warington show that moisture from the atmosphere by absorption through the epider- mis. Whether water itself is absorbed by the epidermal tissue and whether it is absorbed by its cells or by its cells has been endeavoured to show that they have this power. The researches of Warington show that in young leaves, which are still green, the epidermis possessed an evident endomastic property, the in- tensity of which was in proportion to the age of the tissue until it reached maturity. After this time, this property was gradually diminished as they approached maturity, and was almost entirely lost when they had attained their full power. 3. The epidermis covering the upper surface of leaves is usually thin, and when it joins the stem, is that part of the leaf surface which presents the greatest resistance to absorption. 4. In some cases, in which in which the epidermis is absorbent, the outside presents imple- ments to absorption. 5. Simple washing with distilled water, and washing with distilled water and carbon dioxide does not de- pressive power. 6. When the epidermal tissues of leaves have lost the power of absorbing water, they can still absorb carbon dioxide. Origin and Development of Stomata.—A stoma is formed by the thickening of a partition between two cells (figs. 1180) which extends across and divides the two daughter- or sister-cells (figs. 1181). The partition becomes thickened especially at a point where it joins the wall of the parent-cell. After a time the thickened partition becomes laminated, when a cleft appears in it, narrower in the middle, wider without and within, A diagram showing a cross-section of a leaf with a stoma. 784 FUNCTIONS OF THE APPENDAGES OF THE EPIDERMIS. which unites the intercellular space with the external air. Before the parent cell divided a cuticularisation of its surface took place, the cuticle being formed by the secretion of the daughter cells. Even when the division is complete, a portion (if the leaf is ex- amined in a superficial position) still remains as a simple lamella. Fig. 1138. A diagram showing the structure of a leaf epidermal cell. A B C D Fig. 1138. p. s. Parenchyma of the leaf, r. e. Epidermal cells, x. Stroma. A. A leaf epidermal cell, showing the cuticle on its outer surface. The stroma on the outside is represented from the free division of the mother-cell in a line from underneath, to the complete separation shown in B. (After Meyen.) These two sister or daughter cells are called guard-cells, and fur- ther differ from each other in their shape and in their position. The guard-cells are usually found at the upper and lower surfaces of the leaf, though usually they are on the same level. (See page 57.) 0. FUNCTIONS OF THE APPENDAGES OF THE EPIDERMIS.—Hair and scales are organs which protect the epidermis and parts beneath it from injury due to cold and other external agencies, such as rain, dust, etc., frequently coated with hairs. Hairs also appear in certain instances, at least to some extent, to absorb fluid matters from the atmosphere, and thus to assist in regulating the temperature of the epidermis in restraining evaporation; and we find, accordingly, that plants which grow in dry situations have more hair than those which grow in dry air situation, and so to sustain without injury a season of drought. Glands are those organs which in themselves secrete some peculiar matter. (See page 64.) Those secretions are either permanently retained within them or discharged into the d. Functions of the Intercellular System.—The inter- cellular canals, except at those times in which the tissues of the plant are undergoing active growth, are filled with air, and the especial function which they perform is to allow for communication between the external air and the contents of the cells through which it passes, thus facilitating the diffusion of gases. They likewise facilitate exhibition of liquid matter from one part of the plant to another. The inter- cellular spaces are also, in most cases, filled with air; while the FUNCTIONS OF THE INTERCELLULAR SYSTEM AND ROOT. 765 air-cells and air-voids, as their names imply, are so like mannered vessels that they may be employed to advantage, being specially designed to diminish the specific gravity of the parts in which they are found, and thus to enable them to float readily. The respiratory organs of plants are often provided with such peculiar sections of certain plants, and are closely allied in their nature to glands. (See page 86.) Section 2. PHYLTOLOGY OF THE ORGANS OF NUTRITION AND VEGETATION. 1. OF THE ROOT OR OF THE FERTILIZER AXE.—The office per- formed by the root is ...—To fix the plant firmly in the earth or to the substance upon which it grows, or, in some aquatic plants, to support the plant in water. According to some authors, to extract into the soil certain necessary elements for the proper development and for the healthy development of the plant, though in the earth may assist subsequent nutrition by dissolving substances which would not otherwise pass into the plant. To act as a reservoir of nutrient. The root, while it serves as a means of fixing plants in those situations where food can be obtained, is essentially useless in those situations where food cannot be obtained, and further remarks. It is also essential to the proper performance of its functions. Absorption by the Root.—The function which the root performs is that of extracting from the uses of the plant, from the materials in or upon which it grows, and from the soil by its whole surface, but is almost exclusively confined to the cells of the shoot and young leaves, and to the young growing parts adjacent to them. Hence in the process of transplanting, when it is necessary to remove young growing roots as far as possible, otherwise the plants they will be injured or die, according to the amount of injury they have sustained. The importance of this function is greatly increased when exten- tions influenced by atmospheric circumstances and conditions of the soil at the time in which such an operation is performed ; thus, when transplanted during a dry season, or under moist atmosphere the destruction of a large portion of the young extremities may occur. In such cases, however, a plant will then speedily form new absorbent extremities ; but if the conditions of the earth and soil be otherwise reversed, then a large destruction of young extremities will result. Hence, therefore, the plant to die before new absorbent extremities can be formed. Special care must be taken that transplanting does not take place, transplanting is performed in the growing season; but it is fair better, when possible, to transplant late in the summer or in the autumn than early in spring; or in the spring before it has recommenced, as at such periods 785 ABSORPTION BY ROOTS.—SELECTION. little or no absorption takes place, and the plants have accu- ingly time to recover themselves, before they are required to perform any active functions. (See page 821.) The increase in the length of the roots of a rosette is due to occurring taking place between the contents of its cells and the fluids of the soil. The root cap is not adapted for this purpose, that, as already mentioned (page 121), the dense cells at the extreme apex of the roostles forming the cap are not adapted for absorption. Roots, therefore, must be able to absorb water by means of the stem of a growing plant and attaching a manometer to the cut stem. (See page 821.) Roots, as has been shown (page 760), only grow in length by addition near to their extremities, and as it is at these parts that absorption takes place, it follows that roots are always placed in the most favourable circumstances for obtain- ing it because in their growth they are constantly entering new soil, and thus obtaining fresh water. When a plant's roots matured extracted, another is entered which is in an unabsorbed state. In order to ascertain whether this is true, experiments were made where the roots meet with a store of non-mistallent in the soil, a greatly increased development of roostles and fibres took place for its absorption. Roots can only absorb substances in a liquid state, therefore the diffusion of water through them is necessary to bring about the soil, and which form an essential part of the food of plants, must be previously dissolved in water. If the roots of a freely growing plant are immersed in water for some time, and then a short minute state of division has been put on, so that substance is in- soluble in the fluid, it will be found that the surface of the roots, and thus the whole plant will pass into those. Selection of Food by Roots.—Various experiments have been derived from this fact, showing how much more efficient is the power of selecting food by its roots. Sauersom proved, that when the root of a plant was placed in a solution of salt, it absorbed more salt than did any other part of the plant. Various roots were taken up more freely than others. It was also found that dead or diseased roots absorbed differently to those in a living condition. The common bean and the common beet root, and other similar roots, are affected by the same influences in their after-growth and development, yet obviously they do not all respond alike. This indicates that a much larger proportion of soils (which it must have obtained from the soil) than those which are sterile. The seeds of Bouchardus, Vogel, and others, appear, on the contrary, to indicate that roots absorb all substances gen- erally without differentially, and in equal proportions. But FUNCTIONS OF THE ROOT. --DEVELOPMENT. 797 The simple fact, as just mentioned, which is easily proved by chemical analysis, that the root contains different substances in different proportions--seems to prove incontrovertibly that roots have a power of selecting their food. In using the word "select," however, we imply that roots have any inherent vital power of selection resembling animal senses. The following facts show that this is not the case. The mutual actions of the root and the substance which sur-round it in the soil. This property or power of selection is without doubt due to the action of some very complicated molecular relation which exists between the membranes of the cells composing the root and the various substances taken up or rejected by them. Different roots possessing different sensitive action for the same substance. It follows also, from the re- gulation of the plant, that certain substances may be found materials by the plant, that poisonous substances may be taken when they are not wanted, and that other substances are not injured by them in their passage ; and we find, accordingly, that when such substances are found in the soil, corresponding effects are produced in the plant. Excretion by Roots.--Roots seem to have no power of getting rid of waste products, except those which are excreted into the soil, but that they do throw off into the soil a portion of their contents by a process of egestion, which appears to be an almost necessary result and one which is generally admitted. Carbon dioxide is probably partly with by roots. Storage of Nutrient by Roots.--Roots are frequently en- larged for the purpose of acting as reservoirs of nutrient in the form of starch or sugar. The storage of starch is a feature support of the plant. The tuberous roots of the dahlia (fig. 308) and Chili (fig. 309), and those of the potato (fig. 310), carrot (fig. 305), and other hemicarls, are familiar illustrations. Development of Root.--The growing part of the root is called the growing point or apex. The apex consists of a group of cells as the apex of the root, but it is not really so, since it is covered with a cap of epidermal cells. These cells are known as epidermis, comprising it consist of primary meristem; they are thin-walled, filled with protoplasm, and are capable of division. Here, as in leaves, and in other parts of the plant, there is a definite plane axis; hence the growth in length is indefinite, the difference between the length of the axis and its diameter being due to the same basis that, in the former case, it is or they (for there is frequently a group of apical cells) are covered by a cap of cells This name is given to that kind of meristem (page 293) which forms the whorl at the base of leaves on stems. It differs from leaf-meristem in dis- tinguish it from another kind of meristem, which is termed secondary meristem (page 296). The latter arises from a bud or shoot and is formed during that time in which the cells are no longer capable of division.
Simple fact, as just mentioned, which is easily proved by chemical analysis, seems to prove incontrovertibly that roots have a power of selecting their food.
In using the word "select," however, we imply that roots have any inherent vital power of selection resembling animal senses. The following facts show that this is not the case.
The mutual actions of the root and the substance which surround it in the soil. This property or power of selection is without doubt due to the action of some very complicated molecular relation which exists between the membranes of the cells composing the root and the various substances taken up or rejected by them.
Different roots possessing different sensitive action for the same substance. It follows also, from the regulation of the plant, that certain substances may be found materials by the plant, that poisonous substances may be taken when they are not wanted, and that other substances are not injured by them in their passage;
and we find, accordingly, corresponding effects are produced in the plant.
Excretion by Roots.--Roots seem to have no power of getting rid of waste products, except those which are excreted into the soil,
but that they do throw off into the soil a portion of their contents by a process of egestion, which appears to be an almost necessary result and one which is generally admitted.
Carbon dioxide is probably partly with by roots.
Storage of Nutrient by Roots.--Roots are frequently enlarged for the purpose of acting as reservoirs of nutrient in
the form of starch or sugar. The storage of starch is a feature support
of the plant. of roots.
The tuberous roots of the dahlia (fig. 308) and Chili (fig. 309), and those of the potato (fig. 310), carrot (fig. 305), and other hemicarls,
are familiar illustrations. are familiar illustrations.
Development of Root.--The growing part of the root is called The growing point or apex.
The apex consists of a group of cells The apex consists of a group of cells as
as the apex of the root, but it is not really so, the apex of the root.
since it is covered with a cap of epidermal cells. since it is covered with a cap of epidermal cells.
This name is given to that kind of meristem (page 293) which forms This name is given to that kind of meristem (page 293) which forms
770 FUNCTIONS OF LEAVES.—EXHALATION OR TRANSPARATION. The permanent tissue. In the stems of the higher plants, instead of a single apical cell all there are groups of cells, which differ from the like cells of roots, leaves, and flowers, and from leaves in the fact that the cells last formed are at the same time the periphrangium of leaves, page 767; and of the Leaves, page 183.) No. 1158. Fig. 1158. Longitudinal section through the stem of a plant, showing the formation of a new leaf. The young leaf is seen to arise from a group of cells, in which somatocytes are formed by division of the protoplasts. These cells are distantly in a curved position into a hollow cavity, which develops into an intercellular space; $a$, $b$, $c$, $d$, $e$, $f$, $g$, $h$, $i$, $j$, $k$, $l$, $m$, $n$, $o$, $p$, $q$, $r$, $s$, $t$, $u$, $v$, $w$, $x$, $y$, $z$. 3. Of the leaves. The emanation of the leaves are—1. The exhalation of the superfluous products of the crude sap in the form of water vapour; 2. The absorption of fluid matter from the atmosphere; 3. The formation of organic compounds by assimilation; 4. The development of new tissues; and in the formation of the various organs and parts of the plant. All these functions are combined to perform through the influence of air and light, to which agents they are subject on the ascending axis of the plant, and by their own structure to be influenced by other circumstances, freely exposed. I. Exhalation of Water Vapour by Leaves.—This process, which is commonly termed transpiration, is considered to be somewhat analogous to the perspiration of animals, but in reality it is little more than a special case of this phenomenon. It is effected by the thickening of the crude sap, and the consequent increase of solid contents in proportion to its volume. This causes an evaporation of water vapour, as already noticed (see page 762), taken place almost entirely through the stomata, and hence as a general rule they possess a greater number than any other part of the plant. The presence or absence of a true epidermis and the various modifications thereof have no effect upon this process (page 763), an important influence upon the transpiration of fluid matters. From some interesting experiments of M. Garrean on transpiration of leaves, he was led to draw the following conclusions: 1. The quantity of water evaporated from each leaf under surfaces of the leaves is usually at 2 to 2 or 3 or even 1 to 8, or more. The quantity has no relation to the position of the FORMATION OF WOOD. 769 tyledonus, is the vitally active layer of cells called the cambium, which is situated between the bark and wood and inner bark. The cells of the cambium are laid in the spring, and at other seasons when growth takes place, with substances necessary for the development of new structures. Great differences of opinion exist amongst botanists as to the exact manner in which we are to understand this process. It has been supposed that the materials from which it is formed are elaborated in the leaves, that they are transported by the sap through the vessels, and that in proportion to their amount so will be the thickness of the wood. It is necessary, therefore, that the process of printing should be carried out in such a way that these materials should be placed at proper intervals, in order that they may freely diffuse into the tissues, which are favourable for the development of their foliage. Herbert Spencer believes that intermittent mechanical stimuli, such as those produced by insects, are the cause of the formation of wood, which is developed to resist the strain. This opinion was first expressed by Hutton, in 1780, and as late as 1803; but his results must be taken with modification. It is probably true that such a conservative formation of wood does occur in certain cases; but it is not probable that its dependence in nature between great exposures to such strains and large growths of wood is general. In some cases where wood-formation in ligneous twiners and nailed-up trees, must prevent us from considering it as an all-sufficient explanation. In one case there are no indications whatever of any such regulation of variations can have only operated to form wood, according to Spencer. 3. The Medullary Rays.—The functions which these rays perform is probably to assist the diffusion of a portion of the substances contained in the sap through the wood. The bark frequently contains very active medullary substance, and others which are useful in the arts, etc. 4. The Bark.—The bark acts as a protection to the young and tender parts within it. The inner part is generally believed to convey the sap from the leaves to the roots; but it is thought that new tissues may be developed, and the different secretions supposed to be deposited on them. The outer part of the bark frequently contains very active medullary substance, and others which are useful in the arts, etc. **Description of Wood (in Volume).—The stem is developed from the apex or growing point (punctus vegetatius, page 76), there being two kinds of cells in it—the apical cell and the segment cell. Its most of the Cytogamous growth is effected by the division of a single apical cell (fig. 1130), which is generally large, and divides into an apical cell and a segment cell; while another apical cell, while the other, the segment-cell, by further division forms** 3 p 772 EXHALATION OF WATERY VAPOR BY LEAVES. 3 pounds, and with a surface estimated at 5,616 square inches, exhaled, will evaporate in 24 hours, and this may be increased in the course of the day ; a Cabbage plant, with a surface of 2,236 square inches, about nineteen ounces per day; a Vine with a surface of 1,080 square inches, about eight ounces per day; and a Lemon tree, exposing a surface of 2,252 square inches, six ounces per day. The quantity of water which can be exhaled by a leaf being thus given off by single plants, what an almost inconceivable quantity must be exhaled by the whole vegetation of the globe ! It can therefore be seen that the air of every country where the wooded district will be always in a damp condition, while that of one without trees will be dry and unhealthy. This is owing to humidity ; and hence it will be seen that a country, to be per- fectly healthy, should have the proportion of plants to a particu- lar area equal to that of the trees in the wooded districts. In fact, no many plants are generally prejudicial to health by the dampness they produce ; but when they are numerous and grow close together, they produce an equally injurious dryness. The same circumstances have an important bearing upon the fertility or otherwise of the soil, and consequently upon the health of the inhabitants. Thus, it is a well-known fact, that as vapour is constantly exhaled by leaves, it is more abundant in those regions which are well covered with forests, than in those which are comparatively free from them. It is found, accord- ingly, that countries which are rich in forests are productive of a country by clearing it too much of plants; while for an excessive amount of vegetation to be produced on a piece of ground, if there be a great deficiency, it will become entirely free from extreme dryness. By intentionation these simple but most un- portant facts which have been mentioned show clearly that furnished with plants should be properly proportioned the one to the other, and that regions which were formerly remarkable for their fertility are now barren and desolate; and in like manner, many districts, formerly noted for their salu- tary habitations, are now unhealthy. The fluid which thus passes off by the leaves of plants is almost pure water. This transpiration of watery vapour never not be observed in any part of the globe excepting during various saline and organic matters dissolved in it, which takes place in the leaves. These substances are deposited on the leaves or from special glands. In the peculiar formed leaves of Dandelion (Atriplex), Sorensen's (p. 386), Sorensen's (p. 386), and Helichrysum (p. 386) these substances are deposited on the leaves. exist. From the extremities or margins of the leaves of various Mosses (p. 386) and Lichens (p. 386), and from the leaves of some water is also constantly excreted in drops at certain periods of vegetation ; but this may be due to the great force of absorption in certain parts of the leaf. The following experiment was made by Linnæus (p. 386) with the Caladium distillatorum, from which half a pint of fluid ABSORPTION AND EXHALATION OF GASES BY LEAVES. 773 has been noticed to drop away during a single night, from cuticles placed at the extremities of the leaves, and communi- cating freely with the atmosphere. 2. Absorption of Fluids by Leaves.—Hales, Bonnet, and others, inferred that leaves were capable of absorbing moisture, though they did not explain how this was accomplished, supposing that such was not the case, and that leaves remained fresh for some time after being exposed to the air. It is only lately that canine transpiration was hindered or arrested. The more recent researches of the Rev. George Henslow, however (Journal of Linn. Soc., Bot., vol. viii.), have shown conclusively that both leaves and green internodes are capable of absorbing water from the atmosphere, and that the quantity absorbed is independent of the presence or absence of sunlight. (See page 80.) 3. Absorption and Exhalation of Gases by Leaves.—We have already noticed (p. 60) the property possessed by the roots of certain plants of absorbing carbonic acid gas from the air, and also their supposed power of excretion (p. 70). Whilst plants are thus intimately connected with their roots with the soil or medium in which they grow, they are also in intimate re- lations with the atmosphere by their leaves and other external organs, through which they receive light and heat from it, certain gases. The atmosphere, it should be remembered, is brought into communication with the interior of the leaves by the stomata, or minute pores on their surface. The absorptions of these organs much in the same way as the air fills the lungs of animals, and is expelled from them in exhalations of some sort of analogy. The gases which are thus absorbed and exhaled by the leaves and other green organs and parts of plants have been proved to be carbonic acid, oxygen, and water; but to be essentially carbon dioxide and oxygen. The experiments of Bouchardat and others show that in all green plants, except those which live in water, carbon monoxide is evolved with the free oxygen. Draper, Maudslay, Chies and Grateloup, and others, likewise believe that leaves and other parts of plants absorb carbonic acid gas from the air. Plants, under certain circumstances, may also absorb nitrogen from the air, though it is not known whether this is so "but" the in- vestigations of Lassarre, Gilbert, Davenpye, and Poggendorf on this contrary, to negative this statement. The amount of carbonic acid gas in plants is greater, however, than can be accounted for by the quantity of nitrogen supplied to the soil by rain, and a doubtless partly due to the absorption of atmospheric nitrogen by the leaves. According to Sachs and Mayer, whose observations have been confirmed by Schloegel. * Except perhaps in the case of the so-called "carminiferous" plants; as Dravera, Diosmae, Nipponia, etc. (See page 80.) 774 ABSORPTION AND EXHALATION OF GASES BY LEAVES. The absorption and exhalation of carbon dioxide and oxygen gases by the leaves vary according to the circumstances in which they are placed. The leaves of the plant are, for the most part, only living chlorophyll which is capable of decomposing carbon dioxide (or carbonic acid) into carbon and oxygen. The following experi- ments show that carbon dioxide is absorbed from the atmo- sphere and decomposed, leaving its carbon, which is the result of the decomposition, being exhaled by the leaves. It is in this way that by far the largest proportion of carbon, which, as will be presently shown, forms so large a part of plants, is taken up by them. The evolution of oxygen by the green leaves and also by other green organs, such as stems and roots, is effected in the form of bubbles, when a submerged aquatic plant or some freely gathered water-lily leaves are exposed to the rays of the sun. No such evolution of oxygen takes place unless the water contains carbon dioxide, and not, therefore, in pure dis- tilled water or in water which has been boiled. It has been found, also, that there is a constant relation between the amount of carbon dioxide in the air and the amount of oxygen evolved. These experiments prove therefore, not only the exhalation of oxygen by the leaves, but also that part of it must be derived from the atmosphere. These changes do not take place in the deep-seated tissues of the plant, nor in those epidermal cells which are exposed to the atmosphere; but the latter. This decomposition of carbon dioxide is effected by the influence of chlorophyll; for when leaves are not green, as is case with young plants or with those which have been newly or less blanchéd, they, like the other parts of a plant in a simi- lar condition, are incapable of performing this function and must therefore procure their supply from materials already formed. This absorption of carbon dioxide with fixation of carbon and evolution of oxygen is effected by the intensity of the light to which the plants are exposed; but the experiments of Draper, Hunt, and others, show that the different hues of the spectrum have different effects upon this process. For instance, that no oxygen was set free by them when they were in the violet and indigo rays ; 00 to 33 only when in the extreme red; 1 in the blue; 25 in the green; 36 in yellow; 48 in yellow and green; and 24-75 in the red and orange. Hence he con- cluded, that there is a certain degree of light necessary for effecting in promoting decomposition of carbon dioxide, those nearest them much less so, and the heating and chemical rays none at all. The experiments on this point have been made with great facility to the same conclusions. That is to say, that the rays which photographe the leaves are not sufficient to cause any material de- composition of carbon dioxide and the elimination of oxygen, 14 ABSORPTION AND EVOLUTION OF GASES BY LEAVES. 775 while the so-called non-actinic rays are the most active. Some heat is necessary for this decomposition, and within certain limits the amount of heat is directly proportional to the amount for a corresponding diminution of active light rays. (See also THE EFFECT OF THE ELECTRO LIGHT ON THE GROWTH OF FLEDS, &c., page 826.) Whilst the absorption of carbon dioxide and evolution of oxygen go hand in hand, it is not always so with other gases. As most observers, that in the absence of light a contrary action occurs with respect to these gases, this fact has been generally neglected. At the same time, all who hold this opinion admit, that the amount of oxygen gas thus absorbed by night is very much less than that given off during the day. This was shown by Bouchere and Danbury prove, that if plants be enclosed in jars containing ordinary air, and then exposed to light and dark conditions with carbon dioxide, the quantity of oxygen gas in the contained air increases becomes. Some authors, such as Bouchere, Carpenter, and Garreau, maintain that carbon dioxide is given off by the leaves in varying quantities both during the night and day. This view, as Poppa, Chod and Grattan deny that leaves, at any time when in a healthy state, give off carbon dioxide. Those who support this view say that leaves when ex- posed to solar light give off oxygen gas, in consequence of the absorption and composition of carbon dioxide, and that a certain amount takes place night after night, but only in view upon the nature of the plant. Some of them regard the evaporation of water as a cause of this nocturnal respiration, and hence look upon regular respiration as producing results upon the atmosphere we breathe diametrically opposite to those of actinic rays. Others maintain that Man's respiration is entirely due here we have two distinct functions going on,-one, taking place during the day and another during the evolution of carbon dioxide, with fixation of carbon and evolution of oxygen; and another, only occurring by night, in the leaves and other green parts of the plant. The former is called assimilation, and which consist in the absorption of oxygen and evolution of car- bon dioxide; while the latter is called respiration. Mr. J. Broughton has more recently demonstrated a constant evolution of carbon dioxide during the night. This fact leads some to conclude that this gas, partly due to previous oxidation, is mainly separated from the atmosphere by means of night changes. Those who maintain Burton's views regard the constant evolution of carbon dioxide by day and night as constituting vegetal respiration; whilst others consider it as a waste gas, as connected with assimilation ; while the supporters of Poppa's views regard the existence of oxygen gas as a visible respira- tion. Poppa says that oxygen is given off by the leaves both 775 ABSORPTION AND EXHALATION OF GASES BY LEAVES. by night and day, but in a greatly accelerated degree during the day. The same thing has been observed with other organs, but has not been traced at night. It will be seen from the above abstract of the opinions of different writers that various ideas are entertained by them as to the action of the leaves and other green organs under dif- ferent circumstances, and that they differ in their views on such changes. Generally, it may be stated,—that all agree as to the evaporation of oxygen and carbonic acid, and that great powers of plants in absorbing influence of solar light with fixation of carbon, to which process the term assimilation is applied in this volume. It is also generally admitted that respiration is usually entertained by botanists; while that of respiration is here used to denote the absorption of oxygen and evolution of carbon dioxide. But it must be remembered that this assumption is found to take place at a small extent by day also even in observed cases, and that the whole of the carbon dioxide produced the sun's light appears to be stored up in some unknown way for future use, so that we find some sapient plants after ex- posure to the sun's light appear to be more active than before. Whatever view we may entertain, all admit that this evolu- tion of oxygen is a very important function of the leaves in Nature. This will be at once evident when it is remembered that it is the only known process by which oxygen gas,—so essential to man and animals—can be obtained. For it is re- moved from the atmosphere we breathe, by the respiration of man and animals, by the combustion of vegetable matter, by oxidation of mineral matter, and by other processes that are constantly going on upon the globe,—is restored to it in a free condition by the leaves. In this way, these two kingdoms, domes of nature are made to co-operate in the execution of the same duty. It is remarkable how much more easily we can see this balance in the constitution of the atmosphere which adapts it to the welfare and activity of every order of beings, and which world and animal life would not have been able to maintain if left to be suspended. It is impossible to contemplate so special an adjustment without feeling its importance. It is a wonderful dispensation of Providence, extending over so vast a scale of being, and demonstrating the unity of plan upon which the whole system was formed. In like manner, plants purify the water in which they grow, and render it fit for animal life. We have had many experi- ences that if fish or other aquatic animals be placed in water in which no plants are grown, they will soon perish. This is true because plants absorb from the water all those matters which destroy to fixate the necessary matters which are given off by the animals. Hence, if any animal be placed in water where it is de- stayed by their own actions upon the medium in which they are placed. In nature, we always find plants existing with animal FORMATION OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS BY LEAVES. 777 life in the water, so that the injurious influence communicated by the latter to that medium is counteracted by the assimilation of the former. The following experiment, which we have made with animals, is beautifully illustrated in our aquariums. We are taught by some of the most eminent naturalists that it is necessary to main- tain a large town in a healthy state, to set apart large areas and plant them freely. His observations regarding the purifying influence of plants may require modification by the discovery of Bouchonnet's fact that carbon dioxide, when combined with oxygen, forms carbonic acid, together with oxygen, it is at present impossible to say ; but the subject is one of very great general importance, and one on which much attention has been paid. Bouchonnet has even thrown out a suggestion, that in some cases, so far from being a source of impurity, it may be a source of con- trary cause the atmosphere of nearly dry districts, where they are in excess, to be unhealthy. It is also probable that one case of this kind may be due to the evolution of carbon oxide. With reference to this above mentioned point, I may mention an experiment, that his experiments were made by putting plants or the green parts of plants in water previously impregnated with car- bon dioxide. In these experiments it was found that carbonic oxide was formed were not altogether natural ones; and hence it appears that the carbonic acid is produced by plants grow- ing in the air as well as in water, and in every respect in as nearly as possible their ordinary modes of existence. There are many other facts which show that when grown in rooms where there is but little ventilation, and hence, especially when placed near a stove, they become poisonous upon the contained air. This idea has arisen from a knowledge of the fact that plants, as already noticed, when not exposed to the light of the sun, do not produce oxygen; and it seems to be that they when have submitted to its influence; and that is to say, that they have absorbed carbon dioxide and given off oxygen instead of absorbing carbon dioxide and giving off oxygen. But the amount of carbon dioxide which in them given off by plants can only be estimated by experiments made upon them upon the atmosphere in which they are placed. It might be readily shown that plants do not require some thing like light in this way, to vitiate the air; for there is nothing like the extent of that of a single animal, and that, therefore, the idea of a single plant being able to produce oxygen by means of its action on carbon dioxide is altogether erroneous. It is certain, however, that under such circumstances, the odours of plants affect individuals who are sensitive to them; but it is difficult to attribute this phenomenon to any particular organi- sation or peculiar idiosyncrasies. 4. Formation of Organic Compounds by Leaves.—By the alterations produced in the watery contents of the green leaves, 778 FORMATIONS OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS BY LEAVES. &c., by exposure to air and light, the matters which they contain are converted into other substances, and these in turn promote a change, and therefore freely combine together. By this means the different organic compounds are produced which are concerned with the nutrition of plants, and also with the for- mation of others, such as resinous matters, various acids, narcotic substances, &c. The leaves of plants, however far as we know at present, perform no further active part in the plant, and are accordingly removed from the young and visually active parts of the plant, and are replaced by new ones. In short, they are merely removed from the plant as excreta. (See page 767.) The process of their removal is commonly termed assimilation and excretion. (See page 822.) We see, therefore, that without leaves or other analogous green organs no growth can take place in the plant, and no peculiar secre- tions are formed ; but it must be also recollected that without the leaves there is no light, and hence no proper assimilation of the various matters taken up by the plant can be effected; for instance, if a plant be put into the dark, it becomes blanched and loses its chlorophyll, and, moreover, no woody matter is then formed (page 767). It is only when light falls upon a leaf that the almost full light upon plants is well shown when a potato- tuber sprouts in the dark, in which case the whole of the tis- sues formed are white. This is also true of a potato tuber kept in darkness for some time after being planted out on a sunny day; or when potatoes are reared with a diminished supply of light, as in an orchard, or under trees, when the tubers are found to be waterily in consequence of the absence of chlorophyll being pro- duced. Another illustration of the effect produced by the absence of light is afforded by the fact that potatoes grown for the table, such as Sea-Kale, Celerie, &c. In these instances, when the plants are grown freely exposed to light, so as in their natural conditions to receive all the light they require, they produce them tough or stringy, and also peculiar secretiones, which are either not produced at all or very imperfectly produced; but the formation of these secretiones and also of the woody matter is interfered with when the access of light is more or less prevented, and the plant becomes blanched. How such a vast variety of compound substances can be formed in plants by mere exposure to air and light is present almost unknown. It is to the combined labours of the chemist and physiologist that we must look for the elucidation of this important subject. The following pages will show how wide are the various theories that have been entertained upon their for- mation and nature. I shall not attempt to give any account here for full details upon this subject. It is, however, certain that the elimination of oxygen and carbon dioxide, already described, are necessary preliminary steps in every case where a plant is highly oxygenated as compared with most of the important EFFECTS OF GASES GENERALLY UPON LEAVES. 77 proximate principles formed within their leaf-cells, and hence a disengagement of oxygen must occur during their formation. As regards the effects of carbonic acid upon leaves, we have seen, that the ordinary normal constituents of atmospheric air, namely, carbon dioxide, oxygen, and nitrogen, are sufficient to satisfy the needs of the plant for its own respiration and assimilation. But there are also other gases which are especially necessary for the due elaboration of the various products and constituents of the leaves, and which are not readily absorbed by the leaves or roots. It is by leaves especially that carbon, which is so essential to plants, and which enters largely into the composition of all organic bodies, is absorbed. But it must be understood, at the same time that, plants do not require more than they need. That is to say, either carbon dioxide, oxygen, or nitrogen; but that for their proper development, these gases must be mixed in suitable proportions; for either too much or too little will be injurious or pernicious, according to circumstances. Plants will, however, absorb more than they need; but the amount of carbon dioxide, even more vigorously than in ordinary atmospheric air; but if the amounts be considerably increased, they will perhaps become poisoned. The absorption of large excessive quantities would seem to be owing to a directly poisonous influence of the gas upon the leaves; or under any other circumstances where they cannot obtain a suitable supply of carbon dioxide, they soon die. While it is true that certain conditions are necessary to the due performance of the proper functions of plants, all other cases where plants are exposed to a poisonous gas appear to act more or less injuriously upon them. This is more particularly the case with sulphurous acid and hydrochloric acid gases, even in small quantities. Sulphuric acid gas is produced by burning coal, common coal gas, cyanogen, &c., also acts prejudicially. The following experiments show how poisonous vapours upon plants appear to resemble that of irritants upon animals; thus they first excite a local action upon the extremities of the leaves, and this influence gradually extends over the whole plant; and if the plants be not removed into a purer air, they will perish; but such an effect does not always follow. When such vapours are speedily removed from their influence, they usually revive, the parts attacked being alone permanently injured. While it is true that some of these poisonous upon plants, sulphured hydrogen, carbon oxide, common coal gas, cyanogen, &c., produce no direct poisonings on animals like that produced by narcotic poisons upon animals; for by their action a general injurious influence is produced on their vitality, and a decrease in their power of resistance follows. Moreover when such is the case, no after removal into a purer air will cause them to revive. As the above gases are constantly present in the air of large 780 WARDIAN CASES. towns, and more especially in those where chemical processes on a large scale are carried on, there is no need for an explanation of the reason why plants submitted to such influences will not thrive. The air of an ordinary sitting room, and especially one where gas is burning, is full of carbonic acid gas, which is injurious to the healthy growth of plants, in consequence of the production of injurious gases by the decomposition of this gas by the organisms. Harden's Case.—In order to protect plants from the injurious influences thus exerted upon them by the heat and air of large towns, the following case was invented by Mr. Harden, consisting of two glass cases placed one within another, the inner case being covered with a sheet of glass, through which they are exposed to the light and air; while the outer case is made of wood, and through them under closed glass cases which has been found to succeed so admirably. The soil is composed of sand, or some other light, porous earth, in which a suitable plant is placed; in this the plants are put, and the whole is then covered by a closely fitting glass case. It is necessary that the plants should be grown in a place where they are grown under such circumstances, upon exposure to light and air, transpiration being prevented; but as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and as under ordinary conditions of climate the ground is hard, and so forth. The external air in its passage has to pass through very narrow spaces between these two cases; hence it becomes almost impermeable to moisture; it does not require a further supply of water for a considerable time after it has been introduced into it; it remains damp in a dark atmosphere; so it commonly happens that Ferns grow luxuriantly in such cases. The important influence which this mode has on their constitution may be seen from this fact: when plants are placed immediately in contact with air impregnated with water vapour from a closed case (as in Wardian cases), though they have access to fresh air through their leaves (which are moistened by their own transpiration), yet they do not become sufficiently moistened to produce any appreciable amount either by their own transpiration or by that from their leaves. This may be seen from this fact: when plants are placed immediately in contact with air impregnated with water vapour from a closed case (as in Wardian cases), though they have access to fresh air through their leaves (which are moistened by their own transpiration), yet they do not become sufficiently moistened to produce any appreciable amount either by their own transpiration or by that from their leaves. This may be seen from this fact: when plants are placed immediately in contact with air impregnated with water vapour from a closed case (as in Wardian cases), though they have access to fresh air through their leaves (which are moistened by their own transpiration), yet they do not become sufficiently moistened to produce any appreciable amount either by their own transpiration or by that from their leaves. This may be seen from this fact: when plants are placed immediately in contact with air impregnated with water vapour from a closed case (as in Wardian cases), though they have access to fresh air through their leaves (which are moistened by their own transpiration), yet they do not become sufficiently moistened to produce any appreciable amount either by their own transpiration or by that from their leaves. This may be seen from this fact: when plants are placed immediately in contact with air impregnated with water vapour from a closed case (as in Wardian cases), though they have access to fresh air through their leaves (which are moistened by their own transpiration), yet they do not become sufficiently moistened to produce any appreciable amount either by their own transpiration or by that from their leaves. This may be seen from this fact: when plants are placed immediately in contact with air impregnated with water vapour from a closed case (as in Wardian cases), though they have access to fresh air through their leaves (which are moistened by their own transpiration), yet they do not become sufficiently moistened to produce any appreciable amount either by their own transpiration or by that from their leaves. This may be seen from this fact: when plants are placed immediately in contact with air impregnated with water vapour from a closed case (as in Wardian cases), though they have access to fresh air through their leaves (which are moistened by their own transpiration), yet they do not become sufficiently moistened to produce any appreciable amount either by their own transpiration or by that from their leaves. This may be seen from this fact: when plants are placed immediately in contact with air impregnated with water vapour from a closed case (as in Wardian cases), though they have access to fresh air through their leaves (which are moistened by their own transpiration), yet they do not become sufficiently moistened to produce any appreciable amount either by their own transpiration or by that from their leaves. This may be seen from this fact: when plants are placed immediately in contact with air impregnated with water vapour from a closed case (as in Wardian cases), though they have access to fresh air through their leaves (which are moistened by their own transpiration), yet they do not become sufficiently moistened to produce any appreciable amount either by their own transpiration or by that from their leaves. This may be seen from this fact: when plants are placed immediately in contact with air impregnated with water vapour from a closed case (as in Wardian cases), though they have access to fresh air through their leaves (which are moistened by their own transpiration), yet they do not become sufficiently moistened to produce any appreciable amount either by their own transpiration or by that from their leaves. This may be seen from this fact: when plants are placed immediately in contact with air impregnated with water vapour from a closed case (as in Wardian cases), though they have access to fresh air through their leaves (which are moistened by their own transpiration), yet they do not become sufficiently moistened to produce any appreciable amount either by their own transpiration or by that from their leaves. This may be seen from this fact: when plants are placed immediately in contact with air impregnated with water vapour from a closed case (as in Wardian cases), though they have access to fresh air through their leaves (which are moistened by their own transpiration), yet they do not become sufficiently moistened to produce any appreciable amount either by their own transpiration or by that from their leaves. This may be seen from this fact: when plants are placed immediately in contact with air impregnated with water vapour from a closed case (as in Wardian cases), though they have access to fresh air through their leaves (which are moistened by their own transpiration), yet they do not become sufficiently moistened to produce any appreciable amount either by their own transpiration or by that from their leaves. This may be seen from this fact: when plants are placed immediately in contact with air impregnated with water vapour from a closed case (as in Wardian cases), though they have access to fresh air through their leaves (which are moistened by their own transpiration), yet they do not become sufficiently moistened to produce any appreciable amount either by their own transpiration or by that from their leaves. This may be seen from this fact: when plants are placed immediately in contact with air impregnated with water vapour from a closed case (as in Wardian cases), though they have access to fresh air through their leaves (which are moistened by their own transpiration), yet they do not become sufficiently moistened to produce any appreciable amount either by their own transpiration or by that from their leaves. This may be seen from this fact: when plants are placed immediately in contact with air impregnated with water vapour from a closed case (as in Wardian cases), though they have access to fresh air through their leaves (which are moistened by their own transpiration), yet they do not become sufficiently moistened to produce any appreciable amount either by their own transpiration or by that from their leaves. This may be seen from this fact: when plants are placed immediately in contact with air impregnated with water vapour from a closed case (as in Wardian cases), though they have access to fresh air through their leaves (which are moistened by their own transpiration), yet they do not become sufficiently moistened to produce any appreciable amount either by their own transpiration or by that from their leaves. This may be seen from this fact: when plants are placed immediately in contact with air impregnated with water vapour from a closed case (as in Wardian cases), though they have access to fresh air through their leaves (which are moistened by their own transpiration), yet they do not become sufficiently moistened to produce any appreciable amount either by their own transpiration or by that from their leaves. This may be seen from this fact: when plants are placed immediately in contact with air impregnated with water vapour from a closed case (as in Wardian cases), though they have access to fresh air through their leaves (which are moistened by their own transpiration), yet they do not become sufficiently moistened to produce any appreciable amount either by their own transpiration or by that from their leaves. This may be seen from this fact: when plants are placed immediately in contact with air impregnated with water vapour from a closed case (as in Wardian cases), though they have access to fresh air through their leaves (which are moistened by their own transpiration), yet they do not become sufficiently moistened to produce any appreciable amount either by their own transpiration or by that from their leaves. This may be seen from this fact: when plants are placed immediately in contact with air impregnated with water vapour from a closed case (as in Wardian cases), though they have access to fresh air through their leaves (which are moistened by their own transpiration), yet they do not become sufficiently moistened to produce any appreciable amount either by 6. Colour Of Leaves.—The green colour of leaves is due COLOUR OF LEAVES. 781 chlorophyll contains in the cells situated beneath the epidermis. Chlorophyll, as already observed, may be found in the dark, but remains yellow, only becoming green under the influence of light, and hence the leaves and other parts of plants are generally green. The leaves of some plants, however, by this rule there are some notable exceptions--viz., the germinating seeds of the bean, which remain white until they have been exposed to light, when they will become green even in total darkness, provided that the temperaure is sufficiently high. If plants with green leaves be withdrawn into a dark room, they will soon lose their colour; these leaves soon fall; and if others are produced, they have a whiteish hue. This is owing to the fact that those which have been grown in the dark are removed to the light, the leaves upon them soon lose their whitish hue and become green. The rapidity with which this change takes place depends on the intensity of their colour, will be in proportion to the amount of light and heat (30°-50° C. being about the maximum) to which they have been exposed. See also page 628, "The Growth of Plants," &c., page 828. The absorption of light by chlorophyll has a varying influence in promoting the formation of chlorophyll. Some difference of opinion exists as to those rays which are most active in this respect. It is stated by Mr. Frenzy that blue and violet are the illuminating or yellow rays, namely, those which, as we have already seen, are most readily absorbed by chlorophyll. Amongst the decomposition of carbon dioxide, are those which are the most active in the production of chlorophyll. Mr. Frenzy has shown that chlorophyll is composed of chlorophyllin,--a substance which he has called chlorophyllin--and another a blue, which he calls chlorophyllin. Both these principles have been isolated by Mr. Frenzy, who has also endeavoured to show how they combine together to form chlorophyll. The presence of chlorophyllin is due to the presence of a body, which he termed phloeo- zanthin, and which is supposed to be a derivative of anthocyanin. The same principle results from the decoloration of phylocyanin; hence it would seem that phylocyanin is not an immediate precursor of chlorophyllin, but must first be converted into phloeo- zanthin. The experiments of Mr. Fihol do not, however, altogether confirm this view; but it appears from more recent spectroscopic investigations of Professor Stokes and H. L. Smith tend to show that chlorophyllin is more complex than a simple derivative of anthocyanin. Chlorophyll is stated by Sorby to exist in a blue and also a yellow variety; but according to his observations Chlorophyll is another colouring matter, which, like the two preceding, is fluorescent, and has a yellow-green colour. These three varieties are not always in bisulphide of carbon. Sorby also describes other 782 DEFOILITION, OR THE FALL OF THE LEAF. colouring matters which are soluble in hydrochloric acid, and give different results to the foregoing with the spectroscope. The astraline tints of leaves, which are generally some shades of yellow, brown, or green, are due to the fact that the varying degree of oxidation of the chlorophyll which their cells contain, to which change Hanefeld applied the term 'deacy' of chlorophyll, causes them to assume different hues. It is well known that the yellow leaves of autumn contain no phytochrome, and hence that their colour is entirely due to the chlorophyll in its original condition. The altered state of chlorophyll may in its original condition be termed altered state. Strong light may produce a fading of leaves and other green parts, which change approach to a yellow hue. This is called photodegradation. The grains of chlorophyll in the cells, and is termed *epistrophe* or *episporphore* as the case may require. When there are one or more other colours than green, the different colours are produced either by an alteration of the chlorophyll or of one of the accessory pigments, or both together, or in consequence of the presence of some other colouring agent. Variation in leaves must be regarded as a diseased condition of the plant. The cause of this is usually produced by hydrolisation, grafting, differences of climate, soil, and other causes. In many cases it is caused by the presence of air in some of the cells, or more commonly to an alteration of the chlorophyll of certain cells, or one of the substances contained in them (see page 306). (On Colour of Flowers, p. 780) T. Jaffray: "The Fall of the Leaf." Leaves are essentially temporary organs; for after a certain period, which varies in different plants, they either gradually wither upon the stem, as is usual with most trees (see page 15), or else in some Dioictyloides such as (page 174) or they appear only during a short season when they have performed their active functions, or even sometimes when quite green. In the former case, as we have seen, the leaves are shed at a certain time of year. In the trees of this and other temperate climates the leaves commonly fall at the end of summer or early autumn; that is, before the winter months; and in those of warm and tropical regions the fall of the leaf often takes place at the dry season. But the leaves of some plants remain on the tree for some time, generally remain for two or more years. In these cases they are said to be persistent leaves; and those in the latter persist until overgrown. The fall of the leaf is commonly called defoliation. The cause or causes which lead to the death of the leaf are by no means well understood. The opinion commonly entertained is that the membrane constituting the walls of their cells gradu- ally becomes impregnated with water and other substances which are left behind by the fluid substance which are contained DEVELOPMENT OF LEAVES OR PHYLLOMES. 753 in or transmitted through them, that ultimately the tissues of the leaf become hooked up and are no longer able to perform their proper functions. In this case the leaf may fall off, or remain attached to the stem, as in the case of the leaves of the fig. The fall of the leaf does not then, depend upon the death of the organ; it may occur before death, or may not take place at all. The leaves of the fig are thus peculiarly adapted for the separa- tion or articulation which Ann Gray thus describes: "The formation of a new leaf is effected by the gradual integra- tion or a transverse layer of cells, which cuts off the petiole by a regular line, in a perfectly uniform manner in each species, and in such a manner that the two parts are separated. The solution of continuity begins at the epidermis, where a faint line appears, and gradually extends downwards. At first still young and vigorous; later, the line of demarcation be- comes well marked, internally as well as externally; the dia- tomous wall of the epidermis being here broken down between the woody bundles; and the side next the stem, which is to form the petiole, being cut off by a regular line, which seems to what appears like a prolongation of the epidermis, so that when the leaf separates, as Innan says, "the tree does not suffer from any loss." This is true only in so far as it is not a cause, adds ---: "The provision for the separation being once complete, it is not necessary that any further change should take place in the leaf-stalk, by causing an effort of tension, will readily break through the small remains of the thoro-vacuolar bundles; or the internal structure of the leaf-stalk itself may be destroyed. These causes are not in operation, a gust of wind, a heavy shower, or even the weight of snow on a branch would not effect this separation without connections and send the succulent member to the grave. Such is the history of the fall of the leaf." A. During development of leaves and phyllomes and all their metamorphosing forms, such as the parts of flowers, &c. are de- veloped from one cell or group of cells. The leaves are formed either of a group of cells as in the Phanerogams, or of single cell as in the Vascular Bryophytes. A connal papilla or (in almost all cases) a group of cells is formed at some point ad- dition to one side of a group of these divided cells. Leaves are formed acropetally or indietely; the youngest always being at the top. The veins arise from a group of cells at some point from which the leaves originate are at first wholly cellular, consisting only of parenchymatous cells; but after they have been by a layer of dermalogen cells; after a time elongated cells are formed in the centre; and these are followed by apical vessels, forming a central pith. The veins arise from this pith; and every part of the leaf generally corresponds with its apex or with the oldest part of it. The leaves are therefore gener- ally its oldest instead of its youngest part as is the case with 784 DEVELOPMENT OF LEAVES. stems where the axes are the growing points (see page 770.). In leaves the apical growth soon ceases, though interstitial growth continues. The following is an abstract of Trevell's conclusion:— "All leaves originate in a primary cellular mammilla, with or without a basal swelling, according as they are to have sheaths or not; 1, the basipetal formation, from below upwards; 2, the centrifugal formation, from above downwards; 3, the pericentral formation, from side to side; 4, the pericentral formation." The centripetal or basipetal development may be illustrated by the leaf of the Lime-tree which begins at 8 single cells, grows into a short stem, and then increases in lengthens and enlarges, leaving at its base a construction which recedes from the stem and becomes a sheath. The stem now grows divided from side to side by a sinus. The lower lobes is the first secondary vein. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. The upper lobe is derived in the same manner first or third veins. "Leaves developed centrifugally (called also basilar and basipetal) are those which arise from one point within them proceeding, and this method may be well studied in the formation of leaves of the Hypocotyls; of this sort are leaves of Monocotyledons and of some Liliopsidae, as those of Iris and of Tropaeolum. In them terminal leaves are produced, and others appear at intervals on each side of them. The stipules are produced before lower leaflets, all digitate leaves, and those with radiating venation, belonging to the centripetal mode of development, are produced after them. "In some plants, as Acer, two preceding modes of development are combined together; that part of a leaf which has been planted on both sides and on both sides of a leaf which has been planted on both sides and on both sides of a leaf which has been planted on both sides and on both sides of a leaf which has been planted on both sides and on both sides of a leaf which has been planted on both sides and on both sides of a leaf which has been planted on both sides and on both sides of a leaf which has been planted on both sides and on both sides of a leaf which has been planted on both sides and on both sides of a leaf which has been planted on both sides and on both sides of a leaf which has been planted on both sides and on both sides of a leaf which has been planted on both sides and on both sides of a leaf which has been planted on both sides and on both sides of a leaf which has been planted on both sides and on both sides of a leaf which has been planted on both sides and on both sides of a leaf which has been planted on both sides and on both sides of a leaf which has been planted on both sides and on both sides of a leaf which has been planted on both sides and on both sides of a leaf which has been planted on both sides and on both sides of a leaf which has been planted on both sides and on both sides of a leaf which has been planted on both sides and on both sides of a leaf which has been planted on both sides and on both sides of a leaf which has been planted on both sides and on both sides of a leaf which has been planted on both sides and on both sides of a leaf which has been planted on both sides and on both sides of a leaf which has been planted on both sides and on both sides of a leaf which has been planted on both sides and on both sides of a leaf which has been planted on both sides and on both sides of a leaf which has been planted on both sides and on both sides of a leaf which has been planted on both sides and on both sides of a leaf which has been planted on both sides and on both sides of a leaf which has been planted on both sides and on both sides of a leaf which has been planted on both sides and on both sides of a leaf which has been planted on both sides and on both sides of a leaf which has been planted on both sides and on both sides of a leaf which has been planted on both sides and on both sides of a leaf which has been planted on both sides and on both sides of a leaf which has been planted on both "Leaves furnished with sheaths, or having their lower por- tions prolonged into petioles, belong to this class; while those which have whole petiole early exposed to air grow much more towards the upper part of the petiole." FUNCTIONS OF BRACTS AND FLORAL ENVELOPES. 755 Section 3. **PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION.** Having now briefly alluded to the special functions of the elements of the flower, I shall proceed, in the next place, to treat of the special functions of the organs of reproduction; but those who may desire to complete the account of the plant, will find them described in the General Physiology of the Plant, L. 1, p. 806, where they are treated under the title "The Organs of the principal offices performed by these organs is, to protect the young and tender parts placed within them from injury. When young, as is well known, they are green; but when mature, their colour is due to the presence of chlorophyll in their component parts, and this chlorophyll is found only in the ordinary leaves. But when of other colours than green, as is usual with the petals, and occasionally with the bracts and sepals, they appear to be specially adapted for some particular function to perform; which consists in the production of a saccharine substance, which is supposed to be a stimulant to fertilisation. This saccharine matter is designed more especially for the nourishment of the essential organs of reproduction. That such is the function of these organs appears from their being placed in the composition of the thalamus at different periods of the flowering process. In the first place, when the flowers are opening, the thalamus is dry and its cells are filled with amylosum matter; as flowering proceeds, these matter become converted into vacuoles containing a large quantity of water, and when the thalamus dries up. In fact a similar change takes place in the process of flowering in all plants that have flowers. The matter in these amylosum matter are in like manner converted into those of a saccharine nature. When the saccharine matter is in excess, during the process of flowering, it becomes liquid and is in a liquid state, and may be removed without the flower suffering. During this period also, when flowers are opening, amylosum is absorbed by great quantities from the atmosphere, and carbon dioxide given off in a corresponding degree. Hence, the action of flowers is more active than that of leaves; and more than green, upon the surrounding air under the influence of solar light, differs from that of leaves; and hence they are more vigorous. The absorption of oxygen takes place in a still greater degree in the essential organs of reproduction; hence, such an effect is seen even in flowers that have been removed from their stalks; such as the stamens and carpels have been more or less changed into petals that is, they have become partially or wholly white. It has been proved that that statement is almost always true oxygen than pastile ones. That oxygen enters into these circumstances take place between the carbon of the flower and the oxygen of the air, 3786 COLOUR OF FLOWERS. FLORAL ENVELOPES. is also attended by an evolution of heat, which indeed is always the case when flowers are produced in the air. This evolution of heat in the majority of flowers is not observable, because it is immediately carried off by the surrounding air; but in those flowers which have a more or less hairy surface, and more especially when they are surrounded by such a leafy structure as a calyx, the heat evolved by their evaporation may be readily noticed. The flowers of the male cone of *Corylus* cernuus, those of the *Federia* regina, of several *Cacti*, and of many Araceae, possess this property to a greater or less degree, according to the evolution of heat. That the heat thus evolved is dependent upon the combina- tion of the oxygen of the air with the carbon of the flower was conclusively proved by the experiments of *Voyaux* and De Vries; for they showed that when the air was saturated with vapour of an Arum was much greater when it was placed in oxygen gas than in ordinary air. The carbon dioxide and nitrogen are reduced into carbon dioxide or nitrogen gases it ceased altogether. Colour of Flowers.—All the colours of flowers otherwise than green depend upon the presence of anthocyanin. It is perfectly known, though spectroscopic analysis has done something towards proving this fact, that anthocyanin is formed only in those corollas undergoes are supposed to depend on the oxidation of those blossoms. Most of the Boraginaceae pass from pink to blue, from their first appearance until they are fully developed. The Convol- vulus changes from pink to a fine purple in the same period. Cultivators often find great difficulty in obtaining a deep blue; there is a limit to its influence. The Dahlia and Tulip are naturally yellow, and under cultivation may be made to assume all shades of red, crimson, orange, etc., but no other colour. The Hydrangea will take on various shades of blue, purple, red, and white, but no other colour. The Anthocyanin is capable of dividing itself in this aspect into two series—a *sensu* which has yellow for its base, and a *sensu* which has blue—either of which can be made to assume any shade between them without reference to the other. There seem to be a few exceptions to this rule; e.g., *Mimosa* requires a certain amount of yellow before it loses its blue; and *Hyacinthus* requires an amount of yellow before it loses its blue. Development of the Floral Envelopes.—The manner in which the floral envelops are developed may be shortly summed up as follows:— They are subject to the same laws of development as the usual leaves; but instead of being formed from cells by peculiar processes, which grow by additions to their bases or points of attachment, they arise from cells at their extremities. The calyx is always developed before the corolla. When a calyx is polygamous, or a corolla polygamous, the compound calyx or corolla consists of several laminae in the form of little distinct papillae or tumours, the number of which correspond to the separate parts of the future calyx or corolla. SEXUALITY OF PLANTS. 787 When a calyx is monosepalous, or a corolla monoserial, the first appendage is termed the calyce or corolla of a little ring, which ultimately becomes the tube of the calyx or corolla, as the case may be. When these present lobes or teeth, as they more commonly do, they are called the calyce or corolla of the ring, the number of which corresponds to the future divisions of the calyx or corolla. All irregular calyces or corollas are regular at their first formation, the cellular papillae from which they arise being all equal in size. The irregularity is produced by unequal subsequent growth. 2. FUNCTIONS OF THE ESSENTIAL ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION. -Sexuality of Plants.-Though vaguely suspected by the ancients, this fact was first clearly demonstrated by a botanist still 1676, in which year Sir T. Millington, of Oxford, determined the real nature of the stamens. The stamens of flowering plants, as he found them, consist of two parts, one of which is the anther, and the carpel the female. That the influence of the pollen is necessary for fertilization has been long established. While the presence of distinct sexes may thus be shown in flowering plants, both sexes are not always present. In the formation of perfect flowers, therefore, plants in like manner possess organs that perform functions of which they are undoubtedly sexual. It is quite evident that this is true in Cryptogams, as has recently been demonstrated in all the Cryptogams; but as it is known to exist in the greater number, we may fairly conclude from analogy that it exists in all. We have already, as fully as our space will admit, described the structure and functions of the essential organs in Monospermous and Cryptogamous plants; we now proceed to give a general summary of the more important conclusions which have been reached respecting the reproductive organs of several divisions of plants, and in doing so we shall commence with that division which has hitherto received least attention. 1. REPRODUCTION OF CRYPTOGOMOUS OR ACOROTHEROUS PLANTS.-In describing the structure of the reproductive organs of Cryptogomous plants we shall follow the arrangement adopted in two divisions, called, respectively, Cryptophytes and Thalliphyes, which are included under this head in our Botanical Dictionary. We shall follow the same arrangement in describing their modes of reproduction, except that we shall here commence with the Thalliphyes. The Cryptophytes are much simpler than the more complicated nature, instead of allotting to them, as we then did, in their place. 4. Reproduction of Thalliphyes.-The sexuality of all Thalliphyes has not been absolutely proved, but only concluded from analogy with other forms. The following are examples: Characeae, Fungi, and Lichena. Oenothera, indeed, has described them. A diagram showing the structure and functions of essential organs in Cryptogamous plants. 788 REPRODUCTION OF TRALLOLITHYES. impregnation of ologonia on the mesoderm of Agriotes; but recent observations show that this is not so, and it is most probable that the reproduction of Agriotes is anamalous. The process of reproduction in the Fungi and Lichens has already been sufficiently described by various authors. The Algae and Characeae require further explanation. I. Reproduction of Algae. The reproduction of Algae takes place in the following ways : namely, by division, free-cell for- mation, conjugation, and by the direct impregnation of naked spores or gametes with other naked spores or gametes. Each process is also liable to modifications. a. Conjugation. Conjugation was noticed in the Algæ, as Diatomis, Symbiodis, Syrrocarpus, &c. (See page 364, figs. 850 and 851). It consists in the union of the contents of the cells of two elements, which are then separated into two parts, each part containing a spore by their mutual action. No difference can be detected in the structure of these spores. Two methods of conjugation may be noticed among the Algae. In the first mode, as seen in Desmidium, &c. (figs. 1114), two individual cells are united together by means of a cell-wall, sep- arate each other, the external cellulose membrane bounding their respective contents being left intact. In the second mode, the issue from the orifices thus produced, intermingles in the inter- vening space, and form ultimately, by their mutual action, a rounded body, which is then separated into two or more ac- tive spores, which ultimately germinates. The contents of the spores are green and granular at first, but ultimately become brown; yet they are never found to be completely enclosed with a coat of cellulose which in some cases divides into two layers, the outer layer being composed of a substance called sporangia, because they ultimately produce two or more germ-cells in their interior, and are therefore not simple spores. In the second mode of reproduction observed in Zygoma and Spirogyra (figs. 850 and 851), the cells of two filaments develop into two cells each; these cells separate from one another, these ultimately meet and adhere, and the intervening septum existing at the point of contact becoming absorbed; the two cells freely communicate with each other through a small opening into a mass, and ultimately combine together, either by the passage of the contents of one cell into another or by the mixture of the contents of the two cells in the tubular space between them. Under either circumstance, the mixture of the contents of the two cells produces a new cell or germ-cell (germ-spore) or gamete (spore), which ultimately germinates and becomes an individual resembling one of its parents. b. Impregnation of naked spores or gem-carpetules by climated anthorhodae or peromatoidea.—There appear to be two forms of this process among the Algae. In one case, impregnation takes place before the spore has separated from its parent REPRODUCTION OF COROMPHYTES. 789 (see page 385, fig. 882), and in others, after both the spore and ciliated anthorhodium or spermatocyst have been discharged, as in *Pseudocoryne* (fig. 1106). 2. Reproduction of Characeae or Chara. In these plants we have two kinds of sex organs, the male and female. The globule (figs. 844, a, and 846) and the scutule (fig. 845, b) are regarded as the male, and the latter as the female. Fecundation takes place by penetration of spermatids into the spermatozoa of the globule (fig. 845, c). The spermatozoon from the apex of the scutule (figs. 841, a, and 848) to the central cell of which it becomes fertilized. No free spores are, however, produced; the spermatozoon drops off, and after a certain period germinates, though the sexual leaf- form is not developed until it is de- veloped, but is preceded by a pro- cess of growth which is only a limited growth, and from it are pro- duced one part the rhizoids (roots) and four leaves (fig. 1107). From this branch, the Chora proper (fig. 1101). In *Nostoc* (fig. 1108), no pre- embryo has not been definitely ob- served, and here the new plant seems to be formed by a process called mundo. B. Reproduction of Coromphyes. Of the sexual nature of the plants in most orders of this subdivision of the Charophyta there can be no doubt. The sexual organs in all are two kinds, one termed an antho- rhodium, which contains spirally wound filaments of protoplasmic spermatozoa, and is regarded as the male organ; and the other a scutule, an endospermoid cell containing, containing an embryonal cell or germ- cell, which is regarded as the female. Fecundation is supposed to be ef- fected by the contact of a spermatid with an embryonal cell or germ-cell. We have already described the structure of Fig. 1101. Proembryo of Chara.Fig. 1101. Proembryo of Chara. At A is seen the pro-embryo. At B is seen the first stage of the second generation of Chara proper. (After Poggendorff.)Fig. 1102. Proembryo of Chara.Fig. 1102. Proembryo of Chara. At A is seen the pro-embryo. At B is seen the first stage of the second generation of Chara proper. (After Poggendorff.)Fig. 1103. Proembryo of Chara.Fig. 1103. Proembryo of Chara. At A is seen the pro-embryo. At B is seen the first stage of the second generation of Chara proper. (After Poggendorff.)Fig. 1104. Proembryo of Chara.Fig. 1104. Proembryo of Chara. At A is seen the pro-embryo. At B is seen the first stage of the second generation of Chara proper. (After Poggendorff.)Fig. 1105. Proembryo of Chara.Fig. 1105. Proembryo of Chara. At A is seen the pro-embryo. At B is seen the first stage of the second generation of Chara proper. (After Poggendorff.)Fig. 1106. Proembryo of Chara.Fig. 1106. Proembryo of Chara. At A is seen the pro-embryo. At B is seen the first stage of the second generation of Chara proper. (After Poggendorff.)Fig. 1107. Proembryo of Chara.Fig. 1107. Proembryo of Chara. At A is seen the pro-embryo. At B is seen the first stage of the second generation of Chara proper. (After Poggendorff.)Fig. 1108. Proembryo of Nostoc.Fig. 1108. Proembryo of Nostoc. At A is seen the pro-embryo. At B is seen the first stage of the second generation of Nostoc proper. (After Poggendorff.)Fig. 1109. Proembryo of Nostoc.Fig. 1109. Proembryo of Nostoc. At A is seen the pro-embryo. At B is seen the first stage of the second generation of Nostoc proper. (After Poggendorff.)Fig. 1110. Proembryo of Nostoc.Fig. 1110. Proembryo of Nostoc. At A is seen the pro-embryo. At B is seen the first stage of the second generation of Nostoc proper. (After Poggendorff.)Fig. 1111. Proembryo of Nostoc.Fig. 1111. Proembryo of Nostoc. At A is seen the pro-embryo. At B is seen the first stage of the second generation of Nostoc proper. (After Poggendorff.)Fig. 1112. Proembryo of Nostoc.Fig. 1112. Proembryo of Nostoc. At A is seen the pro-embryo. At B is seen the first stage of the second generation of Nostoc proper. (After Poggendorff.)Fig. 1113. Proembryo of Nostoc.Fig. 1113. Proembryo of Nostoc. At A is seen the pro-embryo. At B is seen the first stage of the second generation of Nostoc proper. (After Poggendorff.)Fig. 1114. Proembryo of Nostoc.Fig. 1114. Proembryo of Nostoc. At A is seen the pro-embryo. At B is seen the first stage of the second generation of Nostoc proper. (After Poggendorff.)Fig. 1115. Proembryo of Nostoc.Fig. 1115. Proembryo of Nostoc. At A is seen the pro-embryo. At B is seen the first stage of the second generation of Nostoc proper. (After Poggendorff.)Fig. 1116. Proembryo of Nostoc.Fig. 1116. Proembryo of Nostoc. At A is seen the pro-embryo. At B is seen the first stage of the second generation of Nostoc proper. (After Poggendorff.)Fig. 1127A & B & C & D & E & F & G & H & I & J & K & L & M & N & O & P & Q & R & S & T & U & V & W & X & Y & Z & AA & AB & AC & AD & AE & AF & AG & AH & AI & AJ & AK & AL & AM & AN & AO & AP & AQ & AR & AS & AT & AU & AV & AW & AX &AY & AZ & BA & BB & BC & BD & BE & BF & BG & BH & BI & BJ & BK | 709 REPRODUCTION OF HEPATICACEAE AND MUSCUL. the reproductive organs of Cormophytes (pages 356-369), both before and after fertilisation: it will be only necessary, therefore, in the present chapter to describe the organs in which fertilisation is supposed to take place in the different natural orders into which these plants are divided. The organs here, however, hereafter arranged, are in the inverse order to that in which they were formerly described. I. Hepaticae—The one order of this class only resemble those of the Mosses. They are termed *andridia* (figs. 820 and 821) and *peridia* (figs. 822 and 823), the former representing the male sex, and the latter the female sex. In the *andridium* (fig. 821), it discharges a number of small cells, which afterwards emit a very small 2-celled spore (fig. 822). These spermatocids are supposed to pass down the tube of the *andridium* (fig. 821) to the germ or embryonal cell which is situated at the lower end of the tube, which thus becomes fertilised. This cell after fertilisation undergoes vertical division, and produces two spermatocids, as already noticed (see page 368). In the *peridium* (fig. 823), a sporopodium or sporoponum, enclosing *sporophytes* (fig. 824), which ultimately produce spores, is developed. The spores are disseminated by the spores when they are ripe, and when these spores germinate, they generally produce a sort of conical structure or imbricatum (proliferum), which is after development produced into leafy stems (figs. 819). (See below.) II. Muscaceae—Mosses.—The reproductive organs of this order consist of *andridia* (fig. 811) and *archegonia* (fig. 812), which closely resemble the same structures in the Ferns. Fertilisa- tion takes place in the same manner as in the Hepaticae, changes which take place after fertilisation in the embryonal cell which ultimately produces a leafy stem being similar to those of the Muscaceae (fig. 819), have been already described. (See page 366.) In germination, the spores at first form a green calaral branched plant, which is called a prothallus, from which it sometimes turns the prothallus (see page 360). Upon the threads of this prothallus, small leaves are successively produced, which grow up into leafy stems (b), upon which the archegonia and protistidia are afterwards developed. Fig. 119. Prothallus or prothallus of a moss (see page 360). A young plant growing on a thread-like prothallus. REPRODUCTION OF LYCOPODIACEAE AND MARSILEACEAE. 791 3. Lygodiumlemae or Club-Mosses.—The two reproductive organs of this order are termed macrosporangia, microsporangia, or sporophylls (Figs. 807, 808, a). The macrosporangia are large, green, and fleshy, with a macrosporangium, pollen, norporangia, or antheridia (Figs. 806 and 809), which produce the male gametes. The microsporangia are called small spores (microspores), which break up into two sets of cells—one of which remains inactive, and pro- duce the female gamete—while the other develops the antheridium (Fig. 1153, c). In the macrosporangia only microspores have been detected. It is not till some months after being sown that the spores commence to germinate. The first stage is a short period till a nearly equal period has elapsed. In germination, the spore Fig. 1153.Fig. 1155. Fig. 1153. Small spore, pollen spore, or microspore, of a species of Sclerop- dium, showing the two unequal parts of the spore wall. The microsporangium, or spermatophore is contained.—Fig. 1154. Large green macrosporangium, or antheridium, with a long stalk, containing many antheridia (pollen grains), has been removed to show the inner outer hair, with the young prothallus. p. A section through the antheridium shows the antheridial cells arranged in a spiral manner around a more or less central main, showing the antheridia. b. A section through the prothallus shows its structure. The upper part is the prothallial leaf, and the lower part is the prothallial root. From this point downwards is the prothallial body, which is divided by a median embryonary groove into two parts. The embryo grows downwards and im- merses itself in water. The upper part of the prothallus is used for food. (c) Microspore (microsporangium).—(d) Antheridium (macrosporangium). (macrosporangia) produces a very small prothallus (Fig. 1154, p.), on which antheridia (Fig. 1153, c) are subsequently developed. Each archegonium (Fig. 1153, c) consists of an intercellular canal containing a large egg cell and a smaller polar or embryonal cell. Fertilisation is considered to take place by the contained in the microspores (Fig. 1153, c), passing through the canal into contact with the germ-cell. This cell then grows by cell-division and forms a new leafy spermatophore (Fig. 1153, e), and ultimately pro- duces a new leafy spermatophore. 4. Marsileaceae or Pepperwort.—The two reproductive organs of this order are termed macrosporangia, microsporangia, or ovalets (Figs. 804 and 805, a). These structures are either contained 792 REPRODUCTION OF EQUISTACEAE AND FLICLES. in separate sacs, as in *Salvinia* (fig. 806), or in the same, as in *Marsilea* (fig. 807). The sporangia are usually small cells called generally pollen spores, microspores, or small spores (fig. 803), which ultimately produce anthorhiza or aspermato- nids remaining in the sporangium until they are discharged. The patellidia or macrosporangia (fig. 800, b) contain commonly but one spore (fig. 800, c) called an ordinary spore, large spore, macrospore, or megaspore, according to the size of the contents of the Fig. 1136. Fig. 1137. ![Illustration showing different types of spores and sporangia.] Fig. 1136. Pollen grain, small spore, or microspore, of *Heteroscyphus* (Heteroscyphaceae). The pollen grains are usually very small and are often termed microspores. Some of the inner wall is sometimes here escaped by the rupture of the outer wall of the sporangium (fig. 1137). Vertical section of the protocotyl of the shoot, which is formed, as in the leaves, by the fusion of two cells, each containing a nucleus and a chloroplast (fig. 1138). Order classification: Lycopsidae. order closely resembles the Lycopsidae. Like the Lycopsidae the large spores also produce a small prothallium confluent with them (fig. 1137), in which subsequently only a single archegonium generally develops. In *Salvinia* (fig. 806), however (see fig. 802, a), although in *Salvinia* several archegonia are formed, Impregnation takes place by means of a spermatogonium which impregnates the with the germ-cell of the archegonium, which immediately develops, and forms a pseudo-embryo bearing a great apparent similarity to a true embryo. The prothallium arises from which a leaf stem bearing fructification is ultimately pro- duced. 5. Equisetaceae or Horsetails, 6. Flicles or Ferns.—The mode of reproduction of the plants of these orders is similar to that of *Salvinia*, and we shall con- tinually allude to them together. As already fully described (see pages 359 and 360), in these plants there are two organs or organs in which the spores are enclosed (figs. 792–796). There is, however, but one kind of spore. In perennials such as *Equisetum* (figs. 359 and 360), these spores ultimately form a thin, flat, green parenchyma- ous expansion at the base of the plant known as the perianthoid thallus of the Hepaticae ( figs. 800 and 824). Upon the under surface of this structure we have seen formed, in the Flicles, a prothallium which produces a prothallial leaf. In some species of the Equisetaceae, the anthorhiza and aragonia have only been 792 REPRODUCTION OF PHANEROGAMOUS PLANTS. 735 found on separate prothalli, and hence these plants would appear to be dioecious. The anthocerous (figs. 107) contain a number of ovules, each enclosed in a thin, transparent, spiral-wound conelike sporophore or anthocerous (fig. 99). The ovule is contained in a central canal, which when mature is open. At the bottom of the canal is a cell called the endosperm, in which a germ or embryo-cell is developing. This cell is surrounded by a thin wall, and the anthocerous cell is simply a marginal cornucopia till after fertilization; that is, until the pollen-grain enters the cell, or mass of protoplasm, without an external wall of cellulose. When mature, the upper part of the anthocerous separates from the lower part, and the ovules are released into the water-cells. Then escape, become ruptured, and emit their contents. The male gametophores (figs. 108) produce spermatozoa which make their way down the canal of the anthocerous to the embryo-cell, by which the contents of the ovule are fertilized. The embryo-cell becomes a cornucopia, is fertilized. This cornucopia then develops into a plantlet, which grows up through the water-cells, rutilentium leaves and roots (figs. 1136), and ultimately produces a plant with female organs. These plants are called hermaphrodites because they resemble the parents from which the spores were originally obtained. The hermaphrodite can reproduce itself by means of its own gametophores. In this case there is no need for two stages of existence: in the first, the spores produce a plantlet; in the second stage, this plantlet produces more spores by means of anthocerous and anthocerous upon the underside of this plantlet, there is usually only one ovule produced per plantlet. In every respect the ones from which the spores was originally derived. Hence Fama generis et semper generis. 2. REPRODUCTION OF THE CONIFEROUS PLANTS Plants all the plants belonging to this division of the Vegetable Kingdom whose shoot apparatus is represented by one leaf (fig. 97). The seed-bearing cone essentially consists of an anther enclosing pollen (figs. 20, p.), and the female, by one (figs. 57) or (figs. 36) more carpsils (in figs. 32) or even (figs. 33) three carpsils (figs. 34). When the ovules are contained in an ovary (fig. 32), the plants to which they belong are called angiosperms; but when they are only placed upon metamorphosed leaves or open carpels (fig. 72), the plants are said to be gymnosperms. In the plants belonging to this class, the seeds develop from the ovules by the action of the pollen are developed into perfect seeds; but in those belonging to this parent, the characteristic character of a soul being the presence of a restitutio plenitatis. Fig. 1138. A young coniferous-plant showing two stages of form development: on one side an embryo-plantlet with a root and shoot visible in the axil of a leaf; on the other side an embryo-plantlet with a root and shoot visible in the axil of a leaf. Fig. 1139. A young coniferous-plant showing two stages of form development: on one side an embryo-plantlet with a root and shoot visible in the axil of a leaf; on the other side an embryo-plantlet with a root and shoot visible in the axil of a leaf. Fig. 1140. A young coniferous-plant showing two stages of form development: on one side an embryo-plantlet with a root and shoot visible in the axil of a leaf; on the other side an embryo-plantlet with a root and shoot visible in the axil of a leaf. Fig. 1141. A young coniferous-plant showing two stages of form development: on one side an embryo-plantlet with a root and shoot visible in the axil of a leaf; on the other side an embryo-plantlet with a root and shoot visible in the axil of a leaf. Fig. 1142. A young coniferous-plant showing two stages of form development: on one side an embryo-plantlet with a root and shoot visible in the axil of a leaf; on the other side an embryo-plantlet with a root and shoot visible in the axil of a leaf. Fig. 1143. A young coniferous-plant showing two stages of form development: on one side an embryo-plantlet with a root and shoot visible in the axil of a leaf; on the other side an embryo-plantlet with a root and shoot visible in the axil of a leaf. Fig. 1144. A young coniferous-plant showing two stages of form development: on one side an embryo-plantlet with a root and shoot visible in the axil of a leaf; on the other side an embryo-plantlet with a root and shoot visible in the axil of a leaf. Fig. 1145. A young coniferous-plant showing two stages of form development: on one side an embryo-plantlet with a root and shoot visible in the axil of a leaf; on the other side an embryo-plantlet with a root and shoot visible in the axil of a leaf. Fig. 1146. A young coniferous-plant showing two stages of form development: on one side an embryo-plantlet with a root and shoot visible in the axil of a leaf; on the other side an embryo-plantlet with a root and shoot visible in the axil of a leaf. Fig. 1147. A young coniferous-plant showing two stages of form development: on one side an embryo-plantlet with a root and shoot visible in the axil of a leaf; on the other side an embryo-plantlet with a root and shoot visible in the axil of a leaf. Fig. 1148. A young coniferous-plant showing two stages of form development: on one side an embryo-plantlet with a root and shoot visible in the axil of a leaf; on the other side an embryo-plantlet with a root and shoot visible in the axil of a leaf. Fig. 1149. A young coniferous-plant showing two stages of form development: on one side an embryo-plantlet with a root and shoot visible in the axil of a leaf; on the other side an embryo-plantlet with a root and shoot visible in the axil of a leaf. Fig. 1150. A young coniferous-plant showing two stages of form development: on one side an embryo-plantlet with a root and shoot visible in the axil of a leaf; on the other side an embryo-plantlet with a root and shoot visible in the axil of a leaf. Fig. 1151. A young coniferous-plant showing two stages of form development: on one side an embryo-plantlet with a root and shoot visible in the axil of a leaf; on the other side an embryo-plantlet with a root and shoot visible in the axil of a leaf. Fig. 1152. A young coniferous-plant showing two stages of form development: on one side an embryo-plantlet with a root and shoot visible in the axil of a leaf; on the other side an embryo-plantlet with a root and shoot visible in the axil of a leaf. Fig. 1153. A young coniferous-plant showing two stages of form development: on one side an embryo-plantlet with a root and shoot visible in the axil of a leaf; on the other side an embryo-plantlet with a root and shoot visible in the axil of a leaf. Fig. 1154. A young coniferous-plant showing two stages of form development: on one side an embryo-plantlet with a root and shoot visible in the axil of a leaf; on the other side an embryo-plantlet with a root and shoot visible in the axil of a leaf. Fig. 1155. A young coniferous-plant showing two stages of form development: on one side an embryo-plantlet with a root and shoot visible in the axil of a leaf; on the other side an embryo-plantlet with a root and shoot visible in the axil of a leaf. Fig. 1156. A young coniferous-plant showing two stages of form development: on one side an embryo-plantlet with a root and shoot visible in the axil of a leaf; on the other side an embryo-plantlet with a root and shoot visible in the axil of a leaf. Fig. 1157. A young coniferous-plant showing two stages of form development: on one side an embryo-plantlet with a root and shoot visible in called the embryo. The modes in which reproduction takes place, and the arrangement of the embryo, differ in several important particulars in Gymnospermous and Phanerogamous plants ; hence it is necessary to describe them separately. A. Reproduction in the Gymnosperms. We have given a general description of the pollen and ovules of Phanerogamous plants, but as these structures present certain differences in the Gymnosperms, we shall now give a more detailed account, which will be necessary for us to allude to such peculiarities before describing the actual mode of reproduction. The pollen of the Angiospermae division of the Phanero- gama generally consists, as we have seen (pages 253-257), of a cell enclosed by a wall, or exine, and containing a nucleus, or protoplast, within a cavity, or lumen, which is usually composed of two coats, the inner being termed the outer coat, and the outer coat, the inner coat. This is either one or two (figs. 563 and 564); or both; and the inner, called the **exine**, which is destitute of any pores or slits, and consequently forms a complete envelope round the pollen grain. Hence the pollen of Ango- spermae is thus seen to be a simple cell. In the Gymnospermae, on the contrary, the pollen is composed of two cells, one of which contains other small cells from one of which the pollen tube is developed, and which adheres to the inside of the internal mem- brane close to the aperture of the pollen grain, so that this aperture is a slit. The ovules of the Gymnospermae, excluding those of the Gnetales which require further investigation, consist of a 784 Fig. 1138. Fig. 1140. Fig. 1141. ![Diagram showing structure of gymnosperm ovule](image) Fig. 1138. Section of an ovule (Gymnosperm). A. Nucellus; B. Embryo-sac; C. Inner coat; D. Inner coat; E. Micropyle; F. Chalazae; G. Funicle; H. Lumen; I. Outer coat; J. Outer coat; K. Exine; L. Pollen-grain. In some species of Pinus, a nucellus containing a small primary embryo-sac, a micropyle, and a funicle is found; but in others only an outer coat of the same kind as in Angiosperms is present. A. Embryo-sac containing a primary embryo-sac; B. Funicle; C. Outer coat. nucleus or macro-spore-grain (fig. 1140), enclosed by a single coat, and from which grow out two cells, one of which is the micropyle with its micropyle canal, and the other is the funicle with the micropyle, the primary embryo-sac (macrospore). A diagram showing the structure of a gymnosperm ovule. REPRODUCTION OF GYMNOSPERMAE. 735 (6) is developed in the nucleus. This embryo-sac is at first very small (figs. 1140, b), but gradually enlarges (figs. 1141, a), and soon after attains its full size. It is surrounded by a layer with delicate cells, called endosperm cells (figs. 1141, b), which dis- appear very soon, and are replaced later on by a fresh develop- ment. The outermost layer of the ovule, which is formed by the envelopment of the ovule, and the mode by which it is fertilised, is taken from Mawson's "Manual of Botany," and is given in the following. In the upper part of the mass of the last formed endosperm (figs. 1141, b), from five to eight cells are found to expand more than the rest, forming secondary embryo-sac or corpuscula. Fig. 1142. A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Fig. 1142. Development of the embryo in a species of Picea. (After Hendry.) A. A primary embryo-sac, containing two nuclei, one protoplast, or anthocarpus. In the same, more advanced, protoplast in the secondary embryo-sac, two nuclei are seen. B. The first stage of de- velopment of the secondary embryo-sac. C. A successive stages of develop- ment of the secondary embryo-sac. D. The second stage of de- velopment of the secondary embryo-sac. E. The third stage of de- velopment of the secondary embryo-sac. F. The fourth stage of de- velopment of the secondary embryo-sac. G. The fifth stage of de- velopment of the secondary embryo-sac. H. The sixth stage of de- velopment of the secondary embryo-sac. I. The seventh stage of de- velopment of the secondary embryo-sac. J. The eighth stage of de- velopment of the secondary embryo-sac. K. The ninth stage of de- velopment of the secondary embryo-sac. L. The tenth stage of de- velopment of the secondary embryo-sac. M. The eleventh stage of de- velopment of the secondary embryo-sac. N. The twelfth stage of de- velopment of the secondary embryo-sac. These are not formed in the superficial cells of B, but from cells of the inner part of B, which are separated from each other by the primary embryo-sac by one cell (figs. 1142, a). These corpuscula, as they were called by Robert Brown, their discoverer, are very similar to those described by him in his "Microscopical structure of Selaginella." After a time the secondary embryo- sac divides into two parts, one becoming a corpusculus or cell, egg or corpuscula. The neck-cell partially divides and subdivides, to form the rosette, which surrounds the central cell. In the upper part of this rosette there is a large number of cells of the mesophyll, a very delicate cell, which is called the canal-cell. The mesophyll corpuscula therefore consist of a large number of cells sur- mounted by a rosette of small cells placed immediately beneath 798 REPRODUCTION OF ANGIOSPERMAE. the wall of the primary embryo-ax, or separated from it by a funnel-shaped space. The process of fertilisation takes place, as follows: After the contact of the pollen with the micropyle of the ovule, the pollen- tube, after a short time, penetrates into the egg-cell, takes an active growth, traverses the endosperm, and arrives at the embryo-ax. At this time the corpora are developed. It penetrates through all of these corpuscles, enters the funneled-shaped space just mentioned, passes down between the cells of the endosperm (fig. 1430), and finally (fig. 1431) disappears, as well as that of the canal-cell, and finally penetrates into the cavity of the embryo-ax. The whole process is shown in this latter are, according to Straubinger, these—disappearance of the original pollen-tube and penetration of the new one—result by condensation of the protoplasm and subsequent secretion of a cell-wall around them. In this way four to eight new cells are formed, which are then united together after fertilisation; these new cells divide so as to form cellular fila- ments, which again unite themselves with each other and develop into the substance of the nucleus (figs. 1432, c). At the ends of these filaments cell-divisions again occur (figs. 1432, b); and from these filaments a large number of cells are developed, by repeated cell-divisions in various directions, the archylo (or archegonium) being thus transformed into a terminal cell, the terminal one a group of five, from which ultimately all the tissues of the embryo are formed, results the single axial cell of the Cruciferae (fig. 1432, d). In some cases also there are several corpuscles, and each produces four suspensors, a large number of which are developed ; but usually only one of all these rudiments is perfected. That embryo which is fully developed gradually increases in size, and at last becomes surrounded by a membrane, so that the ripe seed exhibits a single embryo embedded in a mass of endosperm. This is produced by division of matter from the nucleus of the ovule. The radicle is covered by a perispermia, which is ultimately blended with the substance of the endosperm. B. Reproduction of Angiospermae.—The structure of the pol- lens is shown in figs. 1433 and 1434 (after Pallas and see Folkes, and pages 794), and need not be further alluded to in this place. The ovule has also been particularly noticed, and we shall now only recapitulate its component parts at the time when the pollen is shed from it; and show how fertilisation occurs, progradation takes place. It thus consists of a cellular nucleus (fig. 1435, a), enclosed generally in two coats—an outer one, the pericarpium (fig. 1435, b), and an inner one—the integument (fig. 1435, c), as shown in the present figure. But sometimes there is but one coat (fig. 729),
798 REPRODUCTION OF ANGIOSPERMAE.
the wall of the primary embryo-ax, or separated from it by a funnel-shaped space.
The process of fertilisation takes place, as follows: After the contact of the pollen with the micropyle of the ovule, the pollen-
tube, after a short time, penetrates into the egg-cell, takes an active growth, traverses the endosperm, and arrives at the embryo-ax. At this time
the corpora are developed. It penetrates through all of these corpuscles, enters the funneled-shaped space just mentioned,
passes down between the cells of the endosperm (fig. 1430), and finally (fig. 1431) disappears,
as well as that of the canal-cell, and finally penetrates into
the cavity of the embryo-ax. The whole process is shown in this latter are,
according to Straubinger, these—disappearance of the original pollen-tube and penetration of
the new one—result by condensation of the protoplasm and subsequent secretion
of a cell-wall around them. In this way four to eight new cells are formed,
which are then united together after fertilisation;
these new cells divide so as to form cellular filaments,
which again unite themselves with each other and develop into
the substance of the nucleus (figs. 1432, c).
At the ends of these filaments cell-divisions again occur (figs. 1432, b); and
from these filaments a large number of cells are developed;
by repeated cell-divisions in various directions,
the archylo (or archegonium) being thus transformed into a terminal cell,
the terminal one a group of five,
from which ultimately all the tissues of the embryo are formed;
results the single axial cell of the Cruciferae (fig. 1432, d).
In some cases also there are several corpuscles,
and each produces four suspensors;
a large number of which are developed;
but usually only one of all these rudiments is perfected.
That embryo which is fully developed gradually increases in size,
and at last becomes surrounded by a membrane,
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3 802 REPRODUCTION OF ANGIOSPERMAE.—HYBRIDS. An example of these facts may be seen in *Cytium Adami*, pro- duced by the true hybridization of *Cytium Lathamorum* and *Cytium perpusillum*. Hybrids rarely produce fertile seeds for many generations, and hence they are not generally known to exist. But they are certainly but if they are of a woody nature, they may be readily propagated by cuttings, and thus perpetuate their own kind by analogous processes. (See page 102.) Hybrids are fertile with the pollen of one of their parents ; the offspring in such a case resembles closely the parent which furnished the male parent. By the successive impregnation of hybras through three times, four, or more generations, the offspring will revert to the type of the parent which reverted to their original male or female type ; thus, when the hybrid is successively impregnated by the pollen of its male parent, it reverts to the type of that parent ; but when it is impregnated by the female parent, it reverts to the type of that parent. The influence of the latter is, however, more general. Hybrids somewhat rarely occur in wild plants. This arises chiefly from the following causes : thus, in the first place, the stigma is usually situated at some distance from the anthers, so that pollen immediately surrounding it, or from those in other flowers on the same plant, cannot reach it. Secondly, in most cases the stigmas are long and secondly, the stigma has a sort of elective affinity or natural preference for the pollen of its own species. Indeed, Gaertner found, that when he applied pollen from one species to a stigma which had been applied to the same stigma at the same time the latter remained short and narrow ; but when he applied pollen from another species over the other and ; moreover, that when the natural was applied a short period subsequently to the foreign pollen, the seed that resulted was sterile. Hence it appears that this habit is to be produced more frequently in wild plants when the sexes are in separate flowers, and more especially when such flowers are on different plants. Hybrids are frequently produced artificially by gardeners applying pollen from one species to a stigma of another. And in this way important and favourable changes are effected in the characters of our flowers, fruits, and vegetables. But varieties thus produced are not generally recognized as distinct breeds. The investigations of late years would appear to show, that a similar law as regards hybridisation occurs in the Cryptogamiae in the Phanerogamia. Thus, Thunberg has succeeded in fertilising the spores of *Porella* with pollen of *Porellus* ; and *Porellus* serves as allied species ; but he failed in his attempts to fertilise *Porellus* with pollen of *Porella*. This is explained by the spermatioma of another. Other evidence has also been adduced as to the hybridisation of Cryptogamous plants, and thereon is founded a theory respecting their origin. It has been noticed that, under such circumstances, plants make
802 REPRODUCTION OF ANGIOSPERMAE.—HYBRIDS.
An example of these facts may be seen in *Cytium Adami*, pro-
duced by the true hybridization of *Cytium Lathamorum* and *Cytium
perpusillum*. Hybrids rarely produce fertile seeds for many generations,
and hence they are not generally known to exist. But they are certainly
but if they are of a woody nature, they may be readily propagated by cuttings,
and thus perpetuate their own kind by analogous processes. (See page 102.) Hybrids are fertile with the pollen
of one of their parents ; the offspring in such a case resembles closely
the parent which furnished the male parent. By the successive impregnation of hybras through three times four, or more generations,
the offspring will revert to the type of the parent which reverted to their original male or female type ; thus, when the hybrid is successively impregnated by the pollen of its male parent, it reverts to the type of that parent ; but when it is impregnated by the female parent, it reverts to the type of that parent. The influence of the latter is, however, more general.
Hybrids somewhat rarely occur in wild plants. This arises chiefly from the following causes : thus, in the first place, the stigma is usually situated at some distance from the anthers,
so that pollen immediately surrounding it, or from those in other flowers on the same plant, cannot reach it. Secondly, in most cases the stigmas are long and secondly, the stigma has a sort of elective affinity or natural preference for the pollen of its own species. Indeed,
Gaertner found, that when he applied pollen from one species to a stigma which had been applied to the same stigma at the same time the latter remained short and narrow ; but when he applied pollen from another species over the other and ; moreover, that when the natural was applied a short period subsequently to the foreign pollen, the seed that resulted was sterile. Hence it appears that this habit is to be produced more frequently in wild plants when the sexes are in separate flowers,
and more especially when such flowers are on different plants.
Hybrids are frequently produced artificially by gardeners applying pollen from one species to a stigma of another. And in this way important and favourable changes are effected in the characters of our flowers,
fruits, and vegetables. But varieties thus produced are not generally recognized as distinct breeds.
The investigations of late years would appear to show, that a similar law as regards hybridisation occurs in the Cryptogamiae in the Phanerogamia. Thus,
Thunberg has succeeded in fertilising
the spores of *Porella* with pollen of *Porellus* ; and *Porellus* serves as allied species ; but he failed in his attempts to fertilise *Porellus* with pollen of *Porella*. This is explained by the spermatioma of another. Other evidence has also been adduced as to the hybridisation of Cryptogamous plants,
and thereon is founded a theory respecting their origin. It has been noticed that,
under such circumstances, plants make
FORMATION OF THE FRUIT. 893 their appearance, which present characters of an intermediate nature between two known species. 3. Of the Fruitt.—When fertilisation has been effected (see page 705), the following changes take place in the pistil and other organs of the flower, the result of which is the forma- tion of the fruit. The ovary, when fertilised, becomes large, or, if persistent, they form no portion of the fruit except when the calyx is persistent, as in the Apple (fig. 714), when it necessarily continues to enclose the fruit. The style and stigma also become dry, and either fall off, as in the majority of cases, or are persisted with, as in the Apple (fig. 714). The ovules, with the principal alterations taking place in the wall of the ovary, which usually becomes more or less swollen, and soon undergoes im- portant modifications, are transformed into seeds by themselves or by itself (a true fruit), or combined with the adherent calyx (a syn- nemate fruit), or with both calyx and calyx (a pericarpium), are fully developed without the fertilisation of the ovule, as those of many oranges, Grapes, Bananas, &c. The fruits thus formed, though not so highly valuable than others for food, are, of course, useless for reproduction. The fruit in its growth attracts the birds and insects. Its chief purpose is to facilitate the propagation of the fruiting of plants necessary for its successful accomplishment an accumulation of nutritive matter in the fruits during their ripening and maturing process. That the reproductive processes, and especially the ripening or maturation of the fruit tend to exhaust the indi- vidual plant, and that this exhaustion may occur at any time during the same year in which they are developed afterwards perish, from the action of certain insects on them, is well known. The reason such is the reason is proved by the fact, that we can make annu- luminal or even perennial, by pinching off the flower-buds as they appear until we have exhausted all our seed-stocks. In some cases requiring many years to accumulate sufficient nourishment to produce a fruiting tree, as in the case of the figs of the Bactrian Aloe and the Talipot Palm, both of which live many years before flowering, after which they die. A bad fruit year is generally successively followed by a good one; but in some cases a former case an additional supply of nutritive matter is stored up for the fruiting season to be followed by a bad one for a long period. Again, if a branch of an unproductive tree have a ring of bark removed so as to prevent the downward flow of the elaborated nutritive matter through it; it will be found that it produces much fruit. Pruning depends for its success upon similar principles. In order to obtain a good crop of fruit every year it is necessary too many to come to perfection on the same plant. Other matters connected with this exhaustion by fruiting have been dealt with under "The Fertilisation of Plants," p. 126. S r 854 CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION OF FRUITS. The changes produced upon the atmosphere in the maturation or ripening of fruits, are chemical in their nature, and not physical. Thus, when the primary preserves its green state, as also when first formed, it has an action similar to that of the leaves; but when it becomes ripe, it is different from the leaves; for when succulent, it evolves carbon dioxide at all times, instead of oxygen, which is evolved by the leaves. Chemical Constitution of Fruits.—The chemical constitution of fruits varies according to their nature and age. When the pericarp is green, it is composed of a pulp which is either white or brownish red, and its cells become thickened with hardened matter, and contain a large quantity of water. Under such circumstances, no further changes take place in the chemical constitution, and its vital activity ceases. But when the pericarp becomes yellow, and the fruit begins to ripen, transpiration goes on from its outer cells, the contents of which thus become desiccated. The water thus evaporated remains within them; these in like manner react upon the contents of those within them, and so there is a constant passage of fluid matters from the cells into the air. This process continues until the deposition of watery matter is up on the epidermal cells, and the stalk by which it is attached to the plant becomes dried up. When this happens, the fruit is ripe; it contains with leaves, and but little or no sate. After a time they acquire an acid flavour; and this is due to the presence of salts with an acid reaction. The nature of these acids and salts varies in different fruits; thus the Grape contains tartaric acid chiefly and acetic acid; the Apple contains malic acid; and the Lemon citric acid. As the pericarp ripens, ascorbic matter is formed, and this substance is deposited in the fruit; partly from their connexion with other matters, and partly from their comminution with alkalies. In order that these changes may be properly understood, we must consider how they occur. By the sun and air, for if grown in the dark it will continue acid; and it will be much more acid than if grown in diffused day-light; thus when freely exposed to the sun's rays ripes they evolve carbon dioxide; as already noticed, give off watery fluids, and thus become ripe before they are fully developed. The origin of the sugar of fruits, and even its nature, is not satisfactorily determined. According to most observers, ripe fruits contain sugar. Mr. W. H. Jackson found that sugar which is primarily formed in acid fruits is carbohydrate or cane sugar; as soon as it becomes ripe it changes into glucose; this glucose is gradually changed into fructose or fruit sugar; but very often there remains in the ripe fruit a mixture of these two sugars. The origin of this change was investigated by Mr. J. H. Williams by reduction of the acids, cellulose, lignin, starch, dextrin, gum, and A diagram showing a flowchart or process flow diagram. CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION OF FRUITS. matters of a like nature. According to M. Buigny's investiga- tions, the cause of the change of the primarily formed one- sugar into the more complex sugar, is to be sought in its tendency to depend on the influence of a nitrogenous body playing the part of a glucose ferment, analogous to that which M. Berthelot has established in the case of the transformation of starch into cellulose, in which starch is found distributed through the Vegetable King- dom, but which is absent in the animal Kingdom, and which is the saccharine matter in fruits. Its presence cannot, however, be detected in green fruits, either by the microscope or by iodine, excepting in those cases where it is present in a great quantity of starch. M. Buigny also notices that green fruits contain an enough of this saccharine matter to enable them to be being converted into a sugar identical with the sugar from starch, under the influence of dilute acids and a proper temperature. The proportion of this saccharine matter in fruits in the same ratio than that of the proportion of sugar increases. The changes which take place in the composition of fruits during ripening are well exhibited in the following table founded upon Berzel's observations:
Names of Fruits. Water. Sugar. Lignose Matter.
Unripe. Ripe. Unripe. Ripe. Unripe. Ripe.
Apricot SB 20 26 83 10 45 7 41 106
Currants 80 11 81 10 9 03 87 54 94 1 89 54
Grape-fruit 96 79 97 64 24 26 98 54 98 54 98 54
Jujube Fruit 96 79 97 64 24 26 98 54 98 54 98 54
The pericarp of some fruits has developed in it during the process of ripening fixed and essential oils, as well as other substances, such as albuminous matters. For instance, the inner walls of the cells of succulent fruits in an unripe state, consist of a substance called pectose, which is insoluble in water, although it can be dissolved by means of acids and then con- verted in ripe fruits by the agency of acids into pectine, which is soluble in water. This pectose is deposited on the walls of pectose and then into pectine and through the agency of a peculiar ferment called pectose. Freney has also noticed, that at the period of maturation the thickness of the cell-walls diminishes rapidly; A table showing changes in water, sugar, and lignose matter in various fruits during ripening. 896 RIPEENING OF FRUITS, OF THE SEED. hence it would appear that those transformations of the poetic compounds play an important part in the changes which are taking place in the fruits and seeds. **Ripeening of Fruits.—The time when a fruit is considered ripe varies in different authors. In the case of a dry nature, the fruit is looked upon as ripe just before it begins to fall, when the pericarp is of a pulpy nature and edible, we commonly re- gard it as ripe. Thus, according to the old saying, "An Apple is considered to be ripe in a state in which the Mellow would be regarded as unripe." When succulent fruits are ripe, they undergo another change, a species of oxidation, which produces a decay, or blething of their tissues. This process is called ripening, or blething. According to Beringer, is especially evident in the fruits of the Fomes and Eucenose, and it would appear that the more mature the tree, the more perfect this process is. Probably Blething appears to be peculiar to such fruits, and may be re- garded as a characteristic of them. The fruit of the Jarragonale Pear, in passing from ripeness to blething, according to Beringer, loses a great deal of water (58), which it contains when ripe (77); and then becomes very dry (77), being reduced to 877; and a little lignum (219, being reduced to 150), but at the same time, rather mure make seed, gum, and animal matter. The time required by different plants for ripening their fruits varies much. Some require only one month; others two or three months. Some, as those of Grasse generally, take but a few days; while others, as certain of the Coniferae, etc., require more than twelve months. 4. OR THE SEED.—The structure and general characters of the seed, as well as the origin and progressive development of its parts, are fully treated of in a former section of this work (pages 324-340). Our limited space prevents us from alluding to the numerous ways in which seeds are produced; nor can we enter into a detailed account of seeds is effected, and to the number of seeds produced by plants. Suffice it to say that seeds are formed by the vegetative parts as long as they are capable of growth; and that they are nature's means are required for the propagation of the species ; and thus the extinction of the species in consequence of their decay, and their replacement by new ones. This is called Fidelity of Seeds.—Seeds vary very much as to the time during which they remain fit for propagation. This vitality is frequently lost long before they lose their value for food. Some seeds of an oily or mucilaginous nature, or which contain much gum or other substances liable to decay, this is the case, for instance, with Nuts and Acorns, and hence, when seeds of this nature are required for propagation, they must be sown immediately or within a short time of their arriving at **PRESERVATION AND TRANSPORTATION OF SEEDS.** 807 maturity, or special means must be adopted for their preserva- tion. Other seeds, such as those of a farinaceous nature, as those of the Leguminosae, and of the Compositae, with their instruments, as many of the Leguminosae, frequently retain their vitality. From the experiments of De Candolle, three of these Committee of the British Association, and of others, it would appear generally, that the seeds of the Leguminosae, and of the Compositae, retain their vitality longest, while those of Composite, Cruciferae, and Gramineae, have been found to lose their vitality in some ex- ceptions to the above stated opinion occur in these orders. Under particular circumstances it seems certain that seeds may, after a long period of storage, regain their vitality. Some of the seeds brought forward as illustrations of this capability of seeds being preserved for a long period are those of the Tussilago, for instance, that of the vitality of Wheat taken from Egyptian mummies. There are no well-authenticated instances of wheat being kept for so long a period without losing its vitality pre- nating; indeed, all experiments (District. Lardet, Haberland) show that it is only possible to preserve wheat in from three to seven years. But other well authenticated instances of seeds having preserved their vitality for a lengthened period are to be recorded. The following are examples which were stated in the third edition of this Manual, that some seeds of Nymenium in the herbarium (from the collection) of Mr. H. S. Sumner, at Cambridge, 1763, germinated in 1806 ; these there- fore, have been considerably over century old. Mr. Kemp, in the "Annals of Botany," vol. viii., p. 504, has given a case which he narrated a still more remarkable case. This gentleman received some seeds which were found upwards of twenty-five feet below the surface of the ground; they had lain there for a period in process of excavation. Upon being sown, about one-tenth germinated; but upon further sowing they produced two varieties, *Rosa Acetosella*, and a variety of *Atropa belladonna*. All these seeds are of a nutal or farinaceous nature. Mr. Kemp con- firmed by his own experience that this seed was buried at least at a period when the valley of the Tweed was occupied by a lake; at this time the lake was situated at a considerable distance; during many centuries at least, as it is certain that in the time of the Romans no lake existed there. It has also long been noticed that when seeds are found in such places as those mentioned in the locality appear, which is a proof that the seeds of such plants must have lain there for a very long period. **Preservation and Transportation of Seeds.—As many persons frequently wish to send seeds to a distance, a few words on this sub- ject may be useful to them; but I do not think it will be unac- ceptable to our readers. Thus when seeds are enclosed in hard or dry paper, they may be sent by post and transmitted in boxes. This is the case with those of many Leguminosae and Compositae. 808 GERMINATION. Plants. When the pericarps are soft or liable to decay, the seeds should be removed from them, in all cases, seeds which re- quired for preservation should be gathered when quite ripe, so that period their proximate principles are in a more stable con- dition than at any other time of the year. The seeds should also be preserved quite dry. Seeds of a farinaceous nature, if ripe, may be left on the plant until they have a long period, and much may be readily transported to a distance. For the latter purpose they should be placed in perfectly dry papers in dry atmosphere, and then taken away from the plant by means of a nail in the cabin of a ship, in which position they are main- tained until they reach their destination, excepted free from contamination. Such seeds require no further care. But those of a oily or mucilaginous nature, or that contain much astrangent matter, require as much attention as those of a dry nature. For this purpose they are best packed in stout boxes lined with tin, and filled with water, and kept in a cool place until the char- coal power and the seeds should be placed alternately in layers, and the whole firmly pressed together. Such seeds, however, even when carefully packed, will often become contaminated. A coating of wax has in some cases been found to preserve effec- tively the vital principle of such seeds, but those which are difficult of preservation might be transported in bottles filled with ethyl alcohol, and hermetically sealed. Warden's cases are also an im- portant substitute (see page 736), and should be resorted to, when possible, in all doubtful cases. GERMINATION.--By germination we mean that power or act by which the seed produces new plants, and is its own reproductive activity, and it becomes an independent plant capable of supporting itself. The germination of seeds is usually considered as being suf- ficiently attained to, when treating of the Root, at page 199, and in the sections devoted to the Reproductive Organs of and Be- reproduction of Plants (pages 500-502). This rule of germination will apply therefore solely to Coleoptileous plants. Length of Time Required for Germination.--The time required for germination varies much according to the nature of the seeds and the conditions under which they are placed. Generally speaking, seeds which are gathered while still green are more easily germinated. If preserved till they are quite dry, the process of germination is greatly delayed. In some cases, however, while in some seeds their capability of germination is entirely destroyed. The seeds of the garden cress will frequently germinate in twenty-four hours after being placed in water; but those of lettuce for six to twenty days, and some require months or even years. Germination is generally very rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usually rapid in hardseeded seeds; but it is usuallyrapid **CONDITIONS AND PROCESS OF GERMINATION. 809** Conditions requisite for Germination.—A certain amount of heat and moisture, and a free communication with atmospheric air, are necessary for the germination of seeds by spontaneous germination. Electricity is also considered by some observers to promote it, but this is not generally admitted by other writers, and if exerted it is apparently of but little importance. Light has no influence on germination in most cases, according to Hoffman's experiments (see "The Physiology of Plants," page 823). Moisture is necessary to soften the parts of the seed and to take up all soluble matters; the cells of which seeds are composed in are thus enabled to expand, and the embryo to grow through the integuments. But too much water is often injurious. Heat is necessary to destroy the dormant vitality of the embryo, but the amount required varies very much in different seeds, and probably each species has its own proper range in this respect. The temperature at which seeds will germinate is re- garded as most favourable for germination in temperate climates, but some seeds will germinate at a temperature of 30° Fahr., and these are said to be more liable to germinate than those from 90° to 120° Fahr., or sometimes higher, for germination. Air is necessary for the absorption of oxygen with the superfluous carbon of the seed, which in thus evolved as curbon dioxide, with a sensible increase of temperature, as well seen in the case of Bacteria. It is probable that the necessity of oxygen is proved by the fact, that seeds will not germinate when buried under a layer of water, or when exposed to air. This explains how seeds may lie dormant at great depths in the soil, and only germinate when the soil is brought to the surface by ploughing or other means of breaking up the soil, as in the ordinary operations of agriculture. From these facts it appears that all these requisites are sup- plied in proper proportions to suit the requirements of different seeds, germination takes place; but should any be wanting or in too small quantity, they must be supplied artificially or al- together arrested. The most favourable seasons for germination are spring and summer; but if the soil be too dry, house purified and properly drained soil, at a moderate depth, for, under such circumstances, air, moisture, and warmth have free access to the embryo; but if they be too wet, and certain chemical changes go on at the same time in the sub- stance of the seed, which prevents their entrance into the cells of the coleoptile portion, by which a proper supply of nourish- ment is provided for the embryo. These chemical changes chiefly consist in the transformation of starch into sugar. Sugars substances which are incalculable and therefore not in a suitable state for absorption, and soluble matters such as albumen and sugar agar. The immediate cause of this transformation of 810 DIRECTION OF FLUMULE AND RADICLE. starch-ade to a nitrogenous substance called by Payen *dioscore*, which is found in the starch, and is supposed to be the expression of a portion of the nitrogenous contents of the seed. During these chemical actions heat is evolved, as in the melting of Barley, and certain gases are formed, which are absorbed by the starch and amyloids with the oxygen of the air. In this way, according to the theory of the plant, it is altered dissolved in water by the embryo, which is in this manner nourished, increases in size, and ultimately bursts through the integument (see p. 754). The radicle (fig. 14), or one or more branches from it (fig. 754 r.), is commonly protected by a sheath of the integument, but this sheath is not the weakest point in the integuments, and by taking a direction downwards becomes fixed in the soil, whilst soon after the op- posite extremity of the radicle has been developed into a shoot terminated above by the plumule or gemmaule, which is the first terminal bud of growth. The radicle is therefore independent of the plumule; its ordinary portion is either left under ground or is carried upwards to the surface. The embryo during this development continues to be nourished (fig. 14) by means of the starch contained in the albumen or only-lodged portion, and ultimately by continuing to absorb nitrogenous matter from the soil (fig. 14). The plumule (fig. *meridial*) (figs. 16, d, e), and root r. The young plant is now placed in a position to acquire the necessary nourishment for its further extension. The radicle being thus fixed in the soil is sur- rounded, and is thereby rendered independent of the other parts of the seed, and can grow upwards according to its desires, and the act of germination is complete. Direction of Flumule and Radicle.—The cause which leads to the development of the radicle and plumule has not yet been satisfactorily demonstrated, although much has been written on this subject. It has been generally referred to the action of darkness and moisture on the root, and that of light and dryness on the stem. By others it has been attributed to a difference in temperature between them; again, have regarded omatic action as the cause. All these ex- planations are unsatisfactory. The following facts appear to be applicable. Darkness has been shown to have no influence on the direction of the root, which is probably determined by the greater amount of moisture in that part of the seed nearest to the soil than to the plumule (see page 832). In Traps nafetae the radicle is directed upwards towards the surface of the water in which the plant grows. Differences between the Germination of Dioecyloides and Monocotyledons.—There are some differences between the germination of Monoecyloides and Dioecyloides mono- bryon, which have already been alluded to briefly (see page 126), but which will be considered at length here. I. Monocotyledonous Germination.—The seeds of Monoecytoideae A diagram showing different stages of seed germination. GERMINATION OF MONOCOTYLEDONS AND DICOTYLEDONS. 811 domous plants, in by far the majority of instances, contain albumen. This, as the embryo develops, is usually entirely absorbed by the seed-coat, so that only the outer portion of the constituent cells are removed, and the walls left as a kind of skeleton. The single cotyledon of Monocotyledons leaves, when they contain albumen, always remains entire (fig. 754, c), or partially so (fig. 754, b). In the latter case, the intraseminal portion of the cotyledon corresponds to the limb of the cotyledonary leaf, and the portion which elongates beyond this interseminal portion is represented by the mesophyll. The latter part varies much in length, and is commonly ter- minated by a short point (fig. 754, b), but sometimes by a lobe (fig. 754, d). In the Palms this petiolar portion is often several inches in length. At other times, there is no evident petiolar part, but the whole cotyledon is a simple leaf-like structure on the outside of the seed, and elongates and elongates in a tangential direction until it reaches its full length. The mesophyll, or parenchyma, r., remains within the seed, and the plumule, p., rises upwards from its axial into the air. In some of the Monocotyledonous Orders, such as Naiadaceae, Alismaceae, &c., where the seeds are exalbuminous, the cotyle- don is either completely freed from the integuments, and raised up- wards with the plumule. As already noticed (page 193), in the germination of Mono- cotyledons, the plumule first appears at the base of the seed itself continues downwards as so to form the root, but it gives off one or more lateral roots which grow outwards and upwards towards its extremity, and become the radicle (fig. 246, c). Each of these radicles, at the point where it pierces the radicular extremity, is surrounded by a sheath of epidermis (fig. 246, c) or endodermis (fig. 246, co). This mode of germination is commonly termed "radiculose," and occurs in many Monocotyledons. 2. Dicotyledons Germination.—The seeds of Decotyledons plants are either aluminous or exalbuminous, and their ger- mination differs accordingly. The former class contains very rarity worth notice. The two cotyledons either remain within the integuments throughout their development (figs. 755-758), as in the Horse-chestnut and Oak, in which case they are said to be hypo- genic (from two Greek words signifying under the earth); or, as in most other cases, they appear above ground before they have rose out of the ground in the form of green leaves (figs. 18, c.), at which time they are aerial (from Greek words signifying up- per or above ground), and at this stage of their development both cotyledons commonly separate, and the plumule comes out from beneath them. In some cases however they remain within the integuments; they sometimes become more or less united, so that the embryo resembles that of a Monocotyledon; but a Decotyledon embryo may be always 812 GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY.—FOOD OF PLANTS. distinguished from a Monocotyledonous one by its plumule coming out between the bases of the cotyledons, and not passing through a sheath. The radicle of a Dicotyledonous embryo (see page 120) is at first produced within the sheath, but soon breaks through its apex (fig. 243, a), to form the root. An embryo which germinates in this way is termed *coriolar*. As a rule, the seed does not germinate until they are separated from their parents; but in some cases, and more especially in those of the Leguminosæ, such as Bean, Mallow, Cucumber, Fig-pear, &c., they do so before they are detached. In the above plants such a mode of germination is altogether exceptional; but in the *Cucurbita*, or *Cucumber* (fig. 250), the seeds commonly germini- nate in the same manner as in the *Leguminosæ*. In *Cucumis*, in which case the radicle is protruded through the integuments of the seed and pericarp, and becomes suspended in the air, where it elongates. CHAPTER 2. GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY, OR LIFE OF THE WHOLE PLANT. HAVING now examined the special functions of the different organs of the plant, we shall proceed to consider its general physiology, or the whole plant in a state of life or action. In doing so, we shall first notice the substances required as food by plants; then those which are formed by them; and lastly, that which they take up dissolved in water, and partly absorbed into their tissues, and partly deposited throughout the plant, and altered in the leaves, so as to be adapted for the development of new tissues and the formation of secretions. Section I. Food of Plants and its Sources. The various substances required as food can only be ac- certained by determining the elementary composition of the parts and products of plants. As these elements are not forming themselves for themselves, they must have derived them from external sources. As plants are commonly destitute of locomotion, being fixed to the soil or to the substance upon which they grow, or floating in water, they cannot obtain their food directly from that on which they are surrounded, that is, from the soil, or from the air, or both from both. In by far the majority of cases plants take up their food dissolved in water; but sometimes it is in a liquid or vaporous state, and from the earth dissolved in water. No FOOD OF PLANTS AND ITS SOURCES. 813 plants have the power of taking up nutrition except in the state of gas or vapour, and this is effected by means of which we term Euphytes or Air Plants, as Orchids (see page 251), derive their alimentation. The air in which they are sur- rounded (see page 125); while Paramecium (see page 203) and Saprophytes essentially differ from both. Euphytes and ordinary plants, in that they are nourished by water alone, derived entirely from inorganic materials, which are afterwards assimilat- ed into organic substances. This is also true of the plant upon which they grow, that is, in an analogous con- dition, or from organic matter in a state of decay (see page 127). The vegetable food of the plant is either vegetable or stated above, are either derived from the air, or the earth, or more commonly from both, and which consequently constitute their alimentation. These three elements are the oxygen and the moisture. The process of burning enables us conveni- ently to distinguish between them. We can readily observe the proportion of these, and acquaints us with one of their distinc- tive peculiarities. Thus, if we take a piece of wood, or a leaf, or any other vegetable substance, and burn it in a fire-place, we find that the greater portion disappears in the form of gas, while only a small portion remains in the form of ash or combustible material. The former or combustible portion is made up of what we termed the organic or vegetable constituents of the plant, and the in- organic or earthly conditions. The term organic is applied because such substances are formed by the action of the plant, and are more essentially concerned in the formation of its proper products and secretions. The relative proportion of the organic and inorganic portions varies greatly among plants; as a general rule, the former constitutes from 90 to 90 parts, while the latter from 10 to 10 parts. I. The Organic or Vegetable Constituents and Their Sources— The organic constituents of plants are, Carbon, Oxygen, Hydro- gen, and Nitrogen. These four elements are found in all portions of which the cell-walls are composed (see page 22), and are therefore to be considered as essential ingredients of the food of the plant; while the prephenolic contents of the cell are formed of compound of these three elements, with the fourth organic element, Sulphur. It will be seen that two other elements, namely, Sulphur and Phosphorus, are necessary constituents of some vegetable food substances. These organic constituents are required alike by every species of plant, hence the great bulk of all plants is composed of the same elements. But though these elements may vary in some extent in the different species, and even in different parts of the same plant; yet their relative proportions do not indicate ap- proximately the relative proportion of the organic or vegetable constituents of some of our vegetable food substances in 1,000 A diagram showing a flowchart with nodes labeled "Organic Constituents" and "Earthly Conditions". Arrows connect these nodes to "Plant Food" at each end. 814 FOOD OF PLANTS—ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS. parts, and of the different elements of which the former are composed. These substances were first dried at a temperature of 250° Fahr. These substances were first dried at a temperature of 250° Fahr.
Carbon 45% 55% 65% 75% 85% 95% Pine, Turpial, Furze, etc.
Hydrogen 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% Cotton, Linen, Hemp, etc.
Oxygen 40 80 120 160 200 240 Air, Wood, Coal, etc.
Nitrogen Salt, Brine, etc.
Ash
1%2%3%4%5%6%7%
Ash
We must now make a few remarks on each of the organic constituents, the sources from which they are derived, and the state in which they exist. **Carbon** is the element which forms the largest proportion of all plants ; its amount varies from about 40 to 60 per cent. The plant thus contains a large quantity of carbon, which may be conveniently proved by taking a piece of wood, the weight of which is known, and weighing it after it has been thoroughly boiled, which insures carbon containing in its substance also a small quantity of the inorganic constituents or ash. The observed thus proves that the carbon contained in the wood is derived from what it was obtained, and when weighed it will be found to have contained about 40 per cent. of carbon. As carbon is a solid substance and insoluble in water, it cannot be taken up in its simple state, for plants, as already noticed, can only assimilate those substances which are dissolved in water. In the state of combination, however, with oxygen, it forms carbonic acid gas, which is very soluble in water; and with the soil and the coal. Carbon dioxide is also soluble to some extent in water. Hence we have no difficulty in ascertaining the source of carbon and oxygen in plants. This is done by boiling them in water; thus it is taken up essentially combined with oxygen in the form of carbonic acid gas. The carbonic acid gas dissolves in aqueous state by the leaves, and in far less quantity from the earth, dis- solved in water, by the roots. Hence, therefore, states : "The fact is manifest that plants obtain their carbonic acid gas from water; they obtain the entire quantity of their carbon by the decomposition of atmospheric oxygen." It is evident that this statement admits no other compound of carbon from without. But there are also plants which possess no chlorophyll, and in which, therefore, the mass of their food is formed by means of which they must absorb the carbon necessary for their constitution in the form of other compounds. Such plants are parasitic; and on animals derived from the products of assimilation of plants containing chlorophyll, inasmuch as the whole animal body is made up of these same materials." **Oxygen**, is next to carbon, the most abundant organic con- stituent of vegetable matter. It exists in nature to an enormous extent it exists in nature, consisting as it does about 21 per cent., by volume of the atmosphere we breathe, eight-ninths by FOOD OF PLANTS.—ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS. 815 weight of the water we drink, and at least one-half of the solid matter of our food, is derived from this source. In other words, we see that there are abundant materials from which plants can obtain this necessary portion of their food. The whole of the oxygen required by plants is obtained from the air, either combined with hydrogen in the form of water, with carbon as carbonic acid, or in the form of carbon dioxide. The oxygen is therefore obtained by the roots from the soil, and some from the air by the leaves. If we consider the plant as an organic constituent of plants, as just noticed, formed one-ninth by weight of water, and it is in this form that plants are supplied with oxygen, and all other elements they require as food. It does not exist in a free state in the atmosphere nor in the soil, and hence cannot be obtained by plants in a simple chemical combination. The only element which it forms ammonia, which always exists to some extent in the atmosphere and in the soil, and which is obtained by plants when absorbed during the decomposition of animal matter. Ammonia exists in a gaseous state in the atmosphere, and being freely soluble in water, it is readily absorbed by the roots of plants, and rises it down to the roots, by which organ it is taken up. The nitrogen so obtained is deposited in the soil. While the larger proportion of hydrogen, therefore, is taken up combined with oxygen as water, a small portion is acquired by absorption directly from the air. Nitrogen, the fourth and last organic constituent of plants, constitutes about one-fifth of their dry weight. It is aophiley, and is an important ingredient in animal tissues. It also exists in combination with oxygen as nitric acid in rain water, and in the soil; but it is not found in any of its usual chemical products there found. Whether nitrogen can be taken up by plants as a free gas or as a compound substance is doubtful; though most probably it cannot; for all other necessary food materials he supplied to plants, but all sources of ammonia, or compounds of nitrogen, have been exhausted. The amount of these nitrogenous substances generally do not increase, although the plants may be able to supply them with nitrogen; but it is quite clear that the principal form in which it is absorbed is as ammonia. Both chlorophyll and phloemorvus, which we have noticed (page 813), are always combined with nitrogen in the protoplasmic cell-solvents, and are thus rendered unavailable for use by the cells. They are dissolved in the water, and are thus absorbed by the roots. In reviewing the sources of and modes in which the different organic or volatile constituents of plants are derived and taken up, we see that the sources are the earth and the air; more particularly the latter. The first consists mainly of mineral salts; while in the forms of carbon dioxide and water, the latter of which is not 815 FOOD OF PLANTS.—INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS. only food in itself, as it is composed of oxygen and hydrogen, two of the essential organic constituents of plants, but it is also an important vehicle by which other food is conveyed to them. 2. The inorganic matter of plants is very variable. The amount of inorganic matter found in plants, as already observed (page 813), is very much less than that of the organic. The inor- ganic matter is usually found in the form of salts, and the solution in which water contains carbon dioxide, and hence we see again how important it is to have a pure water supply for the growth of the organic constituents are the same for all plants, the inorganic con- stituents vary very much in the different species of plants. The inorganic matter of plants may be divided into two classes, the fol- lowing particulars — 1st, they are incombustible, and hence remain as ash, when burnt; 2nd, they are combustible, and hence burning, and 2nd, they are liable to putrefaction, as is the case with them, under the influence of warmth and moisture. The inorganic matter of plants consists chiefly of — Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine, Fluorine, Silicon, Potassium, Sodium, Calcium, Strontium, Barium, Magnesium, Iron, Copper, Cobalt, Zinc, Titanium, Lithium, Cesium, Rubidium, Arsenic, Copper, Lead, Cobalt, Nickel, and Barium. Some of these appear to be al- most universally present in all plants; others are found only in some; others are only occasionally met with. These various inorganic con- stituents are found in the following forms — chlorides, sulphates, oxides, chlorites, bromides, bromites, fluorides, sulphates, phosphates, silicates, etc. Although the amount of inorganic matter in plants is very small compared that of organic; still this portion however, small, is nevertheless necessary for their existence. It is present in most plants; and probably all; although in certain moulds no inorganic constituents have been detected. This matter being so important from a great importance in an agricultural point of view, as it is to their presence or absence, their value must be considered. The necessity for the presence of their compounds, in a particular soil, that soil owes its fertility or otherwise, and its adaptability of growing with success one or another kind of crop. Rotation of crops.—The principle of the rotation of crops in agriculture is based on the fact that each crop requires for its growth different inorganic compounds for their growth; and hence a particular soil which is rich in materials necessary for some plants, may become poor for others; and vice versa (See also Encyclopaedia of Roots page 707.) Thus Wheat or any cereal crop grown on a particular soil will leave behind it a full supply of silicon and phosphates; hence it will only furnish in a soil containing the necessary amount of such substances. As growth proceeds the plant absorbs more and more of these sub- stances by solution from the soil and are applied to the requirements of the plant. When the grain is ripe, it is removed as well as the LIFE OF THE WHOLE PLANT. 817 straw, and the silica and phosphates obtained from the soil will then be also removed with them; the result of this is necessarily except in fertile virgin soil, that these ingredients will not be lost completely, but will be retained in the plant, and support immediately the growth of the same species of plants. But by growing in a soil thus exhausted by Wheat, another crop of a different kind may be grown on the same land, which requires either a different substance, or a different amount, or both, to support its growth. This is a very common case in a profitable crop, while at the same time certain chemical changes will go on in the soil, and other ingredients be taken up from the atmosphere. The soil being thus enriched, the crop will be again adapted for the growth of Wheat. The importance of this fact shows how important it is for the agriculturist to have some acquaintance with vegetable physiology and chemistry. He should know the composition of his land, and what substances are necessary for it, as well as the nature of the compounds required by them, and the modes in which they are taken up. Thus he can so adapt particular plants to their own proper use, that if any substance does not contain the substance necessary for their life and vigour, he must either import it from without, or else make use of chemistry and vegetable physiology to agriculture are thus seen to be most important, and the great practical improvements which have been made in agriculture are due to this increased interest taken in such matters, and the many admirable methods which have been devised for effecting in an agricultural point of view this connection may be, our necessary limits will not allow us to dwell upon it further. Section 2. LIFE OF THE WHOLE PLANT, OR THE PLANT IN ACTION. The various substances required by plants as food having now been considered, we have in the next place briefly to show how each of these substances is used by the plant as food, and altered and adapted for their requirements. The consider- ation of these matters involves a notice of the functions of vegetables in general, and especially of those processes of Absorption, Circulation, Respiration, Ammoniation, Develop- ment, etc. The more important facts connected with these functions have, however, already been referred to in treating of the Special Physiology of Plants (see p. 605), and I refer to them again, and Leave; so that it now only remains for us to this place to give a more extended notice of these functions, and to consider them as working together for the common benefit of the whole organism. It will be convenient to treat of these under the two 3 8/8 LIFE OF THE WHOLE PLANT. ABSORPTION. heads. 1. Absorption, and 2. Distribution of Fluid Matters through the Plant, and their Alteration in the Leaves. 1. **Absorption** - The root, as already noticed, is the main organ by which the plant absorbs its food materials, and for the use of the plant. No matter can be absorbed in an unsolveded condition, and this absorptive power is owing to the superior density of the cell-walls of the roots over the fluid matters surrounding them in the soil leading to a greater resistance to organic action through the cell-walls (see p. 757 and fig. 112). That the root do thus absorb fluid matters may be proved by a very simple experiment. Take a glass of water, fill it with water of the same capacity, and pour water into them until it is at the same level. Now take a small glass, fill it with water, cover the plant in one, and expose both in other respects to the same influences of light, heat, and air, it will be noticed that the water will rise in both glasses to the same height, but in such in which the roots are placed far more rapidly than from the other without roots. This shows that absorption is not in former case must therefore be owing to its absorption by the roots. In this way we can also estimate, in some degree at least, the amount absorbed, for if we pour out all the liquid from a plant grown in a few days, far exceeding in weight that of the plants which are experimented upon, we shall find that the liquid food is an independent source of nutrition; for, if the roots are healthy and tissue above them filled with fluid, it will always occur; and the great quantity of water which is absorbed from the ground is well seen in such experiments as those of Hales (see page 921) and Hofmeister. But nevertheless, the amount of fluid absorbed by a plant is not directly proportional to the ac- tivity with which the other processes of vegetation are carried on, and no direct proportionality exists between the amount trans- spired by the leaves indeed, absorption is directly proportional to transpiration in a healthy plant, for a fluid is given off by the leaves if it does not evaporate immediately. The frequency thus produced, and therefore all stimulants to transpiration are at the same time stimulants to absorption. Absorption and transpiration differ greatly in amount, the plants in which such a want of correspondence takes place become unhealthy; thus when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they grow slowly; while when plants are grown in dark places, they growth DISTRIBUTION OF FLUID MATTERS THROUGH THE PLANT. 819 Solar light is most intense ; we ought not therefore to transplant at such a time of the year, when the sun is low in the heavens, without some injury to the extremities of the roots, the amount of fluid absorbed being insufficient to compensate for the loss by transpiration, and hence the plant may be injured, according to circumstances. By transplanting in autumn or spring, we do not suffer any injury to the roots, but they are exposed to the light, as the light is then less intense, and there are no leaves from which transpiration can take place. (For further particulars on Absorption, see Absorption, page 706.) 2. Distribution of Fluid Matters through the Plant, and their Alteration during their passage through the matter thus absorbed by the roots (the sap, as it is called) is carried upwards by their tissues (pg. 1150) to the branches and smaller portions to the leaves, &c. (as indicated by arrows), where it is evaporated and ablated. After this it is returned to the stem, and disseminated throughout the whole bark and cambium layer of Dicotyledons (page 804); and by means of the meso-dullary rays and the general permea- bility of the vessels of the stem, its parts are composed, it is distributed to their different parts, and where it is being formed, and where secretions are to be deposited. This general circulation of fluids through the plant is commonly termed "ascension," or "ascendancy," as it is called in the "Annuaire," "Weyler," or "Crate Sap," and it is de- scribed in the "Annuaire" as "Ascendancy of Sap." Although the term Circulation has been applied to this upward movement of the sap, it must be borne in mind, that the process bears no analogy to the circulation of blood in animals. The sap does not act upon the organs of an analogous nature to propel their fluid matters, nor any system of muscles or nerves acts upon them. In his "Analogies," Johnson has well put it, "nutrient substances in the plant are not absolutely confined to any path, and may move in any direction they please." The ascent of sap, therefore, although it moves in that direction, is plainly dependent upon the structure of the plant, its sources of nourishment, and on the seal of growth or other actions. **Ascent of the Sap.-The sap in its ascent to the leaves** Fig. 1150. Fig. 1150. Diagrammatic section of the stem of a Dicotyledon showing its structure and distribution of sap. The direct ascent of sap from roots to leaves is shown by arrows. The sap is distributed throughout various parts of the plant including leaves, stems, and other parts. The ascent of sap is influenced by structural features such as vessels and cambium layers. 820 839 passes principally through the young wood-cells and vessels (page 700), and therefore remains in them when they are of any age, though the outer portion of the wood or the fibres. In such plants also, sap has but one main stream of ascending sap. In the tree and Mosses, the sap which flows into the ascent also takes place through the uninucleated cells of the fibrous network, and is consequently called the ascent sap. In the leaves, especially in Monocotyledons, we have a number of more or less distinct ascending streams. In the lower Angiosperms, as the Thelypteridaceae, which have no stem-sap, we find only one stream of ascent, but the fluids may be flowing mixed in all directions through their cells, and this is very evidently evident in those parts which are of a leaf nature. The cause of the ascent of the sap is, as Herbart Spencer has well expressed it, "the pressure of the fluid against the demand for liquid. This is produced mainly by the evaporation or tran- spiration of water from the surface of the leaves, and by that of the sap by the growing tissues and by extrusion from the vessels by pressure. The circulation is helped by osmotic and capillary actions, and by the pressure of the air on the branches causing intermittent pressure on the vessels. In the winter months, when there is little evaporation from the leaves and roots is filled with watery matters holding starch and other insoluble substances in suspension. The fluids of the plant are therefore drawn up to a greater height than usual, and change then taking place to produce their distribution. When the increased evaporation occurs during summer, soluble starch, &c., become converted into soluble dextrin and sugar, development and transpiration immediately follow, and a conse- quent ascent of sap takes place. But in winter, when there is no summer month, when the causes favourable to it are in full activity; and when there is no increase in temperature to stimulate again, the force of the ascent also diminishes, and the flow of sap is again suspended in the winter months from the reason always always being present. The force with which the sap ascends is probably greatest in the summer months when there is most evaporation from leaves, and when vegetation is consequently most active; and least in the winter. At first sight it would appear, that the most rapid flow of the sap would take place at mid-day; but this is not so. Plants will give off much fluid, or blood as it is commonly termed, when their stems are filled with water; but as soon as they empty the vessel as well as the procaryonchymous cells being then filled with sap, so that the whole plant is, as it were, gorged with it; much of the sap will remain in these cells until they are again filled with water rapidly pumped up from the soil to supply the drain of fluid. But as soon as the leaves begin full activity, or even the flowers, if they have been opened before the leaves begin to move rapidly above bed, and the current is soon confined to its proper FORCE OF THE ASCENT OF THE SAP. 831 channels, and the stems no longer bleed. (See Functions of Prosochomodoma Cells and Fossae, page 703.) It by no means follows, however, that the sap is always conveyed with fluid matter, and bloods, the force of the circulation is most active; but rather that it is greatest when the stem is least impeded with sap, so as to be able to move freely through the vessels. In a healthy plant in a perfectly normal state, the amount of fluid absorbed by the roots, the amount transpired by the leaves, and the stem, and the amount transpired by the leaves are directly proportionate to one another. The force of the ascent of the sap was measured by means of a U-tube, as shown in fig. 1151, by the apparatus represented in fig. 1151, where there is a tube A, which has a transverse section which is attached a bent glass tube, $d$, $e$, $f$, $g$, by means of a copper clip B. A piece of mercury is placed in the bent tube being filled with mercury to the level of the mercury in the U-tube. During the experiment, the force of the sap was readily calculated by the fall of the mercury in one leg of the U-tube, and also by adding ascending rise above $f$ to the other leg. In this way it was found that one experiment showed that the force of the ascent was not great enough to support a column of mercury 38 inches high; while in another experiment on the Vine, that the force was greater than five times that of water; and five times greater than that of the blood in the arterial cavity of a horse, and seven times greater than that of a horse's blood in some artery of a dog. In some experiments of Bruns on the force of the ascent of the sap he found that it was equal to that required to support a column of mercury 60 inches high. The measure- ment is, however, a measure of the force of the root (root-pressure) rather than of ascent of the sap (see pages 766 and 818). As the fluid rises in the stem it is of a watery nature, and contains starch, sugar, dextrin, and other substances in the same state nearly in which they were absorbed by the roots. It also contains sugar, dextrin, and some other substances which it has dissolved in its course upwards, though no starch, alcohols. Fig. 1151. Figs. 1151. Apparatus con- structed by Hesse to show the force of ascent of sap. A U-tube of glass. A, A glass tube. B, A copper clip. C, A glass tube. D, E, F, G, A bent glass tube. H, A piece of mercury. I, I', I", I"', I"", I'', I'"" Pieces of mercury. J, J', J", J'" Pieces of mercury. K, K', K", K'" Pieces of mercury. L, L', L", L'" Pieces of mercury. M, M', M", M'" Pieces of mercury. N, N', N", N'" Pieces of mercury. O, O', O", O'" Pieces of mercury. P, P', P", P'" Pieces of mercury. Q, Q', Q", Q'" Pieces of mercury. R, R', R", R'" Pieces of mercury. S, S', S", S'" Pieces of mercury. T, T', T", T'" Pieces of mercury. U, U', U", U'" Pieces of mercury. V, V', V", V'" Pieces of mercury. W, W', W", W'" Pieces of mercury. X, X', X", X'" Pieces of mercury. Y, Y', Y", Y'" Pieces of mercury. Z, Z', Z", Z'" Pieces of mercury. 831 8.2 CHANGES OF THE CRUDE SAP IN THE LEAVES. phyll, or colouring matter generally are found in it. But although the sap in its passage upwards thus becomes more and more altered, yet it is still sufficient for the requirements of the plant, and is not exhausted by the use of certain changes in the leaves and other green parts, which it becomes altered in several particulars, and in them adapted for the uses of the plant. The following table will show this. Changes of the Crude Sap in the Leaves. The changes which the crude sap undergoes in the leaves and other green parts by the action of light, heat, and air, are so numerous and so affecting the Functions of Leaves; it will be here, therefore, only necessary to mention those which appear to be most important. They are—1st. The transpiration of the superfluous fluid of the crude sap in the form of watery vapour, by which it be- comes thinner and lighter; 2ndly. The absorption of oxygen and giving off carbon dioxide, small quantities of water being probably lost by evaporation; 3rdly. The increase of Respi- ration is now applied. The oxygen thus taken up in respiration is necessary to the vitality of the protoplasm, as also for the exhalation of carbonic acid gas, which is a necessary accompani- ment. Respiration is most evident during the night, for the large quantity of water thus given off by the leaves at that time of assimilation completely obliterates the former change. 3rd. The absorption and decomposition of carbon dioxide, by which carbonic acid gas is formed; 4th. The formation of starch from crude sap; 5th. Oxygen is evolved, carbohydrates being at the same time formed; 6th. The formation of cellulose from crude sap. The carbohydrates so formed may be starchy, fat, or cane sugar, but more especially starch. A further process is found to take place in some plants, namely, that they can change their position, passing from the cells in which they were formed to other cells where they are deposited without any change in their chemical composition; which combined changes are termed metabolism or meta-stasis. The difference between assimilation and metabolism consists in this—that while by the former process starch is formed in the chlorophyll-bearing leaves, which are then transported through veins and branches, and back again into starch in the tubers by meta- stasis. The crude sap being thus altered, contains in itself various substances which are necessary for growth; these are re- quired for the development of new tissues (Development), and the different secretions (Secretion). It is then termed Enlarged Sap. Those matters which are necessary for development or growth are termed constructive products; those which are not formed by meta-stasis and which are not constructive—may be divided into two groups— 1. Inorganic products, such as wood and cork, which can FORMATION OF SECRETIONS BY PLANTS. never be reconverted into constructive materials, though of the greatest use to the plant in giving mechanical support; pro- tracting the leaves, and in other ways, and so that plants may be to withstand the scorching heat of the sun, and in other ways. Many gums, as tragacanth, gum arabic, and others; and gums resinous, as turpentine, gum mastic, and others; and also the oil- walls, &c., of different plants, and are, therefore, other examples of secretions. 2. Secondary products of metabolism, some of which, as sweet secrections, &c., are necessary for the perpetuation of the species, by affording food to the young plants; and others, such as —oils—oils, resins, colouring matters, and many acids and alkaloids—are of no importance to the plant. The important influences which these changes in the leaves have in promoting the purity of the atmosphere we breathe (page 758), and in increasing the fertility of the soil (page 772), and the fertility or barrenness of a soil (page 772), have hitherto been almost entirely neglected; but this is in order that the secretions may be properly performed, and that they must be freely exposed to light ; and from this dependence of assimilia- tion on light it will appear that the formation of secretions is when the secretion of particular plants, which are otherwise agree- able, are injurious, or of unpleasant flavour, they can, by growing them in a dark place, or in a place where they cannot get light, take place as in the case with Olea, Sea Kale, Lotus, Endive, and others. For this reason it is evident that in regions where the climate is hot and dry, as in those of South America and Africa, regions, where the light is much more intense than it is in this country or in other cold and temperate regions, are commonly remarkable for the abundance of flowers which are not only more strongly exhibited by the stronger odours of their flowers, and the richer flavours of their fruits than those which grow in cooler climates. Again, as the formation of secretions depends upon the in- tensity of light, it frequently happens that when a plant of a warm or tropical country is brought into a cool climate, although its may be great of value as a medicinal agent, or useful in the art, it does not produce any secretion whatever; because with the intensity of the light is much less than it is in its native country, the secretion is not formed at all, or in diminished quantity. Even when it produces a secretion at all it is not strong; for they may be submitted to the same degree of heat which they obtain naturally; but being thus exposed to a temperature which they do not form at all or in diminished amount, because light is the main agent concerned in their formation, and we cannot increase the intensity without increasing the temperature. Another cause which commonly interferes with the formation of secrections of plants of warmer regions when grown in our The neighbourhood of the monastery de La Trappe, where the church has two plazas, may be cited as an example. 824 **DESCENT OF THE SAP.** hot-house, is the want of a proper and incessant supply of fresh air to facilitate transpiration, &c. The shoot, being thus much interested, as they have an impor- tant bearing upon the growths of plants and fruits for the table, as well as in a medicinal and economic point of view. At pre- sent, however, the question of the descent of sap has been so said to have anything like a satisfactory explanation of the cause why some species of plants grow in one part of the country, for it is found that the same species of plants when grown in different parts of Great Britain, where the climatic differences are not sufficient to cause any great variation in temperature, a few miles, or in some cases a few yards, frequently vary much as re- gards their growth. The following account of this curious illu- stration of this fact is mentioned by Christian, who found that some Umbelliferous plants, as Carota vesica (Water Hemlock), and (Gentian) Gentiana lutea (Yellow Gentian), which are poisons in most districts of England, are innocuous when grown near London, but become poisonous when grown under present obscurer, but the varying conditions of soil and moisture under which plants are developed have doubtless an important influence on their constitution. In this respect, as regards the sort of view, so far as the active properties of the various medicinal pro- perties of these plants are concerned, it is evident that their constitution in their sections by such causes is of much interest, and would amply repay investigation; for it cannot be doubted, but that each plant will develop its own peculiar constitution according to those circumstances which are natural to it, and that consequently any changes from one district to another will necessarily involve de- grees in the properties of the plants. Probably here we have an ex- planation, to some extent at least, of the cause of the varying strengths of different species of plants used medicinally; and also some species of plants when grown in different parts of this country, or in different countries. **Descend of the Sap.**—After the crude sap has been transformed in the manner already described, it passes from the leaves to the stem, probably through a canal-like structure called a ductus dissec- ionis; and apparently to the parenchymatous tissue generally of the stem. It is supposed that this sap flows downwards from the stems of the several kinds of plants as far as the root, and in its course affords materials for the development of new tissues; and that during its passage through the stem it may at the same time undergo further changes owing to metatesis, and deposit its various sections, &c. [page 306] Hoffmann, in his experiments on this subject, found that it did not flow upwards by which the elaborated juice descended in the stem. That the sap does not flow upwards through the inner-arch and cambium layer is commonly believed, and several facts seem to support this belief. Thus, the formation of wood is obviously from above downwards, for when a ligature is tied A diagram showing a cross-section of a plant stem with arrows indicating upward flow. DESCENT OF THE SAP. 825 tightly round the base of an Exogenous stem, or more especially if a ring of bark be removed, no new wood is produced below the ligature ; but if the bark be cut off at any point above it, or roots will be produced there. Again, it is well known, that by removing a ring of bark from a fruit tree, a larger quantity of fruit will be produced than would have been, that tree, owing to the greater amount of nutritive matter which thence passes into the fruit. Another circumstance which appears to show the line of descent of the nutritive matter, is the fact, that if the cuticle of the leaf-stem be removed, the ascent of sap is stopped, and the formation of tubules is prevented. It appears that the descending sap supplies nourishment to the cells of the cortex, and to those in the fibro-vascular layers ; its course, as well as to the laticiferous vessels, sieve-tubes, &c., is also lateral ; for in autumn starch grains are found in the cells of the cortex, and in spring they are developed wood ; and where growth is going on, even an upward direction may be observed in the ascent of sap. But it must be noted, that the retrograde motion of the sap is through the same channels—chiefly, as he believes, the vessels of the newest wood—by which it passes down again. The sap is thus driven up again in response to a demand for liquid by the stem and roots when evaporation takes place during hot weather. As far as the leaf-petioles are concerned, the back current must be along much the same tissue as the upward flow ; but probably the backward movement is not so rapid as that which goes on directly continuous with the inner-bark of the stem. Species of plants are known (see Transmutation, xxv.) whose leaves possess a substance which finds at the termination of the vascular system in the lower layer of parenchyma its main source. This substance is a very decidedly absorbent organ by which the elaborated sap is abstracted from the leaves and conveyed to other parts. The opinions of observers vary much as to the offices of the different parts of plants ; for instance, Mulder considers that all nitrogenous substances are absorbed by the leaves only, but are assimilated them at once, while carbon is fixed by the green parts ; that leaves are not necessary for life (as some suppose between leaves and roots). Other authors, again, believe that the leaves form all the organic substances. While Sachs says : " The leaves alone are capable of assimilation ; those which always has an acid reaction, are conveyed the carbo-hydrates and oil ; by so soft heat the mucilaginous albuminoids, which have an alkaline reaction." A page from a book with text and a small illustration. 826 DEVELOPMENT OF HEAT BY PLANTS. CHAPTER 3. SPECIAL PHENOMENA IN THE LIFE OF THE PLANT. I. DEVELOPMENT OF HEAT BY PLANTS.—As the various parts of living plants are subject to different degrees of heat during their development, and in the performance of their dif- ferent functions, we might conclude that their temperature would vary according to the degree of heat they encountered with that of the atmosphere around them. We have seen (page 750) that the germination of seeds is a considerable development of heat taken place (page 810). This is more especially evident when a number of seeds germinate together, and the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere of heat in flowering has also been alluded to (page 276). The rise of temperature at the time of germination and flowering is due, without doubt, essentially, to the produc- tion of carbon dioxide. We have still to inquire, whether the ordinary variations in temperature are not caused by changes in the clouds, or rains to diminish their temperature. The observations of Schubert, Bickendorf, Maurus, Pictet, and more especially of Schiebler, lead to the conclusion that the trees of our climate with thick trunks exhibit a variable internal temperature, which is greater than that of the surrounding atmosphere—that is, at periods of great heat, or at mid-day—that is, at periods of great heat. In no observed cases were such trees noticed to possess exactly the temperature of the atmosphere. The temperature of the leaves on trees with slender trunks exposed directly to the sun's rays showed a variation corresponding with that of the air over the external air. These observations of Reaumur are, however, by no means satisfactory. The formation of trees under the above conditions depends upon various causes, such as the sun's rays, the amount of eva- poration, and the nature of the soil. The sun's rays, for instance, etc., the conducting powers of the wood, and particularly upon the temperature of the soil in which the plants are grown. In the active season, when evaporation is constantly going on, and the fixation of carbon taking place, both of these factors contribute to increase the production of heat; it is evident that such changes must have some effect in modifying the temperature; and hence it, at such periods, their temperature may be higher than that of the atmosphere is due to external influences, such as the sun's rays, and the tempera- ture of the soil, etc. This probably explains, to some extent at least, why the temperature of thick trees exposed to great heat LUMINOSITY OF PLANTS. 827 is lower than that of the surrounding air, for at such a period vegetation is in a very active condition, evaporation and assimilation being most rapid. The temperature of the air is low, as in winter or during the night, but little or no evaporation or assimilation takes place, and hence we find that the light emitted by plants is less than that of summer. The conclusions in the last paragraph do not, however, altogether agree with those of the late Professor de la Motte Fouque, and those of Mr. Dutrochet; for he found, by operating with Becquerel's thermoelectric needle, that when plants were placed in a moist atmos- phere, and the temperature was raised to 30° C., an increase of temperature took place, thus seeming to prove that the chemical changes taking place in the plant are accompanied by an increase of temperature. Probably this slight increase of heat under such circumstances is due to the oxidation or combustion of a certain quantity of water which is absorbed by the plant. He also noticed that the heat of plants varied during the course of twenty-four hours, the heat of maximum temperature varying from 15° to 20° C., and that this maximum occurred at night. The variation in such cases was how- ever so slight as to be scarcely perceptible, and amounted to a little over half-a-degree of Fahrenheit. This specific heat of plants could only be observed in green and soft structures, such as leaves and young shoots, and not in woody parts. The above is but a brief summary of the conclusions which have been drawn from observations on the emission of heat by plants, and these are by no means of a satisfactory nature. Much further investigation is required upon this matter. In connexion with this subject I may mention the researches of Bouchonville, Alpdeu de Caussade, and others, who have endeavoured to prevent plants to stimulate them into vegetative or reproductive activity. That a certain sum of heat is required for the proper develop- ment of all living organisms has been shown by the activity of some plants (as Wheat) will be completed in a shorter time in heated than in more or less cooled soil. LUMINOSITY OF PLANTS. Very little is positively known respecting the development of light by plants. But it seems probable that it is produced by the action of sunlight on chlorophyll. Von Eusebien, Unger, Drummond, and others, that the thallus of some living Fungi are luminous in the dark. This luminosity has been attributed to a substance called "Phosphorin" or "Phosphorine." According to Prost, the mycelium of the common earth-rot fungus is luminous. The statement that certain Mosses, as *Schizotheca comandens* and *Mannia punctata*, were phosphorescent, appears to have been founded on imperfect observation. 828 **ELECTRICITY OF PLANTS.** With regard to the development of light by the higher classes of plants, we have at present no very satisfactory observa- tions to support the theory that they produce light, that many orange and red-coloured flowers, such as those of the Nasturtiums, the Celandine, the Lantana, the Red Poppy, &c., give out, on the evening of a hot day in summer, a spec- tacular flash of light. This peculiar luminosity of orange and red flowers is not confined to any one class of plants, but is common, and the fact of such luminosity having been only noticed in flowers with such bright and gaudy tint, appears strongly to favour such a conclusion. The rhizomes of certain Indian grasses have been reported to be luminous, and this has been attributed to the action of Murray and Martius who observed, that the milky juice of some plants was luminescent when exuding from wounds made in them. Martius also stated that the leaves of the Indian Grass are luminous after removal from the plant, when it is heated. 3. Electrical phenomena in plants. The relation between equi- librium and electrical phenomena in plants is undoubtedly connected with the various chemical and mechanical changes which take place in plants. By the medium of the electric current, Vierne and Sanderson and others have demonstrated that there exists in plants an electric current which is produced by the decomposition of a section of a vegetable fibre, similar, but in the contrary direction, to that shown by De Bois Raymond to exist in the muscles, x.c., of animals. It is evident that since the electric current in a plant is always electro-negative to the cuticularised surface. **The Influence of Light upon Growth and Fruitfulness of Plants and Production of Chlorophyll.—Recent experiments made by Dr. Siemens seem to prove that the electric light aids the growth of plants. He found that when he exposed flowers to daylight, the flowers became more vigorous than those kept in darkness; and that by exposing young seedlings to daylight he increased their vigour and promoted the ripening of fruits. By sowing seeds of rapidly growing plants in dark glass cases under artificial con- ditions with the exception of light, he found that those grown in the dark were stunted and soon withered; those exposed to daylight grew vigorously and produced fruit; those exposed to a good colour green; but those exposed to the electric light for six hours per day did not grow so well as those exposed to daylight for eight hours. In all these experiments it was found that those plants may form a time grow continuously without rest, i.e., without sleep, but they do not grow as well as those which have con- tinuous further experiments are required to prove. The electric light seems therefore to affect plants in a similar manner to the continuous sunlight; but it does not appear to be so powerful. Dr. Schulze found that the arctic sun caused plants to produce more brilliant flowers and richer and larger seed than if the same plants had been grown with an alternation of light and darkness. **MOVEMENTS OF PLANTS.** 829 4. MOVEMENTS OF PLANTS. Three kinds of movements have been described in plants. Movements of entire plants, such as those which occur in the Oscillatoria, Diatomeae, and some other forms of the lower Algae; and of parts, e.g. the spermatocysts, of the lower Fungi; and of the leaves and stems of the lower kinds of plants. The locomotive power thus possessed by one of these forms has been attributed to the presence of a fluid in the cells, but this explanation is not sufficiently satisfactory, as it is not evident how the fluid can be confined so as to produce locomotion. 2. Movements produced in parts of plants which are dead, and which do not possess their active vitality. Such movements may be noticed in all the great divisions of plants, and are more or less connected with the growth of the plant. In the young leaves, the swelling of anthocyanes in the higher classes of plants, and that of spores-cases in the lower; the dilatation of fruits, the separation of the compound leaves in the higher classes of plants, and Geraniaceae, and many other phenomena of a like nature. 3. Movements produced by the living parts of plants when in an active state of growth. The first two classes of movements have been already alluded to in various places (see page 705). The third class is first class appear to depend upon a rotation of the protoplasmic substance about its axis, or upon a change in the direction of its motion, or to the pressure of cilia upon their surfaces. Movements of the second kind are entirely mechanical, and produced by the varying action of gravity, wind, water, temperature, and power of inhaling moisture. The third class of movements must be more particularly noticed. They only occur during active vegetation. The directions taken by organs properly come under this head. But this movement is not so common as might be supposed, as it has been already noticed (page 810), that with regard to the movements which take place in the leaves and Stems Plants and Tendrils are full of interest. The ends of some organs have the power of spontaneously revolving ; and they constantly do so, especially when they are growing upwards. So that action Sachs has applied the term of renewing natation, which Darwin has adopted for similar movements in animals. So soon as the organ meets with a support its motion is arrested, and it becomes spirally turned round by the arrest of the movement and successively by its own weight. This is a very curious way they have laid out a support, and so draw up the stem to which they are attached. It will be seen that movements belonging to this class have been divided by Schleiden into three sub-classes : 1. Movements which evidently depend on external influences. a. Periodical. b. Non-periodical. 2. Movements which depend on internal, or on ex- ternal influences, which are also divided into two : a. Periodical. Not periodical. 830 MOTIONS OF PLANTS—PERIODICAL. (1.) Movements depending on EXTERNAL INFLUENCES.—Periodical. Under this head we include movements as those of certain leaves and the petals of flowers, which occur at particular times of day or night, and return to their new position thus taken up until the return of a particular time, when they resume as nearly as possible their original position. In leaves, these periodic movements are usually observed during the day, each organ turning towards the evening and its expansion in the morning. In the petals of flowers great differences occur in opening or closing at particular hours of the day; and, by observing Fig. 115. Fig. 115. Nocturnal plant. A. Petals with leaves expanded during the day. B. The same asleep at night. (After Darwin.) these changes in a variety of flowers, Linnaeus and others have drawn up what has been termed a floral clock. This periodical closing up and opening out of the petals is probably due to the plants. The compound leaves of certain Leguminous and Oxalisaceous plants also show similar movements, but these movements, which are probably all indirectly dependent upon the varying conditions of light to which the parts of the plant in which they occur are exposed, may be considered to be due to modified circummutation. This author says, "Most plants move either upwards or downwards; and in some species (for 115 MOVEMENTS OF PLANTS.---NOT PERIODICAL. 531 instance, L. inflexa), those on one side of the star-shaped leaf move up, those on the other down, and those in the intermediate ones rotating on their axes; and by these varied movements the whole leaf forms at night a vertical star, instead of a horizontal one. The leaves of the same plant, however, may move either upwards or downwards, become more or less folded, or even remain motionless during the night. The positions, indeed, which leaves occupy when asleep are almost infinitely diversified; they may either point vertically upwards (fig. 115, a) or downwards (fig. 115, b); or, in the A diagram showing the movement of leaves in a plant. A B Fig. 115. Dorsiventral growth. A. Stem with leaves during the day. N. A stem with leaves during the night. case of leaflets, towards the apex or towards the base of the leaf, or in any intermediate position. The nystropic movements of leaves, leaflets and petioles are effected by the contraction of the cells on their alternate increased growth on their opposite sides, preceded by an increased turgorescence of their contents. In this way the leaves or leaflets of some plants, generally constitute of chlorophylls, which become alternately more turgorous on nearly opposite sides, and thus assume a new position and followed by growth except during the early age of the plant. 8. Not periodic.--Such movements are exhibited in a num- 832 **HETEROTROPHISM.**—**GEOGRAPHISM.**—**IRRITABILITY.** be of plant both in the leaves and in their reproductive organs. In the leaves they are well seen in certain species of *Oenothera*, *Mimosa* (fig. 360), &c., in *Daucus carota* (fig. 370), &c. In the reproductive organs, in the stamens of certain plants, such as those of *Berberis vulgaris* and other species, *Ferula officinalis*, *Helian- tumum rotundifolium*, &c., in the stamens of *Caryophyllus* and the style of *Galium triflorum* and *Spiraea*. All the above-mentioned cases are due to the action of insects, the agitation caused by the wind, &c. Other movements which fairly come under this heading, and which, like the above, are due to the action of insects, are regarded as being due to modified circumnavigation, are positive and negative **heterotropism**. Positive heterotropism is the growing towards the source of light. It has been long known that plants grown in comparative darkness grow towards the light. This movement is opposed to a stronger light—i.e. that light appears to have a retarding influ- ence on growth. In the case of a plant which exhibits negative heterotropism, it is found that part away from the light has attained a greater length than that towards it. Some forms of plants, such as *Datura*, when they grow away from light exhibit negative heterotropism, where, as they grow away from the light, the parts next the source of illumination grow most. Negative heterotropism is the tendency of a plant to the force which influences the direction of growth of most roots, especially those which grow downwards. It points directly down- wards to the centre of the earth. Negative geotropism, on the other hand, signifies the direction taken by stems and shoots—i.e. being exactly opposite to that sought by the roots—i.e. upwards, or away from the centre of the earth. As the terms positive and negative heterotropism and of posi- tive and negative geotropism are frequently used carelessly, the qualifying words "positive" and "negative" are here very commonly omitted. Darwin adopts the term heterotropism in the sense of bending towards a source of illumination or away from a source of illu- mination; i.e. away from the source of illumination; and, in the same manner, geotropism to imply towards the earth, and **geo- tropism for away from the earth**, both in reference to all parts of the earth. In addition to the foregoing terms, dichotomousism is some- times used to express a position more or less transverse to the light which influences it; and geodromism to a similar position with regard to gravity. **Irritability.**—It has been already stated that some move- ments of plants are due to irritation by external agencies. But though it has long been known that insects thus induce movements in certain plants, such as *Drosera*, *Dionaea*, *Xe- 9/22 CARNIVOROUS PLANTS. 833 peckish, &c., it is only by the recent observations of Darwin, Hooker, and Wills, and others, that we have learnt that these movements are caused by a solu- tion, being dissolved and absorbed. It has been also observed that this solution of mi- trogenic fluid is produced due to the presence of a kind of ferment which closely resembles that of the peptic glands of ani- mals. It has also been proved that this ferment is only efficient when in contact with an acid; and hence this solution is a pro- ductive process like that of animals. During the action and secretion of these nitrogenuous catalysts, the hairs retracts from the walls of the cells in the form of a hair-spring. As shown a leaf of Dro- saceae (Drosera), in which some of the glands or glandular hairs have become covered by an insect. Such plants are now common in the carnivorous (see pages 725). To plants which are thus stimulated to movement by chemical or mechanical means, the term irritable is ap- plied; but it is not the func- tion of their irritability that they are carnivorous. The stems of the Sensitive plants (fig. 368) droop on contact with any foreign body. Fig. 1154. Fig. 1155. Fig. 1156. Leaf of Drosera, showing a Fly caught by the incurved gland. Fig. 1158. A portion of a Drosera plant, showing the leaf consisting of a large terminal lobule, two lateral lobules, and two other ruminatory lobules, marked near the body. 2 H 834 MOVEMENTS OF PLANTS. ODORUS OF PLANTS. (2.) Movements independent, at least to some extent, of external influences. - The movements of plants are seen in some of the leaves of certain tropical species of Dodonaeum, and more especially in those of Dodonaeum pyrena (fig. 1105, a). In this plant the leaflets are three leaflets; the terminal one, a, being much larger than the two lateral ones, b and c. When the leaflet a is exposed to a bright light, marked near the large terminal one. This large terminal leaflet, a, when exposed to the influence of a bright light, becomes bent towards the light, and so on until it reaches the approach of evening (fig. 1105, a). This movement is clearly analogous to that which occurs in the leaves of the plant under the head of movements depending on external influences, as previously described (page 869). But the lateral leaflets, b, exhibit a different movement. They advance during the day, advancing by their margins towards the large terminal leaflet, and then retracting again during the night towards their petiole. This movement takes place first on one side and then on the other, so that the point of each leaflet describes a circle. The movement is most evident when the plant is in a vigorous state of growth, and when exposed to a high temperature. No satisfactory ex- planation has yet been given for these movements of the leaves. Similar movements have been observed in the radicles of many plants. b. Not procidus.--These movements occur in the reproductive organs of a large number of the Phanerocenia. The stamens and pistils of these plants are very elongate, as in *Ruta graveolens* (fig. 600), and *Parsley pulegium*, or *parsley*, as in *Foeniculum vulgare* (fig. 601), and afterwards commonly return as far as possible to their former position. In Fer- mance's arrangement appears to be one adapted, as the stamens are arranged in such a way that they can only move towards each other. No explanation of a satisfactory nature has been given of this curious arrangement, but its object is doubtless to assist in the process of fertilization. c. Unosum or Flax--These are very various in kind, many being highly ornamental. The flowers are usually small again, though pleasant in small quantity, become disagreeable in larger quantities. The seeds are either hard or soft; or else a volatile oil or other product contained in the glands or re- ceptacles of secretion of the plant; but in some cases none of such origin is produced. The seeds are often used for flavouring, whilst its nature defies analysis. It is generally considered A diagram showing the movements of leaves and stamens/pistils in various plants. ODOURS OF PLANTS. 835 that smell is due to the giving off of minute particles into the air. Moreton, however, observed that the flowers of Orchis, was led to the inference that in some cases it depended on a physiological cause. He observed that the aromatic odour of Mentha, which he found to be more intense when the flowers were un fertilised, was lost a little while after pollen was applied to the stigma. Though chiefly developed under the influence of solar light, there are not a few plant-odours which are given off in the evening. The odour of the night-scented rose (Rosa nocturna), the Paeonia lactiflora, the Euphorbia lathyris, and the Cereus grandiflorus are ex- ample. In the last-named plant, the odour is given out in intermittent puff. There seems to be a connection between the colour of the flowers and their odour. The flowers of the white lily and white flowers are very frequently fragrant, whilst brown and orange ones have no such odour. The flowers of the white lilies (Spathulae), certain Arundo, some Balanophoraceae, and the Raffiae being examples. The flowers of Monocotyledons are more often odorous than those of Dicotyledons. 8 H 2 [API_EMPTY_RESPONSE] GENERAL AND GLOSSARIAL INDEX TO STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. *.* The technical terms mentioned below are explained at the pages referred to, and those that can be found in the Glossary. 838 INDEX TO STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY Amparospera, frutic. 290. Araucaria, 267. Ampelopsis, 815. Amaranthus, 278. Ageratum, 279. Albizia, 280. Alnus, 281. Alnus glutinosa, 281. Alnus incana, 281. Alnus rubra, 281. Alnus serrulata, 281. Alnus viridis, 281. Alnus x cinerea, 281. Alnus x cordata, 281. Alnus x incana, 281. Alnus x incana 'Sorbus', 281. Alnus x incana 'Sorbus' 'Sorbus', 281. Alnus x incana 'Sorbus' 'Sorbus', 281. Alnus x incana 'Sorbus' 'Sorbus', 281. Alnus x incana 'Sorbus' 'Sorbus', 281. Alnus x incana 'Sorbus' 'Sorbus', 281. Alnus x incana 'Sorbus' 'Sorbus', 281. Alnus x incana 'Sorbus' 'Sorbus', 281. Alnus x incana 'Sorbus' 'Sorbus', 281. Alnus x incana 'Sorbus' 'Sorbus', 281. Alnus x incana 'Sorbus' 'Sorbus', 281. Alnus x incana 'Sorbus' 'Sorbus', 281. Alnus x incana 'Sorbus' 'Sorbus', 281. Alnus x incana 'Sorbus' 'Sorbus', 281. Alnus x incana 'Sorbus' 'Sorbus', 281. Alnus x incana 'Sorbus' 'Sorbus', 281. Alnus x incana 'Sorbus' 'Sorbus', 281. Alnus x incana 'Sorbus' 'Sorbus', 281. Alnus x incana 'Sorbus' 'Sorbus', 281. Alnus x incana 'Sorbus' 'Sorbus', 281. Alnus x incana 'Sorbus' 'Sorbus', 281. Alnus x incana 'Sorbus' 'Sorbus', 281. Alnus x incana 'Sorbus' 'Sorbus', 281. Alnus x incana 'Sorbus' 'Sorbus', 281. Alnus x incana 'Sorbus' 'Sorbus', 281. Alnus x incana 'Sorbus' 'Sorbus', 281. Alnus x incana 'Sorbus' 'Sorbus', 281. Alnus x incana 'Sorbus' 'Sorbus', 281. Alnus x incana 'Sorbus' 'Sorbus', 281. Alnus x incana 'Sorbus' 'Sorbus', 281. Alnus x incana 'Sorbus' 'Sorbus', 281. Alnus x incana 'Sorbus' 'Sorbus', 281. Alnus x incana 'Sorbus' 'Sorbus', 281. Alnus x incana 'Sorbus' 'Sorbus', 281. Alnus x incana 'Sorbus' 'Sorbs INDEX TO STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 859 Caryophyllaceae, 317 Ceratium dichotomum, 104 Ceratium fusiforme, 104 Chlorophyceae, 741 Chlorophyta, 741 Corydalis cava, 269 Corydalis flexuosa, 213 Corydalis solida, 213 Coriaria ruscifolia, 318 Coriaria sinensis, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Coriaria tschonoskii, 318 Compositae: all species. See Compositae. Compositae: capitula. See Compositae. Compositae: florets. See Compositae. Compositae: inflorescence. See Compositae. Compositae: involucrum. See Compositae. Compositae: receptacle. See Compositae. Compositae: ray floret. See Compositae. Compositae: sterile floret. See Compositae. Compositae: sterile floret. See Compositae. Compositae: sterile floret. See Compositae. Compositae: sterile floret. See Compositae. Compositae: sterile floret. See Compositae. Compositae: sterile floret. See Compositae. Compositae: sterile floret. See Compositae. Compositae: sterile floret. See Compositae. Compositae: sterile floret. See Compositae. Compositae: sterile floret. See Compositae. Compositae: sterile floret. See Compositae. Compositae: sterile floret. See Compositae. Compositae: sterile floret. See Compositae. Compositae: sterile floret. See Compositae. Compositae: sterile floret. See Compositae. Compositae: sterile floret. See Compositae. Compositae: sterile floret. See Compositae. Compositae: sterile floret. See Compositae. Compositae: sterile floret. See Compositae. Compositae: sterile floret. See Compositae. Compositae: sterile floret. See Compositae. Compositae: sterile floret. See Compositae. Compositae: sterile floret. See Compositae. Compositae: sterile floret. See Compositae. Compositae: sterile floret. See Compositae. Compositae: sterile floret. See Compositae. Compositae: sterile floret. See Compositae. Compositae: sterile floret. See Compositae. Compostea: capitula. See Compositea. Compostea: capitula. See Compositea. Compostea: capitula. See Compositea. Compostea: capitula. See Compositea. Compostea: capitula. See Compositea. Compostea: capitula. See Compositea. Compostea: capitula. See Compositea. Compostea: capitula. See Compositea. Compostea: capitula. See Compositea. Compostea: capitula. See Compositea. Compostea: capitula. See Compositea. Compostea: capitula. See Compositea. Compostea: capitula. See Compositea. Compostea: capitula. See Compositea. Compostea: capitula. See Compositea. Compostea: capitula. See Compositea. Compostea: capitula. See Compositea. Compostea: capitula. See Compositea. Compostea: capitula. See Compositea. Compostea: capitula. See Compositea. Compostea: capitula. See Compositea. Compostea: capitula. See Compositea. Compostea: capitula. See Compositea. Compostea: capitula. See Compositea. Compostea: capitula. See Compositea. Compostea: capitula. See Compositea. Compostea: capitula. See Compositea. Compostea: capitula. See Compositea. Compostea: capitula. See Compositea. 505050505050505050505050505050505050505050505050505050505050505050505050505050 Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dactylanthus tenuis (L.) Schrad., Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendroseres bidentatus var. Dendrosere S40 INDEX TO STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. Development of thymus-gland. Districhium, 340 Thymus, 340 Norfolk thyme Thymus, 340 786 Thyme, 340 Thymus, 340 Thymus, 340 Thymus, 340 Thymus, 340 Thymus, 340 Thymus, 340 Thymus, 340 Thymus, 340 Thymus, 340 Thymus, 340 Thymus, 340 Thymus, 340 Thymus, 340 Thymus, 340 Thymus, 340 Thymus, 340 Thymus, 340 Thymus, 340 Thymus, 340 Thymus, 340 Thymus, 340 Thymus, 340 Thymus, 340 Thymus, 340 Thymus, 340 Thymus, 340 Thymus, 340 Thymus Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Dactylanthus, 126 Bryophyllum daigremontianum, Bryophyllum daigremontianum, Bryophyllum daigremontianum, Bryophyllum daigremontianum, Bryophyllum daigremontianum, Bryophyllum daigremontianum, Bryophyllum daigremontianum, Bryophyllum daigremontianum, Bryophyllum daigremontianum, Bryophyllum daigremontianum, Bryophyllum daigremontianum, Bryophyllum daigremontianum, Bryophyllum daigremontianum, Bryophyllum daigremontianum, Bryophyllum daigremontianum, Bryophyllum daigremontianum, Bryophyllum daigremontianum, Bryophyllum daigremontianum, Bryophyllum daigremontianum, Bryophyllum daigremontianum, Bryophyllum daigremontianum, Bryophyllum daigremontianum, Bryophyllum daigremontianum, Bryophyllum daigremontianum, Bryophyllum daigremontianum, Bryophyllum daigremontianum, Bryophyllum daigremontianum, Bryophyllum daigremontianum, Bryophyllum daigremontianum, Bryophyllum daigremontianum, Bryophyllum daigremontianum, Bryophyllum daigremontianum, Bryophyllum daigremontianum, Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbia sp., Euphorbi INDEX TO STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY, 841 Ferulaceae: allosperma, 302 Ferula, 256 Ferula allosperma, 302 Ferula, 145, 200 Ferula allosperma, 302 Ferulaceae, 256 Ferulaceae, 145 Ferula allosperma, 302 Ferulaceae, 145 Ferula allosperma, 302 Ferulaceae, 145 Ferula allosperma, 302 Ferulaceae, 145 Ferula allosperma, 302 Ferulaceae, 145 Ferula allosperma, 302 Ferulaceae, 145 Ferula allosperma, 302 Ferulaceae, 145 Ferula allosperma, 302 Ferulaceae, 145 Ferula allosperma, 302 Ferulaceae, 145 Ferula allosperma, 302 Ferulaceae, 145 Ferula allosperma, 302 Ferulaceae, 145 Ferula allosperma, 302 Ferulaceae, 145 Ferula allosperma, 302 Ferulaceae, 145 Ferula allosperma, 302 Ferulaceae, 145 Ferula allosperma, 302 Ferulaceae, 145 Ferula allosperma, 302 Ferulaceae, 145 Ferula allosperma, 302 Ferulaceae, 145 Ferula allosperma, 302 Ferulaceae, 145 Ferula allosperma, 302 Ferulaceae, 145 Ferula allosperma, 302 Ferulaceae, 145 Ferula allosperma, 302 Ferulaceae, 145 Ferula allosperma, 302 Ferulaceae, 145 Ferula allosperma, 302 Ferulaceae, 145 Ferula allosperma, 302 Ferulaceae, 145 Ferula allosperma, 302 Ferulaceae, 145 Ferula allosperma, 302 Ferulaceae, 145 Ferula allosperma, 302 Ferulaceae, 145 Ferula allosperma, 302 Ferulaceae, 145 Ferula allosperma, 302 Ferulaceae, 145 Ferula allosperma, 302 841 Formed nervalis.760 Formed nervalis.760 Formed nervalis.760 Formed nervalis.760 Formed nervalis.760 Formed nervalis.760 Formed nervalis.760 Formed nervalis.760 Formed nervalis.760 Formed nervalis.760 Formed nervalis.760 Formed nervalis.760 Formed nervalis.760 Formed nervalis.760 Formed nervalis.760 Formed nervalis.760 Formed nervalis.760 Formed nervalis.760 Formed nervalis.760 Formed nervalis.760 Formed nervalis.760 Formed nervalis.760 Formed nervalis.760 Formed nervalis.760 Formed nervalis.760 Formed nervalis.760 Formed nervalis.760 Formed nervalis.760 Formed nervalis.760 Formed nervalis.760 Formed nervalis.760 Formed nervalis.760 Formed nervalis.760 Formed nervalis.760 Formed nervalis.760 Formed nervalis.760 Formed nervalis.760 Formed nervalis.760 Formed nervalis.760 Formed nervalis.760 Formed nervalis.760 Galeobdolon: Silea. Galeobdolon: Silea. Galeobdolon: Silea. Galeobdolon: Silea. Galeobdolon: Silea. Galeobdolon: Silea. Galeobdolon: Silea. Galeobdolon: Silea. Galeobdolon: Silea. Galeobdolon: Silea. Galeobdolon: Silea. Galeobdolon: Silea. Galeobdolon: Silea. Galeobdolon: Silea. Galeobdolon: Silea. Galeobdolon: Silea. Galeobdolon: Silea. Galeobdolon: Silea. Galeobdolon: Silea. Galeobdolon: Silea. Galeobdolon: Silea. Galeobdolon: Silea. Galeobdolon: Silea. Galeobdolon: Silea. Galeobdolon: Silea. Galeobdolon: Silea. Galeobdolon: Silea. Galeobdolon: Silea. Galeobdolon: Silea. Galeobdolon: Silea. Galeobdolon: Silea. Galeobdolon: Silea. Galeobdolon: Silea. Galeobdolon: Silea. Galeobdolon: Silea. Galeobdolon: Silea. Galeobdolon: Silea. Galeobdolon: Silea. Galeobdolon: Silea. Galeobdolon: Silea. Galeobdolon: Silea. Galeobdolon: Silea. Galeobdolon: Silea. Galeobdolon: Silea. Galeobdolon: Silea. Galeobdolon: Silea. Galeobdolon: Silea. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Grouping. Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: Cultivated fruit tree: 841 841 841 841 841 841 841 841 841 841 841 841 841 841 841 841 841 841 841 841 841 841 841 841 841 841 841 841 841 841 841 841 841 841 841 841 841 841 841 841 A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. A small image of a plant with green leaves and 843 INDEX TO STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. Platina, 60, 754 Lilium, 107, 108 Lilium albidum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Lilium bulbiferum, 107 Imperfect flower. 228 Imperfect flower. 228 Imperfect flower. 228 Imperfect flower. 228 Imperfect flower. 228 Imperfect flower. 228 Imperfect flower. 228 Imperfect flower. 228 Imperfect flower. 228 Imperfect flower. 228 Imperfect flower. 228 Imperfect flower. 228 Imperfect flower. 228 Imperfect flower. 228 Imperfect flower. 228 Imperfect flower. 228 Imperfect flower. 228 Imperfect flower. 228 Imperfect flower. 228 Imperfect flower. 228 Imperfect flower. 228 Imperfect flower. 228 Imperfect flower. 228 Imperfect flower. 228 Imperfect flower. 228 Imperfect flower. 228 Imperfect flower. 228 Imperfect flower. 228 Imperfect flower. 228 Imperfect flower. 228 Imperfect flower. 228 Imperfect flower. 228 Imperfect flower. 228 Imperfect flower. 228 Imperfect flower. 228 Imperfect flower. 228 Imperfect flower. 228 Imperfect flower. 228 Imperfect flower. 228 Imperfect flower. 228 Incompletely double flowers. Incompletely double flowers. Incompletely double flowers. Incompletely double flowers. Incompletely double flowers. Incompletely double flowers. Incompletely double flowers. Incompletely double flowers. Incompletely double flowers. Incompletely double flowers. Incompletely double flowers. Incompletely double flowers. Incompletely double flowers. Incompletely double flowers. Incompletely double flowers. Incompletely double flowers. Incompletely double flowers. Incompletely double flowers. Incompletely double flowers. Incompletely double flowers. Incompletely double flowers. Incompletely double flowers. Incompletely double flowers. Incompletely double flowers. Incompletely double flowers. Incompletely double flowers. Incompletely double flowers. Incompletely double flowers. Incompletely double flowers. Incompletely double flowers. Incompletely double flowers. Incompletely double flowers. Incompletely double flowers. Incompletely double flowers. Incompletely double flowers. Incompletely double flowers. Incompletely double flowers. Incompletely double flowers. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indeterminate inflorescence. Indetermine Inflorence (see Indeterminacy). Infertile calyx (see Infertile calyx). Infertile calyx (see Infertile calyx). Infertile calyx (see Infertile calyx). Infertile calyx (see Infertile calyx). Infertile calyx (see Infertile calyx). Infertile calyx (see Infertile calyx). Infertile calyx (see Infertile calyx). Infertile calyx (see Infertile calyx). Infertile calyx (see Infertile calyx). Infertile calyx (see Infertile calyx). Infertile calyx (see Infertile calyx). Infertile calyx (see Infertile calyx). Infertile calyx (see Infertile calyx). Infertile calyx (see Infertile calyx). Infertile calyx (see Infertile calyx). Infertile calyx (see Infertile calyx). Infertile calyx (see Infertile calyx). Infertile calyx (see Infertile calyx). Infertile calyx (see Infertile calyx). Infertile calyx (see Infertile calyx). Infertile calyx (see Infertile calyx). Infertile calyx (see Infertile calyx). Infertile calyx (see Infertile calyx). Infertile calyx (see Infertile calyx). Infertile calyx (see Infertile calyx). Infertile calyx (see Infertile calyx). Infertile calyx (see Infertile calyx). Infertile calyx (see Infertile calyx). Infertile calyx (see Infertile calyx). Infertile calyx (see Infertile calyx). Infertile calyx (see Infertile calyx). Infertile calyx (see Infertile calyx). Infertile calyx (see Infertile calyx). Infertile calyx (see Infertile calyx). Infertile calyx (see Infertile calyx). Infertile calyx (see Infertile calyx). Infertile calyx (see Infertile calx A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a plant's reproductive organs. A diagram showing the structure of a
Article number. Author's name, title, page, date.
Ancient, 305 Antonius, 306
Ancient, 307 Antonius, 308
Ancient, 308 Antonius, 309
Ancient, 309 Antonius, 310
Ancient, 310 Antonius, 311
Ancient, 311 Antonius, 312
Ancient, 312 Antonius, 313
Ancient, 313 Antonius, 314
Ancient, 314 Antonius, 315
Ancient, 315 Antonius, 316
Ancient, 316 Antonius, 317
Ancient, 317 Antonius, 318
Ancient, 318 Antonius, 319
Ancient, 319 Antonius, 320
Ancient, 320 Antonius, 321
Ancient, 321 Antonius, 322
Ancient, 322 Antonius, 323
Ancient, 323 Antonius, 324
Ancient, 324 Antonius, 325
Ancient, 325 Antonius, 326
Ancient, 326 Antonius, 327
Ancient, 327 Antonius, 328
Ancient, 328 Antonius, 329
Ancient, 329 Antonius, 330
Ancient, 330 Antonius, 331
ILLUMINATED FERTILE LILIES:
Liliopsis alba,Liliopsis alba,Liliopsis alba,
Liliopsis alba,Liliopsis alba,Liliopsis alba,
Liliopsis alba,Liliopsis alba,Liliopsis alba,
Liliopsis alba,Liliopsis alba,Liliopsis alba,
Liliopsis alba,Liliopsis alba,Liliopsis alba,
Liliopsis alba,Liliopsis alba,Liliopsis alba,
Liliopsis alba,Liliopsis alba,Liliopsis alba,
Liliopsis alba,Liliopsis alba,Liliopsis alba,
Liliopsis alba,Liliopsis alba,Liliopsis alba,
Liliopsis alba,Liliopsis alba,Liliopsis alba,
Liliopsis alba,Liliopsis alba,Liliopsis alba,
Liliopsis alba,Liliopsis alba,Liliopsis alba,
Liliopsis alba,Liliopsis alba,Liliopsis alba,
INDEX TO STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL ROTARY. 848 Laws of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine Law of doctrine 848 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 Maurer, 239 848 848 848 848 848 848 848 848 848 848 848 848 848 848 848 848 848 848 848 848 848 848 848 848 848 848 848 848 848 848 848 848 848 848 Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) Measurements (plant per.) **844 INDEX TO STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.** **CHORDATEAE, 165** **Chordata, 165** **Chironia, 165, 935, 949** **Chloraea, 20** **Chloropsis, 171** **Cistus, 165, 187** **Cistus, 165** **Citrus, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Citrusx, 165** **Cotulaeae**, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Cotula*, **200** *Corydalis**, **333**, *333* *Corydalis*. *333* *Corydalis*. *333* *Corydalis*. *333* *Corydalis*. *333* *Corydalis*. *333* *Corydalis*. *333* *Corydalis*. *333* *Corydalis*. *333* *Corydalis*. *333* *Corydalis*. *333* *Corydalis*. *333* *Corydalis*. *333* *Corydalis*. *333* *Corydalis*. *333* *Corydalis*. *333* *Corydalis*. *333* *Corydalis*. *333* *Corydalis*. *333* *Corydalis*. *333* *Corydalis*. *333* *Corydalis*. *333* *Corydalis*. *333* *Corydalis*. *333* *Corydalis*. *333* *Corydalis*. *333* *Corydalis*. *333* *Corydalis*. *333* *Corydalis*. *334* Pulmonate root. 9 Pulmonate root. 9 Pulmonate root. 9 Pulmonate root. 9 Pulmonate root. 9 Pulmonate root. 9 Pulmonate root. 9 Pulmonate root. 9 Pulmonate root. 9 Pulmonate root. 9 Pulmonate root. 9 Pulmonate root. 9 Pulmonate root. 9 Pulmonate root. 9 Pulmonate root. 9 Pulmonate root. 9 Pulmonate root. 9 Pulmonate root. 9 Pulmonate root. 9 Pulmonate root. 9 Pulmonate root. 9 Pulmonate root. 9 Pulmonate root. 9 Pulmonate root. 9 Pulmonate root. 9 Pulmonate root. 9 Pulmonate root. 9 Pulmonate root. 9 Pulmonate root. 9 Pulmonate root. 9 Pulmonate root. 9 Pulmonate root. 9 Perforated leaf. 888, 888, 888 Perforated leaf. 888-888* Perforated leaf. 888-888* Perforated leaf. 888-888* Perforated leaf. 888-888* Perforated leaf. 888-888* Perforated leaf. 888-888* Perforated leaf. 888-888* Perforated leaf. 888-888* Perforated leaf. 888-888* Perforated leaf. 888-888* Perforated leaf. 888-888* Perforated leaf. 888-888* Perforated leaf. 888-888* Perforated leaf. 888-888* Perforated leaf. 888-888* Perforated leaf. 877-777* Perforated leaf. 777-777* Perforated leaf. 777-777* Perforated leaf. 777-777* Perforated leaf. 777-777* Perforated leaf. 777-777* Perforated leaf. 777-777* Perforated leaf. 777-777* Perforated leaf. 777-777* Perforated leaf. 777-777* Perforated leaf. 777-777* Perforated leaf. 777-777* Perforated leaf. 777-777* Perforated leaf. 777-777* Perforated leaf. 444-444* Perforated leaf. 444-444* Perforated leaf. 444-444* Perforated leaf. 444-444* Perforated leaf. 444-444* Perforated leaf. 444-444* Perforated leaf. 444-444* Perforated leaf. 444-444* Perforated leaf. 444-444* Perforated leaf. 444-444* Perforated leaf. 444-444*

A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. Perforated leaf with white margin on upper surface. Perforation in the margin of the leaves. Perforation in the margin of the leaves. Perforation in the margin of the leaves. Perforation in the margin of the leaves. Perforation in the margin of the leaves. Perforation in the margin of the leaves. Perforation in the margin of the leaves. Perforation in the margin of the leaves. Perforation in the margin of the leaves. Perforation in the margin of the leaves. Perforation in the margin of the leaves. Perforation in the margin of the leaves. Perforation in the margin of the leaves. Perforation in the margin of the leaves. Perforation in the margin of the leaves. Perforation in the margin of the leaves. Perforation in the margin of the leaves. Perforation in the margin of the leaves. Perforation in the margin of the leaves. Perforation in the margin of the leaves. Perforation in the margin of the leaves. Perforation in the margin of the leaves. Perforation in the margin of the leaves. Perforation in the margin of the leaves. Perforation in the margin of the leaves. Perforation in the margin of the leaves. Perforation in the margin of the leaves. Perforation in the margin of the leaves. Perforation in the margin of the leaves. Perforation in the margin of the leaves. Perforation in the margin of the leaves. Perforation in the margin of the leaves. Perforation in the margin of the leaves. Perforation in the margin of the leaves. Periodic flowering (annual). Periodic flowering (annual). Periodic flowering (annual). Periodic flowering (annual). Periodic flowering (annual). Periodic flowering (annual). Periodic flowering (annual). Periodic flowering (annual). Periodic flowering (annual). Periodic flowering (annual). Periodic flowering (annual). Periodic flowering (annual). Periodic flowering (annual). Periodic flowering (annual). Periodic flowering (annual). Periodic flowering (annual). Periodic flowering (annual). Periodic flowering (annual). Periodic flowering (annual). Periodic flowering (annual). Periodic flowering (annual). Periodic flowering (annual). Periodic flowering (annual). Periodic flowering (annual). Periodic flowering (annual). Periodic flowering (annual). Periodic flowering (annual). Periodic flowering (annual). Periodic flowering (annual). Periodic flowering (annual). Periodic flowering (annual). Periodic flowering (annual). Periodic flowering (annual). Periodic flowering (annual). Periodic flowering (annual). Periodic flowering (annual). Periodic flowering (annual). Periodic flowering (annual). Periodic flowering (annual). Periodic flowering (annual). Periodic flowering (annual). Periodic flowering (annual). Periodic flowering (annual). Periodic flowering (annual). Periodic flowering (annual). INDEX TO STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 845 Platycladus, 361, 362, 367. Pistacia, 309, 310, 311, 312, 313, 314, 315, 316, 317, 318, 319, 320, 321, 322, 323, 324, 325, 326, 327, 328, 329, 330, 331, 332, 333, 334, 335, 336, 337, 338, 339, 340, 341, 342, 343, 344, 345, 346, 347, 348, 349, 350, 351, 352, 353, 354, 355, 356, 357, 358, 359, 360 Pinus strobus L., 189 Pinus virginiana Mill., 189 Pinus virginiana Mill., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Sarg., var. glauca (L.) Pinus virginiana Mill., subsp. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Pinus virginiana Mill. Platycladus orientalis L. Platycladus orientalis L. Platycladus orientalis L. Platycladus orientalis L. Platycladus orientalis L. Platycladus orientalis L. Platycladus orientalis L. Platycladus orientalis L. Platycladus orientalis L. Platycladus orientalis L. Platycladus orientalis L. Platycladus orientalis L. Platycladus orientalis L. Platycladus orientalis L. Platycladus orientalis L. Platycladus orientalis L. Platycladus orientalis L. Platycladus orientalis L. Platycladus orientalis L. Platycladus orientalis L. Platycladus orientalis L. Platycladus orientalis L. Platycladus orientalis L. Platycladus orientalis L. Platycladus orientalis L. Platycladus orientalis L. Platycladus orientalis L. Platycladus orientalis L. Platycladus orientalis L. Platycladus orientalis L. Platycladus orientalis L. Platycladus orientalis L. Platycladus orientalis L. Platycladus orientalis L. Platycladus orientalis L. Platycladus orientalis L. Platycladus orientalis L. Platycyrtis scabra Hook.f Pistacia terebinthus L. Pistacia terebinthus L. Pistacia terebinthus L. Pistacia terebinthus L. Pistacia terebinthus L. Pistacia terebinthus L. Pistacia terebinthus L. Pistacia terebinthus L. Pistacia terebinthus L. Pistacia terebinthus L. Pistacia terebinthus L. Pistacia terebinthus L. Pistacia terebinthus L. Pistacia terebinthus L. Pistacia terebinthus L. Pistacia terebinthus L. Pistacia terebinthus L. Pistacia terebinthus L. Pistacia terebinthus L. Pistacia terebinthus L. Pistacia terebinthus L. Pistacia terebinthus L. Pistacia terebinthus L. Pistacia terebinthus L. Pistacia terebinthus L. Pistacia terebinthus L. Pistacia terebinthus L. Pistacia terebinthus L. Pistacia terebinthus L. Pistacia terebinthus L. Pistacia terebinthus L. Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae 646 INDEX TO STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. Bactritonella rotula, 43 Baculifera, 105 Baculifera, 107 Baculifera, 108 Baculifera, 109 Baculifera, 110 Baculifera, 111 Baculifera, 112 Baculifera, 113 Baculifera, 114 Baculifera, 115 Baculifera, 116 Baculifera, 117 Baculifera, 118 Baculifera, 119 Baculifera, 120 Baculifera, 121 Baculifera, 122 Baculifera, 123 Baculifera, 124 Baculifera, 125 Baculifera, 126 Baculifera, 127 Baculifera, 128 Baculifera, 129 Baculifera, 130 Baculifera, 131 Baculifera, 132 Baculifera, 133 Baculifera, 134 Baculifera, 135 Baculifera, 136 Baculifera, 137 Baculifera, 138 Baculifera, 139 Baculifera, 140 Baculifera, 141 Baculifera, 142 Baculifera, 143 Baculifera, 144 Baculifera, 145 Bactritonella rotula, 43 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 58 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 59 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 60 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 61 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 62 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 63 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 64 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 65 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 66 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 67 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 68 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 69 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 70 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 71 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 72 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 73 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 74 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 75 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 76 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 77 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 78 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 79 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 80 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 81 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 82 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 83 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 84 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 85 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 86 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 87 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 88 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 89 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 90 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 91 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 92 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 93 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 94 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 95 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 96 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 97 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 98 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 99 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 100 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 101 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 102 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 103 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 104 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 105 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 106 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 107 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 108 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 109 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 110 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 111 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 112 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 113 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 114 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 115 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 116 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 117 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 118 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 119 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 120 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 121 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 122 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 123 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 124 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 125 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 126 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 127 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 128 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 129 Botryococcus braunii (Gomont), 130 Bottrycoccus boweri var. boweri var., Bower's Plant Specimen No. B-5., Bower's Plant Specimen No. B-5., Bower's Plant Specimen No. B-5., Bower's Plant Specimen No. B-5., Bower's Plant Specimen No. B-5., Bower's Plant Specimen No. B-5., Bower's Plant Specimen No. B-5., Bower's Plant Specimen No. B-5., Bower's Plant Specimen No. B-5., Bower's Plant Specimen No. B-5., Bower's Plant Specimen No. B-5., Bower's Plant Specimen No. B-5., Bower's Plant Specimen No. B-5., Bower's Plant Specimen No. B-5., Bower's Plant Specimen No. B-5., Bower's Plant Specimen No. B-5., Bower's Plant Specimen No. B-5., Bower's Plant Specimen No. B-5., Bower's Plant Specimen No. B-5., Bower's Plant Specimen No. B-5., Bower's Plant Specimen No. B-5., Bower's Plant Specimen No. B-5., Bower's Plant Specimen No. B-5., Bower's Plant Specimen No. B-5., Bower's Plant Specimen No. B-5., Bower's Plant Specimen No. B-5., Bower's Plant Specimen No. B-5., Bower's Plant Specimen No. B-5., Bower's Plant Specimen No. B-5., Bower's Plant Specimen No. B-5., Bower's Plant Specimen No. B-5., Bower's Plant Specimen No. B-5., Bower's Plant Specimen No. B-5., Bower's Plant Specimen No. B-5., Bower's Plant Specimen No. B-5., Bower's Plant Specimen No. B-5., Bower's Plant Specimen No. B-5., Bower's Plant Specimen No. B-5., Bower's Plant Specimen No. B-5., Bower's Plant Specimen No. B-5., Bower's Plant Specimen No. B-5., Bower's Plant Specimen No. B-5., Bower's Plant Specimen No. B-5.291 Surfaces. 292 Surfaces. 293 Surfaces. 294 Surfaces. 295 Surfaces. 296 Surfaces. 297 Surfaces. 298 Surfaces. 299 Surfaces. 301 Surfaces. 311 Surfaces. 312 Surfaces. 313 Surfaces. 314 Surfaces. 315 Surfaces. 316 Surfaces. 317 Surfaces. 318 Surfaces. 319 Surfaces. 321 Surfaces. 322 Surfaces. 323 Surfaces. 324 Surfaces. 325 Surfaces. 326 Surfaces. 327 Surfaces. 328 Surfaces. 329 Surfaces. 331 Surfaces. 332 Surfaces. 333 Surfaces. 334 Surfaces. 335 Surfaces. 336 Surfaces. 337 Surfaces. 338 Taxonomy. 177 Taxonomy. 178 Taxonomy. 179 Taxonomy. 181 Taxonomy. 261-262 Taxonomy. 269-271> Taxonomy. 275-277> Taxonomy. 281-282> Taxonomy. 285-286> Taxonomy. 291-292> Taxonomy. 295-296> Taxonomy. 299-301> Taxonomy. 311-312> Taxonomy. 315-316> Taxonomy. 319-321> Taxonomy. 325-326> Taxonomy. 329-331> Tectaria (L.) Hook., subgenus by Hooker Tectaria (L.) Hook., subgenus by Hooker Tectaria (L.) Hook., subgenus by Hooker Tectaria (L.) Hook., subgenus by Hooker Tectaria (L.) Hook., subgenus by Hooker Tectaria (L.) Hook., subgenus by Hooker Tectaria (L.) Hook., subgenus by Hooker Tectaria (L.) Hook., subgenus by Hooker Tectaria (L.) Hook., subgenus by Hooker Tectaria (L.) Hook., subgenus by Hooker Tectaria (L.) Hook., subgenus by Hooker Tectaria (L.) Hook., subgenus by Hooker Tectaria (L.) Hook., subgenus by Hooker Tectaria (L.) Hook., subgenus by Hooker Tectaria (L.) Hook., subgenus by Hooker Tectaria (L.) Hook., subgenus by Hooker Tectaria (L.) Hook., subgenus by Hooker Tectaria (L.) Hook., subgenus by Hooker Tectaria (L.) Hook., subgenus by Hooker Tectaria (L.) Hook., subgenus by Hooker Tectaria (L.) Hook., subgenus by Hooker Tectaria (L.) Hook., subgenus by Hooker Tectaria (L.) Hook., subgenus by Hooker Tectaria (L.) Hook., subgenus by Hooker Tectaria (L.) Hook., subgenus by Hooker Tectaria (L.) Hook., subgenus by Hooker Tectaria (L.) Hook., subgenus by Hooker Tectaria (L.) Hook., subgenus by Hooker Tectaria (L.) Hook., subgenus by Hooker Tectaria (L.) Hook., subgenus by Hooker Tectaria (L.) Hook., subgenus by Hooker Tectaria (L.) Hook., subgenus by Hooker Tectaria (L.) Hook., subgenus by Hooker Tectaria (L.) Hook., subgenus by Hooker Tectaria (L.) Hook., subgenus by Hooker Tectaria (L.) Hook., subgenus by Hooker Tectaria (L.) Hook., subgenus byHooker Tecophilaea variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata variegata Tecophilaea viridiflora Tecophilaea viridiflora Tecophilaea viridiflora Tecophilaea viridiflora Tecophilaea viridiflora Tecophilaea viridiflora Tecophilaea viridiflora Tecophilaea viridiflora Tecophilaea viridiflora Tecophilaea viridiflora Tecophilaea viridiflora Tecophilaea viridiflora Tecophilaea viridiflora Tecophilaea viridiflora Tecophilaea viridiflora Tecophilaea viridiflora Tecophilaea viridiflora Tecophilaea viridiflora Tecophilaea viridiflora Tecophilaea viridiflora Tecophilaea viridiflora Tecophilaea viridiflora Tecophilaea viridiflora Tecophilaea viridiflora Tecophilaea viridiflora Tecophilaea viridiflora Tecophilaea viridiflora Tecophilaea viridiflora Tecophilaea viridiflora Tecophilaea viridiflora Tecophilaea viridiflora Tecophilaea viridiflora Tecophilaea viridiflora Tecophilaea viridiflora Tecophilaea viridiflora Tecophilaea viridiflora Tecophilaea viridiflora Tecophilaea viridiflora Tecophilaea viridiflora Tecophilaea viridiflora Tecoma acuminatus Acuminatus Acuminatus Acuminatus Acuminatus Acuminatus Acuminatus Acuminatus Acuminatus Acuminatus Acuminatus Acuminatus Acuminatus Acuminatus Acuminatus Acuminatus Acuminatus Acuminatus Acuminatus Acuminatus Acuminatus Acuminatus Acuminatus Acuminatus Acuminatus Acuminatus Acuminatus Acuminatus Acuminatus Acuminatus Acuminatus Acuminatus Acuminatus Acuminatus Acuminatus Acuminatus Acuminatus Acuminatus Acuminatus Acuminatus Acuminatus Acuminatus Acuminatus Acuminatus Acuminatus Acuminatus Acuminatus Acuminatus Tecoma crenulatissima Crenulatissima Crenulatissima Crenulatissima Crenulatissima Crenulatissima Crenulatissima Crenulatissima Crenulatissima Crenulatissima Crenulatissima Crenulatissima Crenulatissima Crenulatissima Crenulatissima Crenulatissima Crenulatissima Crenulatissima Crenulatissima Crenulatissima Crenulatissima Crenulatissima Crenulatissima Crenulatissima Crenulatissima Crenulatissima Crenulatissima Crenulatissima Crenulatissima Crenulatissima Crenulatissima Crenulatissima Crenulatissima Crenulatissima Crenulatissima Crenulatissima Crenulatissima Crenulatissima Crenulatissima Tecoma cymosa cymosa cymosa cymosa cymosa cymosa cymosa cymosa cymosa cymosa cymosa cymosa cymosa cymosa cymosa cymosa cymosa cymosa cymosa cymosa cymosa cymosa cymosa cymosa cymosa cymosa cymosa cymosa cymosa cymosa cymosa cymosa cymosa cymosa cymosa cymosa cymosa cymosa cymosa cymosa cymosa cymosa cymosa Tecoma dasyantha Dasyantha Dasyantha Dasyantha Dasyantha Dasyantha Dasyantha Dasyantha Dasyantha Dasyantha Dasyantha Dasyantha Dasyantha Dasyantha Dasyantha Dasyantha Dasyantha Dasyantha Dasyantha Dasyantha Dasyantha Dasyantha Dasyantha Dasyantha Dasyantha Dasyantha Dasyantha Dasyantha Dasyantha Dasyantha Dasyantha Dasyantha Dasyantha Dasyantha Dasyantha Dasyantha Dasyantha Dasyantha Dasyantha Dasyantha Dasyantha Dasyantha Dasyantha Dasyantha Dasyantha Dasyantha Dasyantha Tecoma decumbens Decumbens Decumbens Decumbens Decumbens Decumbens Decumbens Decumbens Decumbens Decumbens Decumbens Decumbens Decumbens Decumbens Decumbens Decumbens Decumbens Decumbens Decumbens Decumbens Decumbens Decumbens Decumbens Decumbens Decumbens Decumbens Decumbens Decumbens Decumbens Decumbens Decumbens Decumbens Decumbens Decumbens Decumbens Decumbens Decumbens Decumbens Decumbens Decumbens Decumbens Decumbens Decumbens Decumbens Tecoma decurrens decurrens decurrens decurrens decurrens decurrens decurrens decurrens decurrens decurrens decurrens decurrens decurrens decurrens decurrens decurrens decurrens decurrens decurrens decurrens decurrens decurrens decurrens decurrens decurrens decurrens decurrens decurrens decurrens decurrens decurrens decurrens decurrens decurrens decurrens decurrens decurrens Tecoma densa densa densa densa densa densa densa densa densa densa densa densa densa densa densa densa densa densa densa densa densa densa densa densa densa densa densa densa densa densa densa densa densa densa densa densa densa densa densa Tecoma diversifolia diversifolia diversifolia diversifolia diversifolia diversifolia diversifolia diversifolia diversifolia diversifolia diversifolia diversifolia diversifolia diversifolia diversifolia diversifolia diversifolia diversifolia diversifolia diversifolia diversifolia diversifolia diversifolia diversifolia diversifolia diversifolia diversifolia diversifolia diversifolia diversifolia diversifolia diversifolia diversifolia diversifolia diversifolia diversifolia diversifolia diversifolia diversifolia diversifolia diversifolia diversифolium Tecoma ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipticoides ellipsoidis Tecoma erecta erecta erecta erecta erecta erecta erecta erecta erecta erecta erecta erecta erecta erecta erecta erecta erecta erecta erecta erecta erecta erecta erecta erecta erecta erecta erecta erecta erecta erecta erectae erectae erectae erectae erectae erectae erectae erectae erectae erectae erectae erectae erectae erectae erectae erectae erectae erectae erectae erectae erectae erectae erectae erectae erectae erectae erectae Tecoma fimbriolatum fimbriolatum fimbriolatum fimbriolatum fimbriolatum fimbriolatum fimbriolatum fimbriolatum fimbriolatum fimbriolatum fimbriolatum fimbriolatum fimbriolatum fimbriolatum fimbriolatum fimbriolatum fimbriolatum fimbriolatum fimbriolatum fimbriolatum fimbriolatum fimbriolatum fimbriolatum fimbriolatum fimbriolatum fimbriolatum fimbriolatum fimbriolatum fimbriolatum fimbriolatum fimbriolatum fimbriolatum fimbriolatum fimbriolatum fimbriolatum fimbriolatum fimbriolatum fimbriolatum fimbriolatum fimbriolatum fimbriolatum fimbriolatum Tecoma floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribunda floribundum Tecoma fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticans fruticanum Tecoma fragrans fragrans fragrans fragrans fragrans fragrans fragrans fragrans fragrans fragrans fragrans fragrans fragrans fragrans fragrans fragrans fragrans fragrans fragrans fragrans fragrans fragrans fragrans fragrans fragrans fragrans fragrans fragrans fragrans fragrans fragrans fragrans fragrans fragrans fragrans fragrans fragrans fragrans fragrans fragrans fragrans fragrans fragrans fragrans fragrans fragrans fragrans fragrances Tecoma grandis grandis grandis grandis grandis grandis grandis grandis grandis grandis grandis grandis grandis grandis grandis grandis grandis grandis grandis grandis grandis grandis grandis grandis grandis grandis grandis grandis grandis grandis grandis grandis grandis grandis grandis grandis grandis grandis grandis grandis grandis grandis grandis grandis grandis grandis grandis grandis grandis Tecoma grisebachiana grisebachiana grisebachiana grisebachiana grisebachiana grisebachiana grisebachiana grisebachiana grisebachiana grisebachiana grisebachiana grisebachiana grisebachiana grisebachiana grisebachiana grisebachiana grisebachiana grisebachiana grisebachiana grisebachiana grisebachiana grisebachiana grisebachiana grisebachiana grisebachiana grisebachiana grisebachiana grisebachiana grisebachiana grisebachiana grisebachiana grisebachiana grisebachiana grisebachiana grisebachiana grisebachiana grisebachiana Tecoma hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta hirsuta Tecoma hispida hispida hispida hispida hispida hispida hispida hispida hispida hispida hispida hispida hispida hispida hispida hispida hispida hispida hispida hispida hispida hispida hispida hispida hispida hispida hispida hispida hispida hispida hispida hispida hispida hispida hispida hispida hispida hispida hispida hispida hispida hispida hispida hispidum Tecoma heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllia heterophyllium Tecoma holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holstii holistium Tecoma hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri hookeri Tecoma humilior humilior humilior humilior humilior humilior humilior humilior humilior humilior humilior humilior humilior humilior humilior humilior humilior humilior humilior humilior humilior humilior humilior humilior humilior humilior humilior humilior humilior humilior humilior humilior humilior humilior humilior humilior humilior humilior humilior humilior humilior humilior humilior humilior humilior humilior humilior humilio Tecoma incana incana incana incana incana incana incana incana incana incana incana incana incana incana incana incana incana incana incana incana incana incana incana incana incana incana incana incana incana incana incana incana incana incana incana incana incana incana incana incana incana incana incana incana incana incana incana incanum Tecoma insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularum insularam Tecoma intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedia intermedio Tecoma jamaicensis jamaicensis jamaicensis jamaicensis jamaicensis jamaicensis jamaicensis jamaicensis jamaicensis jamaicensis jamaicensis jamaicensis jamaicensis jamaicensis jamaicensis jamaicensis jamaicensis jamaicensis jamaicensis jamaicensis jamaicensis jamaicensi jamaicensi jamaicensi jamaicensi jamaicensi jamaicensi jamaicensi jamaicensi jamaicensi jamaicensi jamaicensi jamaicensi jamaicensi jamaicensi jamaicensi jamaicensi jamaicensi jamaicensi jamaicensi jamaicensi jamaicensi jamaicensi jamaicensi jamaicensi jamaiciense 3 **INDEX** **ABBREVIATIONS, 307** Adenanthus, 657 Aethionema, 657 Alcea, 678 Alchemilla, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Allium, 687 Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) L. Althaea officinalis (L.) Adenanthus ciliatus R.Br. subsp. ciliatus R.Br. subsp. ciliatus R.Br. subsp. ciliatus R.Br. subsp. ciliatus R.Br. subsp. ciliatus R.Br. subsp. ciliatus R.Br. subsp. ciliatus R.Br. subsp. ciliatus R.Br. subsp. ciliatus R.Br. subsp. ciliatus R.Br. subsp. ciliatus R.Br. subsp. ciliatus R.Br. subsp. ciliatus R.Br. subsp. ciliatus R.Br. subsp. ciliatus R.Br. subsp. ciliatus R.Br. subsp. ciliatus R.Br. subsp. ciliatus R.Br. subsp. ciliatus R.Br. subsp. ciliatus R.Br. subsp. ciliatus R.Br. subsp. ciliatus R.Br. subsp. ciliatus R.Br. subsp. ciliatus R.Br. subsp. ciliatus R.Br. subsp. ciliatus R.Br. subsp. ciliatus R.Br. subsp. ciliatus R.Br. subsp. ciliatus R.Br. subsp. ciliatus R.Br. subsp. ciliatus R.Br. 33333333333333333333333333333333333333853 INDEX TO SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. Blue flag, 688 ---, 689 ---, 690 ---, 691 ---, 692 ---, 693 ---, 694 ---, 695 ---, 696 ---, 697 ---, 698 ---, 699 ---, 700 ---, 701 ---, 702 ---, 703 ---, 704 ---, 705 ---, 706 ---, 707 ---, 708 ---, 709 ---, 710 ---, 711 ---, 712 ---, 713 ---, 714 ---, 715 ---, 716 ---, 717 ---, 718 ---, 719 ---, 720 ---, 721 ---, 722 ---, 723 ---, 724 ---, 725 ---, 726 ---, 727 ---, 728 ---, 729 ---, 730 ---, 731 ---, 732 ---, 733 ---, 734 ---, 735 ---, 736 ---, 737 ---, 738 ---, 739 ---, 740 ---, 741 ---, 742 ---, 743 Bristle-leaved sedge, 514 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 514 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 515 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 516 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 517 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 518 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 519 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 520 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 521 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 522 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 523 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 524 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 525 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 526 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 527 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 528 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 529 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 530 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 531 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 532 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 533 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 534 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 535 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 536 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 537 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 538 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 539 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 540 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 541 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 542 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 543 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 544 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 545 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 546 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 547 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 548 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 549 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 550 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 551 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 552 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 553 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 554 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 555 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 556 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 557 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 558 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 559 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum), 600 Bristle-leaved sedge (Eriophorum) 601 Black-bellied sparrow 602 Black-bellied sparrow 603 Black-bellied sparrow 604 Black-bellied sparrow 605 Black-bellied sparrow 606 Black-bellied sparrow 607 Black-bellied sparrow 608 Black-bellied sparrow 609 Black-bellied sparrow 610 Black-bellied sparrow 611 Black-bellied sparrow 612 Black-bellied sparrow 613 Black-bellied sparrow 614 Black-bellied sparrow 615 Black-bellied sparrow 616 Black-bellied sparrow 617 Black-bellied sparrow 618 Black-bellied sparrow 619 Black-bellied sparrow 620 Black-bellied sparrow 621 Black-bellied sparrow 622 Black-bellied sparrow 623 Black-bellied sparrow 624 Black-bellied sparrow 625 Black-bellied sparrow 626 Black-bellied sparrow 627 Black-bellied sparrow 628 Black-bellied sparrow 629 Black-bellied sparrow 630 Black-bellied sparrow 631 Black-bellied sparrow 632 Black-bellied sparrow 633 CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM - CALAMARIA.COM INDEX TO SYSTEMATIO BOTAN. 633 Caryopteris, 518 Chamaecrista, 723 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 Corydalis, 728 C Corynephorus canadensis (L.) R. Br. 633 633 633 633 633 633 633 633 633 633 633 633 633 633 633 633 633 633 633 633 633 633 633 633 633 633 633 633 633 633 633 633 633 633 633 633 633 633 633 634 Crepis capillaris L. Crepis capillaris L. Crepis capillaris L. Crepis capillaris L. Crepis capillaris L. Crepis capillaris L. Crepis capillaris L. Crepis capillaris L. Crepis capillaris L. Crepis capillaris L. Crepis capillaris L. Crepis capillaris L. Crepis capillaris L. Crepis capillaris L. Crepis capillaris L. Crepis capillaris L. Crepis capillaris L. Crepis capillaris L. Crepis capillaris L. Crepis capillaris L. Crepis capillaris L. Crepis capillaris L. Crepis capillaris L. Crepis capillaris L. Crepis capillaris L. Crepis capillaris L. Crepis capillaris L. Crepis capillaris L. Crepis capillaris L. Crepis capillaris L. Crepis capillaris L. Crepis capillaris L. Crepis capillaris L. Crepis capillaris L. Crepis capillaris L. Crepis capillaris L. Crepis capillaris L. Crepis capillaris L. Crepis capillaris L. Crepis capillaris L. Crepis capillaris L. Crepis capillaris L. Crepis capillaris L. Crepis capillaris L. Crinum asiaticum (L.) Willk. ex Benth. & Hook.f. Crinum asiaticum (L.) Willk. ex Benth. & Hook.f. Crinum asiaticum (L.) Willk. ex Benth. & Hook.f. Crinum asiaticum (L.) Willk. ex Benth. & Hook.f. Crinum asiaticum (L.) Willk. ex Benth. & Hook.f. Crinum asiaticum (L.) Willk. ex Benth. & Hook.f. Crinum asiaticum (L.) Willk. ex Benth. & Hook.f. Crinum asiaticum (L.) Willk. ex Benth. & Hook.f. Crinum asiaticum (L.) Willk. ex Benth. & Hook.f. Crinum asiaticum (L.) Willk. ex Benth. & Hook.f. Crinum asiaticum (L.) Willk. ex Benth. & Hook.f. Crinum asiaticum (L.) Willk. ex Benth. & Hook.f. Crinum asiaticum (L.) Willk. ex Benth. & Hook.f. Crinum asiaticum (L.) Willk. ex Benth. & Hook.f. Crinum asiaticum (L.) Willk. ex Benth. & Hook.f. Crinum asiaticum (L.) Willk. ex Benth. & Hook.f. Crinum asiaticum (L.) Willk. ex Benth. & Hook.f. Crinum asiaticum (L.) Willk. ex Benth. & Hook.f. Crinum asiaticum (L.) Willk. ex Benth. & Hook.f. Crinum asiaticum (L.) Willk. ex Benth. & Hook.f. Crinum asiaticum (L.) Willk. ex Benth. & Hook.f. Crinum asiaticum (L.) Willk. ex Benth. & Hook.f. Crinum asiaticum (L.) Willk. ex Benth. & Hook.f. Crinum asiaticum (L.) Willk. ex Benth. & Hook.f. Crinum asiaticum (L.) Willk. ex Benth. & Hook.f. Crinum asiaticum (L.) Willk. ex Benth. & Hook.f. Crinum asiaticum (L.) Willk. ex Benth. & Hook.f. Crinum asiaticum (L.) Willk. ex Benth. & Hook.f. Crinum asiaticum (L.) Willk. ex Benth. & Hook.f. Crinum asiaticum (L.) Willk. ex Benth. & Hook.f. Crinum asiaticum (L.) Willk. ex Benth. & Hook.f. Crinum asiaticum (L.) Willk. ex Benth. & Hook.f. Crinum asiaticum (L.) Willk. ex Benth. & Hook.f. Crinum asiaticum (L.) Willk. ex Benth. & Hook.f. Crinum asiaticum (L.) Willk.ex
848 INDEX TO STRUCTURAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.
Cuscuta, 305 Varieties of physostegia, 167
Umbelliferae, 592 Tuberosa, 78
Umbelliferae, 592 Tuberosa, 78
Umbelliferae, 592 Umbelliferae, 592
Umbelliferae, 592 Umbelliferae, 592
Umbelliferae, 592 Umbelliferae, 592
Umbelliferae, 592 Umbelliferae, 592
Umbelliferae, 592 Umbelliferae, 592
Umbelliferae, 592 Umbelliferae, 592
Umbelliferae, 592 Umbelliferae, 592
Umbelliferae, 592 Umbelliferae, 592
Umbelliferae, 592 Umbelliferae, 592
Umbelliferae, 592 Umbelliferae, 592
Umbelliferae, 592 Umbelliferae, 592
Umbelliferae, 592 Umbelliferae, 592
Umbelliferae, 592 Umbelliferae, 592
Umbelliferae, 592 Umbelliferae, 592
Umbelliferae, 592 Umbelliferae, 592
Umbelliferae, 592 Umbelliferae, 592
Umbelliferae, 592 Umbelliferae, 592
Umbelliferae, 592 Umbelliferae, 592
Umbelliferae, 592 Umbelliferae, 592
Umbelliferae, 592 Umbelliferae, 592
Umbelliferae, 592 Umbelliferae, 592
Umbelliferae, 592 Umbelliferae, 592
Varieties of bractea,
Varieties of bractea,
Varieties of bractea,
Varieties of bractea,
Varieties of bractea,
Varieties of bractea,
Varieties of bractea,
Varieties of bractea,
Varieties of bractea,
Varieties of bractea,
Varieties of bractea,
Varieties of bractea,
Varieties of bractea,
Varieties of bractea,
Varieties of bractea,
Varieties of bractea,
Varieties of bractea,
Varieties of bractea,
Varieties of bractea,
Varieties of bractea,
Varieties of bractea,
Varieties of bractea,
Varieties of bractea,
Varieties of bractea,
Varieties of bractea,
Varieties of bractea,
Varieties of bractea,
Varieties of bractea,
Varieties of bractea,
Varieties of bractea,
Varieties of bractea,
Varieties of bractea,
Varieties of bractea,
854 INDEX TO SYSTEMATIC BOTANY.
Columbiavirga, 692 Cycas, 480 Compulsory order, 377
Tamarix, 481 Cyclocladus, 482 Concentrated natural oil,
Chamaelirium, 461 Coccolithus, 483 Concentrate oil of mango-
Chamaeleon, 460 Cochlearia, 549 tree
Chamaeleon, 460 Cochlearia, 550 Concentrate oil of mango-
Chamaeleon, 460 Cochlearia, 551 tree
Chamaeleon, 460 Cock's-comb, 633 Concentrate oil of mango-
Chamaeleon, 460 Cock's-comb, 634 tree
Chamaeleon, 460 Cock's-comb, 635 Concentrate oil of mango-
Chamaeleon, 460 Cock's-comb, 636 tree
Chamaeleon, 460 Cock's-comb, 637 Concentrate oil of mango-
Chamaeleon, 460 Cock's-comb, 638 tree
Chamaeleon, 460 Cock's-comb, 639 Concentrate oil of mango-
Chamaeleon, 460 Cock's-comb, 640 tree
Chamaeleon, 460 Cock's-comb, 641 Concentrate oil of mango-
Chamaeleon, 460 Cock's-comb, 642 tree
Chamaeleon, 460 Cock's-comb, 643 Concentrate oil of mango-
Chamaeleon, 460 Cock's-comb, 644 tree
Chamaeleon, 460 Cock's-comb, 645 Concentrate oil of mango-1228/1229/1230/1231/1232/1233/1234/1235/1236/1237/1238/1239/1240/1241/1242/1243/1244/1245/1246/1247/1248/1249/1250/1251/1252/1253/1254/1255/1256/1257/1258/1259/1260/1261/1262/1263/1264/1265/1266/1267/1268/1269/1270/1271/1272/1273/1274/1275/1276/1277/1278/1279/1280/1281/1282/1283/1284/1285/1286/1287/1288/1289/1290/1291/1292/1293/1294/1295/1296/1297/1298/1299/3000 INDEX TO SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. 855 Oxymon moss bark, 647 Oxypogon, 309 Corydalis, 421 Corydalis, 422 Corydalis, 423 Corydalis, 424 Corydalis, 425 Corydalis, 426 Corydalis, 427 Corydalis, 428 Corydalis, 429 Corydalis, 430 Corydalis, 431 Corydalis, 432 Corydalis, 433 Corydalis, 434 Corydalis, 435 Corydalis, 436 Corydalis, 437 Corydalis, 438 Corydalis, 439 Corydalis, 440 Corydalis, 441 Corydalis, 442 Corydalis, 443 Corydalis, 444 Corydalis, 445 Corydalis, 446 Corydalis, 447 Corydalis, 448 Corydalis, 449 Corydalis, 450 Corydalis, 451 Corydalis, 452 Corydalis, 453 Corydalis, 454 Corydalis, 455 Corydalis, 456 Corydalis, 457 Corydalis, 458 Corydalis, 459 Corydalis, 460 Corydalis, 461 Corydalis, 462 Corydalis, 463 Corydalis, 464 Corydalis, 465 Corydalis, 466 Corydalis, 467 Corydalis, 468 Corydalis, 469 Corydalis, 470 Corydalis, 471 Corydalis, 472 Corydalis, 473 Corydalis, 474 Corydalis, 475 Corydalis, 476 Corydalis, 477 Corydalis, 478 Corydalis, 479 Corydalis, 480 Corydalis, 481 Corydalis, 482 Corydalis, 483 Corydalis, 484 Corydalis, 485 Corydalis, 486 Corydalis, 487 C Corydalus: see Corydalus. 855 856 857 858 859 860 861 862 863 865 866 867 869 870 871 872 873 875 876 877 879 880 881 882 883 885 886 887 890 891 892 893 895 900 901 902 903 905 906 907 Commelinae: see Commelina. Commelinae: see Commelina. Commelinae: see Commelina. Commelinae: see Commelina. Commelinae: see Commelina. Commelinae: see Commelina. Commelinae: see Commelina. Commelinae: see Commelina. Commelinae: see Commelina. Commelinae: see Commelina. Commelinae: see Commelina. Commelinae: see Commelina. Commelinae: see Commelina. Commelinae: see Commelina. Commelinae: see Commelina. Commelinae: see Commelina. Commelinae: see Commelina. Commelinae: see Commelina. Commelinae: see Commelina. Commelinae: see Commelina. Commelinae: see Commelina. Commelinae: see Commelina. Commelinae: see Commelina. Commelinae: see Commelina. Commelinae: see Commelina. Commelinae: see Commelina. Commelinae: see Commelina. Commelinae: see Commelina. Commelinae: see Commelina. Commelinae: see Commelina. Commelinae: see Commelina. Commelinae: see Commelina. Commelinae: see Commelina. Commelinae: see Commelina. Commelinae: see Commelina. Commelinae: see Commelina. Commelinae: see Commelina. Commelinae: see Commelina. Commelinae: see Commelina. Commelinae: see Commelina. Commelinae: see Commelina. Commelinaceae. See also Commelinaceae. [See also Commelinaceae] Commelinaceae. See also Commelinaceae. [See also Commelinaceae] Commelinaceae. See also Commelinaceae. [See also Commelinaceae] Commelinaceae. See also Commelinaceae. [See also Commelinaceae] Commelinaceae. See also Commelinaceae. [See also Commelinaceae] Commelinaceae. See also Commelinaceae. [See also Commelinaceae] Commelinaceae. See also Commelinaceae. [See also Commelinaceae] Commelinaceae. See also Commelinaceae. [See also Commelinaceae] Commelinaceae. See also Commelinaceae. [See also Commelinaceae] Commelinaceae. See also Commelinaceae. [See also Commelinaceae] Commelinaceae. See also Commelinaceae. [See also Commelinaceae] Commelinaceae. See also Commelinaceae. [See also Commelinaceae] Commelinaceae. See also Commelinaceae. [See also Commelinaceae] Commelinaceae. See also Commelinaceae. [See also Commelinaceae] Commelinaceae. See also Commelinaceae. [See also Commelinaceae] Commelinaceae. See also Commelinaceae. [See also Commelinaceae] Commelinaceaea. See also Commeleinaceaeea. [See also Commeleinaceaeea] Commeleinaceaeea. See also Commeleinaceaeea. [See also Commeleinaceaeea] Commeleinaceaeea. See also Commeleinaceaeea. [See also Commeleinaceaeea] Commeleinaceaeea. See also Commeleinaceaeea. [See also Commeleinaceaeea] Commeleinaceaeea. See also Commeleinaceaeea. [See also Commeleinaceaeea] Commeleinaceaeea. See also Commeleinaceaeea. [See also Commeleinaceaeea] Commeleinaceaeea. See also Commeleinaceaeea. [See also Commeleinaceaeea] Commeleinaceaeea. See also Commeleinaceaeea. [See also Commeleinaceaeea] Commeleinaceaeea. See also Commeleinaceaeea. [See also Commeleinaceaeea] Commeleinaceaeea. See also Commeleinaceaeea. [See also Commeleinaceaeea] Commeleinaceaeea. See also Commeleinaceaeea. [See also Commeleinaceaeea] Commeleinaceaeea. See also Commeleinaceaeea. [See also Commeleinaceaeea] Commeleinaceaeea. See also Commeleinaceaeea. [See also Commeleinaceaeea] Commeleinaceaeea. See also Commeleinaceaeea. [See also Commeleinaceaeea] S86 INDEX TO SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. Tree-wood, 311, 537 Tussilago arvensis, 768 Tussilago farfara, 768 Tussilago maculata, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Tussilago neapolitana, 768 Eriolaena mucronataeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaea Eriolaena mucronataeaaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaea Eriolaena mucronataeaaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaea Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa Eriolaena mucronataeaa 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yi yi yi yi yi yi yi yi yi yi yi yi yi yi yi yi yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yt yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yr yryryryryryryryryryryryryryryryryryryryryryryryryryryryryryryryryryryryryryryrxrxyrxyrxyrxyrxyrxyrxyrxyrxyrxyrxyrxyrxyrxyrxyrxyrxyrxyrxyrxyrxyrxyrxyrxyrxyrxyrxyrxyrxyrxyrxyrxyrxyrxyrxyrxyrxyrxyrxyrxyrxyrxyrxyrxyrxyrxyrxyrxyryxryxryxryxryxryxryxryxryxryxryxryxryxryxryxryxryxryxryxryxryxryxryxryxryxryxryxryxryxryxryxryxryxryxryxryxryxryxryxryxryxryxryxryxryxrxxrxrxrxrxrxrxrxrxrxrxrxrxrxrxrxrxrxrxrxrxrxrxrxrxrxrxrxrxrxrxrxrxrxrxrxrxrxrxrxrxrxrxrxrxrxrxrxrxrxrxrxrx rx rx rx rx rx rx rx rx rx rx rx rx rx rx rx rx rx rx rx rx rx rx rx rx rx rx rx rx rx rx rx rx rx rx rx rx rx rx rx rx rx rx rx rx rx rxxxrrxxxrrxxxrrxxxrrxxxrrxxxrrxxxrrxxxrrxxxrrxxxrrxxxrrxxxrrxxxrrxxxrrxxxrrxxxrrxxxrrxxxrrxxxrrxxxrrxxxrrxxxrrxxxrrxxxrrxxx rr xxx rr xxx rr xxx rr xxx rr xxx rr xxx rr xxx rr xxx rr xxx rr xxx rr xxx rr xxx rr xxx rr xxx rr xxx rr xxx rr xxx rr xxx rr xxx rr xxx rr xxx rr xxx rr xxx rr xxx rr xxx rr xxx rr xxx rr xxx rr xxx rr xxx rr xxx rr xxx rr xxx rr xxx rr xxx rr xxxx rxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx INDEX TO SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. 857 Folius longifolius, 644, 645 Folius longifolius, 644, 645 Folius longifolius, 644, 645 Folius longifolius, 644, 645 Folius longifolius, 644, 645 Folius longifolius, 644, 645 Folius longifolius, 644, 645 Folius longifolius, 644, 645 Folius longifolius, 644, 645 Folius longifolius, 644, 645 Folius longifolius, 644, 645 Folius longifolius, 644, 645 Folius longifolius, 644, 645 Folius longifolius, 644, 645 Folius longifolius, 644, 645 Folius longifolius, 644, 645 Folius longifolius, 644, 645 Folius longifolius, 644, 645 Folius longifolius, 644, 645 Folius longifolius, 644, 645 Folius longifolius, 644, 645 Folius longifolius, 644, 645 Folius longifolius, 644, 645 Folius longifolius, 644, 645 Folius longifolius, 644, 645 Folius longifolius, 644, 645 Folius longifolius, 644, 645 Folius longifolius, 644, 645 Folius longifolius, 644, 645 Folius longifolius, 644, 645 Folius longifolius, 644, 645 Folius longifolius, 644, 645 Folius longifolious. See. Foliu... 103 103 103 103 103 103 103 103 103 103 103 103 103 103 103 103 103 103 103 103 103 103 103 103 103 103 103 103 103 103 103 103 103 103 103 103 103 103 103 Fraxinus. See. Fraxinus. Fraxinus. See. Fraxinus. Fraxinus. See. Fraxinus. Fraxinus. See. Fraxinus. Fraxinus. See. Fraxinus. Fraxinus. See. Fraxinus. Fraxinus. See. Fraxinus. Fraxinus. See. Fraxinus. Fraxinus. See. Fraxinus. Fraxinus. See. Fraxinus. Fraxinus. See. Fraxinus. Fraxinus. See. Fraxinus. Fraxinus. See. Fraxinus. Fraxinus. See. Fraxinus. Fraxinus. See. Fraxinus. Fraxinus. See. Fraxinus. Fraxinus. See. Fraxinus. Fraxinus. See. Fraxinus. Fraxinus. See. Fraxinus. Fraxinus. See. Fraxinus. Fraxinus. See. Fraxinus. Fraxinus. See. Fraxinus. Fraxinus. See. Fraxinus. Fraxinus. See. Fraxinus. Fraxinus. See. Fraxinus. Fraxinus. See. Fraxinus. Fraxinus. See. Fraxinus. Fraxinus. See. Fraxinus. Fraxinus. See. Fraxinus. Fraxinus. See. Fraxinus. Fraxinus. See. Fraxinus. Fraxinus. See. Fraxinus. Fraxinus. See. Fraxinus. Fraxinus. See. Fraxinus. Fraxinus. See. Fraxinus. Fraxinus. See. Fraxinus. Fraxinus. See. Fraxinus. Fraxinus. See. Fraxinus. Fraxinus. See. Fraxinus. Fraxinus. See. Fraxinus. Fraxinus. See. Fraxinus. Fraxinus. See. Fraxinus. Fraximus (see). Fruco... Galea (see). Galea... Galea (see). Galea... Galea (see). Galea... Galea (see). Galea... Galea (see). Galea... Galea (see). Galea... Galea (see). Galea... Galea (see). Galea... Galea (see). Galea... Galea (see). Galea... Galea (see). Galea... Galea (see). Galea... Galea (see). Galea... Galea (see). Galea... Galea (see). Galea... Galea (see). Galea... Galea (see). Galea... Galea (see). Galea... Galea (see). Galea... Galea (see). Galea... Galea (see). Galea... Galea (see). Galea... Galea (see). Galea... Galea (see). Galea... Galea (see). Galea... Galea (see). Galea... Galea (see). Galea... Galea (see). Galea... Galea (see). Galea... Galea (see). Galea... Galea (see). Galea... Galea (see). Galea... Galea (see). Galea... Galea (see). Galea... Galea (see). Galea... Galea (see). Galea... Galea (see). Galea... Galea (see). Galea... Gracilis (See) Gracilis. Gracilis (See) Gracilis. Gracilis (See) Gracilis. Gracilis (See) Gracilis. Gracilis (See) Gracilis. Gracilis (See) Gracilis. Gracilis (See) Gracilis. Gracilis (See) Gracilis. Gracilis (See) Gracilis. Gracilis (See) Gracilis. Gracilis (See) Gracilis. Gracilis (See) Gracilis. Gracilis (See) Gracilis. Gracilis (See) Gracilis. Gracilis (See) Gracilis. Gracilis (See) Gracilis. Gracilis (See) Gracilis. Gracilis (See) Gracilis. Gracilis (See) Gracilis. Gracilis (See) Gracilis. Gracilis (See) Gracilis. Gracilis (See) Gracilis. Gracilis (See) Gracilis. Gracilis (See) Gracilis. Gracilis (See) Gracilis. Gracilis (See) Gracilis. Gracilis (See) Gracilis. Gracilis (See) Gracilis. Gracilis (See) Gracilis. Gracilis (See) Gracilis. Gracilis (See) Gracilis. Gracilis (See) Gracilis. Gracilis (See) Gracilis. Gracilis (See) Gracilis. Gracilis (See) Gracilis. Gracilus...

Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
Hemipterous
558 INDEX TO SYMETRIC BOTANY.
Gordolfo, 646 Griffi wood, 747 Habera, 994
Cassia, 301 Griffi wood, 747 Harpyiajaponica, 298
Cassia, 301 Griffi wood, 747 Hemipterous, 517
Cassia, 301 Griffi wood, 747 Hemipterous, 517
Cassia, 301 Griffi wood, 747 Hemipterous, 517
Cassia, 301 Griffi wood, 747 Hemipterous, 517
Cassia, 301 Griffi wood, 747 Hemipterous, 517
Cassia, 301 Griffi wood, 747 Hemipterous, 517
Cassia, 301 Griffi wood, 747 Hemipterous, 517
Cassia, 301 Griffi wood, 747 Hemipterous, 517
Cassia, 301 Griffi wood, 747 Hemipterous, 517
Cassia, 301 Griffi wood, 747 Hemipterous, 517
Cassia, 301 Griffi wood, 747 Hemipterous, 517
Cassia, 301 Griffi wood, 747 Hemipterous, 517
Cassia, 301 Griffi wood, 747 Hemipterous, 517
Cassia, 301 Griffi wood, 747 Hemipterous, 517
Cassia, 301 Griffi wood, 747 Hemipterous, 517
Cassia, 301 Griffi wood, 747 Hemipterous, 517
Cassia, 301 Griffi wood, 747 Hemipterous, 517
Cassia, 301 Griffi wood, 747 Hemipterous, 517
Cassia, 301 Griffi wood, 747
INDEX TO SYMETRIC BOTANY.
INDEX TO SYMETRIC BOTANY.
INDEX TO SYMETRIC BOTANY.
INDEX TO SYMETRIC BOTANY.
INDEX TO SYMETRIC BOTANY.
INDEX TO SYMETRIC BOTANY.
INDEX TO SYMETRIC BOTANY.
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INDEX TO SYMETRIC BOTANY.
INDEX TO SYMETRIC BOTANY.
INDEX TO SYMETRIC BOTANY.
INDEX TO SYMETRIC BOTANY.
INDEX TO SYMETRIC BOTANY.
INDEX TO SYMETRIC BOTANY.
INDEX TO SYMETRIC BOTANY.
INDEX TO SYMETRIC BOTANY.
INDEX TO SYMETRIC BOTANY.
INDEX TO SYMETRIC BOTANY.
INDEX TO SYMETRIC BOTANY.

index to systematic botany. Synonymy of the genus Mimosa (L.) Mill. (Leguminosae)<br/>

<p id="" class="">index to systematic botany. <br/>

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<p id="" class="">index to systematic botony. <br/>

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<p id="" class="">index to systematic botony. <br/>

<p id="" class="">index to systematic botony. <br/>

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<p id="" class="">index to systematic botony. <br/>

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<p id="" class="">index to systematic botony. <br/>

<p id="" class="">index to systematic botony. <br/>

<p id="" class="">index to systematic botony. <br/>

<p id="" class="">index to systematic botony. <br/>

<p id="" class="">index to systematic botony. <br/>

<p id="" class="">index to systematic botony. <br/>

<p id="" class="">index to systematic botony. <br/>

<p id="" class="">index to systematic botony. <br/>

<p id="" class="">index to systematic botony. <br/>

<p id="" class="">index to systematic botony. <br/>

<p id="" class="">index to systematic botony. <br/>

<p id="" class="">index to systematic botony. <br/>

<p id="" class="">index to systematic botony. <br/>

<p id="" class="">index to systematic botony. <br/>

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INDEX TO SYMETRIC BOTANY.
INDEX TO SYMETRIC BOTANY.
Synonymy of the genus Mimosa (L.) Mill. (Leguminosae)                                                        
INDEX TO SYMETRIC BOTANY.
INDEX TO SYMETRIC BOTANY.
INDEX TO SYMETRIC BOTANY.
INDEX TO SYMETRIC BOTANY.
INDEX TO SYMETRIC BOTANY.
INDEX TO SYMETRIC BOTANY.
INDEX TO SYMETRIC BOTANY.
INDEX TO SYMETRIC BOTANY.
INDEX TO SYMETRIC BOTANY.
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INDEX TO SYMETRIC BOTANY.
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INDEX TO SYMETRIC BOTANY.
INDEX TO SYMETRIC BOTANY.
INDEX TO SYMETRIC BOTONY.
INDEX TO SYMETRIC BONTONY.
INDEX TO SYMTRIC BONTONY.
INDEX TO SYMTRIC BONTONY.
INDEX TO SYMTRIC BONTONY.
INDEX TO SYMTRIC BONTONY.
INDEX TO SYMTRIC BONTONY.
INDEX TO SYMTRIC BONTONY.
INDEX TO SYMTRIC BONTONY.
Index Entry Description
Indian fennel Zanthoxylum
Zanthoxylum Zanthoxylum
Zanthoxylum Zanthoxylum
Zanthoxylum Zanthoxylum
Zanthoxylum Zanthoxylum
Zanthoxylum Zanthoxylum
Zanthoxylum Zanthoxylum
Zanthoxylum Zanthoxylum
Zanthoxylum Zanthoxylum
Zanthoxylum Zanthoxylum
Zanthoxylum Zanthoxylum
Zanthoxylum Zanthoxylum
Zanthoxylum Zanthoxylum
Zanthoxylum Zanthoxylum
Zanthoxylum Zanthoxylum
Zanthoxylum Zanthoxylum
Zanthoxylum Zanthoxylum
Zanthoxylum Zanthoxylum
Zanthoxylum Indian fennel,859
Indian fennel,		859
Indian fennel,		859
Indian fennel,		859
Indian fennel,		859
Indian fennel,		859
Indian fennel,		859
Indian fennel,		859
Indian fennel,		859
Indian fennel,		859
Indian fennel,		859
Indian fennel,		859
Indian fennel,		859
Indian fennel,		859
Indian fennel,		859
Indian fennel,		859
Indian fennel,		859
Indian fennel,		859
Indian fennel,		859
Indian fennel,		859
Indian fennel,		859
Indian fennel,		859
Indian fennel,		859
Indian fennel,		859
Indian fennel,		859
Indian fennel,		859
Indian fennel,		859
Indian fennel,		859
Indian fennel,		859
Indian fennel,860 INDEX TO SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. KATHARINA, 793 Lady's mantle, 512 Lavandula, 697 Lavandula, 698 Lavandula, 699 Lavandula, 700 Lavandula, 701 Lavandula, 702 Lavandula, 703 Lavandula, 704 Lavandula, 705 Lavandula, 706 Lavandula, 707 Lavandula, 708 Lavandula, 709 Lavandula, 710 Lavandula, 711 Lavandula, 712 Lavandula, 713 Lavandula, 714 Lavandula, 715 Lavandula, 716 Lavandula, 717 Lavandula, 718 Lavandula, 719 Lavandula, 720 Lavandula, 721 Lavandula, 722 Lavandula, 723 Lavandula, 724 Lavandula, 725 Lavandula, 726 Lavandula, 727 Lavandula, 728 Lavandula, 729 Lavandula, 730 Lavandula, 731 Lavandula, 732 Lavandula, 733 Lavandula, 734 Lavandula, 735 Lavandula, 736 Lavandula, 737 Lavandula, 738 Lavandula, 739 Lavandula, 740 Lavandula, 741 Lavandula, 742 Lavandula, 743 Lavandula, 744 Lavandula, 745 Lavandula, 746 Lavandula, 747 Lavandula, 748 Lavandula, 749 Lady's mantle (Caryophyllus), 512 Leucania (Leucanum), 595 Leucania (Leucanum), 596 Leucania (Leucanum), 598 Leucania (Leucanum), 599 Leucania (Leucanum), 600 Leucania (Leucanum), 601 Leucania (Leucanum), 602 Leucania (Leucanum), 603 Leucania (Leucanum), 604 Leucania (Leucanum), 605 Leucania (Leucanum), 606 Leucania (Leucanum), 608 Leucania (Leucanum), 609 Leucania (Leucanum), 610 Leucania (Leucanum), 611 Leucania (Leucanum), 612 Leucania (Leucanum), 613 Leucania (Leucanum), 614 Leucania (Leucanum), 615 Leucania (Leucanum), 616 Leucania (Leucanum), 618 Leucania (Leucanum), 619 Leucania (Leucanum), 620 Leucania (Leucanum), 621 Leucania (Leucanum), 622 Leucania (Leucanum), 623 Leucania (Leucanum), 624 Leucania (Leucanum), 625 Leucania (Leucanum), 626 Leucania (Leucanum), 628 Leucaria (Dianthus), see Dianthus INDEX TO SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. 861 Lorist-true, 595, 898 Lorist-true, 595, 898 Lorist-true, 595, 898 Lorist-true, 595, 898 Lorist-true, 595, 898 Lorist-true, 595, 898 Lorist-true, 595, 898 Lorist-true, 595, 898 Lorist-true, 595, 898 Lorist-true, 595, 898 Lorist-true, 595, 898 Lorist-true, 595, 898 Lorist-true, 595, 898 Lorist-true, 595, 898 Lorist-true, 595, 898 Lorist-true, 595, 898 Lorist-true, 595, 898 Lorist-true, 595, 898 Lorist-true, 595, 898 Lorist-true, 595, 898 Lorist-true, 595, 898 Lorist-true, 595, 898 Lorist-true, 595, 898 Lorist-true, 595, 898 Lorist-true, 595, 898 Lorist-true, 595, 898 Lorist-true, 595, 898 Lorist-true, 595, 898 Lorist-true, 595, 898 Lorist-true, 595, 898 Lorist-true, 595, 898 Lorist-true, 595, 898 Lorist-true, 595, 898 Lorist-true, 595, 898 Lorist-true, 595, 898 Lorist-true, 595, 898 Lorist-true, 595, 898 Lorist-true, 595, 898 Lorist-true, 595, 898 Lorist-true, 595, 898 Lorist-true, 595, 898 Lorist-true, 595, 898 Lorist-true, 595, 898 Lorist-true, 603 Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like Marigold-like 862 INDEX TO SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. **Morera, 739** Morera, 739 Morera, 739 Morera, 739 Morera, 739 Morera, 739 Morera, 739 Morera, 739 Morera, 739 Morera, 739 Morera, 739 Morera, 739 Morera, 739 Morera, 739 Morera, 739 Morera, 739 Morera, 739 Morera, 739 Morera, 739 **Monococcum** Monococcum, 681 **Monsieur** Monsieur, 651 **Monteith** Monteith, 661 **Monteith** Monteith, 661 **Monteith** Monteith, 661 **Monteith** Monteith, 661 **Monteith** Monteith, 661 **Monteith** Monteith, 661 **Monteith** Monteith, 661 **Monteith** Monteith, 661 **Monteith** Monteith, 661 **Monteith** Monteith, 661 **Monteith** Monteith, 661 **Monteith** Monteith, 661 **Monteith** Monteith, 661 **Monteith** Monteith, 661 **Monteith** Monteith, 661 **Monteith** Monteith, 661 **Monteith** Monteith, 661 **Monteith** Monteith, 661 **Monotoma** Monotoma, 542 **Monotoma** Monotoma, 542 **Monotoma** Monotoma, 542 **Monotoma** Monotoma, 542 **Monotoma** Monotoma, 542 **Monotoma** Monotoma, 542 **Monotoma** Monotoma, 542 **Monotoma** Monotoma, 542 **Monotoma** Monotoma, 542 **Monotoma** Monotoma, 542 **Monotoma** Monotoma, 542 **Monotoma** Monotoma, 542 **Monotoma** Monotoma, 542 **Monotoma** Monotoma, 542 **Monotoma** Monotoma, 542 **Monotoma** Monotoma, 542 **Monotoma** Monotoma, 542 **Monotoma** Monotoma, 542 **Monotoma** Monotoma, 542 **Monotoma** Monotoma, 542 **Monotoma** Monotoma, 542 **Monotoma** Monotoma, 542 **Monotoma** Monotoma, 542 **Monotoma** Monotoma, 542 **Monotoma** Monotoma, 542 **Monotoma** Monotoma, 542 **Monotoma** Monotoma, 542 **Monotoma** Monotoma, 542 **Monotuma** Monotuma, 508 **Mopane tree**, **Bauhinia acuminata**, **Bauhinia acuminata**, **Bauhinia acuminata**, **Bauhinia acuminata**, **Bauhinia acuminata**, **Bauhinia acuminata**, **Bauhinia acuminata**, **Bauhinia acuminata**, **Bauhinia acuminata**, **Bauhinia acuminata**, **Bauhinia acuminata**, **Bauhinia acuminata**, **Bauhinia acuminata**, **Bauhinia acuminata**, **Bauhinia acuminata**, **Bauhinia acuminata**, **Bauhinia acuminata**, **Bauhinia acuminata**, **Bauhinia acuminata**, **Bauhinia acuminata**, **Bauhinia acuminata**, **Bauhinia acuminata**, **Bauhinia acuminata**, **Bauhinia acuminata** A small image of a plant with green leaves and a brown stem. Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) Mopane tree (Bauhinia acuminata) INDEX TO SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. 963 Stylophorum musoides, 894 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Nemophila, 570 Of all plants. 141 Orchisidum. 691 Orchisidum. 691 Orchisidum. 691 Orchisidum. 691 Orchisidum. 691 Orchisidum. 691 Orchisidum. 691 Orchisidum. 691 Orchisidum. 691 Orchisidum. 691 Orchisidum. 691 Orchisidum. 691 Orchisidum. 691 Orchisidum. 691 Orchisidum. 691 Orchisidum. 691 Orchisidum. 691 Orchisidum. 691 Orchisidum. 691 Orchisidum. 691 Orchisidum. 691 Orchisidum. 691 Orchisidum. 691 Orchisidum. 691 Orchisidum. 691 Orchisidum. 691 Orchisidum. 691-692 Orchisidum. 692-693 Orchisidum. 693-694 Orchisidum. 694-695 Orchisidum. 695-696 Orchisidum. 696-698 Orchisidum. 698-699 Orchisidum. 699-702 Orchisidum. 702-703 Orchisidum. 703-704 Orchisidum. 704-708 Orchisidum. 708-824 Of all plants. Of all plants. Of all plants. Of all plants. Of all plants. Of all plants. Of all plants. Of all plants. Of all plants. Of all plants. Of all plants. Of all plants. Of all plants. Of all plants. Of all plants. Of all plants. Of all plants. Of all plants. _to_>->->->->->->->->->->->->->->->->->->->->->->->->->->->->->->->->->->_to_>                          > _to_> _to_> _to_> _to_> _to_> _to_> _to_> _to_> _to_> _to_> _to_> _to_> _to_> _to_> _to_> _to_> _to_> _to_> _to_> _to_> _to_> _to_> _to_> _to_> _to_> _to_> _to_> _to_> 
864
Tupae, 343 Pentera, 915
Tupae, 343 Periploca, 708
Tupae, 343 Furcraea, 102
Tupae, 343 Furcraea, 102
Tupae, 343 Periploca, 708
Tupae, 343 Periploca, 708
Tupae, 343 Periploca, 708
Tupae, 343 Periploca, 708
Tupae, 343 Periploca, 708
Tupae, 343 Periploca, 708
Tupae, 343 Periploca, 708
Tupae, 343 Periploca, 708
Tupae, 343 Periploca, 708
Tupae, 343 Periploca, 708
Tupae, 343 Periploca, 708
Tupae, 343 Periploca, 708
Tupae, 343 Periploca, 708
Tupae, 343 Periploca, 708
Tupae, 343 Periploca, 708
Tupae, 343 Periploca, 708
Tupae, 343 Periploca, 708
Tupae, 343 Periploca, 708
Tupae, 343 Periploca, 708
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Tupaefolia,
Tupaefolia,
Tupaefolia,
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Tupaefolia,
Tupaefolia,
Tupaefolia,
Tupaefolia,
Tupaefolia,
Tupaefolia,
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Tupaefolia,
Tupaefolia,
Tupaefolia,
Tupaefolia,
Tupaefolia,
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Index to Systematic Botany.' Index to Systematic Botany.' Index to Systematic Botany.' Index to Systematic Botany.' Index to Systematic Botany.' Index to Systematic Botany.' Index to Systematic Botany.' Index to Systematic Botany.' Index to Systematic Botany.' Index to Systematic Botany.' Index to Systematic Botany.' Index to Systematic Botany.' Index to Systematic Botany.' Index to Systematic Botany.' Index to Systematic Botany.' Index to Systematic Botany.' Index to Systematic Botany.' Index to Systematic Botany.' Index to Systematic Botany.' Index to Systematic Botany.' Index to Systematic Botany.' Index to Systematic Botany.' Index to Systematic Botany.' Index to Systematic Botany.' Index to Systematic Botany.' Index to Systematic Botany.' Index to Systematic Botany.' Index to Systematic Botany.' Index to Systematic Botany.' Index to Systematic Botany.' Index to Systematic Botany.' Index to Systematic Botany.' Index to Systematic Botany.' Index to Systematic Botany.' Index to Systematic Botany.' Index to Systematic Botany.' Index to Systematic Botany.' Index to Systematic Botany.' Index to Systematic Botany.' Index to Systematic Botany.' Index to Systematic Botony' index_to_systematics_botanica_0000_0099_9999_9999_9999_9999_9999_9999_9999_9999_9999_9999_9999_9999_9999_9999_9999_9999_9999_9999_9999_9999_index_to_systematics_botanica_0000_0055_5555_5555_5555_5555_5555_5555_5555_5555_5555_5555_5555_5555_5555_5555_5555_5555_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanica_index_to_systematics_botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicals botanicas botanicas botanicas botanicas botanicas botanicas botanicas botanicas botanicas botanicas botanicas botanicas botanicas botanicas botanicas botanicas botanicas botanicas botanicas botanicas botanicas botanicas botanicas botanicas botanicas botanicas botanicas botanicas botanicas botanticas botanticas botanticas botanticas botanticas botanticas botanticas botanticas botanticas botanticas botanticas botanticas botanticas botanticas botanticas botanticas botanticas botanticas botanticas botanticas botanticas botanticas botanticas botanticas botanticas botanticas botanticas botanticas botanticas botanticas botanticas botanticas botanticas botanticas botanticas botanticas botanticas botanticas botanticas botanticas botanticas botanticas botanticas botanticasbotanticala index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botanical_indices index_of_botonicala indices of bontonics indices of bontonics indices of bontonics indices of bontonics indices of bontonics indices of bontonics indices of bontonics indices of bontonics indices of bontonics indices of bontonics indices of bontonics indices of bontonics indices of bontonics indices of bontonics indices of bontonics indices of bontonics indices of bontonics indices of bontonics indices of bontonics indices of bontonics indices of bontonics indices of bontonics indices of bontonics indices of bontonics indices of bontonics indices of bontonics indices of bontonics indices of bontonics indices of bontonics indices of bontonics indices of bontonics indices of bontonics indices of bontonics indices of bontonics indices of bontonics indices of bontonics indices of bontonics indices of bontonics indices of bontonics indices of bontonicsindices of bontonicindices of bontonicindices of bontonicindices of bontonicindices of bontonicindices of bontonicindices of bontonicindices of bontonicindices of bontonicindices of bontonicindices of bontonicindices of bontonicindices of bontonicindices of bontonicindices of bontonicindices of bontonicindices of bontonicindices of bontonicindices of bontonicindices of bontonicindices of bontonicindices of bontonicindices of bontonicindices of bontonicindices of bontonicindices of bontonicindices of bontonicindices of bontonicindices of bontonicindices of bontonicindices of bontonicindices of bontonicindices of bontonicindices of bontonicindices INDEX TO SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. 865 Polyscias leucophylla, 730 --- matricaria, 730 --- matricaria, 731 --- matricaria, 732 --- matricaria, 733 --- matricaria, 734 --- matricaria, 735 --- matricaria, 736 --- matricaria, 737 --- matricaria, 738 --- matricaria, 739 --- matricaria, 740 --- matricaria, 741 --- matricaria, 742 --- matricaria, 743 --- matricaria, 744 --- matricaria, 745 --- matricaria, 746 --- matricaria, 747 --- matricaria, 748 --- matricaria, 749 --- matricaria, 750 --- matricaria, 751 --- matricaria, 752 --- matricaria, 753 --- matricaria, 754 --- matricaria, 755 --- matricaria, 756 --- matricaria, 757 --- matricaria, 758 --- matricaria, 759 --- matricaria, 760 --- matricaria, 761 --- matricaria, 762 --- matricaria, 763 --- matricaria, 764 --- matricaria, 765 --- matricaria, 766 --- matricaria, 767 --- matricaria, 768 --- matricaria, 769 --- matricaria, 770 --- matricaria, 771 --- matricaria, 772 --- matricaria, 773 --- matricaria, 774 --- matricaria, 775 --- matricaria, 776 --- matricaria, 777 --- matricaria, 778 --- matricaria, 780 Pyrophyllum humboldtianum var. humboldtianum (Baker) Baker & H. W. Sm. Pyrophyllum humboldtianum var. humboldtianum (Baker) Baker & H. W. Sm. Pyrophyllum humboldtianum var. humboldtianum (Baker) Baker & H. W. Sm. Pyrophyllum humboldtianum var. humboldtianum (Baker) Baker & H. W. Sm. Pyrophyllum humboldtianum var. humboldtianum (Baker) Baker & H. W. Sm. Pyrophyllum humboldtianum var. humboldtianum (Baker) Baker & H. W. Sm. Pyrophyllum humboldtianum var. humboldtianum (Baker) Baker & H. W. Sm. Pyrophyllum humboldtianum var. humboldtianum (Baker) Baker & H. W. Sm. Pyrophyllum humboldtianum var. humboldtianum (Baker) Baker & H. W. Sm. Pyrophyllum humboldtianum var. humboldtianum (Baker) Baker & H. W. Sm. Pyrophyllum humboldtianum var. humboldtianum (Baker) Baker & H. W. Sm. Pyrophyllum humboldtianum var. humboldtianum (Baker) Baker & H. W. Sm. Pyrophyllum humboldtianum var. humboldtianum (Baker) Baker & H. W. Sm. Pyrophyllum humboldtianum var. humboldtianum (Baker) Baker & H. W. Sm. Pyrophyllum humboldtianum var. humboldtianum (Baker) Baker & H. W. Sm. Pyrophyllum humboldtianum var. humboldtianum (Baker) Baker & H. W. Sm. Pyrophyllum humboldtianum var. humboldtianum (Baker) Baker & H. W. Sm. Pyrophyllum humboldtianum var. humboldtianum (Baker) Baker & H. W. Sm. Pyrophyllum humboldtianum var. humboldtianum (Baker) Baker & H. W. Sm. Pyrophyllum humboldtianum var. humboldtianum (Baker) Baker & H. W. Sm. Pyrophyllum humboldtianum var. humboldtianum (Baker) Baker & H. W. Sm. Pyrophyllum humboldtianum var. humboldtianum (Baker) Baker & H. W. Sm. Pyrophyllum humboldtianum var. humboldtianum (Baker) Baker & H. W. Sm. Pyrophyllum humboldtianum var. humboldtianum (Baker) Baker & H. W. Sm. Pyrophyllum humboldtianum var. humboldtianum (Baker) Baker & H. W. Sm. Pyrophyllum humboldtianum var. humboldtianum (Baker) Baker & H. W. Sm. Pyrophyllum humboldtianum var. humboldtianum (Baker) Baker & H. W. Sm. Pyrophyllum humboldtianum var. humboldtianum (Baker) Baker & H. W. Sm. Pyrophyllum humboldtianum var. humboldtianum (Baker) Baker & H. W. Sm. Pyrophyllum humboldtianum var. humboldtianum (Baker) Baker & H. W. Sm. Pyrophyllum humboldtianum var. humboldtianum (Baker) Baker & H. W. Sm. Pyrophyllum humboldtianum var. humboldtianum (Baker) Baker & H. W. Sm. Pyrophyllum humboldtianum var. humboldtianum (Baker) Baker & H. W. Sm. Pyrophyllum hum bold t ian um v ar . h um bold t ian um ( B aker ) B aker&H .W .S m . Pyrophyllum h um bold t ian um v ar . h um bold t ian um ( B aker ) B aker&H .W .S m . Pyrophyllum h um bold t ian um v ar . h um bold t ian um ( B aker ) B aker&H .W .S m . Pyrophyllum h um bold t ian um v ar . h um bold t ian um ( B aker ) B aker&H .W .S m . Pyrophyllum h um bold t ian um v ar . h um bold t ian um ( B aker ) B aker&H .W .S m . Pyrophyllum h um bold t ian um v ar . h um bold t ian um ( B aker ) B aker&H .W .S m . Pyrophyllum h um bold t ian um v ar . h um bold t ian um ( B aker ) B aker&H .W .S m . Pyrophyllum h um bold t ian um v ar . h um bold t ian um ( B aker ) B aker&H .W .S m . Rhamnus alba L., 866 Rhamnus alba L., 866 Rhamnus alba L., 866 Rhamnus alba L., 866 Rhamnus alba L., 866 Rhamnus alba L., 866 Rhamnus alba L., 866 Rhamnus alba L., 866 Rhamnus alba L., 866 Rhamnus alba L., 866 Rhamnus alba L., 866 Rhamnus alba L., 866 Rhamnus alba L., 866 Rhamnus alba L., 866 Rhamnus alba L., 866 Rhamnus alba L., 866 Rhamnus alba L., 866 Rhamnus alba L., 866 Rhamnus alba L., 866 Rhamnus alba L., 866 Rhamnus alba L., 866 Rhamnus alba L., 866 Rhamnus alba L., 866 Rhamnus alba L., 866 Rhamnus alba L., 866 Rhamnus alba L., 866 Rhamnus alba L., 866 Rhamnus alba L., 866 Rhamnus alba L., 866 Rhamnus cathartica L., 869 Rhamnus cathartica L., 890-900 Rhamnus cathartica L., 900+ Rhamnus cathartica L., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill., (L.) Mill.,
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R ham n us catharticaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeaeae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ae ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eeee Rhamnaceææææææææææææææææææææææææææææææææææææææææææææææææææææ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ æ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Ŋ N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N Rhododendron arboreum Lindl., Rhododendron arboreum Lindl., Rhododendron arboreu m Lindl., Rhododendron arboreu m Lindl., Rhododendron arboreu m Lindl., Rhododendron arboreu m Lindl., Rhododendron arboreu m Lindl., Rhododendron arboreu m Lindl., Rhododendron arboreu m Lindl., Rhododendron arboreu m Lindl., Rhododendron arboreu m Lindl., Rhododendron arboreu m Lindl., Rhododendron arboreu m Lindl., Rhododendron arboreu m Lindl., Rhododendron arboreu m Lindl., Rhododendron arboreu m Lindl., Rhododendron arboreu m Lindl., Rhododendron arboreu m Lindl., Rhododendron arboreu m Lindl., Rhododendron arboreu m Lindl., Rhododendron arboreu m Lindl., Rhododendron arboreu m Lindl., Rhododendron arboreu m Lindl., Rhododendron arboreu m Lindl., Rhododendron arboreu m Lindl., Rhododendron arboreu m Lindl., Rhododendron arboreu m Lindl., Rhododendron arboreu m Lindl., Rhod od end ron ar bo re u m Lin dl , Rh od o den d ron ar bo re u m Lin dl , Rh od o den d ron ar bo re u m Lin dl , Rh od o den d ron ar bo re u m Lin dl , Rh od o den d ron ar bo re u m Lin dl , Rh od o den d ron ar bo re u m Lin dl , Rh od o den d ron ar bo re u m Lin dl , Rh od o den d ron ar bo re u m Lin dl , Rh od o den d ron ar bo re u m Lin dl , Rh od o den d ron ar bo re u m Lin dl , Rh od o den d ron ar bo re u m Lin dl , Rh od o den d ron ar bo re u m Lin dl , Rh od o den d ron ar bo re u m Lin dl , Rh od o den d ron ar bo re u m Lin dl , Rh od o den d ron ar bo re u m Lin dl , Rh od o den d ron ar bo re u m Lin dl , Rh od o den d ron ar bo re u m Lin dl , Rh od o den d ron ar bo re u m Lin dl , Rh od o den d ron ar bo re u m Lin dl , Rh od o den d ron ar bo re u m Lin dl , Rh od o den d ron ar bo re u m Lin dl , Rh od o den d ron ar bo re u m Lin dl , Rh od o den d ron ar bo re u m Lin dl , Rh od o den d ron ar bo re u m Lin dl , Rh od o den d ron ar bo re u m Lin dl , Rh od o den d ron ar bo re u m Lin dl , Rh od o den d ron ar bo re u m Lin dl , Rh od o den d ron ar bo re u m Lin dl , Rh od o den d ron ar bo re u m Lin dl , Rh od o den d ron ar bo re u m Lin dl , Rh od o den d ron ar bo re u m Lin dl , Rh od o den d ron ar bo re u m Lin dl , Rh od o den d ron ar bo re u m Lin dl , RHODODENDRON ARBOREUM LINDL, RHODODENDRON ARBOREUM LINDL, RHODODENDRON ARBOREUM LINDL, RHODODENDRON ARBOREUM LINDL, RHODODENDRON ARBOREUM LINDL, RHODODENDRON ARBOREUM LINDL, RHODODENDRON ARBOREUM LINDL, RHODODENDRON ARBOREUM LINDL, RHODODENDRON ARBOREUM LINDL, RHODODENDRON ARBOREUM LINDL, RHODODENDRON ARBOREUM LINDL, RHODODENDRON ARBOREUM LINDL, RHODODENDRON ARBOREUM LINDL, RHODODENDRON ARBOREUM LINDL, RHODODENDRON ARBOREUM LINDL, RHODODENDRON ARBOREUM LINDL, RHODODENDRON ARBOREUM LINDL, RHODODENDRON ARBOREUM LINDL, RHOD OD END ROON AR BO RE U M LIN DL, RH OD O DEN D ROON AR BO RE U M LIN DL, RH OD O DEN D ROON AR BO RE U M LIN DL, RH OD O DEN D ROON AR BO RE U M LIN DL, RH OD O DEN D ROON AR BO RE U M LIN DL, RH OD O DEN D ROON AR BO RE U M LIN DL, RH OD O DEN D ROON AR BO RE U M LIN DL, RH OD O DEN D ROON AR BO RE U M LIN DL, RH OD O DEN D ROON AR BO RE U M LIN DL, RH OD O DEN D ROON AR BO RE U M LIN DL, RH OD O DEN D ROON AR BO RE U M LIN DL, RH OD O DEN D ROON AR BO RE U M LIN DL, RH OD O DEN D ROON AR BO RE U M LIN DL, RH OD O DEN D ROON AR BO RE U M LIN DL, RH OD O DEN D ROON AR BO RE U M LIN DL, RH OD O DEN D ROON AR BO RE U M LIN DL, RH OD O DEN D ROON AR BO RE U M LIN DL, RH OD O DEN D ROON AR BO RE U M LIN DL, RH OD O DEN D ROON AR BO RE U M LIN DL, RH OD O DEN D ROON AR BO RE U M LIN DL, RH OD ODEN DR ON A RB OR E UM LI ND LL, Rosmarinus officinalis L., Rosmarinus officinalis L. Rosmarinus officinalis L. Rosmarinus officinalis L. Rosmarinus officinalis L. Rosmarinus officinalis L. Rosmarinus officinalis L. Rosmarinus officinalis L. Rosmarinus officinalis L. Rosmarinus officinalis L. Rosmarinus officinalis L. Rosmarinus officinalis L. Rosmarinus officinalis L. Rosmarinus officinalis L. Rosmarinus officinalis L. Rosmarinus officinalis L. Rosmarinus officinalis L. Rosmarinus officinalis L. Rosmarinus officinalis L. Rosmarinus officinalis L. Rosmarinus officinalis L. Rosmarinus officinalis L. Rosmarinus officinalis L. Rosmarinus officinalis L. Rosmarinus officinalis L. Rosmarinus officinalis L. Rosmarinus officinalis L. Rosmarinus officinalis L. Rosmarinus officinalis L. Rosmarinus officinalis L. Rosmarinus officinalis L. Rosmarinus officinalis L. Rosmarinus officinalis L. Rosmarinus officinalis L. Rosmarinus officinalis L. Ros mar in sus offi cin ali s Li ndl . Ros mar in sus offi cin ali s Li ndl . Ros mar in sus offi cin ali s Li ndl . Ros mar in sus offi cin ali s Li ndl . Ros mar in sus offi cin ali s Li ndl . Ros mar in sus offi cin ali s Li ndl . Ros mar in sus offi cin ali s Li ndl . Ros mar in sus offi cin ali s Li ndl . Ros mar in sus offi cin ali s Li ndl . Ros mar in sus offi cin ali s Li ndl . Ros mar in sus offi cin ali s Li ndl . Ros mar in sus offi cin ali s Li ndl . Ros mar in sus offi cin ali s Li ndl . Ros mar in sus offi cin ali s Li ndl . Ros mar in sus offi cin ali s Li ndl . Ros mar in sus offi cin ali s Li ndl . Ros mar in sus offi cin ali s Li ndl . Ros mar in sus offi cin ali s Li ndl . Ros mar in sus offi cin ali s Li ndl . Ros mar in sus offi cin ali s Li ndl . ROSMARINUS OFFICINALIS LI NDLL, Salvia splendens Schultes ex Sprengel Salvia splendens Schultes ex Sprengel Salvia splendens Schultes ex Sprengel Salvia splendens Schultes ex Sprengel Salvia splendens Schultes ex Sprengel Salvia splendens Schultes ex Sprengel Salvia splendens Schultes ex Sprengel Salvia splendens Schultes ex Sprengel Salvia splendens Schultes ex Sprengel Salvia splendens Schultes ex Sprengel Salvia splendens Schultes ex Sprengel Salvia splendens Schultes ex Sprengel Salvia splendens Schultes ex Sprengel Salvia splendens Schultes ex Sprengel Salvia splendens Schultes ex Sprengel Salvia splendens Schultes ex Sprengel Salvia splendens Schultes ex Sprengel Salvia splendens Schultes ex Sprengel Salvia splendens Schultes ex Sprengel Salvia splandens Schultes ex Sprengel Salvia spland ens Sch ult es ex Sp ren gel Salvia spland ens Sch ult es ex Sp ren gel Salvia spland ens Sch ult es ex Sp ren gel Salvia spland ens Sch ult es ex Sp ren gel Salvia spland ens Sch ult es ex Sp ren gel Salvia spland ens Sch ult es ex Sp ren gel Salvia spland ens Sch ult es ex Sp ren gel Salvia spland ens Sch ult es ex Sp ren gel Salvia spland ens Sch ult es ex Sp ren gel Salvia spland ens Sch ult es ex Sp ren gel Sal via sp land ens Sc ult es ex Sp ren gel Sal via sp land ens Sc ult es ex Sp ren gel Sal via sp land ens Sc ult es ex Sp ren gel Sal via sp land ens Sc ult es ex Sp ren gel Sal via sp land ens Sc ult es ex Sp ren gel Sal via sp land ens Sc ult es ex Sp ren gel Sal via sp land ens Sc ult es ex Sp ren gel Sal via sp land ens Sc ult es ex Sp ren gel Sal via sp land ens Sc ult es ex Sp ren gel Sal via sp land ens Sc ult es ex Sp ren gel Sal via sp land ens Sc ult es ex Sp ren gel Sal via sp land ens Sc ult es ex Sp ren gel Sal via sp land ens Sc ult es ex Sp ren gel Sal via sp land ens Sc ult es ex Sp ren gel Sal via sp land ens Sc ult es ex Sp ren gel Sal via sp land ens Sc ult es ex Sp ren gel Sal via sp land ens Sc ult es ex Sp ren gel Sal via sp land ens Sc ult es ex Sp ren gel Sal via sp land ens Sc ult es ex Sp ren gel Sal via sp land ens Sc ult es ex Sp ren gel Sal via sp land ens Sc ult es ex Sp ren gel Sal via sp land ens Sc ult es ex Sp ren gel Sal via sp land ens Sc ult es ex Sp ren gel Sal via sp land ens Sc ult es ex Sp ren gel Sal via sp land ens Sc ult es ex Sp ren gel Sal via sp land ens Sc ult es ex Sp ren gel Sal via sp land ens Sc ult es ex Sp ren gel Sal via sp land ens Sc ult es ex Sp ren gel Sal via sp land ens Sc ult es ex Sp ren gel Sal via sp land ens Sc ult es ex Sp ren gel Sal via sp land ens Sc ult es ex Sp ren gel Sal via sp land ens Sc ult es ex Sp ren gel Sal via sp land ens Sc ult es ex Sp ren gel Sal via sp land ens Sc ult es ex Sp ren gel Sal via sp land ens Sc ult es ex Sp ren gel Sal via sp land ens Sc ult es ex Sp ren gel Sal via sp land ens Sc ult es ex Sp ren gel Sal via sp land ens Sc ult es ex Sp ren gel 866 INDEX TO SYSTEMATIC BOTANY Buxus, 374 Cinnamomum, 750 Chlorophytum, 570 Diospyros, 570 Elaeagnus, 570 Ficus, 570 Ginkgo, 570 Hibiscus, 570 Jatropha, 570 Laurus, 570 Liriodendron, 570 Magnolia, 570 Mangifera, 570 Nerium, 570 Olea europaea, 570 Pistacia, 570 Quercus, 570 Rhamnus, 570 Sambucus, 570 Solanum, 570 Tamarix, 570 Vaccinium, 570 Vitis vinifera, 570 Wisteria sinensis, 570 Xanthium strumarium, 570 Buxus sempervirens, 374 Cinnamomum camphora, 750 Chlorophytum comosum, 570 Diospyros kaki, 570 Elaeagnus angustifolia, 570 Ficus carica, 570 Ginkgo biloba, 570 Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, 570 Jatropha curcas, 570 Laurus nobilis, 570 Liriodendron tulipifera, 570 Magnolia grandiflora, 570 Mangifera indica, 570 Nerium oleander, 570 Olea europaea olivaceae, 570 Pistacia vera, 570 Quercus robur, 570 Rhamnus cathartica, 570 Sambucus nigra, 570 Solanum nigrum, 570 Tamarix gallica, 570 Vaccinium myrtillus, 570 Vitis vinifera vulgaris, 570 Buxus sempervirens var. sempervirens (syn. Buxus sempervirens), 384 Cinnamomum camphora var. camphora (syn. Cinnamomum camphora), 384 Chlorophytum comosum var. comosum (syn. Chlorophytum comosum), 384 Diospyros kaki var. kaki (syn. Diospyros kaki), 384 Elaeagnus angustifolia var. angustifolia (syn. Elaeagnus angustifolia), 384 Ficus carica var. carica (syn. Ficus carica), 384 Ginkgo biloba var. biloba (syn. Ginkgo biloba), 384 Hibiscus rosa-sinensis var. rosa-sinensis (syn. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis), 384 Jatropha curcas var. curcas (syn. Jatropha curcas), 384 Laurus nobilis var. nobilis (syn. Laurus nobilis), 384 Liriodendron tulipifera var. tulipifera (syn. Liriodendron tulipifera), 384 Magnolia grandiflora var. grandiflora (syn. Magnolia grandiflora), 384 Mangifera indica var. indica (syn. Mangifera indica), 384 Nerium oleander var. oleander (syn. Nerium oleander), 384 Olea europaea olivaceae var. olivaceae (syn. Olea europaea olivaceae), 384 Pistacia vera var. vera (syn. Pistacia vera), 384 Quercus robur var. robur (syn. Quercus robur), 384 Rhamnus cathartica var. cathartica (syn. Rhamnus cathartica), 384 Sambucus nigra var. nigra (syn. Sambucus nigra), 384 Solanum nigrum var. nigrum (syn. Solanum nigrum), 384 Tamarix gallica var. gallica (syn. Tamarix gallica), 384 Vaccinium myrtillus var. myrtillus (syn. Vaccinium myrtillus), 384 Vitis vinifera vulgaris var. vulgaris (syn. Vitis vinifera vulgaris) Buxus sempervirens subsp. sempervirens (syn. Buxus sempervirens), 392 Cinnamomum camphora subsp. camphora (syn. Cinnamomum camphora), 392 Chlorophytum comosum subsp. comosum (syn. Chlorophytum comosum), 392 Diospyros kaki subsp. kaki (syn. Diospyros kaki), 392 Elaeagnus angustifolia subsp. angustifolia (syn. Elaeagnus angustifolia), 392-393 Ficus carica subsp. carica (syn. Ficus carica), 392-393 Ginkgo biloba subsp. biloba (syn. Ginkgo biloba), 392-393 Hibiscus rosa-sinensis subsp. rosa-sinensis (syn. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis), 392-393 Jatropha curcas subsp. curcas (syn. Jatropha curcas), 392-393 Laurus nobilis subsp. nobilis (syn. Laurus nobilis), 392-393 Liriodendron tulipifera subsp. tulipifera (syn. Liriodendron tulipifera), 392-393 Magnolia grandiflora subsp. grandiflora (syn. Magnolia grandiflora), 392-393 Mangifera indica subsp. indica (syn. Mangifera indica), 392-393 Nerium oleander subsp. oleander (syn. Nerium oleander), 392-393 Olea europaea olivaceae subsp. olivaceae (syn. Olea europaea olivaceae), 392-393 Pistacia vera subsp. vera (syn. Pistacia vera), 392-393 Quercus robur subsp. robur (syn. Quercus robur), 392-393 Rhamnus cathartica subsp. cathartica (syn. Rhamnus cathartica), 392-393 Sambucus nigra subsp. nigra (syn. Sambucus nigra), 392-393 Solanum nigrum subsp. nigrum (syn. Solanum nigrum), 392-393 Buxus sempervirens ssp.sempervirens (syn.Buxus sempervirens ssp.sempervirens) Cinnamomum camphora ssp.camphora (syn.Cinnamomum camphora ssp.camphora) Chlorophytum comosum ssp.comosum (syn.Chlorophytum comosum ssp.comosum) Diospyros kaki ssp.kaki (syn.Diospyros kaki ssp.kaki) Elaeagnus angustifolia ssp(angustifolia) angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) elaeagni angustifolia) Elaeagnus macrophylla ssp.macrophylla macrophylla) Ficus carica ssp.carica carica) Ginkgo biloba ssp.biloba biloba) Hibiscus rosa-sinensis ssp.rosa-sinensis rosa-sinensis) Jatropha curcas ssp.curcas curcas) Laurus nobilis ssp.nobilis nobilis) Liriodendron tulipifera ssp.tulipifera tulipifera) Magnolias grandis ssp.grandis grandis) Mangiferina indica ssp.indica indica) Nerium oleander ssp.oléander oleander) Olea europaea olivaceæ ssp.olivaceæ olivaceæ) Pistacia vera ssp.vera vera) Quercus robur ssp.robur robur) Rhamnus cathartica ssp.cathartica cathartica) Sambucus nigra ssp.nigra nigra) Solanum nigrum ssp.nigrum nigrum) Buxus sempervirens ssp.sempervirens syn.Buxus sempervirens ssp.sempervirens syn.Buxus sempervirens ssp.sempervirens syn.Buxus sempervirens ssp.sempervirens syn.Buxus sempervirens ssp.sempervirens syn.Buxus sempervirens ssp.sempervirens syn.Buxus sempervirens ssp.sempervirens syn.Buxus sempervirens ssp.sempervirens syn.Buxus sempervirens ssp.sempervirens syn.Buxus sempervirens ssp.sempervirens syn.Buxus sempervirens ssp.sempervirens syn.Buxus sempervirens ssp.sempervirens syn.Buxus sempervirens ssp.sempervirens syn.Buxus sempervirens ssp.sempervirens syn.Buxus sempervirens ssp.sempervirens syn.Buxus sempervirens ssp.sempervirens syn.Buxus sempervirens ssp.sempervirens syn.Buxus sempervirens sssmp.semperviresens syn.Buxu... Cinnamomum camphora sssmp.camphoraa syn.Cinnamom... Chlorophytum comosum ssmp.comosaa syn.Chlorophy... Elaeag... Elaeag... Elaeag... Elaeag... Elaeag... Elaeag... Elaeag... Elaeag... Elaeag... Elaeag... Elaeag... Elaeag... Elaeag... Elaeag... Elaeag... Elaeag... Elaeag... Elaeag... Elaeag... Elaeag... Elaeag... Elaeag... Elaeag... Elaeag... Elaeag... Elaeag... Elaeag... Elaeag... Elaeag... Elaeag... Elaeag... Elaeag... Elaeag... Elaeag... Elaeag... Elaeag... Elaeag... Elaeag... Elaeag... Elaeag... Elaeag... Elaeag... Elaeag... Elaeag... Elaeag... Elaeag... Buxus sempervirens subssp. Cinnamomum camphora subssp. Chlorophytum comosum subssp. Diospyros kaki subssp. Elaiogonium macrophyllum subssp. Ficus carica subssp. Ginkgo biloba subssp. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis subssp. Jatropha curcas subssp. Laurus nobilis subssp. Liriodendron tulipiferarubrosubss. Magnolias grandis subssp. Mangiferina indica subssp. Nerium oleander subssp. Olea europaea olivaceæ subssp. Pistacia vera subssp. Quercus robur subssp. Rhamnus cathartica subssp. Sambucus nigra subssp. Solanum nigrum subssp. Buxus sempervirens var. Cinnamomum camphora var. Chlorophytum comosum var. Diospyros kaki var. Elaiogonium macrophyllum var. Ficus carica var. Ginkgo biloba var. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis var. Jatropha curcas var. Laurus nobilis var. Liriodendron tulipiferarubrovar. Magnolias grandis var. Mangiferina indica var. Nerium oleander var. Olea europaea olivaceæ var. Pistacia vera var. Quercus robur var. Rhamnus cathartica var. Sambucus nigra var. Solanum nigrum var. Buxus sempervirens fide Buxus sempervirens fide Buxu... fide Buxu... fide Buxu... fide Buxu... fide Buxu... fide Buxu... fide Buxu... fide Buxu... fide Buxu... fide Buxu... fide Buxu... fide Buxu... fide Buxu... fide Buxu... fide Buxu... fide Buxu... fide Buxu... fide Buxu... fide Buxu... fide Buxu... fide Buxu... fide Buxu... fide Buxu... fide Buxu... fide Buxu... fide Buxu... fide Buxu... fide Buxu... fide Buxu... fide Buxu... fide Buxu... fide Buxu... fide Buxu... fide Buxu... fide Buxu... fide Buxu... fide Buxu... fide Buxu... fide Buxu... fide Buxu... fide Buxu... fide Buxu... fide Buxu... fide Buxu... fide Buxu... fide Buxu... BUXUS SEMPERVIRENS FIDE BUXUS SEMPERVIRENS FIDE BUXUS SEMPERVIRENS FIDE BUXUS SEMPERVIRENS FIDE BUXUS SEMPERVIRENS FIDE BUXUS SEMPERVIRENS FIDE BUXUS SEMPERVIRENS FIDE BUXUS SEMPERVIRENS FIDE BUXUS SEMPERVIRENS FIDE BUXUS SEMPERVIRENS FIDE BUXUS SEMPERVIRENS FIDE BUXUS SEMPERVIRENS FIDE BUXUS SEMPERVIRENS FIDE BUXUS SEMPERVIRENS FIDE BUXUS SEMPERVIRENS FIDE BUXUS SEMPERVIRENS FIDE BUXUS SEMPERVIRENS FIDE BUXUS SEMPERVIRENS FIDE BUXUS SEMPERVIRENS FIDE BUXUS SEMPERVIRENS FIDE BUXUS SEMPERVIRENS FIDE BUXUS SEMPERVIRENS FIDE BUXUS SEMPERVIRENS FIDE BUXUS SEMPERVIRENS FIDE BUXUS SEMPERVIRENS FIDE BUXUS SEMPERVIRENS FIDE BUXUS SEMPERVIRENS FIDE BUXUS SEMPERVIRENS FIDE BUXUS SEMPERVIRENS FIDE BUXUS SEMPERVIRENS FIDE BUXUS SEMPERVIRENS FIDE BUXUS SEMPERVIRENS FIDE BUXUS SEMPERVIRENS FIDE BUXUS SEMPERVIRENS FIDE BUXUS SEMPERVIRENS FIDE BUXUS SEMPERVIRENS FIDE BUXUS SEMPERVIRENS FIDE BUXUS SEMPERVIRENS FIDE BUXUS SEMPERVIRENS FIDE BUXUS SEMPERVIRENS FIDE BUXUS SEMPERVIRENS FIDE BUXUS SEMPERVIRENS FIDE BUXUS SEMPERVIRENS FIDE BUXUS SEMPERVIRENS FIDE BUXUS SEMPERVIRENS FIDE BUXUS SEMPERVIRIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPERVIENSSSE MPER VIENSSES E N P E R VIENSSES E N P E R VIENSSES E N P E R VIENSSES E N P E R VIENSSES E N P E R VIENSSES E N P E R VIENSSES E N P E R VIENSSES E N P E R VIENSSES E N P E R VIENSSES E N P E R VIENSSES E N P E R VIENSSES E N P E R VIENSSES E N P E R VIENSSES E N P E R VIENSSES E N P E R VIENSSES E N P E R VIENSSES E N P E R VIENSSES E N P E R VIENSSES E N P E R VIENSSES E N P E R VIENSSES E N P E R VIENSSES E N P E R VIENSSES E N P E R VIENSSES E N P E R VIENSSES E N P E R VIENSSES E N P E R VIENSSES E N P E R VIENSSES E N P E R VIENSSES E N P E R VIENSSES E N P E R VIENSSES E N P E R VIENSSES E N P E R VIENSSES E N P E R VIENSSES E N P E R VIENSSES E N P E R VIENSSES E N P E R VIENSSES E N P ER VIENSSES EN PER VIENSSES EN PER VIENSSES EN PER VIENSSES EN PER VIENSSES EN PER VIENSSES EN PER VIENSSES EN PER VIENSSES EN PER VIENSSES EN PER VIENSSES EN PER VIENSSES EN PER VIENSSES EN PER VIENSSES EN PER VIENSSES EN PER VIENSSES EN PER VIENSSES EN PER VIENSSES EN PER VIENSSES EN PER VIENSSES EN PER VIENSSES EN PER VIENSSES EN PER VIENSSES EN PER VIENSSES EN PER VIENSSES EN PER VIENSSES EN PER VIENSSES EN PER VIENSSES EN PER VIENSSES EN PER VIENSSES EN PER VIENSSES EN PER VIENSSES EN PER VIENSSES EN PER VIENSSES EN PER VIINS SES IN PE RI VINS SES IN PE RI VINS SES IN PE RI VINS SES IN PE RI VINS SES IN PE RI VINS SES IN PE RI VINS SES IN PE RI VINS SES IN PE RI VINS SES IN PE RI VINS SES IN PE RI VINS SES IN PE RI VINS SES IN PE RI VINS SES IN PE RI VINS SES IN PE RI VINS SES IN PE RI VINS SES IN PE RI VINS SES IN PE RI VINS SES IN PE RI VINS SES IN PE RI VINS SES IN PE RI VINS SES IN PE RI VINS SES IN PE RI VINS SES IN PE RI VINS SES IN PE RI VINS SES IN PE RI VINS SES IN PE RI VINS SES IN PE RI VINS SES IN PE RI VINS SES IN PE RI VINS SES IN PE RI VINS SES IN PE RI VINS SES IN PE RI VINS SES IN PE RI VINS SES IN PE RI VINS SES IN PE RI VINS SES IN PE RI VINS SES IN PE RI VINS SES IN PE RI VINS SES IN PE RI V INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPERIV INS ES IINPEРИVSIE NSI NEIPIREI NSI NEIPIREI NSI NEIPIREI NSI NEIPIREI NSI NEIPIREI NSI NEIPIREI NSI NEIPIREI NSI NEIPIREI NSI NEIPIREI NSI NEIPIREI NSI NEIPIREI NSI NEIPIREI NSI NEIPIREI NSI NEIPIREI NSI NEIPIREI NSI NEIPIREI NSI NEIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE NSIP REISIE SS IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SNE IPES IE SINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSIES ISINE PSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISES NESPSRIESISESNESPRSIETSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPERSITSNPNSPERT SNPNSPERT SNPNSPERT SNPNSPERT SNPNSPERT SNPNSPERT SNPNSPERT SNPNSPERT SNPNSPERT SNPNSPERT SNPNSPERT SNPNSPERT SNPNSPERT SNPNSPERT SNPNSPERT SNPNSPERT SNPNSPERT SNPNSPERT SNPNSPERT SNPNSPERT SNPNSPERT SNPNSPERT SNPNSPERT SNPNSPERT SNPNSPERT SNPNSPERT SNPNSPERT SNPNSPERT SNPNSPERT SNPNSPERT SNPNSPERT SNPNSPERT SNPNSPERT SNPNSPERT SNPNSPERT SNPNSPERT SNPNSPERT SNPNSPERT SNPNSPERT SNPNSPERT SNPNSPERT SNPNSPERT SNPNSPERT SNPNSPERT SNPNSPERT SNPNSPBERT SNNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT SNP SPBERT NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBET RN NP SBETRNNP BP ETRNNP BP ETRNNP BP ETRNNP BP ETRNNP BP ETRNNP BP ETRNNP BP ETRNNP BP ETRNNP BP ETRNNP BP ETRNNP BP ETRNNP BP ETRNNP BP ETRNNP BP ETRNNP BP ETRNNP BP ETRNNP BP ETRNNP BP ETRNNP BP ETRNNP BP ETRNNP BP ETRNNP BP ETRNNP BP ETRNNP BP ETRNNP BP ETRNNP BP ETRNNP BP ETRNNP BP ETRNNP BP ETRNNP BP ETRNNP BP ETRNNP BP ETRNNP BP ETRNNP BP ETRNNP BP ETRNNP BP ETRNNNBP ETNRNNBP ETNRNNBP ETNRNNBP ETNRNNBP ETNRNNBP ETNRNNBP ETNRNNBP ETNRNNBP ETNRNNBP ETNRNNBP ETNRNNBP ETNRNNBP ETNRNNBP ETNRNNBP ETNRNNBP ETNRNNBP ETNRNNBP ETNRNNBP ETNRNNBP ETNRNNBP ETNRNNBP INDEX TO SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. 587 Saxifragaceae. 579 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 Saxifraga, 641 587 587 587 587 587 587 587 587 587 587 587 587 587 587 587 587 587 587 587 587 587 587 587 587 587 587 587 587 587 587 587 587 587 587 587 **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** **K S T** A small illustration of a plant with green leaves and a red flower. A small illustration of a plant with white flowers. A small illustration of a plant with yellow flowers. A small illustration of a plant with purple flowers. A small illustration of a plant with blue flowers. A small illustration of a plant with pink flowers. A small illustration of a plant with white flowers. A small illustration of a plant with purple flowers. A small illustration of a plant with yellow flowers. A small illustration of a plant with red flowers. A small illustration of a plant with white flowers. A small illustration of a plant with purple flowers. A small illustration of a plant with yellow flowers. A small illustration of a plant with red flowers. A small illustration of a plant with white flowers. A small illustration of a plant with purple flowers. A small illustration of a plant with yellow flowers. A small illustration of a plant with red flowers. A small illustration of a plant with white flowers. A small illustration of a plant with purple flowers. A small illustration of a plant with yellow flowers. A small illustration of a plant with red flowers. A small illustration of a plant with white flowers. A small illustration of a plant with purple flowers. A small illustration of a plant with yellow flowers. A small illustration of a plant with red flowers. A small illustration of a plant with white flowers. A small illustration of a plant with purple flowers. A small illustration of a plant with yellow flowers. A small illustration of a plant with red flowers. A small illustration of a plant with white flowers. A small illustration of a plant with purple flowers. A small illustration of a plant with yellow flowers. A small illustration of a plant with red flowers. A small illustration of a plant with white flowers. A small illustration of a plant with purple flowers. A small illustration of a plant with yellow flowers. A small illustration of a plant with red flowers. A small illustration of a plant with white flowers. A small illustration of a plant with purple flowers. A small illustration of a plant with yellow flowers. A small illustration of a plant with red flowers. A small illustration of a plant with white flowers. A small illustration of a plant with purple flowers. A small illustration of a plant with yellow flowers. A small illustration of a plant with red flowers. A small illustration of a plant with white flowers. A small illustration of a plant with purple flowers. A small illustration of a plant with yellow flowers. A small illustration of a plant with red flowers. A small illustration of a plant with white flowers. A small illustration of a plant with purple flowers. A small illustration of a plant with yellow flowers. A small illustration of a plant with red flowers. A small illustration of a plant with white flowers. A small illustration of a plant with purple flowers. A small illustration of a plant with yellow flowers. A small illustration of a plant with red flowers. A small illustration of a plant with white flowers. A small illustration of a plant with purple flowers. A small illustration of a plant with yellow flowers. A small illustration of a plant with red flowers. A small illustration of a plant with white flowers. A small illustration of a plant with purple flowers. A small illustration of a plant with yellow flowers. A small illustration of a plant with red flowers. A small illustration of a plant with white flowers. A small illustration of a plant with purple flowers. A small illustration of a plant with yellow flowers. A small illustration of a plant with red flowers. A small illustration of a plant with white flowers. A small illustration of a plant with purple flowers. A small illustration of a plant with yellow flowers. A small illustration of a plant with red flowers. A small illustration of a plant with white flowers. 863 INDEX TO SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. **Syringa** obovata *Linn.* Syringa, 405 **Stachys** officinalis *Linn.* Stachys, 407 **Stachys** sylvestris *Linn.* Stachys, 407 **Stachys** vulgaris *Linn.* Stachys, 407 **Stachys** zizyphoides *Linn.* Stachys, 407 **Stachys** zizyphus *Linn.* Stachys, 407 **Stachys** zizyphus *Linn.* Stachys, 407 **Stachys** zizyphus *Linn.* Stachys, 407 **Stachys** zizyphus *Linn.* Stachys, 407 **Stachys** zizyphus *Linn.* Stachys, 407 **Stachys** zizyphus *Linn.* Stachys, 407 **Stachys** zizyphus *Linn.* Stachys, 407 **Stachys** zizyphus *Linn.* Stachys, 407 **Stachys** zizyphus *Linn.* Stachys, 407 **Stachys** zizyphus *Linn.* Stachys, 407 **Stachys** zizyphus *Linn.* Stachys, 407 **Stachys** zizyphus *Linn.* Stachys, 407 **Stachys** zizyphus *Linn.* Stachys, 407 **Stachys** zizyphus *Linn.* Stachys, 407 **Stachys** zizyphus *Linn.* Stachys, 407 **Stachys** zizyphus *Linn.* Stachys, 407 **Stachys** zizyphus *Linn.* Stachys, 407 **Stachys** zizyphus *Linn.* Stachys, 407 **Stachys** zizyphus *Linn.* Stachys, 407 **Stachys** zizyphus *Linn.* Stachys, 407 **Stachys** zizyphus *Linn.* Stachys, 407 **Stachys** zizyphus *Linn.* Stachys, 407 **Stachys** zizyphus *Linn.* Stachys, 407 **Stachys** zizyphus *Linn.* Stachys, 407 **Stachys** zizyphus *Linn.* Stachys, 407 **Stachys** zizyphus *Linn.* Stachys, 407 **Stachys** zizyphus *Linn.* Stachys, 407 **Stachys** zizyphus *Linn.* Stachys, 407 **Strymonia** Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 419 Strymonia, 368 INDEX TO SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. 869 Tubule lae, 419 Tubul wood, 507 Tubul wood, 507 Tubul wood, 507 Tubul wood, 507 Tubul wood, 507 Tubul wood, 507 Tubul wood, 507 Tubul wood, 507 Tubul wood, 507 Tubul wood, 507 Tubul wood, 507 Tubul wood, 507 Tubul wood, 507 Tubul wood, 507 Tubul wood, 507 Tubul wood, 507 Turkish mulle, 711 Turkish mulle, 711 Turkish mulle, 711 Turkish mulle, 711 Turkish mulle, 711 Turkish mulle, 711 Turkish mulle, 711 Turkish mulle, 711 Turkish mulle, 711 Turkish mulle, 711 Turkish mulle, 711 Turkish mulle, 711 Turkish mulle, 711 Turkish mulle, 711 Turkish mulle, 711 Turkish mulle, 711 Turkish mulle, 711 Turkish mulle, 711 Turkish mulle, 711 Turkish mulle, 711 Turkish mulle, 711 Turkish mulle, 711 Turkish mulle, 711 Turkish mulle, 711 Turkish mulle, 711 Turkish mulle, 711 Turkish mulle, 711 Turkish mulle, 711 Turkish mulle, 711 Turkish mulle, 711 Turkish mulle, 711 Turkish mulle, 711 Turkish mulle, 711 Turkish mulle, 711 Turkish mulle, 711 Turkish mulle, 711 Turkish mulle, 711 Turkish mulle, 711 Turkish mulle, 711 Turkish mulle, 711 Turkish mulle, 711 Turkish mulle, 712 Vaccariaeae. See *Vaccariaceae* Vaccariaeae. See *Vaccariaceae* Vaccariaeae. See *Vaccariaceae* Vaccariaeae. See *Vaccariaceae* Vaccariaeae. See *Vaccariaceae* Vaccariaeae. See *Vaccariaceae* Vaccariaeae. See *Vaccariaceae* Vaccariaeae. See *Vaccariaceae* Vaccariaeae. See *Vaccariaceae* Vaccariaeae. See *Vaccariaceae* Vaccariaeae. See *Vaccariaceae* Vaccariaeae. See *Vaccariaceae* Vaccariaeae. See *Vaccariaceae* Vaccariaeae. See *Vaccariaceae* Vaccariaeae. See *Vaccariaceae* Vaccariaeae. See *Vaccariaceae* Vaccariaeae. See *Vaccariaceae* Vaccariaeae. See *Vaccariaceae* Vaccariaeae. See *Vaccariaceae* Vaccariaeae. See *Vaccariaceae* Vaccariaeae. See *Vaccariaceae* Vaccariaeae. See *Vaccariaceae* Vaccariaeae. See *Vaccariaceae* Vaccariaeae. See *Vaccariaceae* Vaccariaeae. See *Vaccariaceae* Vaccariaeae. See *Vaccariaceae* Vaccariaeae. See *Vaccariaceae* Vaccariaeae. See *Vaccariaceae* Vaccariaeae. See *Vaccariaceae* Vaccariaeae. See *Vaccariaceae* Vaccariaeae. See *Vaccariaceae* Vaccariaeae. See *Vaccariaceae* Vaccariaeae. See *Vaccariaceae* Vaccariaeae. See *Vaccariaceae* Vaccariaeae. See *Vaccariaceae* Vaccariaeae. See *Vaccariaceae* Vaccariaeae. See *Vaccariaceae* Vaccariaeae. See *Vaccariaceae* Valerianella. See Valerianaefolia. Valerianella. See Valerianaefolia. Valerianella. See Valerianaefolia. Valerianella. See Valerianaefolia. Valerianella. See Valerianaefolia. Valerianella. See Valerianaefolia. Valerianella. See Valerianaefolia. Valerianella. See Valerianaefolia. Valerianella. See Valerianaefolia. Valerianella. See Valerianaefolia. Valerianella. See Valerianaefolia. Valerianella. See Valerianaefolia. Valerianella. See Valerianaefolia. Valerianella. See Valerianaefolia. Valerianella. See Valerianaefolia. Valerianella. See Valerianaefolia. Valerianella. See Valerianaefolia. Valerianella. See Valerianaefolia. Valerianella. See Valerianaefolia. Valerianella. See Valerianaefolia. Valerianella. See Valerianaefolia. Valerianella. See Valerianaefolia. Valerianella. See Valerianaefolia. Valerianella. See Valerianaefolia. Valerianella. See Valerianaefolia. Valerianella. See Valerianaefolia. Valerianella. See Valerianaefolia. Valerianella. See Valerianaefolia. Valerianella. See Valerianaefolia. Valerianella. See Valerianaefolia. Valerianella. See Valerianaefolia. Valerianella. See Valerianaefolia. Valerianella. See Valerianaefolia. Valerianella. See Valerianaefolia. Valerianella. See Valerianaefolia. Valerianella. See Valerianaefolia. Valverdaeastrum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegatum variegat 870 INDEX TO SYNONYMIC BOTANY. WallRover, 666 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Watt, 135 Whitakeria: 487 Whitakeria: 487 Whitakeria: 487 Whitakeria: 487 Whitakeria: 487 Whitakeria: 487 Whitakeria: 487 Whitakeria: 487 Whitakeria: 487 Whitakeria: 487 Whitakeria: 487 Whitakeria: 487 Whitakeria: 487 Whitakeria: 487 Whitakeria: 487 Whitakeria: 487 Whitakeria: 487 Whitakeria: 487 Whitakeria: 487 Whitakeria: 487 Whitakeria: 487 Whitakeria: 487 Whitakeria: 487 Whitakeria: 487 Whitakeria: 487 Whitakeria: 487 Whitakeria: 487 Whitakeria: 487 Whitakeria: 487 Whitakeria: 487 Whitakeria: 487 Whitakeria: 487 Whitakeria: 487 Whitakeria: 487 Whitebark Pine (Pinus albicaulis), see Pinus albicaulis Whitebark Pine (Pinus albicaulis), see Pinus albicaulis Whitebark Pine (Pinus albicaulis), see Pinus albicaulis Whitebark Pine (Pinus albicaulis), see Pinus albicaulis Whitebark Pine (Pinus albicaulis), see Pinus albicaulis Whitebark Pine (Pinus albicaulis), see Pinus albicaulis Whitebark Pine (Pinus albicaulis), see Pinus albicaulis Whitebark Pine (Pinus albicaulis), see Pinus albicaulis Whitebark Pine (Pinus albicaulis), see Pinus albicaulis Whitebark Pine (Pinus albicaulis), see Pinus albicaulis Whitebark Pine (Pinus albicaulis), see Pinus albicaulis Whitebark Pine (Pinus albicaulis), see Pinus albicaulis Whitebark Pine (Pinus albicaulis), see Pinus albicaulis Whitebark Pine (Pinus albicaulis), see Pinus albicaulis Whitebark Pine (Pinus albicaulis), see Pinus albicaulis Whitebark Pine (Pinus albicaulis), see Pinus albicaulis Whitebark Pine (Pinus albicaulis), see Pinus albicaulis Whitebark Pine (Pinus albicaulis), see Pinus albicaulis Whitebark Pine (Pinus albicaulis), see Pinus albicaulis Whitebark Pine (Pinus albicaulis), see Pinus albicaulis Whitebark Pine (Pinus albicaulis), see Pinus albicaulis Whitebark Pine (Pinus albicaulis), see Pinus alba... Whitebark Pine (Pinus alba... [API_EMPTY_RESPONSE]