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**QUESTIONS**
1. How are canals used to secure a supply of irrigation water?
2. Why is the construction of a canal important?
3. Name some of the largest famous irrigation canals.
4. What are the advantages of underground irrigation?
5. How do forests act as reservoirs for irrigation waters?
6. Describe some of the largest irrigation reservoirs which have been constructed.
7. What advantage has pumping over other means of supplying water?
8. How much does it cost to pump water for irrigation under normal conditions?
9. What can be said of windmills as a source of power for pumping irrigation water?
CHAPTER XXI
APPLYING WATER FOR IRRIGATION
Principles Involved. In applying irrigation water, consideration should be given to some of the principles governing the wetting, puddling, and washing of the soil. If these points are studied carefully, it will be seen that with a type of soil, much more water may be used than necessary, and it may be used in a way harmful to the crops. A good irrigation farmer observes closely the effects of the applications on the soil and plant, and continually endeavors to improve his methods. As the water is applied to the surface, it starts to percolate downward and washes out. If the soil be coarse, the water will travel almost directly downward, especially if the texture becomes more open or coarser as the depth increases. It is then necessary to apply the water to the entire surface to get the best results. When water is applied to a fine loam underlain by a subsoil of very fine texture, the water percolates downward slowly by gravity, but when applied to a coarse loam, it may move so rapidly that the water may effectively be applied to these soils in furrows some distance apart.
When the soil is very dry, the percolation downward is less rapid than when it is more moist. This is accounted for by the fact that the air in the soil must be displaced before the water can travel downward. This takes time, and for this reason a soil will not take water as rapidly when dry as when moist.
In applying irrigation water, great care should be taken not to puddle the soil, that is, to cause the crumb structure to
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be so broken down as to allow the soil particles to run together and form a compact mass. Soil in such a condition is said to be water-light. The clay cannot enter a roll of this kind, and a saturated roll is essential for further favorable conditions for plant growth. If too much water is applied to the soil, it becomes water-logged and suffers for the lack of air in the same way.
**Preparing Land for Irrigation.** As irrigation water is usually applied by the aid of gravity, great care should be used in preparing the surface ground and the ditch and surrounding banks, so that the water will reach the fields. The proper slope must be given to the surface to give an even distribution of the water. For this reason one of the largest items of expense involved in bringing land under irrigation is the cost of preparing the land. Usually irrigable land is covered with some sort of growth which must be removed. It costs about $50 per acre per year to remove sagebrush, which is usually found on the large irrigated sections of the United States. The land must be thoroughly gone over with graders and other leveling machines and worked until the surface is made a perfect plane.
Dr. Elwood Meade states that the cost of preparing the land for irrigation in the United States varies from $3 to $30 per acre. The following table shows the average cost of preparing land for different methods of irrigation:
| Method |
Cost |
| Cheek method. |
$3.60 |
| Flooding method. |
2.75 |
| Burrage method. |
1.50 |
| Basin method. |
4.50 |
**Methods of Applying Water.** There are many methods of applying water to irrigated crops, and nearly all are practiced in the United States. The method to be used in any particular case depends largely upon the nature of the
IRRIGATION 131
ground, the crops grown, the amount of water available, kind of soil, and other conditions.
The Flooding Method. One of the more general methods of application is known as the flooding system. It is generally used on land which has been re-
claimed, even though another method is in-
tended to be used later.
Preparing the ground for flooding consists in
levelling gently and smoothing, so that the water will flow readily over it in sheets. To distribute the water, small field ditches, or laterals, are located along the best routes. These small ditches are usually from 50 to 100 feet apart, and they generally follow grade lines, or contours. Where little care is used to control the flow of the water, the practice is safe to be followed. Larger ditches are made with a double moldboard plow, which turns a furrow on either side. To cause the water to overflow from the ditch to the side, a dam must be put in place. This con-
sists of a strip of canvas nailed along one edge to a strip of wood. In other cases, the ditch may be dammed by simply building up a small ridge of earth across the ditch.
The Check Method. The check method of applying water consists in dividing the fields into sections each having a comparatively level surface and bordered on all sides by
![]() Fig. 78. Flooding method of irrigation.
Conway Farm
![]() Fig. 79. A canvas dam.
Fig. 79 (1913, Office of Experiment Stations).
The check method of applying water consists in dividing the fields into sections each having a comparatively level surface and bordered on all sides by
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Fig. 71. A rammed dam in use. (Farm er's Bul. 202, U. S. Dept. of Agr.)
low, flat levees, or ridges. Into these checks the water is turned. On level ground these sections or channels may be made square or rectangular, but on sloping ground the ditch for supplying the water must follow the contour lines, in which case they are said to be contour checks.
In applying the water, an opening is made from the ditch into the side of each check and the water allowed to flow in until each is covered to the desired depth. Where this method is followed, it is customary to have small wooden outlets from the ditch into the checks, with valves which can be operated to close the opening when desired.
Basin Method.
The basin method is quite similar to the check method. It is used principally in the irrigation of
Fig. 72. Check method of irrigation. (Sep. 514, U. S. Dept. of Agr.)
Fig. 73. Basin method of irrigation. (Sep. 514, U. S. Dept. of Agr.)
IRRIGATION 132
trees. A basin is provided around the tree, with a suitable ridge to hold the water, which is then turned in until a sufficient amount is applied.
**Border Method.** The border method is also similar to the check method in that the hand is divided into two parts, and the water is turned into these from a ditch at the end or along the border. It is easy to see that by arranging these long ditches the work necessary in preparing ridges is reduced.
**Furrow Method.** The furrow method of applying irrigation water consists in turning the stream of water into furrows between the rows of intertitled crops. It is more generally employed than any other method, with the exception of flooding from a ditch, because the distance between furrows will depend upon the character of the soil. It is customary to provide small openings or pipes in the ridge at the side of the supply ditch by which the water may be turned into the furrows.
![]() Fig. 75. Border method of irrigation.
**Subirrigation.** Upon first thought it would seem that subirrigation, or, beneath the surface, would be an ideal system. This is not the case, as such a
![]() Fig. 76. Method of placing tubes in ditch
bank for furrow irrigation (Farmer's Bul. 512,
U.S. Dept. Agr.)
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system is not only expensive to install, but also quite extrava-
gant in many cases in the use of water. This is due to the fact that the water tends to percolate downward from the opening and so does not saturate the soil satisfactorily.
Spraying Method. Where irrigation is practiced in a small way the water may be applied by spraying. This system provides surface pipes containing running water under pressure, which may be discharged through nozzles in such a way as to cover the entire field. Often the pipes are arranged so as to revolve, turning the water spray in such a way as to discharge in different directions and thus reducing the amount of pipe required.
The Measurement of Water. Most of the water used in irrigation is sold to the farm owners, which fact necessi-
tates that methods be devised for its measurement and regu-
lation. In addition, the irrigator should know something definite about the amount of water applied, in order that he may de-
termine whether or not it is being used as efficiently as it should be.
Units of Measure-
ment. One of the most satisfactory units of measurement from the standpoint of the agri-
culturist is the acre-inch, which is the amount of water required to cover an area of one acre one inch deep. Thus, ten acre-
inches is sufficient water to cover an acre ten inches deep,
![]() Fig. 27. A cyclindrical vial with water regula-
tor in place for measuring and recording the
amount of water used in irrigation.
(Dal. 35, Office of Experiment Station.)
IRRIGATION
135
or ten acres one inch deep. The principal advantage of this unit lies in the fact that a direct comparison may be made between the irrigation water applied and a similar amount of rainfall. Where water is delivered from a canal, it is necessary to use a unit which will indicate the rate of delivery. The cubic foot per second is a unit in common use, and is easily understood. The miner's inch, used in many states, is a unit whose values vary very much. In Idaho, Nevada, and Utah, laws have been passed defining the value of such inch as 1-50 of a cubic foot per second. In Arizona, it is 1-40 of a cubic foot per second, and in Montana unit having the same value is called a statute inch instead of a miner's inch. In Colorado, a cubic foot per second is equal to 38.4 statute inches. Water is usually measured by weirs, which are constructed across streams at convenient points where it is allowed to flow. A form of weir in general use is known as the Cippolletti. The amount of water flowing through such a weir may be determined from the height, or "head," of the flow.
QUESTIONS
1. What are some of the principles involved in applying irrigation water?
2. What are some of the essential features of preparing land for irrigation?
3. How does the cost of preparing land for irrigation vary with methods of application?
4. Describe the flooding method of applying irrigation water.
5. Explain the check method of applying water.
6. Describe basin and border irrigation.
7. How do these methods compare with furrow? Why?
8. Why is subirrigation not generally satisfactory?
9. How is irrigation water applied by spraying?
10. What are the units in general use for measuring irrigation water?
11. What is a weir?
CHAPTER XXII
IRRIGATION IN HUMID REGIONS, AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL
Irrigation is generally practiced in those regions where the natural rainfall is so small as to make it quite impossible to grow crops without supplying water artificially. Here irrigation may not be a necessity, but it may be practised profitably to supplement rainfall, thus securing larger yields. As agriculture becomes more intensive, it is to be expected that irrigation of this nature will become more common.
The regions in which the rainfall is very small are said to be arid; those having sufficient rainfall to produce good crops under ordinary conditions are said to be humid; and the regions in which the rainfall is scanty or limited are said to be semiarid. It is to be expected that supplementary irrigation will be practised more in semiarid regions than in humid regions. However, if a careful study be made of the distribution of rainfall in many so-called humid regions, it will be found that the amount of moisture available for plant growth and moisture is the greatest, the rainfall is insufficient. A study of the rainfall at Philadelphia, by Mr. R. F. Teele, of the Office of Experiment Stations, shows that although the average rainfall for that locality is large, the records indicate that there were periods of drought during 88 per cent of the seasons for the 70 years covered by the investigations, which, dry spells lasting two to three months had short growing periods. The investigations also showed that all crops received too little water during a third of the years.
IRRIGATION 137
In Europe, irrigation has been practiced for ages in regions having rather large rainfall. Meadows and pastures, especially, are irrigated very successfully, and this is com-
monly practised in Great Britain, Holland, Germany,
Switzerland, Italy, and France.
In some countries where there is much sunshine, phe-
nomena occur by means of through irrigation. It is reported that in Italy, in 1860, a meadow crop made use of a mixture of clover and Italian rye grass, will yield from ten to fifteen tons per acre of a cutting, for eight to ten cuttings per year.
There are many small irrigation plants through the humid portions of the United States. Data collected by the irriga-
tion investigations of the United States Department of Agriculture show that in the humid regions of the United States.
Most of the water used is obtained from springs and through the diversion of streams by small canals or dams. This water is let over the meadows in small ditches or laterals, and is spread over the same in a manner similar to the check method of irrigation. Irrigation is also generally practiced in the dry regions of the United States by means of
by droths that come at the time when the fruit is forming.
The truck farmers have also found irrigation a profitable insurance against loss through drought. Professor F. H.
King, of the Wisconsin experiment station, conducted some very interesting experiments in irrigation at Madison, Wis-
consin. Over a rather long term of years, the average increase in the yield of clover was 21% tons per acre.
The increase in the yield of clover hay was 21% tons per acre; and of potatoes, $3.00 bushels per acre. The cost of irrigat-
ing the land was $6.80 per acre, which cost did not include the interest on the first investment for the plant. These gains are made up from the average yield for the State of
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Wisconsin and therefore are no doubt large, inasmuch as the nonirrigated crops do not generally receive the attention given to those which are irrigated.
Irrigation by sewage water is practicable. In many localities the disposal of sewage water from cities is an important problem. This is especially true of cities which are not situated near large bodies of water or streams into which the sewage may be discharged. In these cases, sewage irrigation must be
![]() Fig. 75. Poreless irrigation with sewage water.
resorted to, and this not only provides a convenient method of disposal, but it may be made a matter of profit. Perhaps there is no way of disposing of sewage more satisfactorily than by applying it to the soil. The matter in sewage water is quickly purified through the agency of soil organisms, when it is applied to the soil in skilful manner. The crops grown by sewage irrigation vary widely, and
IRRIGATION 139
include grasses, grains, potatoes and garden truck. Of these, grasses is the most generally grown; Italian rye grass, especially, thrives under this form of irrigation. The success of sewage irrigation indicates that it could be practiced more generally than it has been.
For several years, experiments in sewage irrigation were conducted at the Iowa experiment station, in co-operation with the irrigation investigations of the United States Department of Agriculture. The following table is a summary of a part of the results obtained. Two plots of each crop were grown under the same conditions, except that one was irrigated with sewage water and the other was not irrigated at all.
**Summary of irrigation experiments in Iowa, showing increased yields by the use of sewage water**
| Kind of crop |
Year |
Yield per acre not irrigated |
Yield per acre irrigated |
Increase in yield per acre |
| Amt. of sewage water applied in gallons |
per acre |
Amt. of sewage water applied in gallons |
per acre |
per cent. |
By Irrigation |
| Cabbage |
1907 |
6830 lbs. |
|
758 lbs. |
|
7040 lbs. |
9.5% |
|
| Corn |
1907 |
57.8 bu. |
|
59.8 bu. |
|
64.5 bu. |
9.4% |
|
| Rye grass |
1907 |
3.1 tons |
|
3.4 tons |
|
3.8 tons |
10.7% |
|
| Bobwhite quail |
1908 |
1.3 tons |
|
1.4 tons |
|
1.8 tons |
30.8% |
|
| Potatoes |
1908 |
1502 bu. |
|
1815 bu. |
|
2308 bu. |
56.6% |
|
| Tobacco |
1908 |
124 lbs. |
|
146 lbs. |
|
170 lbs. |
37.5% |
|
| Alfalfa |
1909 |
6.6 tons
<
Total: <u>112.2%</u> <u>50.9% <u>50.9% <u>50.9% <u>50.9% <u>50.9% <u>50.9% <u>50.9% <u>50.9% <u>50.9%&nb...
|
During the years 1907 and 1908, irrigation was given only when the crop seemed to be in need of moisture. In 1910 a larger amount of water was used.
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
QUESTIONS
1. What is meant by humid, semiarid, and arid regions?
2. Why is irrigation profitable in humid regions?
3. How have experiments proven that yields may be increased in humid regions by irrigation?
4. Does irrigation furnish a satisfactory means of disposing of sewage water?
5. What crops can be profitably grown with sewage irrigation?
REFERENCE TEXTS
Irrigation Engineering, by H. M. Wilson.
Irrigation and Drainage, by F. H. King.
Irrigation Institutions, by Dr. Edward Meade.
Irrigation and Drainage, by J. W. Burt.
Primer of Irrigation, by D. H. Anderson.
Bulletin of the United States Department of Agriculture.
![]() A page from a book on agricultural engineering.
PART FOUR—ROADS
CHAPTER XXIII
IMPORTANCE OF ROADS
History. The object of a road is to furnish a way for travel and the transportation of products. The art of road construction runs back before the time when history was written, and roads have appeared in a country whenever its people have shown a tendency to become civilized.
There is abundant evidence at hand to show that a paved road existed in Egypt as early as 4000 years n. c. No doubt the masons who built the pyramids knew how to lay over a part of this road. Much of the history of Carthage and Rome relates to the construction of their roads, which were used for the transportation of soldiers and supplies. The success of the Roman Empire as a great nation is largely due to its system of improved roads, over which its armies could be moved quickly. Ancient Rome had no less than 372 great roads, and it has been estimated that if all these had been built under modern conditions it has been estimated, it would cost under modern conditions as much as $5,000,000,000. All of the civilized nations throughout the world have given the matter of road construction careful attention.
The Extent of Our Roads. There are in the United States 2,150,000 miles of public roads. About one-half of this mileage, however, is but little used, and no doubt in time part will be found unnecessary and will be discontinued.
| CHAPTER XXIII |
IMPORTANCE OF ROADS |
| History. |
| The object of a road is to furnish a way for travel and the transportation of products. The art of road construction runs back before the time when history was written, and roads have appeared in a country whenever its people have shown a tendency to become civilized. |
| There is abundant evidence at hand to show that a paved road existed in Egypt as early as 4000 years n. c. No doubt the masons who built the pyramids knew how to lay over a part of this road. Much of the history of Carthage and Rome relates to the construction of their roads, which were used for the transportation of soldiers and supplies. The success of the Roman Empire as a great nation is largely due to its system of improved roads, over which its armies could be moved quickly. Ancient Rome had no less than 372 great roads, and it has been estimated that if all these had been built under modern conditions it has been estimated, it would cost under modern conditions as much as $5,000,000,000. All of the civilized nations throughout the world have given the matter of road construction careful attention. |
| The Extent of Our Roads. There are in the United States 2,150,000 miles of public roads. About one-half of this mileage, however, is but little used, and no doubt in time part will be found unnecessary and will be discontinued. |
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Benefits of Good Roads. The benefits of good roads to agriculture are far-reaching and are worthy of careful and extended study. The benefits are largely financial in character, and so the value of good roads may be estimated in dollars and cents. There are other benefits which may be styled social, and are those which tend to add to the comforts of country life.
FINANCIAL BENEFITS
Cost of Transportation. The most important and fundamental benefit to be derived from a system of good roads lies in the reduction of the cost of transportation of farm and other products which must be hauled over them.
Referring to Bulletin 49 of the United States Office of Public Roads, it is found that during the crop year of 1905 and 1906 there were 32,743,500 tons of farm products, consisting of barley, corn, cotton, flax seed, hemp, hops, oats, peas, potatoes, rye, wheat, and wheat straw, hauled over the roads from the farms to the shipping points. This estimate does not include the transportation of products from the town back to the farm, nor does it include live stock, truck-farm products, and fruit. A careful investigation by the Office of Public Roads indicates that the present cost of transportation per ton mile on broken stone roads is $1.85; the cost of hauling one ton one mile. If a small saving could be secured in this cost of transportation per ton mile, the aggregate saving for a year would be enormous.
With a system of good roads it is possible to make a great reduction in this cost of transportation. The cost varies with the kind of road. The investigation shows that over broken stone roads the good roads cost 8 cents per ton; on broken-stone roads in ordinary condition, the cost is 11.09 cents; on earth roads, with ruts and mud, the cost is
| Cost per Ton Mile |
Broken Stone Road |
Good Road |
Earth Road |
| $1.85 |
? |
? |
? |
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143
39 cents; and on sandy roads, the cost is as much as 64 cents per ton mile. The average haul for farm products in the United States is about 9 miles. It is estimated by Mr. L. W. Page, director of the United States Office of Public Roads, that if the cost of hauling in the United States could be reduced from 25 cents to 12 cents per ton mile, the annual saving in moving the twelve principal farm crops would amount to $31,000,000. He further estimates that the total annual saving in moving farm products in ten years reaches 265,000,000 tons, and that the total cost of haul- ing this on the roads approximates $500,000,000. In this case the total saving in reduction of the cost of hauling from 25 cents to 12 cents per ton mile would be $250,000,000 annually.
In this connection, attention is called to the fact that it would not be practical to improve all country roads. Mr. Page estimates that only such as the cost of hauling freight from one point to another increased to 15 cents per ton mile will be improved. He estimates that the total cost of improving this percentage of the total mileage of roads would be $2,000,000,000.
A striking example of importance of country roads is set forth by the fact that it costs the American farmer 3.06 cents per bushel to haul his wheat crop from 9.4 miles to market than it does to ship by regular steamship lines from New York to Liverpool, a distance of 3100 miles.
**Influence on Markets.** Good roads have a decided influence upon markets in several ways. First, a wider variety of crops may be grown, and marketed at the center from which good roads radiate. This tends to increase about cities the area in which certain crops, such as fruit and truck crops, can be grown. This is also true of dairying, as a dairy farm can be located farther from the city, if good
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
roads are provided between the farm and the city, enabling the farmer to deliver his products quickly and cheaply.
Again, good roads permit the marketing of farm products when the prices are most favorable. In many localities, when prices are best the farmer is unable to deliver his crops, owing to the fact that the roads are impassable.
Also, good roads furnish to the farmer a wider choice of markets. With good roads prevailing, it is possible for him to deliver his products to any one of several centers. Good roads also enable the farmer to find out at what given market between favorable and unfavorable seasons of production. Lastly, good roads tend to equalize local mercantile business throughout the different seasons of the year. In some instances little business can be done when the farmers are unable to get into town on account of the bad roads.
Good roads tend to equalize railroad traffic. Often dur-
ing the winter months, railroads provide no service, not delivered,
and the railroads have little to do. Then when the roads become passable to heavy traffic, farmers sell their products in such large quantities as to cause a congestion of traffic.
SOCIAL BENEFITS
Social Benefits. Perhaps of equal importance with the financial benefits to be derived from the system of good roads, are the social benefits. Good roads permit more easy intercourse between country people, city people, and between people and city people. Good roads place the farm nearer the city, thus overcoming to a certain extent some of the dis-
advantages of country life. They are also a factor in assist-
ing in the development of the consolidated rural school, and facilitate the rural mail delivery. The United States Post Office Department will not establish or continue a rural
![]() A page from an agricultural engineering textbook.
ROADS 145
mail route where the roads are not maintained at a certain standard.
**Value of Farms.** It is often stated that good roads tend to increase the value of farms; and some instances are referred to where, upon the completion of a good road past a farm, its selling value was at once materially increased. No doubt this effect may be due to an increase of the value of the benefits which have been discussed.
**Requisites of a Good Road.** A good road is one over which travel may take place with ease and comfort, and one over which freight or products may be hauled at a low cost. Furthermore, a good road must not be prohibitive in cost, and must require a minimum of attention for its maintenance. The following are some of the more important features which should be considered:
**Smoothness.** No road can be considered a good road unless it presents a smooth surface over which vehicles may travel without jar or vibration. Smoothness is also essential to the moving of loads with the least effort.
**Rigidity.** When a loaded vehicle rests upon a road surface, the wheels sink into the surface more or less. If the road surface is soft, the wheels will sink in deeply, and the vehicle will be unable to move forward because the wheels roll against an incline. The amount of resistance which the load furnishes varies with the depth that the wheels cut into the surface. Thus, the road which will most prevent the wheels from cutting in will furnish the least resistance.
When a loaded vehicle is moved up an incline, it is noticed that the resistance is increased proportionately to the grade. Thus if a load of 1000 pounds be moved up a 10 per cent grade, an extra force equal to 10 per cent of the load will be required to overcome the resistance due to the grade. It is
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
here necessary to explain that a grade of 10 per cent is one which has a rise of 10 feet in 100 feet of length.
**Costs.** A good road must not cost more than a certain amount, or the value of its service will not cover the interest on the investment. Thus the best road for certain conditions may be one that is comparatively cheap, instead of one at the amount of travel that justifies the outlay for a more expensive road. A good road will be durable, and will require little attention to repair it. For this reason great care should be used to see that the road is well constructed and that durable materials are used.
**QUESTIONS**
1. What is the object of a road?
2. What is the mileage of roads in the United States?
3. What two classes of benefits may be derived from good roads?
4. What is meant by the "cost" of transportation?
5. What is the cost of transportation in the United States?
6. How does the cost of transportation vary with the kind of road?
7. In what way will good roads influence the markets?
8. How can we improve our roads in a social way?
9. What are the requisites of a good road?
10. How much money, according to the estimate of Mr. Page, could be spent upon roads in the United States?
Norr. The student should obtain statistics in regard to roads in his own state, county, and township; the mileage, the funds spent, etc.
CHAPTER XXIV
EARTH ROADS
**Extent.** Of the total mileage of roads in the United States, about 2,000,000 miles are unimproved, or earth roads. It is evident that a large percentage of these roads will remain unimproved for a long time, and for this reason earth roads are worthy of the most careful attention. By the term "earth roads" is meant roads made of native soil and whose surface is loam or clay. Obviously the earth road is the cheapest to build, but it is possible to construct a fairly good road out of native soil, and such a road in most cases furnishes the very best foundation for an improved road with a hard surface of sand or gravel.
**Construction of an Earth Road.** The subject of earth roads naturally divides itself into two divisions, earth-road construction and earth-road maintenance. The first applies to the starting, construction, and building of the road, and the last its maintenance or repair.
**Drainage.** It is often stated that the construction of earth roads consists primarily in providing adequate drainage. When considered in the broadest sense, drainage would include not only underdrainage, but also surface drainage. Underdrainage is quite necessary in any kind of road and earth road is no exception. But not only should naturally it should be provided artificially. In constructing earth roads it is desirable to maintain as hard a surface as possible with the materials used, and water tends to soften them. The supporting power of earth depends largely upon the dryness of the soil. A good surface may be prepared, yet
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
if there is water beneath it the water will come up by capil-
lary action and soften the road until its supporting power is
lost. Again, the action of frost is greater when the road sur-
face is full of water. Freezing causes the roadbed to expand
and heave, tending to soften it. Thus it is highly important
that soil in which the ground water stands within 3 or 4 feet
of the surface be drained with a tile drain. This is generally
accomplished by placing a line of tile at one side of the road,
at the edge of the ditch, and another line of tile parallel with
the middle of the road. The former location is preferable
for several reasons. First, the ditch does not need to be as
deep. Second, in case of repairs the tile is easier to get at,
than it would be if it were located underneath the middle of
the ditch. Thirdly, it is found necessary to take up traffic will
not be interfered with, and, in a properly constructed earth
road the water which flows on the surface is conveyed
rapidly to one side by the slope or crown of the road.
![]() Cross section of drainage system recommended by the Iowa Highway Commission.
Where thorough drainage is needed, it may be advisable
to place a tile line at each side of the road, but under ordi-
nary circumstances one line of tile ought to be sufficient. In
providing tile drainage, care should be taken to see that the
tile is of ample size to meet the requirements of the area to be
Fig. 75. Cross section of drainage system recommended by the Iowa Highway Commission.
ROADS
149
drained. Where the road is on a hillside, seepage water, which often causes a wet road, may be intercepted by locating the tile line at the upper side.
Side Ditches. In the construction of earth roads, side ditches are provided to receive the water and carry it along the road until points are reached where it may be discharged into natural channels. An even grade or slope should be given to the road so that the water will flow away from the side ditches. It is impossible to maintain a good road under such conditions. These ditches should be of sufficient capacity to care for the water. They should be so constructed as not to be dangerous to vehicles when driven into them. The outside bank should not be so steep as to cause the water to run off too rapidly and leave a pool of water. Side ditches should be easily constructed and cleaned with the common road machines. It is desirable that they be of such form as to permit the mowing of weeds in them with a common mower. Some localities it is desirable that the side ditches have a form that will hold snow during the winter months, facilitating sled traffic. A good form for the side ditches is one that has a cutout or shoulder forming a slope of 1/2 to 1 and the inside bank with a slope of 3/8, as shown in the accompanying cross section of an earth road.
The Crown. It is highly important that the middle of the earth road be higher than the sides, which will cause the surface water to drain quickly to each side and not lie on the surface and soften it. This oval part of the road is usually called the crown. The crown should be smooth but should also be smooth so that the water will not lie in pockets on the surface. It is not so important that the crown be of a particular form, except to secure uniformity of construction, but it is important that it be smooth and that there shall be some slope to each side. If the slope be too steep, the travel
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will have a tendency to concentrate at the middle of the road, which in a very short time causes ruts. A slope of ½ to 1 inch to the foot, as shown in the accompanying sketch, is customary.
Road Maintenance. In order to keep the earth road in the best possible condition, it is necessary that the oval shape of the surface be maintained, and that ruts be prevented from forming. To do this, the roads must receive practically constant attention. The best device for keeping an earth road smooth is the road drag.
The Road Drag. The road drag is a device for smoothing earth roads. It is sometimes called the King drag, as its use has been urged by D. Ward King, of Maitland, Missouri. Its construction will be described later. The drag is usually drawn with the blades at an angle with the direction of travel,
![]() Fig. 28. An earth road maintained in good condition by the road drag.
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so that the soil which is carried out by the mud that sticks to the wheels may be replaced and the general wear repaired.
**Width of Earth Roads.** The right of way provided in most states for public roads varies from 40 to 66 feet. This is, perhaps, more land than is needed for that purpose, in most instances. It is unusual to improve more than about 36 feet of this right of way, making each side ditch about 9 feet wide and the crown proper 18 feet wide.
![]() A typical condition of an earth road on which the drag has been used.
FIG. 41. A typical condition of an earth road on which the drag has been used.
**Earth Road Grades.** The grade of earth roads may be greater than those of roads surfaced with stone or similar material, because the loads which are hauled on level earth roads are not as great as those usually hauled on hard roads, owing to the fact that the rolling resistance due to the softer road surface is greater. Thus the smaller loads adapted to earth roads may be hauled up steeper grades with the same
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increase of effort that larger loads require on lower grades.
It is of course desirable to keep the grade as low as possible,
but different localities have different standards for the maxi-
mum grade. This maximum varies from 10 per cent for roads used but little, to 4 and 6 per cent for those on which the traffic is heavy.
The drag can be used to the best advantage following rains, when the soil is still moist. It then has a better
smoothing action and the earth scraped into the low places is easily compacted. Roads which are dragged continu-
ously for a term of years become very dense and hard.
QUESTIONS
1. What is the mileage of earth roads in the United States?
2. Why should earth roads be avoided in mountain areas?
3. What are the two divisions of the subject of earth roads?
4. Why is the drainage of earth roads important?
5. How much slope should the crown of the road have toward the side drains?
6. Is it important that the crown be of any particular shape or
form?
7. What will be the result if the sides of the crown are given too
much slope?
8. How should earth roads be maintained?
9. What is your wish for a country earth road?
10. What should be the maximum grade for earth roads?
11. Explain the action of the road drag.
CHAPTER XXV
SAND-CLAY AND GRAVEL ROADS
Clay Roads. By careful construction and continued care an earth road may be made fairly satisfactory. This is true where such a road is made of clay. The construction and maintenance of a clay road consists primarily in providing drainage. Such a road should be kept as dry as possible. It should have sufficient slope from the center toward the sides to insure quick surface drainage to the side ditches; and as far as practical, underdrainage should be provided to carry off the water that collects on the surface. Howev-er, the clay road is not highly satisfactory. During the wet weather it becomes soft, and owing to the stickiness of the clay the surface is rapidly destroyed.
Sand Roads. In many localities the surface of the roads is composed largely of sand. Sand roads present an entirely different problem from clay roads; they are at their worst when they are wet. In some localities, however, some skilled highway engineers advise that sand roads be made flat, or without a crown. Straw, sawdust, and other mate-rials are added to the sand in order to hold the moisture, causing the sand to remain as compact as possible. It is also noticed that sand roads are best when shaded by trees.
Sand-and-Rock Roads. When clay roads and gravel roads exhibit the same locality it has been observed that nearly always there is a good piece of road between the stretch of clay road and the stretch of sand road. This would indicate that a mixture of sand and clay makes a better road surface
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than either one alone, and it has been demonstrated fully that this is true. In constructing the sand-clay road, suffi-
cient clay is added to the sand, or sand to the clay, as the case may require, so that the mixture will have a good hold with clay, causing the mixture to form into a very dense and impervious layer. Tests should be made to determine the amount of clay which must be added to the sand, or the amount of sand which must be added to the clay. The re-
quired material is hauled to the roads to be improved and the mixture made by plowing, harrowing, and rolling. If after a time the road becomes hard and dry, and when driven on the wheels of the vehicles driven over it, there is not a sufficient amount of sand in the mixture. On the other hand, if during the dry weather the surface becomes loose, it would indicate that more clay should be added. Sand-clay roads are very cheap, often their cost does not exceed more than $800 to $820 per mile, but they are subject to rapid wear.
The use of gravel is simply a step toward the gravel road.
Gravel Roads. Gravel consists of particles of stone which have been rounded by the action of water and ice,
and which are deposited in banks. Gravel of the right kind is a material from which a very satisfactory road may be constructed. It is well suited, however, to heavy traffic. It is suited to average country conditions, and in many localities where gravel can be had conveniently it is the most desirable material to use.
Durability of Gravel. Gravel that is satisfactory for the surfacing of roads should be durable and not so soft as to be ground into dust by much traffic, neither should it be so brittle as to be easily shattered or broken. As a general rule, most gravel may be depended upon to be fairly durable, for if it were not so it would not exist as gravel after having
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undergone the test placed upon it in its formation and trans-
portation by water and ice.
**Size of Gravel.** It is desirable that the pebbles in the gravel for road surfacing be not too large. It is customary to screen out all pebbles or stones larger than $\frac{3}{4}$ to 1 inch in diameter. In some cases where larger pebbles exist they are screened out and used for first course in the construc-
tion of roads. If these larger stones or pebbles are left in the gravel they are quite apt to come to the surface through the action of the traffic and frost. Gravel should also vary in size, so that there will be small pebbles to fill the open spaces between the larger ones, and in turn the space between the smaller pebbles should be filled with larger stones. In this manner a very dense mixture is obtained, which is ideal for road material. In some cases where the different sized pebbles do not exist naturally in the proper proportion to make a dense mixture, it may be profitable to screen the gravel and remix it more nearly as it should be.
The Binder. In order that the gravel shall form a satisfactory surfacing material, a binding material must contain or be mixed with the gravel material which will hold the pebbles together. In most instances this binding material is clay. Clay exists to some extent in all gravels. When the gravel will stand vertically in the bank, and when it resists the action of frost and must be loosened with a pick, it is quite likely to contain the proper amount of binding material. If a sufficient amount of clay is present, no open spaces between the pebbles and cause them to be packed into a dense structure, additional clay should be added.
Clay has several characteristics which recommend it as a binding material. It is cheap, can be easily reduced to a finely divided state, and is usually found to a more or less
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extent in the gravel. On the other hand, it has some undesirable characteristics. It loses its binding power when dry, and is susceptible to the action of frost. In many cases other kinds of binders are used. Stone dust has excellent cementing properties and is considered better than clay, but is more expensive. As will be explained in the chapter on stone roads, automobiles have introduced many new problems in connection with road construction. Many forms of binders and dust preventives are being experi-
mented with. Bitumen, tar, grade oils, and chlorides are used to hold the gravel together.
Drainage. A good gravel road must be thoroughly underdrained if it is to be satisfactory. The method of draining does not differ materially from that described for earth roads. Many mistakes have been made by those
![]() Cross section of gravel road. (Iowa Highway Commission.)
having the matter of road construction in hand, by applying surfacing material to a road which needed underdrainage badly, and so the material did not produce the results which were hoped for. The ground water coming up from below softened the surface, and the gravel was forced down into the earth until it entirely disappeared. Gravel roads should have sufficient amount of crown or lateral slope to secure the rapid drainage of all surface water before it discharges. The amount of slope is usually given as ½ to 1 inch to one foot of width.
Surface Construction. There are two general methods of surfacing roads with gravel. The cheapest method is known
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as surface construction. In this method the gravel is hauled and dumped on the prepared road bed, which usually is an earth road, and the packing is left to the traffic. Sometimes little attention is given to the matter of smoothing and spreading of the material.
The thickness of surface gravel applied in this manner varies from 3 to 6 inches at the center, usually tapering down to a less thickness at the sides. It is considered the best practice to apply the gravel in two layers; thus if the total thickness of six inches of gravel is to be applied, it will be spread in two layers with a 3-inch layer. After the first has been spread, sufficient time should be allowed for the traffic to pack it quite thoroughly before the second layer is applied.
Trench Method. In the trench method the road surface is carefully graded and rolled to re- ceive the gravel. Usually banks are provided at each side of the hole into which the gravel on the ground proper is placed. In trench con- struction the gravel is usually placed in two or more layers, the first being composed of coarse pebbles, and is thor-oughly rolled with a heavy roller before the other courses are applied. This form of construction gives a finished surface that is much smoother than that obtained by the surface method. This is much more expensive, however.
![]() Pig. 82. Model of a gravel road lining.
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Cost of Gravel Roads. The cost of gravel roads varies widely, depending largely upon the availability of gravel. The method of construction is another important factor. The amount of gravel used varies widely with different constructions, but generally not more than 1/30 of a yard of gravel may be applied per foot of length. In other cases a cubic yard may be applied per foot.
Roads may be gravelyled lightly by the surface method at a cost of from $200 to $500 per mile. Where the roads are constructed by the trench method, the cost usually varies from $1000 to $2000, but it may run as high as $3000 per mile.
Maintenance of Gravel Roads. Gravel roads should be kept smooth and oval by the use of the road drag. The road drag is not needed as often on gravel as on earth roads, yet pockets and ruts should not be allowed to form. From time to time additional gravel should be added to the surface.
When repairing gravel roads in this manner, it is customary to apply a thin layer of sand-clay at a time, except at the places where the road has been destroyed, in which case it will be necessary to use more gravel. The length of time in which the gravel road may go without an application of additional material varies so much with the traffic, grade of materials used, and other conditions, that no attempt will be made to suggest an average period.
QUESTIONS
1. Under what conditions is the clay road at its best?
2. How is a sand road improved?
3. What principle is involved in the construction of the sand-clay road?
4. How much does a sand-clay road cost?
5. To what extent is the gravel road adapted?
6. What are the requisites of good road gravel?
![]() A diagram showing a cross-section of a gravel road.
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7. Why should road gravel vary in size?
8. Why is it best not to use too large pebbles?
9. What is common binding material?
10. How much binder should be used?
11. Why should the surface be thoroughly underdrained?
12. Describe the surface method of constructing gravel roads.
13. What thickness of gravel is usually applied?
14. Describe the base course method of constructing gravel roads.
15. How much do gravel roads cost?
16. How are gravel roads maintained?
CHAPTER XXVI
STONE ROADS
Stone roads include all roads on which broken stone is used as the principal surfacing material. Stone has been used in road construction from very early times, where first-class roads were desired.
Telford Roads. Some broken stone roads are given the name of Telford, when they incorporate some features of road construction which were used by Mr. Thomas Telford, a famous English engineer. The distinguishing feature of the old Telford road was that the lower course or layer of stone was made of rather large flat stones laid in place by hand. At the present time any road which uses large pieces of material in the base or lower layer may be called a Telford road.
Macadam Road. Most stone roads which have been built in recent years follow the form of construction proposed by John Loudon McAdam, another famous English road engineer, who lived between 1756 and 1836. So general is the use of this construction that it has become customary to call all broken-stone roads macadam roads.
Macadam road is made by breaking up stone throughout. The stone is applied in three or more layers, and in the usual construction it is customary to place the larger fragments in the lower course.
Road Stone. Not all kinds of stone can be used successfully in the construction of roads. Good road stone must be hard so that it will not be crushed by the traffic which will come upon it. It must also be hard enough to
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resist wear, which requires somewhat different character-
istics from the ability to withstand pressure. Road stone
should also be tough, in order that it will not be shattered
by the blows to which it will be subjected. It must also, in
the usual macadam construction, furnish a dust which has
a cementing or binding power. As the stone wears, a dust
forms between the particles, and this dust is cemented between the stone particles.
This dust when wet is blended with cement, which, upon
hardening, holds the fragments of stone together, resembling
in many respects cement or concrete.
**Testing Stone for Road Construction.** Nearly every
state maintains a highway commission which is equipped with
apparatus for testing road stone for the various qualities necessary for good roads. The results of these tests show fairly
and accurately just what may be expected as to durability
of a certain kind of stone when used in road construction.
The construction of stone roads is so expensive that in no
case should materials of doubtful value be used.
![]() Fig. 81. Building the first course of stone.
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The Construction of Stone Roads. As usually con-
structed, the stone surfacing in a country road is made from
12 to 15 feet wide. The stone proper is usually applied in
two layers, on top of which a third layer of stone dust or
other binding material is used. The lower course is usually
made from 2½ to 4 inches thick, and the upper courses
from 1½ to 2 inches thick. Thus the total thickness of the
stone varies from 4 inches to 6 inches at the center of the
road, and from 3 to 5½ inches to 4 inches at the outer
edge. It is customary to apply more material in the center of the road, where the traffic is greatest, than at the outside.
If automatic dump
wagons are not used to spread the stone, it is generally recommended that it be applied with
hooves. When it is dumped in heaps, the larger fragments roll to
the outside of the pile and the finer portion is left in the center. The stone should be applied in layers of
uniform thickness, making proper allowance for its shrink-
age due to rolling. The packing is done with a steam roller.
Horse rollers are not made heavy enough for this purpose;
the ten-ton traction roller is the size in general use. It is
customary to make the rolling at the outside and work
toward the center. After the lower course is thoroughly
![]() Fig. 15. Model of a water-bound macula-
um road. A represents the prepared sub-
stratum; B, C, D represent three successive
courses of stone; E represents the second
course of stone placed over the first course,
and F represents a section through the Course of Public Roads, U. S. Dept. of Agr.
Agricultural Engineering
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packed over the entire width of the road, the upper courses may be applied. This consists of fragments of stone which vary in diameter from 1½ to 1½ inches. After being spread in a manner similar to that described for the lower course, this is the binding material, which usually consist of stone screenings and dust is applied. The thickness is about 1 inch in thickness and is washed down into the crevices between the stone as much as possible by sprinkling. Rolling is continued until the water that is applied in sprinkling remains on the surface. No more binding material should be used than is necessary, and care should be used to leave the surface of the road as smooth and as perfectly levelled as possible. In order to bring the surface into proper condition, the embankments at the sides should be thoroughly rolled smooth so that there will not be any unevenness existing between the stone and the side ditches.
**Bituminous Macadam Roads.** The construction which has just been described has been the standard method of stone road construction for many years, but owing to a change of traffic other forms of construction have come into use, and this construction is sometimes designated as "water-bound macadam roads." It has proved to be highly satisfactory for the main traveled country road, where first-class roads are desired and where the traffic is limited to light vehicles. The automobile, however, has introduced a new problem in connection with road construction. The automobile traveling at a high speed with its broad pneumatic tire sucks out from between the stone fragments the dust which forms the binding material, and causes the stone to loosen, or "ravel," as it is sometimes described. So extensive has the motor traffic become in certain localities, that not only must steps be taken to
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protect the macadam roads which are now in use, but another form of construction must be adopted for new roads. At the present time a rather large number of mate-
rials are being used as binders experimentally. One class of these binders is known as bitumen, which includes not only the natural asphalt products but also similar material obtained from gas plants in the nature of tars. In addition to bitumen, various grades of oils are sometimes used to protect roads. Some of these are known as dust preventives.
**Method of Constructing Bituminous Macadam Roads.**
There are two general methods of constructing bituminous macadam roads. One is the penetration method, the other the mixing method. In the penetration method, the foundation or sub-grade is prepared substantially as described for the water-bond macadam road, and the first or second layer of stone also applied in the same way. On the second, or upper, course layer, a thin layer of asphalt is applied at various rates, averaging perhaps 1/2 gallons per square yard. Following this a layer of stone layer of bitumen at the rate of perhaps 1/2 gallon per square yard.
![]() Fig. 34. Model of a bituminous macadam road showing how the different layers represent the prepared sub-grade. A represents the foundation or sub-grade; B shows the first applied course of stone chips; C shows the second course of stone chips; D shows the first applied course of asphalt; E shows the second course of asphalt; F shows the final course of stone.
A model of a bituminous macadam road showing how the different layers represent the prepared sub-grade. A represents the foundation or sub-grade; B shows the first applied course of stone chips; C shows the second course of stone chips; D shows the first applied course of asphalt; E shows the second course of asphalt; F shows the final course of stone.
**White lightly ruled (Fig. 16, Office of Public Roads, U. S. Dept. Agr.)**
chips is applied, and then another
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In the mixing method, the second crust or layer of stone is mixed or covered with bitumen before spreading. This is also true of the upper layer of sand or chips, which is thor-oughly mixed with bitumen before applying to the surface. It is expected that roads of this type will largely replace the standard or water-bound asphalt road.
**Cost of Stone Roads.** The cost of stone roads will vary largely with the cost of materials; this in turn being directly dependent upon their availability. The cost in different parts of the United States varies from $1.20 to $1.50 per square yard, and from $4000 to $10,000 per mile.
**Maintenance.** Macadam roads must be given constant attention or they will be rapidly destroyed. All ruts should be filled with fresh material, and all cracks should not be allowed to become larger. After several years of wear, depending upon the durability of the materials used, it will be neces-sary to apply a new layer of materials. This is usually accomplished by loosening or scarifying the surface, leveling or rolling it until thoroughly compact, and then applying new material in a layer two or three inches thick, depending upon the width of the road. This repair layer is applied in a way similar to the laying of the second course in the original construction.
**Brick Roads.** In some localities where stone is very expensive or where good durable brick may be obtained cheaply, brick roads will be found to be the most practical. In such cases, a foundation of concrete is laid on a well-prepared foun-dation is carefully prepared by grading and rolling, and the sides of the road are provided with concrete or wooden curbs, to hold the brick in place. On the subgrade a course of stone is laid and thoroughly rolled, or a coarse layer of concrete is spread, usually about 6 inches deep. On this course a layer of sand is spread and smoothed as a cushion
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on which the brick is laid. In order to allow for the expansion and contraction due to changes of temperature, an expansion joint must be left occasionally.
Concrete Roads. Owing to a reduction in the cost of Portland cement, concrete is now used to a limited extent in the construction of roads. One objection to concrete roads is that they are slippery, but this may be overcome. The construction of concrete roads has not as yet become standardized.
QUESTIONS
1. What is a stone road?
2. Describe the Telford form of construction for stone roads.
3. Describe the construction of the macadam road.
4. Why is water used in the macadam road construction?
5. Why should road stone be tested?
6. Describe the construction of water-bound stone roads.
7. How much should a stone road be rolled at the finish?
8. Describe two methods of constructing bituminous macadam roads.
9. How much do macadam roads wear per mile?
10. How much does a macadam road be maintained?
11. Where may brick roads be constructed advantageously?
12. Describe the construction of brick roads.
13. What is one objection to the concrete road?
CHAPTER XXVII
ROAD MACHINERY
Classes of Road Machinery. Road machinery may be divided into two general classes, those used in building roads and those for the maintaining of roads. Although machines in the first class may be used in connection with the repairing of roads, there are few machines which are used solely for this purpose. The second number is made up of road machines, and it is not possible in this chapter to describe even briefly all of the machines which might be considered.
SCRAPERS, ROLLERS, ETC.
Scoop Scrapers. One of the most simple machines used in connection with road construction is the scoop scraper, or "slip." This scraper is simply a large scoop arranged with a handle for drawing earth from the ditch or for dumping it. The size is usually indicated by the number of cubic feet of earth the scraper will hold, which varies from 3 to 7. The cost of a scoop scraper varies from 6 to 10 dollars. The scoop scraper is used for moving earth short distances.
Pole or Tongue Scraper.
The pole or tongue scraper is used in leveling the road surface. The size is indicated by the width in inches, and the cost varies from 0 to 4 dollars.
Fig. 87. Scoop scraper or slip.
Fig. 88. Tongue scraper.
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**Buck Scraper.** The buck scraper is sometimes called the Fresno, and is used extensively in irrigated regions in preparing land for irrigation. It is capable of being adjusted to spread the earth in a layer of almost any thickness when dumped. These scrapers are made 3½, 4, and 5 feet wide, and have capacities of 8, 10, and 12 cubic feet, respectively.
![]() Fig. 95. Buck scraper.
**The Wheel Scraper.** The wheel scraper consists of a steel scoop on wheels and equipped with levers for raising and lowering and for dumping. It is used where the earth is to be moved over 100 feet or more. The size of this scraper is usually designated by numbers 1, 2, and 3, which have the capacities of 9, 12, and 16 cubic feet, respectively. There are several grades of this machine to obtain. If the haul, or distance the earth is to be moved, is great, the larger size should be used, even if an extra team or engine be required to help load the scraper.
**The Scraping Grader.** The scraping grader is the principal machine used in the construction of earth roads. It consists usually of a four-wheeled truck, with a wide steel blade mounted underneath, which may be adjusted to almost any angle. The standard machine requires four or more horses to operate it successfully in average soil. A lighter or special machine is made which can be used for repair work;
![]() Fig. 96. Wheel scraper dumped.
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and is often used with two or four horses. In addition to the machines with four-wheeled trucks, there are quite a number of machines on the market in which attempts are made to simplify the construction, and also to reduce the cost. The standard machine is usually delivered complete at the factory. In addition to the usual adjustments provided for setting the cutting blade to any angle with the direction of travel, for raising and lowering either end and giving it
any desired inclination forward or backward, the wheels of the machine are made to follow in the furrows of the blade, or may be adjusted at such an angle as to resist the side thrust due to using a heavy weight. The adjustment of travel of the scraping grader is quite simple, but much skill may be obtained by experience. In using a machine it is customary to plow a furrow at the side of the
![]() A scraping grader and a horse roller at work.
FIG. 91. A SCRAPING GRADER AND A HORSE ROLLER AT WORK.
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road where the side ditch is to be located, using one corner of the blade. The earth from this furrow is then scraped to the center of the road and spread by the grader.
**Elevating Graders.** The elevating grader is a compli-
cated machine in which the earth is raised with a four-
wheeled carriage and a plow that is operated at one side. An
endless apron driven by power from the rear truck-wheels receives the earth from the plow and elevates and discharges it either in the center of the road or into wagons drawn beside the grader. These machines may be operated either
by horses or by traction engines. The standard machine requires 12 horses, eight in front and four behind. This
![]() An elevating grader.
Fig. 93. An elevating grader.
machine will grade a new earth road in good soil at the rate of a quarter of a mile per day, where the width does not exceed thirty feet and where a crown of twelve inches at the center is made. Elevating graders vary somewhat in size and capacity.
**Horse Rollers.** Horse rollers for road construction con-
sist essentially of a large cast-iron drum with a frame and tongue for drawing. They are usually made 4 to 6 feet wide
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and weigh from 3 to 6 tons. To overcome the difficulty of turning the roller about, a tongue with a wheel truck is attached to a yoke which is pivoted directly over the center of the roller drum, and which may be unlatched from one side and turned about on the opposite side and latched, enabling the driver to draw the roller round without taking out the tongue. Rollers made of cast iron cost about $100 per ton of weight. Cheaper rollers are made by building up the hollow drum of cast iron or steel plate, and filling with water or concrete. In the construction of stone roads it is highly essential that a heavy roller be used, and for this reason the horse roller is seldom used.
**Rollers.** The roller used in road work is of two types, one is known as the three-wheel roller and the other as the tandem roller. The three-wheel roller resembles the traction engine, in which the guide wheels are replaced with a rolling drum and the drive wheels have smooth tread. Gasoline and oil engines are being substituted for steam power for rollers to some extent. Many traction engines are made so as to be easily converted into rollers. The weight of these rollers varies from 10 to 20 tons and the pressure under the drivers will vary from 450 to 650 pounds per inch of width.
**Tandem rollers,** sometimes called asphalt rollers, consist of two rolling drums at the ends of a frame. Most of the weight is applied to one of these drums, which is driven by power, a steam or an electric motor, while the other is used for guiding. This type of roller tends to leave the surface smoother than the three-wheel type, but cannot be handled quite as conveniently over country roads. Although it can be used for drawing other machines it is not used so extensively in this connection as the three-wheel type. It cannot be provided with spikes for loosing old road surfaces preparatory to resurfacing.
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**Rock Crushers.** One of the essential machines in connection with the building of a stone road is the rock crusher for reducing stones to fragments of the proper size. Usually these crushers are located at the quarry, and the stone is shipped ready for application to the road.
![]() A black-and-white photograph showing a stone-crushing plant. A three-wheeled steam roller and a dump wagon are shown in the foreground.
**Other Machinery.** The equipment necessary for building stone roads includes several other machines. Among these may be mentioned screens for grading the stone, dump wagons for hauling and spreading the stone, and sprinklers for applying water or binding material in the form of a liquid. When old roads are to be repaired, plows or scarifiers, which are heavy tools with cultivator-shaped teeth for breaking up the surface, are necessary.
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MACHINES FOR MAINTAINING ROADS
Road Drag. The principal machine for maintaining roads of all kinds is the road drag. As devised by Mr. D. Ward King this consists of two planks or halves of a split log, about S feet long, and held about 30 inches apart with braces. These planks are so placed that one will follow the other when drawn at an angle of 45 degrees with the direction of travel. The front plank is usually shed with a steel blade for about one-half its length, which resists the wear and enables the drag to have more effect upon the surface. Two chains are provided, one from each end of the drag, which are of such length as to give the drag the desired inclination with the direction of travel.
It has been found that the drag is best with the longer chain attached over the plank near the shorter chain attached near the middle of the short plank close to one end. There are many other types of drag to be found in use. One is known as the V drag, which is designed to cover the entire width of the road surface at a time. There are also several types of road drags made of angles or bars of steel in place of the planks of the King drag.
![]() Fig. 91. Road drag made of plank and split log.
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QUESTIONS
1. For what may the scoop scraper, or slip, be used?
2. What are the special uses of the tongue and back scrapers?
3. Describe the construction of the wheel scrapers.
4. Why is it economical to use large sizes where the haul is long?
5. Describe the construction of the road grader.
6. Describe the construction of the elevating grader.
7. What is the usual weight of horse rollers?
8. Describe the construction of steam rollers.
9. What are some of the machines required for the building of stone roads not mentioned above?
10. Describe the construction of a road drag of plank or split logs.
CHAPTER XXVIII
CULVERTS AND BRIDGES
Importance of Culverts and Bridges. A large proportion of the cost of maintaining the highways of the country is used in the construction of culverts and bridges. Not only is it important that the work be done in such a way as to secure the best results, but faulty construction should be guarded against on account of the risk of life to those who must pass over them with heavy loads. To secure economy it is necessary that bridges and culverts be intelligently and economically designed, and that they be made of durable and permanent material. Recent changes in the laws governing the use of public moneys in the designing and constructing of culverts and bridges, order that the heavier loads which bridges are now called upon to bear shall be carried without risk of failure.
Design of Culverts and Bridges. The designing of culverts and bridges should be placed in the hands of a skilled engineer, who will be able to proportion the structure properly, and to estimate accurately the amount of appropriations of public funds for bridges without first securing from one who has had experience, an estimate of the cost of a bridge to fill the requirements of the conditions to be met, may be justly criticised.
Size. The first feature in the consideration of a culvert is the determination of its size required. Highway engineers have reported that culverts are often not properly proportioned to the needs to be met, being either too large or too small. The area of a cross section of a culvert or bridge
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should vary with the amount of water which must pass through it. Some engineers use Kutter's formula, given in the chapter on land drainage. To determine the required area of the cross section of a culvert, a more simple formula
![]() Making a concrete culvert
FIG. 5. Making a concrete culvert.
has been proposed by Professor A. N. Talbot, of the University of Illinois. Professor Talbot states that the formula is to be used as a guide to judgment. It is stated as follows:
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ROADS 177
The area of waterway in square feet should equal
$$C \times V$$ (drainage area in acres)¹
in which C is a coefficient and will vary from ½ to 1, the larger value being used where the slopes are steep and the ground is broken. The 4th root of the quantity under the radical may be obtained by extracting the square root of the square root.
Foundation. Many bridges fail because they are not placed upon a proper foundation. Great care should be used to select that part of the site which is not liable to be flooded by water available for the small bridge. For larger bridges the foundation should be placed on solid rock, if possible; and where this can not be done, piling and other methods of providing large surface for the foundation should be used.
Concrete Culverts and Bridges. Perhaps there is no purpose to which concrete made of Portland cement can be put to better use than in the construction of culverts and
![]()
A diagram showing the construction of a concrete box culvert.
Description: A diagram showing the construction of a concrete box culvert.
Fig. 84. Plans and table of materials for reinforced concrete culvert.
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bridges. Stone and brick make desirable culverts, but the convenience of handling and reinforcing concrete with steel makes it very useful for culvert and bridge construction.
Vitrified Pipe and Steel Pipe Culverts. Vitrified clay pipe is generally used for culverts, and is satisfactory and are quite satisfactory when covered with a sufficient amount of earth. It is desirable, however, that the ends be protected with wing walls made of masonry, brick or truss work, or used to a considerable extent; but owing to the thinness of the metal in most cases, they are regarded as of questionable merit.
Steel pipe culverts are regarded as quite satisfactory, but are expensive.
The Work of State Highway Commissions. The majority of states now have a highway commission or a highway engineer, whose function is to furnish standard plans and specifications for culverts and bridges. It is advised that these plans and specifications should be used in all cases. Besides representing the most improved design, they enable the work to be let by contract in a highly satisfactory way. All features of the construction will be clearly defined as to quantity and quality in the plans and specifications furnished by these officers.
![]() Fig. 73. Concrete culvert after the plan of Fig. 74.
The Work of State Highway Commissions
ROADS
179
Large Bridges. All large bridges should be designed and their construction supervised by a skilled engineer. In the
![]() A concrete bridge which failed on account of the foundation.
Fig. 81.
majority of states the state highway commission is in a position to furnish such an engineer.
**QUESTIONS**
1. Why should culvert and bridge construction receive careful consideration?
2. What should be considered in selecting a culvert or bridge?
3. What should govern the size of the culvert?
4. Why is it important that the foundations be well founded?
5. Why is concrete a good material for culverts and bridges?
6. What are the merits of metal culverts?
7. What is the work of the State Highway Commission?
**REFERENCE TEXTS**
Roads and Pavements, by J. O. Baker.
Highway Construction, by W. H. Byrne.
A Text-book on Roads and Pavements, by Frederick P. Spaulding.
Bulletins of the Office of Public Roads; U. S. Dept. of Agric.
179
PART FIVE—FARM MACHINERY
CHAPTER XXIX
FARM MACHINERY AND AGRICULTURE
Introduction of Farm Machinery. Farming, or the culi-
vation of the soil to obtain a sustenance, was a recognized
occupation even before the time history was first written.
For ages, however, there was little development in farm
machinery. The plow was the only implement used, and nearly
all of the work of the farm was performed by the aid of crude
hand tools. The number of horse- or animal-drawn imple-
ments or machines that had been developed were few.
Although hand tools were used almost exclusively for
thousands of years, when the application of power other than
man power to the work of the farm began, the development of
machinery proceeded rapidly. In 1850, according to Dr. H. W.
Scott it is stated, "The year 1850 practically marks the close of
the period in which only farm implements and machinery
other than the wagon, cart, and the cotton gin, were those
which, for want of better designation, might be called imple-
ments of hand production." In the early part of the nine-
teenth century the ground was plowed with a wooden cradle
and bound by hand. It was threashed by beating with the
flail or by the treading of animals. The plow was a crude
affair, usually home-made and shod with iron by the village
blacksmith, and the principal tool for cultivation was the hoe.
A cast-iron plow was first made by Charles Newbold,
of New Jersey, sometime between 1790 and 1796, and John
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181
Deere made his first steel plow in 1832. Patents on the reaper were granted to Obad Hussey in 1823 and to Cyrus W. McCormick in 1834. The two-horse cultivator was first used about 1801. The first patent on a drill for grain was an American was in 1799, but the force per foot for a drill was not patented until 1851. The first patent on a corn planter came in 1839.
These machines did not come into general use until many years after the date of the first patents. The old men of today can remember the hand methods which prevailed throughout the country during their boyhood and young manhood. The opening of large areas of rich agricultural land to settlement in the United States during the middle of the century, followed by the scarcity of workers caused by the Civil War, have been determining influences in bringing about a rapid introduction of farm machinery.
The influence of the introduction of farm machinery on agriculture has been stupendous and far-reaching. Some of the direct effects produced will now be set forth.
Changes in Farm Labor. Where slaves were prevalent, the labor of the farm was performed largely by slaves or the cheapest form of labor. From the beginning, the cultivation of the soil has been synonymous with deadening tool and drudgery. The introduction of farm machinery has changed this entirely, a fact which is emphasized by the comparison of the several methods of modern threshing with that of the old method of cutting grain with sickle or cradle and binding by hand; or the thrashing of grain with a modern threshing machine equipped with self-feeder,
![]() A black and white illustration showing a plow being pulled by two horses.
Fig. 16. The plow and the cradle, hand tools for harvesting.
Changin' Farm Labor. When slaves were prevalent, the labor of the farm was performed largely by slaves or the cheapest form of labor. From the beginning, the cultivation of the soil has been synonymous with deadening tool and drudgery. The introduction of farm machinery has changed this entirely, a fact which is emphasized by the comparison of the several methods of modern threshing with that of the old method of cutting grain with sickle or cradle and binding by hand; or the thrashing of grain with a modern threshing machine equipped with self-feeder,
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weigher, and wind stacker compared with the threshing of grain with a flail.
A poet once wrote of the agricultural laborer as the "man with the hoe, stolid and stunned—a brother to the ox." Contrast this condition with that of the operator of a modern machine like a gang plow, a harvester, or a two-row cultivator, where no effort is required beyond the direction of the engine and the horses or the adjustment of the machine. J. R. Dodge, in his "Agricultural Machinery Report," Industrial Commission, 1901, wrote, "As to the influence of machinery on farm labor, all intelligent expert observation declares it beneficial. It has relieved the laborer of much drudgery; made his work easier and his hours of service shorter; stimulated his muscular energy; restored an equilibrium of strength and body; and made the laborer a more efficient worker, a broader man, and a better citizen." It is doubtful if farming would appeal at all to the young men of today if there had not been a change from hand methods to machine methods.
**Length of Working Day.** The working day has been materially shortened since the introduction of labor-saving machinery. The scarcity of the worker was so limited with hand methods that it was necessary to work to the limit of endurance when crops demanded it.
**Increase in Wages.** There has been a very marked increase in wages with the introduction of farm machinery; and although this is true of all occupations, farm machinery has undoubtedly been a factor in bringing about this increase. A man who can operate a machine by hand is worth less than one who operates a machine by hand; however, a complicated machine requires greater skill for its successful operation. It was thought by many at the time machinery was being generally introduced that wages would be decreased, owing to the fact that some workers would be displaced with machines. In the
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183
United States, in 1849, the average wages of a farm worker did not exceed $120 a year. In countries where machinery is used at little at the present time, wages are very low.
Labor of Women in Fields. When hand methods pre-
vailed, women were employed to perform all the care
for the crop during the seasons when they required urgent attention. Now the services of women are seldom required in the field, and in addition many machines have been devised to aid her in the house work. Again, much of the work formerly required of her in the home, like spinning, weaving, garment making, soap making, and candle making have been transferred to the factory, where machinery may be used with ease.
Percentage of Population on Farms. The percentage of the total population living on farms in the United States has decreased continually since 1800. At that time 97 per cent of the people lived on farms; in 1849 the percentage had decreased to 90 per cent, and in 1899 only 35.7 per cent of the people lived on farms.
Increase in Production. Notwithstanding the decrease in the farm population in this country, the production of agricultural products per capita has increased. In 1800, 5.50 bushels of wheat were produced per capita; in 1849, 4.43 bushels; in 1880, 6.16 bushels; in 1890, 7.18 bushels; and in 1900, 8.66 bushels per capita. The production of cotton has increased from 25.53 bushels in 1850 to 34.94 bushels in 1900.
Cost of Production. The cost of producing farm crops has been materially lowered, although the cost of labor has increased many fold. It is stated by one authority that the average cost of producing farm crops was reduced 50 per cent from 1850 to 1885. This reduction of cost is largely due to a reduction in the time required to production. To
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the thirteenth annual report of the Department of Labor it is stated that the amount of labor required to produce a bushel of wheat by hand methods was 3 hours and 3 minutes, and by machine methods this has been reduced to ten minutes. In the 1890 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture it is reported that the average time of labor required to cut and cure a ton of hay has been reduced from 11 hours to 1 hour and 39 minutes.
Quality Products. The quality of farm products has been materially influenced by the introduction of farm machinery which enables the farmer to harvest his crop at the best time. For instance, when hand methods prevailed it was customary to begin the harvesting of small grain before it was properly ripened, and the harvesting was continued past the time the grain was in the best condition, resulting in a product which was often inferior. Today are generally cleaner and more uniform now than under the methods prevailing three quarters of a century ago. It would be difficult now to induce people to eat bread made from wheat threshed by the treading of animals.
Income of Farm Workers. A study of the Census reports of the income of farm workers in the different states and cities, and average investment in farm machinery indicates that the income varies almost directly with the amount of machinery.18 The following table contains only the extreme cases given in the report.
G. F. Warren and C. G. Livermore, of Cornell University, in reporting an agricultural survey made in Tompkins County, New York state, say, "In each of the groups [referring to size of farms] the farmer's labor income is almost the same as the value of his machinery." These observations
18. A. Knapp, of the United States Department of Agriculture, has reported this data from the census reports, in Circular 21, Bureau of Plant Industry.
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185
Influence of farm machinery on income.
| State |
Annual income of each worker |
Value of ma-chinery and im-plements used by each farm |
| Florida. |
811.79 |
$ 30.43 |
| Alabama |
143.98 |
23.40 |
| Georgia |
61.11 |
156.56 |
| North Dakota |
755.62 |
238.84 |
are sufficient to indicate clearly that farm machinery is an important factor in modern farming operations and that an agricultural student who intends to make the farm the object of his life work will do well to give a careful study of the subject of machinery.
QUESTIONS
1. Explain some of the causes which brought about a rapid de-velopment of agricultural machinery in America.
2. What were the hand tools used in harvesting and cultivation?
3. What was the amount of machinery had on farm labor?
4. Has the length of the working day been shortened since the intro-duction of farm machinery? Explain.
5. How have wages changed since the time of hand production?
6. Show how machinery has changed the work of women.
7. Explain how production of some of the principal crops per capita in the United States has changed, and also explain the changes in the percentage of the population living on farms.
8. How has the cost of production changed with the introduction of machinery?
9. What effect has machinery upon the quality of products?
10. What is the ratio between the amount invested in farm ma-chinery in the various states and the average income of the farm workers?
Note: The student should study the development of farm machinery by consulting the older residents in the community in regard to the methods in vogue during their lifetime. A study should also be made of the cost of doing work by different existing methods.
CHAPTER XXX
DEFINITIONS AND PRINCIPLES
A Tool. A tool is an instrument such as a hammer, fork, or spade used in performing manual operations. Tools so defined will not be discussed in this text. The term may be used, perhaps incorrectly, to designate a machine or an implement. Machines for making hay, for instance, are sometimes called tools.
Implement. The term implement is applied to both tools and machines. A dealer in these wares is generally known as an implement dealer.
Machines. A machine is any device consisting of two or more parts arranged to modify force and motion, to produce desired effect of doing useful work. Machines require energy from some outside source to drive or operate them, and of this energy a part is required to drive the machine itself and a part is required to do the useful work.
As will be explained later this energy is generally designated as work. The ratio between the work put to any useful end and the amount of work given by the machine is known as the efficiency of a machine. For instance suppose that a certain machine, like a pump, requires one horsepower of energy to operate it. Suppose that of this amount, one-half horsepower is used in the actual lifting of the water and the remainder is used in overcoming the friction in the pump. Then the efficiency of the pump is 50 per cent.
Elements of Machines. The elements, or parts, of their intricacy, may be reduced to the element of machines, or the simple machines, as they are called. These comprise
FARM MACHINERY
187
the fundamental devices for modifying forces and motions.
They are six in number, and are the lever, the wheel and axle,
the inclined plane, the screw, the wedge, and the pulley.
**Essentials of a Machine.** Any machine to be satisfactory
must fulfil at least four requirements. First, it must do
the work required of it satisfactorily; for instance, a har-
vester must cut the grain clean and true, and it into bundles
with never-failing accuracy. Second, the machine must do
its work efficiently; that is, it must require little power to
drive it, as in the case of horse-drawn machines, where the
draft must be low. Third, the parts of the machine must be
strong enough to resist breakage. Fourth, the machine
must be so designed as to be durable, or able to resist wear;
and finally, any part which wears should be capable of
adjustment or replacement.
The first two of these requirements demand proper con-
struction on the part of the machine and skilful adjustment
and management on the part of the operator. The number
of farm machines now manufactured is very large, and in
most cases there are several types and makes of machine for
each kind of work. Each type must do its best and render
the best service when used under the conditions for which
it is made to work. The part of this text devoted to
farm machinery is planned, in the main, to give instruc-
tion in the selection, adjustment, and operation of the various
farm machines required in general farm practice. In addi-
tion, attention will be given to all of the principles involved in
the strength and durability of a machine.
Friction. As a machine operates, there must be at cer-
tain points a sliding of one surface over another. It matters
not how carefully the surfaces may be prepared there is
always some resistance to the sliding, which resistance is
known as friction. The magnitude of this resistance in
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
friction varies much with conditions and it is desirable in most instances to keep it as small as possible, as it is a waste of energy or power and lowers the efficiency of the machine.
There are instances where friction is highly essential, as in the case of the transmission of power by means of a belt, or the use of friction in the friction clutch in engaging a part at rest with a revolving part. The shoes of the clutch slip when first engaged, allowing the parts at rest to attain speed slowly enough to permit the shoes to engage properly, but finally they furnish enough resistance to slipping to transmit the full power of the machine. The ratio between the force holding the two surfaces together and the force necessary to slip one surface over the other is called the coefficient of friction. Thus if a body weighing 10 pounds moves horizontally on a plane surface, then the coefficient of friction equals 1. In most instances it is desirable to keep the coefficient of friction as low as possible, which is done by making the sliding parts of the machine of materials which give a low coefficient of friction, and by applying a lubricant between the surfaces.
When two surfaces in contact act at rest for a time they seem to be at rest, so that no force is required to cause them to start to slide over each other than to continue the movement after sliding begins. The friction of rest is therefore greater than the friction of motion.
Rolling Friction. When a body with a circular cross section is rolled over a plane surface some resistance is offered against its motion, as in the case of sliding. This resistance is due to a compression or indentation of the surfaces in immediate contact; hence rolling friction is less with hard bodies. Since rolling friction is so much less than sliding friction, rollers are often inserted between two surfaces which would otherwise slide over each other.
FARM MACHINERY 189
Lubrication. To reduce friction between two sliding surfaces and to reduce the wear and heating, it is common practice to apply some substance which will adhere to each of the surfaces in a thin layer, smoothing them, and preventing their surfaces from coming into direct contact. Such a substance is called a lubricant. The friction really takes place between two surfaces of the lubricant.
Oils and greases are generally used as lubricants. Graphite, which is carbon in a very finely divided state, is often used in connection with oils, and has the property of smoothing the surfaces. Mica finely divided is used in the same way.
Choice of a Lubricant. It is desirable that lubricating oil be as light and thin as possible, and still heavy enough, or having enough "body," to prevent being squeezed out from the surfaces in contact. Heavy oils and grease, being more viscous, give a higher coefficient of friction, and are not suitable for surfaces moving over other at high speed. Thus light oil is chosen for machines running at high speeds and where the pressures between the lubricated surfaces is not great, as in the case of cream separators. Heavy oils and greases are used where the pressure is great and the motion slow, as on axles. Manufacturers provide special lubricants for every purpose. Some of these special oils are used as far as possible. Gas engine cylinders oil is so special as to stand high temperature; and although other oils may be as good a lubricant at normal temperature, they would be worthless at the temperatures prevailing in the gas engine cylinder.
Table of Coefficient of Friction. The following table* indicates in a general way the influence of surfaces of different materials and different lubricants upon friction.
*From "Driving and Plow Lubrication" by L. P. Alfred.
![]() A page from a book titled "Farm Machinery." The page number is 189. The title "FARM MACHINERY" is printed at the top left corner. Below this title, there is a paragraph about lubrication, explaining how to reduce friction between two sliding surfaces and to reduce wear and heating by applying a lubricant. The paragraph mentions that such a substance is called a lubricant, and that oils and greases are generally used as lubricants. It also mentions that graphite, which is carbon in a very finely divided state, is often used in connection with oils, and has the property of smoothing the surfaces. Mica finely divided is used in the same way. The paragraph then discusses the choice of a lubricant, stating that it is desirable that lubricating oil be as light and thin as possible, and still heavy enough, or having enough "body," to prevent being squeezed out from the surfaces in contact. Heavy oils and grease, being more viscous, give a higher coefficient of friction, and are not suitable for surfaces moving over other at high speed. Thus light oil is chosen for machines running at high speeds and where the pressures between the lubricated surfaces is not great, as in the case of cream separators. Heavy oils and greases are used where the pressure is great and the motion slow, as on axles. Manufacturers provide special lubricants for every purpose. Some of these special oils are used as far as possible. Gas engine cylinders oil is so special as to stand high temperature; and although other oils may be as good a lubricant at normal temperature, they would be worthless at the temperatures prevailing in the gas engine cylinder.
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Coefficients of friction of various surfaces.
| Surface in contact |
Coefficien of the surface |
Maximum amount of the fiber |
Coefficient of friction |
| Cork on cork |
Dry |
|
0.356 |
| Cork on oak |
Wetted |
|
0.388 |
| Beech on oak |
Coated with tallow |
|
0.055 |
| Cotton on cotton |
Coated with tallow |
|
0.078 |
| Cast iron on cast iron |
Dry |
|
0.132 |
| Cast iron on cast iron |
Coated with hard wax |
|
0.132 |
| Cast iron on cast iron |
Coated with hard wax |
|
0.053 |
| Cast iron on bronze |
Coated with hard wax |
|
0.070 |
| Bronze on hardened steel |
|
|
0.069* |
| Rollers |
|
|
0.069* |
*Approximate values; coefficients of friction vary with speed and load.
Bearings. The bearings are the parts of a machine which contain the rotating parts. When the bearings are a separable part of the machine they are often called bores.
Bearing should be designed, first, from uniformity of motion, second, from coefficient of friction; second, so that the surfaces may be thoroughly lubricated; third, from materials that will resist wear or which can be easily replaced; and fourth, in most cases they should be adjustable for wear.
A bearing which is one in piece and is separable from the rest of the machine is styled a solid box. A bearing supported on pivots or in a socket which will permit its axis to be moved easily is called a self-aligning bearing.
The rotating part which comes in contact with a bearing is usually designed as a journal. The journal is generally made of a harder material than the bearing. Thus the journal is usually made of steel and the bearing of brass, bronze,
![]() A plain bearing.
![]() A self-aligning bearing.
FARM MACHINERY
191
or babbitt. When made of different materials there is less tendency for the surface to become rough and abraded.
**Roller and Ball Bearings.** Roller and ball bearings substitute rolling friction for sliding friction, but they are much more expensive than plain bearings, but in many places the extra expense is justified. Roller bearings furnish a very satisfactory means of holding a supply of the lubricant and prevent binding and heating, due largely to misalignment.
![]() A roller bearing for a wagon. The hub of the wheel sits over the roller shown.
Fig. 183. A roller bearing for a wagon. The hub of the wheel sits over the roller shown.
**Ring Oiling Bearings.** A ring oiling bearing has a reservoir of oil underneath the shaft, or journal, into which a ring resting on the upper side of the shaft is allowed to dip, and as the shaft rotates the oil is carried up onto the shaft, where it spreads out to each side, thoroughly lubricating the bearing. Such a bearing is very desirable for machine in continuous service.
![]() A ring oiling bearing.
Fig. 184. A ring oiling bearing.
**Enclosed Wheel Boxes.** It is customary on the best machines that are to be subjected to much dust, to enclose the outer end of the wheel boxes and provide a collar at the inside end of such a construction as to practically exclude all dust. The lubricant is usually "hard oil" or heavy grease,
![]() A hail bearing.
Fig. 185. A hail bearing.
![]() A ring oiling bearing.
Fig. 186. A ring oiling bearing.
![]() A roller bearing for a wagon. The hub of the wheel sits over the roller shown.
Fig. 187. A roller bearing for a wagon. The hub of the wheel sits over the roller shown.
![]() A roller bearing for a wagon. The hub of the wheel sits over the roller shown.
Fig. 188. A roller bearing for a wagon. The hub of the wheel sits over the roller shown.
![]() A roller bearing for a wagon. The hub of the wheel sits over the roller shown.
Fig. 189. A roller bearing for a wagon. The hub of the wheel sits over the roller shown.
![]() A roller bearing for a wagon. The hub of the wheel sits over the roller shown.
Fig. 190. A roller bearing for a wagon. The hub of the wheel sits over the roller shown.
![]() A roller bearing for a wagon. The hub of the wheel sits over the roller shown.
Fig. 191. A roller bearing for a wagon. The hub of the wheel sits over the roller shown.
![]() A roller bearing for a wagon. The hub of the wheel sits over the roller shown.
Fig. 192. A roller bearing for a wagon. The hub of the wheel sits over the roller shown.
![]() A roller bearing for a wagon. The hub of the wheel sits over the roller shown.
Fig. 193. A roller bearing for a wagon. The hub of the wheel sits over the roller shown.
![]() A roller bearing for a wagon. The hub of the wheel sits over the roller shown.
Fig. 194. A roller bearing for a wagon. The hub of the wheel sits over the roller shown.
![]() A roller bearing for a wagon. The hub of the wheel sits over the roller shown.
Fig. 195. A roller bearing for a wagon. The hub of the wheel sits over the roller shown.
![]() A roller bearing for a wagon. The hub of the wheel sits over the roller shown.
Fig. 196. A roller bearing for a wagon. The hub of the wheel sits over the roller shown.
![]() A roller bearing for a wagon. The hub of the wheel sits over the roller shown.
Fig. 197. A roller bearing for a wagon. The hub of the wheel sits over the roller shown.
![]() A roller bearing for a wagon. The hub of the wheel sits over the roller shown.
Fig. 198. A roller bearing for a wagon. The hub of the wheel sits over the roller shown.
![]() A roller bearing for a wagon. The hub of the wheel sits over the roller shown.
Fig. 199. A roller bearing for a wagon. The hub of the wheel sits over the roller shown.
![]() A roller bearing for a wagon. The hub of the wheel sits over the roller shown.
Fig. 200. A roller bearing for a wagon. The hub of the wheel sits over the roller shown.
![]() A roller bearing for a wagon. The hub of the wheel sits over the roller shown.
Fig. 201. A roller bearing for a wagon. The hub of the wheel sits over the roller shown.
![]() A roller bearing for a wagon. The hub of the wheel sits over the roller shown.
Fig. 202. A roller bearing for a wagon. The hub of the wheel sits over the roller shown.
![]() A roller bearing for a wagon. The hub of the wheel sits over the roller shown.
Fig. 203. A roller bearing for a wagon. The hub of the wheel sits over the roller shown.
![]() A roller bearing for a wagon. The hub of the wheel sits over the roller shown.
Fig. 204. A roller bearing for a wagon. The hub of the wheel sits over the roller shown.
![]() A ring oiling bearing.
Fig. 205A ring oiling bearing.
![]() A ring oiling bearing.
Fig. 205A ring oiling bearing.
![]() A ring oiling bearing.
Fig. 205A ring oiling bearing.
![]() A ring oiling bearing.
Fig. 205A ring oiling bearing.
![]() A ring oiling bearing.
Fig. 205A ring oiling bearing.
![]() A ring oiling bearing.
Fig. 205A ring oiling bearing.
![]() A ring oiling bearing.
Fig. 205A ring oiling bearing.
![]() A ring oiling bearing.
Fig. 205A ring oiling bearing.
![]() A ring oiling bearing.
Fig. 205A ring oiling bearing.
![]() A ring oiling bearing.
Fig. 205A ring oiling bearing.
![]() A ring oiling bearing.
Fig. 205A ring oiling bearing.
![]() A ring oiling bearing.
Fig. 205A ring oiling bearing.
![]() A ring oiling bearing.
Fig. 205A ring oiling bearing.
![]() A ring oiling bearing.
Fig. 205A ring oiling bearing.
![]() A ring oiling bearing.
Fig. 205A ring oiling bearing.
![]() A ring oiling bearing.
Fig. 205A ring oiling bearing.
![]() A ring oiling bearing.
Fig. 205A ring oiling bearing.
![]() A ring oilingbearing
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
supplied by screwing off the inclosed end of the wheel box. The grease thus works toward the inside end of the box and still further assists in excluding the dirt and grit.
Grease Cups. The general character of a machine can often be determined by the kind of oil and grease cups used on the machine. No machine should be purchased which does not have an adequate provision for lubricting all bearings.
Bearings Boxes. Babbitt metal is a mixture of several metals having a rather low melting point, and is used to line boxes. Genuine babbitt metal is mixed in the proportion of 1 part of copper, 2 parts of antimony, and from 6 to 24 parts of tin; but the name is applied to many combinations of metals used as a lining for boxes. Besides furnishing a very satisfactory metal for a bearing, babbitt metal can be quite easily replaced.
In preparing to babbitt a box it is necessary to be provided with a melting ladle and a fire, preferably a forge fire, to heat the box. Fig. 185. A small worm babbitt which has been used is carefully removed with a cold chisel and the box freed from grease and moisture. The shaft is carefully blocked into position, leveled and centered, and the ends of the box closed by cardboard collars fitting around the shaft and held in place with putty or stiff clay mud.
![]() A drawing showing a grease cup for feeding hard oil.
Fig. 185. A grease cup for feeding hard oil.
![]() A drawing showing a babbitt box being prepared for babbitt.
Fig. 186. A babbitt box being prepared for babbitt.
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If the box is solid, a piece of writing paper is wrapped around the shaft, or journal, to give clearance or to prevent the box from being too tight. This paper is held in place by a cord which burns up and leaves a useful oil groove. If the box is made of two halves, these grooves may be cut and be inserted between the halves, fitting against the shaft to divide the babbitt. Notches may be cut in these liners to let the molten metal flow from one side to the other. When hardened, the metal in these notches may be broken by driving a cold chisel between the halves of the box.
It is usually best that the boxes be warmed before pouring the molten metal into them, so that they will insure that it will fill every part of the box. The metal is usually poured through the oil hole. When the metal has hardened and the box removed, the oil hole should be drilled out, and, if the box is a large one, oil grooves should be cut to lead the oil away from the oil hole, to insure that all parts of the bearing will be covered with oil. Often an old machine, when babbitted, will have a great amount of internal vibration due to the lost motion in the bearings being overcome.
**Adjustment of the Bearings.** The proper adjustment of a bearing requires much skill. If the bearing be too tight it will heat, and if too loose it will knock and also heat. A good fit is obtained when the top of the box is slightly larger than the shaft, or when a thin strip (called a liner) between the halves of the box will fill this space, selecting pieces of such thickness as will make the box fit the shaft as tightly as possible, yet offering no resistance to the free turning of the shaft.
**QUESTIONS**
1. Define a tool. An implement. A machine.
2. What is meant by the "elements" of a machine?
3. Name the elements of a machine.
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4. What are the three essentials of a practical machine?
5. Why is the selection of a machine important?
6. What is friction?
7. Define the coefficient of friction.
8. What are some of the conditions that modify the coefficient of friction?
9. What would be the draft on ice of a sled weighing 4000 pounds if the coefficient of friction between the runners and the ice is 0.025?
10. Mention several instances where friction is especially useful.
11. Why is friction of rest greater than friction of motion?
12. What is lubrication?
13. What are the purposes of lubrication?
14. What kind of lubricant should be used on a machine like a tractor?
15. Of what value is graphite as a lubricant?
16. What should be taken into account in the design of a bearing?
17. Why should the material used for the bearing be different from that of the journal?
18. When are roller and ball bearings best?
19. Explain the process of balancing a box.
20. How should a bearing be adjusted?
CHAPTER XXXI
MATERIALS
Importance of Quality. The durability of a machine depends largely upon the quality and character of the materials used in the construction of it. It is obvious that a knowledge of the properties of these materials will be useful to those who have to do with the selection and management of machinery.
Wood. Twenty-five to forty years ago the framework of farm machinery was made largely of wood. At that time wood stock of the first quality and of the most desirable varieties could be obtained cheaply. The increase in the cost of wood, due to its scarcity, and the decreasing cost of manufacturing iron and steel has lead to a more extended use of metal. The wood used in the construction of farm machinery, since it must undergo rather severe service, should be of good quality. Hard, durable, well-seasoned heartwood is only practically liable to use.
Wood is influenced more or less by moisture, and for that reason should be carefully protected by paint. A combination of iron and wood parts is apt to give trouble by becoming loose, due to the shrinking of the wood. Parts subject to much vibration, like the pitman of a mower, can best be made of wood. Excessive vibration and shocks tend to break down the grain of the wood.
Some of the more common varieties of woods and forms of metal used in the construction of farm machinery will now be discussed.
![]() A black and white illustration showing a section of a wooden wheel with spokes.
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Hickory is a very dense, heavy wood of great strength and elasticity. It is the hardest and toughest wood used in the construction of farm machinery and vehicles. It is preferred to all others for axles, buggy spokes, shafts, etc.
Cedar is a hard wood but not so tough as hickory. It is used to some extent for wagon sides, double-trees, and gear
cranks for parts where stiffness is required. The best kind of oak for these purposes is white oak. Red oak or black
oak is not so hard and stiff.
Ash is hard, tough, and elastic, and for that reason is quite generally used for handles of hand tools, such as forks.
It is white, coarse-grained wood.
Maple "The maple tree" is a hard, fine-grained
wood which is quite stiff, and is being used to some
extent as a substitute for hickory.
Beech is a hard, strong and tough wood of very close
grain and will take a very high polish.
Birch Black birch is a dark, close-grained, tough
wood. It has been of some extent for wagon hubs, on account
of its resistance to checking.
Poplar is a wood which may be obtained very free from
knots. It is light yellowish in color, has a close grain, and
is very tough compared with the lighter woods. It is the
standard material for wagon boxes and buggy panels.
Cotton wood, a very close relative of the poplar, is used to some
extent as a substitute.
Pine There are many varieties of pine to be had.
Long leaf yellow pine has a decided grain and is quite stiff.
It is used largely in the construction of field hay tools and
for similar purposes. White pine is used where soft, light
wood is wanted.
Cast Iron The cheapest metal used in the construc-
tion of farm machinery is cast iron. It is crystalline in
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structure and it can not be forged or welded. It is shaped by machine tools, by drilling, turning, or planing.
It is used for the heavy parts of machines, for gears or where irregular shapes are desired, which may be obtained by casting molten iron. Cast iron may be usually detected by the lines and roughness given to it by the sand mold in which it is cast. It is easily detected upon breaking by its crystalline structure.
**Chilled Cast Iron.** Where a particularly hard surface is desired, a special kind of cast iron is used, obtained by making a part of the molder of heavy iron, which chills the molten metal as soon as it comes in contact with it and makes it very hard.
**Malleable Cast Iron.** Cast iron which has been annealed and relieved of a part of its carbon by heating in furnaces for several days. Malleable iron is soft, tough, and some- what ductile, and is used to replace cast iron where these characteristics are required. When broken, malleable iron shows a soft malleable surface and a crystalline center.
**Cast Steel.** Cast steel is, in brief, cast iron less a part of the carbon content than is usual in ordinary cast iron. It is used for gears and other parts subject to severe stresses.
**Mild and Bessemer Steel.** Most of the material now used in the construction of farm machinery is mild or Besse- mer steel, which is made by a special process. It is a very tough metal whose stiffness can be regulated by the manu- facturer by varying the carbon content. It can be easily forged but does not weld as readily in an open fire as wrought iron.
**Wrought Iron.** Wrought iron is nearly pure iron. It is very ductile and can be easily forged or welded. The purest and best grade of wrought iron is known as Norway or Swedish iron.
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**Soft-Center Steel.** The ability of carbon steel to be hardened depends largely upon the percentage of carbon it contains. When hardened, it will take a most excellent polish, as is desired for plows, but hardened steel is brittle and will not stand shocks. To overcome this shortcoming, soft-center steel has been invented, which consists of a layer of soft steel on the outside, a layer of hard steel in the center, and soft, low-carbon steel lends toughness to the whole plate. Soft-center steel is quite generally used at the present time in the manufacture of shovels and plows.
**Tool Steel.** Tool steel contains a rather high percentage (0.6 to 1) of carbon, is capable of being hardened and tempered, and possesses great strength and toughness. It is used in the manufacture of hand tools, such as hammers, chisels, etc. A discussion of the strength of materials will be found in Part VII.
**QUESTIONS**
1. Why is it important that a good quality of material be used in the construction of farm machinery?
2. Discuss the uses of steel as a material for farm machinery.
3. Describe some of the special uses for wood.
4. Why is hickory used for wagon axles and buggy spooks?
5. Compare white oak with hickory.
6. Suggest some uses for maple, beech, birch, poplar, and white and yellow pine.
7. What are some of the properties of cast iron?
8. Describe the process of making chilled iron. Malleable iron.
9. For what purposes is cast steel used?
10. Why are Bessemer and mild steel used so largely in the construction of farm machinery?
11. Define soft-center steel and its uses. Also tool steel.
12. What is tool steel, and mention some of its properties?
Note: Samples of the various materials used in the construction of farm machinery should be collected, and machines should be examined to determine the materials used.
CHAPTER XXXII
THE PLOW
The Plow. The plow is universally recognized as the principal and most fundamental implement used on the farm, it being often included in emblems representing the great industry of agriculture. The plow is a very simple tool, if we consider the walking implement, and the sulky or horse plow, which are commonly employed. Yet in the selection, operation, and adjustment of the plow there are many important features to be considered.
The Selection of a Plow. As with any other implement, the selection of a plow will depend in a large measure upon the conditions to be met. A farmer owning a farm with small fields would not want a steam plow; nor would a farmer with large fields desire a single horse plow, when a single driver could handle a gang just as well. The walking plow is useful in small lots and in getting close to the fence in finishing up the lands plowed with a larger plow, and for these reasons it should be a part of the equipment of every farm.
Since the type of plow which should be selected is determined largely by the condition of the soil and the amount of power or the number of horses available. The average size (width of furrow) for a walking plow is 16 inches, and the horse gang usually has two 12- or 14-inch plows, or bottoms, as they are called.
Types of Plows. There are three distinct types of plows upon the market, depending partly on the shape of the moldboard. First, the breaker, with a long moldboard to turn
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the furrow side of tough soil gradually; second, the general-purpose plow, to be used for general plowing in stubble and light soil; and third, the stubble plow, with an abrupt mold-board for pulverizing the soil, used only in old ground. Among these three classes there are numberless shapes of plows difficult to classify.
Fig. 185. The three principal types of plows, showing in order the stable, the general purpose, and the prairie burker plow.
Construction. The moldboard may be made of soft- center steel or chilled iron; but the latter is used but very little in the Middle West, where the soil is of such a character that the hard-tempered surface of the soft-centered steel is required to scour properly. Certain localities are furnished with plows with common cast-steel moldboards; but they can not be used where many rocks are encountered, in which case the soft-steel plow must be used. The wearing properties of the soft-centered steel share is secured through its hardness; but to secure hardness a certain amount of brittleness must remain, even with a soft center to the metal.
A steeled beam walking Plow. The walking plow must have its point turned down slightly in order to cause the plow to take to the ground. This gives what is called "suction" to the plow, and is resisted by the upward pull of the draft. It is imperative that this suction be sufficient, and quite as important that
![]() A steeled beam walking plow of the general-purpose type.
Fig. 185. A steeled beam walking plow of the general-purpose type.
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it be not too great. With the proper amount of suction a plow will run evenly, as far as depth is concerned. To test for suction, lay a straight-edge on the underline of the landside when the plow is turned bottom side up, and measure the opening of about ¼ of an inch between the straight-edge and the landside at the joint between it and the share, the suction is about correct.
To lift and bend the furrow slice, a certain amount of pressure must come upon the outer corner, or wing, of the share. To resist or carry this pressure, a certain amount of bearing must be provided by the bearing surface of the furrow as the plow is drawn along. If this bearing is too great, the plow will be continually tending to turn out from the land, and if insufficient will turn in the opposite direction. The amount of bearing, or the width of surface at the corner of the share, varies with the condition of the soil. In sandy soil it may be about 1-1/8 inches wide, and about correct for a 16-inch plow. The bearing surface is triangular in shape, and is usually about 3 inches long.
Steel-beam walking plows have an advantage in clearance, and for this reason are more satisfactory in plowing under trash and weeds. On the other hand, wooden-beam walking plows are slightly lighter.
Sulky or Gang Plows. Riding plows with moldboards may be divided into two classes, frame and frameless, and are constructed with and without tongues. The frameless and tongueless plows are of the cheaper construction; but,
![]() Fig 158. Illustrating method of using a straight-edge to determine if a plow has the proper suction.
![]() Fig 159. A share with the proper furrow slice.
![]() Fig 160. A share with too much "bearing," at C should be about 1-1/8 inches wide.
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although they have the advantage of lightness, they do not have certain advantages secured in the frame and tongued plows. The frame type has the plow connected to the frame by means of balls or some similar device. This permits the plow to be lifted high out of the ground, designating it a "high-lift" plow. This feature is a decided advantage for cleaning. The framesless plow has the wheels attached directly to the plow beam by means of brass rods. This simplifies the construction; but framesless plows are not high-lift. This type cannot usually be set to "float," so that in case a rock is struck in plowing the plow may be lifted out of the ground without interfering with the carriage or the driver.
The tongue on the high-class sulky plow is used to steer the plow by being connected to the furrow wheels by means of suitable links, enabling a square corner to be turned in either direction. The tongue gives more complete control over the plow, and, in the opinion of the author, is an essential part. Another desirable feature to have on any plow is a footlift, which
![]() A front view of a frameless and tongued plow.
Fig. 112. A front view of a frameless and tongued plow.
![]() A high-lift frame-gear plow.
Fig. 113. A high-lift frame-gear plow.
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enables the driver to control the plow by the feet, leaving the hands free to drive. The frame plow with a high lift, footlift, and tongue has many complications as far as construction and operation are concerned, but is well worth the difference in price over a more simple plow. Gang plows have the same constructional features as sulky plows, except that they are built in gangs.
The Adjustment of Sulky and Gang Plows. In operating the sulky or gang plow, every effort should be made to have the plow travel straight to the front and to have all of the downward pressure, due to lifting the furrow slice, aside, and the side pressure, due to turning the furrow slice, borne by the carriage of the plow.
To prevent the wheels from being turned too far away ways be turned down sufficiently to cause the plow to take the ground at all times. No pressure should be allowed on the sole of the plow, as this will cause unnecessary friction. All pressures as possible should come on the wheels, which, with their lubricated bearings, will reduce friction to a minimum.
To give the sulky plow suction, the rear furrow wheel may be lowered until the heel of the landside lacks about ¼ inch of touching when the plow is placed upon a level surface. To carry the landside pressure, the rear furrow wheel should be raised off of the line of the landside, usually about 1/4 inches. It must also be turned slightly away.
![]() A diagram showing a high-lift frame sulky plow showing how it is adjusted for use. The rear furrow wheel is set to relieve pressure on the sole of the plow. The front wheels are turned slightly away from the ground.
Fig. 114. A view of a high-lift frame sulky plow showing how it is adjusted for use. The rear furrow wheel is set to relieve pressure on the sole of the plow. The front wheels are turned slightly away from the ground.
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from the land, and the front furrow wheel regulated to keep the large land wheel traveling directly to the front.
**Draft of Plows.** The draft or pull required to move a plow at work varies widely with the soil conditions and the adjustment of the plow. The draft will vary from 4 to 10 pounds to each square inch of cross section of the furrow, since the weight of the plow itself is usually a stubble ground the draft should not exceed 4½ pounds per square inch of the furrow. Thus a 16-inch plow running six inches deep will have a furrow with a cross section of 96 square inches. If the draft be 4½ pounds per square inch the total draft will be 82 pounds, an easy load for three 1300- to 1400-pound horses.
A sulky plow with a driver of medium weight will run with as light draft, when in proper adjustment, as a walking plow. This is due to the reduction of sole and landside friction. A plow out of adjustment will often pull half again as heavy as it should.
In making a selection of a sulky plow, care should be taken to see that all parts subject to wear can be easily renewed. The greater part of a sulky plow is not subject to wear and will last indefinitely if not broken. The modern plow must have wheel boxes which will not only exclude all dirt but also provide a magazine for a liberal supply of grease. Many sulky plows are now constructed with too light a frame. Consequently they are liable to break down quickly if the cost is slightly higher and the draft slightly greater.
The **Disk Plow.** There are two conditions under which the disk plow will do good work. The hard, dry soils of some of the Western states are more easily subduced by means of the disk plow than any other. These soils at certain times of the year are turned over by the action of the wind, but the disk plow cuts its way through the lumps and breaks
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them up. Yet the disk plow cannot be used in extremely hard ground, such as might be found in a road, as it could not be kept in the ground. The other soil condition to which the disk plow is well adapted is where the soil is so sticky that the moldboard plow fails to scour well, as in heavy clay or gumbo soils. The black, waxy soil found in Texas and Louisiana is one of these. The disk plow with its scraper to clean the disk will turn a furrow regardless of the scouring properties of the soil. Where the moldboard
![]() A modern disk gang plow at work.
FIG. 115. A modern disk gang plow at work.
plow will do good work, it is to be preferred to the disk plow. As generally constructed, the latter is a very clumsy implement and very heavy, the weight being necessary to keep the plow in the ground. Claims for its fitness of draft cannot be substantiated by tests when compared with moldboard plows of similar size. Often this disk plow is given credit for doing more work than it actually performs, in that the bottom of the furrow is not flat and measurements are often made of the deepest point.
The diameter of the disk proper varies from 20 to 30 inches in different plows. A 24-inch disk will do the most satisfactory work under usual conditions. It pulverizes the
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soil to the best advantage,—more so than a smaller disk,——and is not of as heavy draft as a larger disk. A disk blade 26 or 28 inches in diameter can be used for a longer period, because much more metal is provided for wear.
The disk plow does not have a tongue and does not make as good corners as the modern high-class sulky plows. If the disk is of proper shape and size, the plow pulverizes and mixes the soil thoroughly, which features are essential in good plowing. The plow will cover standing weeds to good advantage, but loose straw is troublesome. It cannot be used at all in tough sod.
It is a mistake to try to cut too wide a furrow with a disk plow. A furrow with a width greater than 8 inches results in making a poor job of plowing.
The vital parts of a disk plow are the disk and its bearing. The former should be constructed of the best of material, for which the faith of the manufacturer must be taken, and the bearing should have plenty of material to resist wear and reliable means of excluding dirt and providing lubrication.
Deep-Tilling Machine. This is a new machine which has come upon the market within the last two years, and, as far as providing a means of plowing the soil to a greater depth than hitherto is concerned, it is a success. The machine is a disk gang plow with the second or rear disk set to
![]() A deep-tilling machine.
Fig. 115. A deep-tilling machine.
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plow a furrow in the bottom of the furrow made by the first. In this way it is entirely possible to plow to a depth of 16 inches or even more. The disks are large and they do the best work when cutting a furrow 12 inches wide.
The draft of this tool is surprising. When tested in a loam soil with a clay subsoil, the draft, when plowing a 12-inch furrow at 16 miles per hour, was 800 pounds per inch. A 16-inch sulky plow when forced to its capacity for depth (eight to nine inches) gave a draft between 900 and 1000 pounds, or about 100 pounds more. By comparing the sizes of these various furrows it is to be noticed that the draft of the tilling machine was very satisfactory. Again, it would be quite impossible to plow so deep with anything except a special plow.
**Hillside and Reversible Plows.** The hillside plow is a reversible plow adapted to a field with so much slope that it would be quite impossible to throw a furrow uphill. The plow is changed from a right-hand to a left-hand plow by revolving the pole so that the furrow is turned either to the right or to the left according to the direction of the slope.
The reversible plow was formerly confined to the hillside type, yet there is a tendency at the present time to make a more extended use of this type of plow. Its use in the irrigated sections, where dead furrows must be avoided if possible, is of great importance. The advantage of dispensing with dead furrows in any field, and thus leaving the surface
![]() A reversible ditch plow. This plow is much too turn a right or left furrow, but it can be used on both sides of the other.
Fig. 111. A reversible ditch plow. This plow is much too turn a right or left furrow, but it can be used on both sides of the other.
with dead furrows in any field, and thus leaving the surface
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level, is worthy of consideration. In Europe, the reversible plow has been in more extended use than in this country.
The moldboard type of reversible plow consists of two plow bottoms, a right- and a left-hand, which are used alter-
nately. These plows do not have many of the conveniences of the high-lift sulky and do not possess the usual provisions for relieving the handle friction by placing the load on the carriage instead of on the plow itself. The disk plow. The reversible disk plow is so arranged that by swinging the team and hitch about to the opposite direction, the inclination of the disk is changed, but the carriage is left unchanged and is simply drawn across the field in the reverse direction. It would seem that this implement has reached a higher state of development than any other.
**Engine Gang Plows.** The use of the steam and the gas tractor for plowing requires gang plows built in large units.
![]() An engine gang plow.
capable of plowing from 3 to 14 or more furrows at a time. Both moldboard and disk plows are made in engine gangs.
In construction, engine gangs consist of a heavy triangular frame carried on caster wheels with wide tires. The plows are attached to the rear of this frame and are generally con-
trolled by levers extending forward over a platform on the
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frame. These levers may be attached either to a single plow or to a pair. Quite a little variance is to be found in the location and construction of the gauge wheel which is provided for each plow or pair of plows. Any type of plow may be used, depending upon the character of the work. One of the more recent improvements consists in making the shares in such a way that they can be easily removed and replaced.
Adjusting the engine gang consists largely in setting the plows for the proper amount of suction and proper spacing. The gang should be attached to the tractor so as to cause each plow to be drawn straight through the soil. To do this the chains used to attach the plow to the tractor must be so adjusted as to place the center of hitch directly ahead of the point of contact with the ground.
Some large plows used with steam tractors have provision for raising the plows by steam. Another plow has a self-lift by which the plows are raised with a system of cams geared to one of the wheels of the plow. This mechanism enables the plow to be controlled by the tractor through a rope running back from the tractor to the gang to operate the lift mechanism.
Disk engine gang plows resemble very much horse disk gangs, except they are heavier in every respect. The disk plow does not have the individual control of the moldboard plow.
QUESTIONS
1. Why is the plow considered the principal implement on the farm?
2. What are some of the most important factors to be considered in the selection of a plow?
3. How is the size of a plow designated, and what are some of the common sizes?
4. What are the distinct plow types on the market?
5. Of what materials are the plow moldboard and share made?
6. Describe the adjustment of a walking plow.
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7. What is meant by the auction of a plow? The bearing at the wing?
8. What is the difference between a frame and a frameless plow?
9. Describe what is meant by high lift.
10. How does the draft of a plow vary with depth?
11. How is the draft of a plow kept low by adjustment?
12. What constructional features should be given consideration in making selection of a sulky plow?
13. Under what conditions will the disk plow work better than the moldboard plow?
14. Describe the common sizes of disks and disk plows, and what size of furrow will they turn.
15. Describe the construction of the deep-filling machine.
16. Describe the construction of hillside and reversible plows, and again their use.
17. Describe the construction of the moldboard engine gang.
18. How are the plows raised and lowered?
19. What adjustments are of primary importance?
20. Describe the construction of the disk engine gang.
CHAPTER XXXIII
HARROWS, PULVERIZERS, AND ROLLERS
HARROWS
Utility of the Smoothing Harrow. Perhaps there is no other tillage tool on the farm which is more effective than the common spike-toothed smoothing harrow, when used under the proper conditions and at the proper time. It smoothens and pulverizes the surface, producing a fine tilth, which not only prevents erosion but also destroys a multitude of weeds at the time when they are the least able to withstand the effects of cultivation.
Selecting a Smoothing Harrow. The standard harrow of the day is the steel lever harrow for four horses, covering a width of 15 feet or more. A harrow with a spread of from 10 to 15 feet is a size suitable for three horses.
A lever harrow, which enables the teeth to be inclined forward for penetration and backward for smoothing, costs slightly more than a plain harrow or even an adjustable tooth harrow; but the harrow at most is not an expensive implement and the lever harrow is well worth the difference in cost. One of the principal advantages of the lever harrow lies in the convenience in cleaning. The adjustable teeth have a clamp
![]() Fig. 115. A modern smoothing harrow with protected tooth bars. A harrow cart attached.
forward for penetration and backward for smoothing, costs slightly more than a plain harrow or even an adjustable tooth harrow; but the harrow at most is not an expensive implement and the lever harrow is well worth the difference in cost. One of the principal advantages of the lever harrow lies in the convenience in cleaning. The adjustable teeth have a clamp
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which permits the teeth to be held in a perpendicular position when drawn in one direction or in an inclined position when drawn in the opposite direction. The harrow is reversed by changing the evener from one side of the harrow to the other.
All harrows may at first seem alike, yet there is much difference in their construction. There is no doubt but that some harrows are made as cheaply as possible to sell for a bargain. Of these, the stone ground or stoney ground is easily cultivated and a light harrow is desirable; yet, as a rule, the amount of cultivation performed is in proportion to the weight and number of teeth in the harrow. Stony ground will require a heavier construction than would otherwise be necessary.
Construction of the Smoothing Harrow. The tooth bars are commonly made of the so-called U bar or pipe. The former seems to be the stronger for the weight of metal used. The teeth may be had in two sizes, one-half or five-eighths inch square, the larger, of course, being adapted to heavy percolation. All the teeth should have large heads to prevent loss should a fastener become loosened. The number of teeth on each bar varies from six to eight per foot of width. It stands to reason that a greater number of teeth will do more in pulverizing the soil.
For use in orchards, the harrow with protected tooth bars has a decided advantage, since the bars will not do much damage by catching upon the trees. As a smoothing harrow is too wide to pass through the average farm gate, it should be convenient for disbanding and assembling.
Fig. 138. A pipe-bar smoothing harrow.
Common methods of fastening
U-shaped bar
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The Spring-Tooth Harrow. The spring-tooth harrow, with flat spring teeth bent almost to a complete circle, is a tool that is not in general use in America, but implements of a similar character are used to a large extent in Europe.
It should be classed as a cultivator rather than a harrow. It is adapted to have compact wheels which require tools of good penetration. The teeth have such long blades with so much spring that the machine is not damaged in passing over stones or low stumps.
The draft is so great that the weight of the machine upon the adjustment given to the teeth, but under average conditions it greatly exceeds that of a smoothing harrow.
The Harrow Cart. Probably there is not another implement attachment that can be bought for the same money that will dispense with so much hard labor as the harrow cart. To be a satisfactory device it must be rigidly built with angle or U-shaped axles, and must have sufficient power and dimension for the cart wheels to castor in turning. The wheels should be high, 32 inches being a good height, and provided with tires about three inches wide. They should also have dust-proof removable boxes with easy means of lubrication. Lastly, it should not be overlooked that the cart should be furnished with a plow and other fittings to support it.
Utility Disk Harrow. The disk harrow is an implement well adapted to deep surface cultivation. For this reason it is used for a variety of purposes. To prepare plowing for seed in the spring or stubble for plowing in the fall, it is equally useful. For covering broadcasted seed in
![]() A spring-tooth harrow.
Fig. 171. A spring-tooth harrow.
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corn stalk ground it has many advantages over the shovel cultivator. In the first place it is more rapid, and, moreover, a double disking will effectively reduce the stalks. In subduing a sod, there is no other tool that will do the work of the disk harrow. In dry-farming localities it has been found to be one of the best tools to produce a soil mulch for preserving the soil moisture. Orchardists use it.
![]() A disk harrow at work.
for cultivating orchards. It is used in renewing alfalfa fields, as it cuts or splits the crowns of the plants, thus thickening the stand.
The disk harrow can be made to do the work of the stalk cutter and at the same time cultivate the ground in the early spring, preparing it for plowing. As a rule two diskings will not cut corn stalks as well as going over the field once with a stalk cutter, but nevertheless a good job is done. This
FARM MACHINERY 315
system of disposing of the stalks and cultivating the soil before plowing cannot be too highly commended. Many weeds are destroyed and a better seed bed is obtained upon plowing.
**Construction of the Disk Harrow.** The standard disk harrow has full round disk blades, sixteen inches in diameter and about sixteen in number, spaced six inches apart. This is the four-horse machine. Smaller disk blades do not give sufficient clearance and larger sizes do not do so well as they are sixteen inches disk rotation more than a larger disk and so pulverizes the ground more, and it also has less bearing surface under the working edge, insuring greater penetration.
Disk harrows have one lever by means of which both disk gangs are adjusted at the same time, or two levers, one for each gang, permitting individual adjustment. The two levers are almost essential when "lapping half," or allowing
![]() Fig. 173. A full-blade, two-lever disk harrow with tongue truck.
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the disk to extend half way over the work of the previous round. The merit of this method lies in the fact that the ground is left nearly level, while a single disking will leave the ground slightly ridged.
When this method is fol-
lowed, the disk gang working
on the once disked
ground finds it easier
to cut than the gang work-
ing in the undisked ground.
By setting the gang in
the loose soil at a sharper
angle, the machine is balanced and the soil pulverized more
uniformly. The two-lever machine also has a decided
advantage in hillside work. The tendency of the machine
to crowd downhill may be overcome to a large extent by
a separate adjustment of the gangs.
Types of Disk Harrow. Disk harrows are built in
three general types, as far as the construction of the disk is concerned. First, there is the full-bladed disk with solid per-
fectly round edges; second, the catenary or cut-out disk,
which is like the full-bladed disk except that notches are
cut out of the edge, leaving short points to enter
the ground; third, the
spading disk harrow
which consists of a series
of sharp blades set at
the end and made up into
a sort of spadeet wheel.
For average conditions
the full-bladed disk is the best.
It has a greater pulverizing action, is stronger, and is more
effective in cutting up trash and stalks. Another very im-
![]() Fig. 124. A cutaway disk harrow.
![]() Fig. 125. A spading disk harrow.
FARM MACHINERY
217
portant advantage of this type is the convenience of sharpening. These disks may be sharpened to a good edge by means of any of the disk sharpeners which will do good work. About the only way that the notches of the cutaway disk may be sharpened is by removing all of the disks and grinding them to edge on an emery wheel. The blades of a spading harrow may be sharpened by heating each individual knife and bevewing out the edge with a hammer while hot.
The cutaway harrow is very deceiving in the amount of work it does. The blades sprinkle the soil over the surface in such a way that the unstered soil underneath is hidden. This harrow has a decided advantage in culverting, but it is not so old as the plow. When the full-bladed disk would cut the stubble up and destroy it, the cutaway will loosen the soil in such a way as to stimulate growth.
In the amount of work done, the spading harrow is much like the cutaway. The principal advantage of the spading harrow lies in its ability to break up old ground, when the full-bladed disk would be sure to clog.
The "plow cut" disk has a bulged or raised center, it being claimed that the soil will be more nearly turned over when coming in contact with this center. The name might imply some sort of plow action, but the work of this type, as far as the writer has observed, does not differ much from the ordinary disk harrow.
Alfalfa Harrow. The alfalfa harrow is a special tool with sharp spikes arranged as disks in the frame of a common
![]() Fig. 126. A blow-cut disk.
A blow-cut disk is one which has a thin edge on one side and a thick edge on the other side.
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**AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING**
disk harrow. This new implement is certain to become very popular for cultivating alfalfa fields.
**Scrapers.** A disk harrow should be provided, with scrapers or cleaners which will keep the disks clean under all conditions. The scraper with a rather narrow blade, which can be moved from the center to the outside of the disk is very satisfactory and is used upon a large number of modern disk harrows.
**Bearings.** The part that receives the most wear, except the cutting edges of the disks themselves, is the bearings. Both chilled iron and wooden boxes are used. The wood seems to be the more satisfactory, not only on account of durability, but also on account of the ease of replacement. Maple bored in oil is generally used for the bearings, yet any hard wood might answer.
Bearings between the disks are not generally satisfactory. If the bearings do not care for the entire thrust of the gangs, bumper plates seem to be the most satisfactory devices. These are inserted between the ends of the gang bolts which run through the center of the disks.
**Tongue Truck.** The modern disk harrow has a tongue truck. This device relieves the horses of the most tiroseme part of the work when the harrow is used on loose and rough ground. With a tongue truck, sideashing is prevented.
![]() Fig. 175. An alfalfa harrow.
![]() Fig. 176. A good form of bearing for disk harrows.
FARM MACHINERY
219
Trucks which have tongues assist in keeping the team straight and also prevent the horses from backing into the harrow. The trucks should have reasonably large wheels and be strongly made. The axles should provide for lubrication, to prevent wear.
**Transport Truck.** Another convenient device to use in connection with the disk harrow is the transport truck, especially if the harrow is to pass over any hard road. This device consists of wheels mounted on levers in such a manner that the gangs may be lifted from the ground, thus securing the desired protection.
![]() A harrow attachment for a plow at work.
Fig. 179. A harrow attachment for a plow at work.
**Harrow Attachments for Plows.** Those who have had the experience know that a harrow will do the most effective work when following the plow. Attention has been called by agricultural writers to the desirability of harrowing each day's plowing before the close of the day. The harrow attachment has been designed to harrow and smooth each furrow as soon as turned. There are three types in use, one with blades which resemble those of a pulverizer, another is a rotary affair with blades like a spading disk harrow, and still another
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
kind has small round disks. Each of these works much like the machines after which they are patterned. They are made in sizes suitable for either sulky or gang plows, and are quite easy to attach. They interfere slightly with the adjustment of the plow, but this is a very small incon-
venience. The draft of those for sulky plows will vary from 50 to 100 pounds, depending upon the pressure applied. This means that the attachment provides about one-half to two-thirds of a load for one average horse.
LAND ROLLERS
Types of Rollers. The plain, smooth land roller has been replaced to a large extent by tubular, corrugated, or disk types. The change has been due to some of the objectionable features of the work of the smooth roller. It is desirable, in general, to leave the surface of the ground perfectly smooth and compact. It is true that for crops to be har-
vested easily, the mower
this feature is desirable, but a smooth surface usually means
an unnecessary loss of moisture.
is no soil mulch, and the
wind has a greater dry-
ing effect.
Of the various types
of rollers recently placed
upon the market, the
disk roller, composed of
Fig. 138. A plain land roller.
On a smooth surface there
Fig. 137. A disk roller.
is a tendency to use the disk roller on all types of land, regardless of its suitability. In many cases where the soil is loose and sandy, it is advisable to use a smooth roller instead of a disk roller.
FARM MACHINERY 221
cast-iron disks with wedge-shaped treads, spaced about four inches apart and weighing about 100 pounds per foot of width, is perhaps the most satisfactory. This implement not only thoroughly packs the soil beneath the surface but also compacts it to such an extent that it leaves the surface slightly rough and covered with a mulch.
Selecting a Roller. In selecting a roller, the bearings, strength of construction, and weight are the principal features which should be given consideration after the type of machine has been decided upon. Hard-wood boxes make the most satisfactory bearings. If the ground is underlaid by hard stone, some should be chosen, as there will not only be less chance of breakage in the roller but better work will be performed.
PULVERIZERS
The name pulverizer is given to a variety of tools. It usually designates certain curved-tooth harrows of the Acme type and also rollers of the cast-iron type. In some localities the disk harrow is referred to as a pulverizer. It seems, however, that the term "pulverizer" should not be applied to any tool described by this name. A pulverizer with rake attached.
Fig. 12. A pulverizer with rake attached.
The pulverizer does efficient work in producing a fine tilth. It is especially useful in destroying small weeds just
22
AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
coming through the ground. The knives tear the weeds out and the rake behind drags them free of the soil and leaves them on the surface to be destroyed by the sun. The dragging action of the pulverizer is also very good in leveling an uneven surface. The draft of the pulverizer is less than that of the disk harrow, an eight-foot pulverizer drawing about as hard as a six-foot disk harrow.
QUESTIONS
1. What is the work of the smoothing harrow?
2. Describe the difference in construction between the adjustable tooth harrow and the spring-tooth harrow.
3. Describe some of the important constructional features of the smoothing harrow.
4. Describe the construction of the spring-tooth harrow, and under what conditions will it render the best service?
5. Why is the harrow cart useful and what should be its construc-
tion?
6. For what work is the disk harrow adapted?
7. Describe some of the general features of the construction of the disk harrow.
8. What are the three general types of disk harrows?
9. Describe the plow-cut disk blade. The alfalfa harrow.
10. What is the purpose of the scrapers on a disk harrow?
11. Why are they so long and heavy cast on a disk harrow?
12. Of what use is a toothed truth?
13. Describe the construction of narrow attachments for plows.
14. Describe three types of hand rollers.
15. Explain why one of the important points to be considered in select-
ing a hand roller.
16. To what purpose is the pulverizer adapted?
17. Describe the construction of the curved-tooth pulverizer.
CHAPTER XXXIV
SEEDERS AND DRILLS
Utility of Seeders and Drills. The seeder should be used only where the drill is impractical, as it is not a machine adapted to the most improved methods of farming. The drill enables the seed to be placed at a uniform depth and to be very uniformly distributed. The broadcast seeder may distribute the seed uniformly, but the harrow or other implement which follows it will not cover the seed at a uniform depth, meaning that a part of the seed is placed too deep and a part too shallow. The saving of seed alone in sowing a large field is often sufficient to practically pay for a drill. There are certain seeds, however, that must be covered very shallow, and the modern drill is not well adapted for the purpose. At one time grass seed was broadcasted on meadows to thicken the stand, but the drill has been found to do this work more satisfactorily.
SEEDERS
Hand seeders are used on rough ground where horse machines can not be used. A very satisfactory type is the crank machine with a whirling distributor. It is not possible to secure a very even seeding in this way, but that is often quite unavoidable. This type of machine should be used only when feeding the grain to the distributor. No attempt should be made to use the machine on a windy day.
![]() Fig. 133. A hand seeder.
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FARM MACHINERY
The wheelbarrow seeder is preferred by some in sowing grass seed. At one time the grain seeder lacked refinement for grass seeding. The wheelbarrow seeder usually has an agitator feed, which is not accurate, at any rate the least. This agitator consists of a rod beneath the seed box which stirs the seed in such a manner as to cause it to flow out of the bottom on the under side of the box in a fairly uniform stream.
Endgate seeders have one desirable feature, and that is their great capacity. The seeding, however, is never very uniform. As far as known, all machines of this class have whirling distributors, which are either single or double. The latter are claimed to have more capacity and to be more accurate than the single distributor machines. To improve their accuracy some makes of endgate seeders are provided with a force feed to the dis-
tributor. There is no doubt but that this is a good feature and although it is expensive it is worth while.
Friction and gear drives are used to drive the distribu-
tor. Spiral gears seem to be the most satisfactory, but care should be used in starting the machine so as not to cause damage.
Seed-box broadcast seeders are used to a considerable extent. These are commonly eleven feet wide and mounted either upon wheels at each end of the box or upon a low wheel truck underneath. The truck type does not lash the tongue
Fig. 134. A wheelbarrow seeder.
Fig. 135. An endgate seeder.
![]() A diagram showing a wheelbarrow seeder.
![]() A diagram showing an endgate seeder.
FARM MACHINERY
225
so much in passing over uneven ground, and for most conditions is to be preferred. The box may be placed low, and only distributing funnels used to spread the seed, or the box may be placed high up and the distributing funnels placed at the lowest point of seed fall. This arrangement is very satisfactory, as the tubes are either easily broken or lost.
The seed, of course, should be released quite near the ground so as not to be interfered with by the wind. This type of seeder may have either the agitator feed previously described, or a force feed. The first type consists of a stirring wheel over an opening through which the grain is allowed to flow. The force feed is by far the more accurate, and will be described under drills.
**DRILLS**
**Furrow-openers.** Grain drills are now equipped with four types of furrow-openers, the single-disk, the double-disk, the shoe, and the hoe. An idea of the construction of each may be obtained from the accompanying illustrations.
The single-disk is the best for most conditions and has better penetration and will eat through trash better than any other type. Furthermore, it has only one bearing per disk to wear out, whereas the double-disk has two. The single-disk must have one half of the disk turned in the opposite direction from the other half in order to keep the machine balanced. This is a disadvantage, as it causes the ground to be slightly uneven. A good furrow opener should be followed with a harrow on rolling ground to prevent soil washing. The single-disk furrow-opener may be provided
![]() A tractor pulling a seeder with a narrow-track.
Fig. 138. A transomat seeder with a narrow-track.
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
with a closed boot, which provides a complete passageway for the seed to the bottom of the furrow independent of the
![]() A standard single-disk drill at work. This machine has 11 furrow-openers spaced 7 inches apart.
disk; or with the open boot, which depends upon the disk blade to supply one side of the seed tube. The closed form is less likely to become clogged, but the open style provides a slightly wider row.
The double-disk does not have quite the penetration that the single-disk has, but when the disks are quite sharp this type of opener is good for cutting through trash. The claim is advanced that the principal merit of the double-disk
![]() A diagram showing a single-disk, double-disk, shoe, and two furrow-openers for grain drills. The single-disk has a closed boot, or shoe.
FARM MACHINERY 227
lies in the wide furrow that it makes, with a slight ridge in the center. Definite experiments, as far as known, have not been conducted to prove any advantage of this kind of furrow.
The shoe drill has been almost entirely displaced by the disk drill. It is a lighter draft type, and where penetration is not desirable it may be the type to select. The hoe drill has good penetration but can not be used where there is any trash to contend with.
Force Feeds. Two types of force feeds are used on drills. The most common is the external feed with a fluted seed shell. The amount of seeding is varied by slipping the shell in a guard so as to expose in the seed cups more or less of the fluted parts as required. The second type is the internal feed with a ribbed ring to which the seed passes on the inside. This type does not vary the size of the cells on the ring, but the seed regulation is obtained by varying the rotating speed of the ring. In some cases two rings are provided, one for small seeds and one for large seeds. The internal feed is the best type for drilling
![]() Fig. 123. The external force feed is shown at the left, and the internal device at the right.
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
large seeds like peas or beans. The cells of the ring, being of a certain uniform size, will not crush the seed like the external feed. For small grain the external feed, however, is the most accurate and is the most convenient of adjustment. This type will also accommodate regulation of the amount of seed in the seed box.
**Press Drills.** The press drill with press wheels to follow each furrow-opener is the most satisfactory type for fall seeding. The press wheel packs the soil firmly around the seed, causing the moisture to come up from below by capillary action and thereby producing early germination. For spring seeding, when there is an abundance of moisture in the soil, the press wheel is a disadvantage. In regions where both spring and fall seeding are practiced, the two-wheel arrangement, which can be used when desired, is a satisfactory arrangement.
**Selecting a Drill.** In selecting a drill with disk furrow-opener and bear-
ings and the means of oiling the bearings should be carefully inspected. The bearings are the first parts to wear out. A good strong frame is important, as well as a trussed and braced seed box. The best designs do not depend upon the seed box to support the drill, except in a minor way.
**Seed Tubes.** Rubber, wire, and steel ribbon seed tubes are used on drills. The rubber tubes are quite satisfactory, but are not durable, especially if not well protected from the weather. Steel wire tubes are satisfactory except when
![]() Fig. 149. A press drill.
228
FARM MACHINERY
229
stretched, when there is no way of shortening the tubes and filling the cracks. The steel ribbon is no doubt the best of all, as it is affected only by rust.
**Adjustment.** The furrow-openers should be adjusted to the manner of adjusting the spacing. A double drag-bar is without doubt preferable to the single one. The common spacings of furrow-openers are six, seven, and eight inches. For the average conditions, seven inches is a very satisfactory spacing. Seven-inch disks are used on many farms with 18 furrow-openers. The latter is a good size suitable for four horses, and will cover three corn rows of 3½ feet each.
**Horse Lift.** The horse lift for large drills is a great convenience. To be completely effective, it must be a gear-driven attachment, permitting grass seed to be drilled with other crops. The footboard is preferred by some to a seat. This is a matter largely of personal preference, but the footboard permits the driver to shift from one side to the other to manage the driving better. A double capacity or auxiliary seed box may now be had with many drills. This obviates the necessity of filling the seed box so often.
**QUESTIONS**
1. What advantage has the grain drill over the seeder?
2. Describe the use and construction of hand and wheelbarrow seeders.
3. How is the grain distributed with the coltage seeder?
4. Describe the various methods of constructing the seed-box broadcast seeder.
![]() Fig. 141. A section of the seed box of a tractor, showing the loca- tion of the grass seed tube.
Fig. 141. A section of the seed box of a tractor, showing the location of the grass seed tube.
141
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
5. What two types of feed are used in broadcast seeders?
6. Describe the construction and the relative merits of the various types of force feed for drills.
7. Describe two types of force feed for drills.
8. For what conditions is the press drill adapted?
9. What are the important features to be considered in the selection of a drill?
10. Of what material are the seed tubes made?
11. What is the common spacing of furrow-openers?
12. What is a horse lift for a drill?
CHAPTER XXXV
CORN PLANTERS
Essentials of a Corn Planter. The modern corn planter is a highly-developed implement and well able to meet the exacting demands made upon it. A good planter will fill the following requisites:
First, a corn planter is expected to place in every hill a certain number of kernels of corn.
Second, the corn must be placed at a uniform depth, regardless of the condition of the soil or trash that may interfere.
Third, the echeek-rower must place the corn accurately in rows for cross cultivation.
Fourth, the planter must be convenient to operate.
Fifth, the planter must be capable of adjustment to the planting of cane, beans, and several of the other crops grown on the general farm.
No doubt accuracy is the first requisite of the modern planter; but before a planter, therefore, the dropping mechanism should be given first consideration.
The Dropping Mechanism. There are two distinct types of dropping mechanism upon the market, the full-hill drop and the accumulative drop. In the full-hill drop a seed cell is provided large enough to contain the desired number of kernels for one hill (as three, for instance). These three kernels are counted out at one time, and if they should be slightly underweight, they will slip over a fourth to slip in as the seed plate containing the seed cell passed under the seed box.
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The accumulative drop, on the other hand, provides seed cells in the seed plate only large enough to contain one kernel at a time. The hill is formed by receiving in a receptacle the desired number of kernels from as many cells. The accumulative drop would appear at once to be the more
Fig. 147. A modern corn planter with long shoe furrow-openers, vari-
able drop, and open wheels.
accurate of the two types, and it may be demonstrated that it is, when seed corn graded to size is used. As the in the accumulative drop is made to contain one kernel only, it is evident that great care must be used in making the cell, and even then will be difficulty in caring for odd-shaped kernels which may be much different from the average. These ill-shaped kernels are taken from the butts and tips of the ears, and when an accumulative drop planter is used they must be discarded.
FARM MACHINERY 233
The edge-selection drop, now quite generally used by manufacturers, is an accumulative drop with the cells in the seed plate constructed deep and narrow to receive the kernel on the edge instead of on the flat, as ar-
ranged for in the preceding flat plate. The edge-selection plate provides very deep seed cells from which there is little possibility of the corn being dislodged by the cut-off which covers the cell as it passes over the receiving receptacle. There is danger, however, of the kernel becoming damaged by being caught in the cell on end in such a way that the cut-off cuts the kernel in two.
Graded Seed. The planter will do more accurate work if provided with carefully graded corn, and this fact should never be overlooked. After removing the butts and tips, the ears should be run through a good corn grader, and then there should be a careful selection of plates to suit the ears. The plates must be selected so that all corn from different localities differ much in size and shape, and accuracy of drop can only be secured when the plates are carefully selected for the corn at hand. Sometimes the proper plates are not furnished with the planter, and new plates better suited for the corn at hand must be secured from the manufacturer. There are usually three sizes of plates furnished with each planter, and these will accommo-
date nearly all of the variations.
The variable drop mechanism is of recent origin. By its use the seed plate is made to count out from two to four ker-
nels by simply shifting a lever to the designated notch. This device can be used to best advantage in hilly fields where the fertility of the soil varies much, enabling fewer kernels to be planted in the hills where the soil is thin.
![]() Illustration showing a seed plate with a cut-out section.
Fig. 114. The edge-
selection seed plate.
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
It also dispenses with many of the plates which must be furnished with a planter that does not have the device.
**Furrow-openers.** The long shoe furrow-opener is in more general use than any other type. It has good penetration and is easy to guide. Where there is trash in the way of the stub runner, which books under the trash, should be used. The single-disk furrow-opener has good penetration and should be used where the soil often becomes very compact before the corn can be planted. It is quite impossible to make perfectly straight rows with the disk planters. The bearings of the disks are subject to wear, and the single disk throws the earth to one side when opening the furrow, making the covering difficult. The double-disk furrow-opener offers additional complications without material advantage, and is sometimes maintained that the disk planter is of lighter draft. Even if this be true, the planter under any circumstances is not a heavy draft implement.
**Wheels.** The accepted type of wheel for corn planters
![]() Fig. 144. A corn planter with stub shoe furrow-opener.
![]() Fig. 145. A corn planter with disk furrow-opener.
FARM MACHINERY 235
is the open wheel. The wheel is depended upon to cover the corn and pack the soil over it. To do this, the open wheel not only offers an improvement over the flat or concave wheels, but is much easier to keep clean. The open wheel has two tires about one and one-half inches wide and set about two inches apart. These two tires are so set as to draw the soil together over the furrow made by the furrow-opener.
The double-wheel type has two wheels to follow each furrow-opener. These wheels are capable of being adjusted so as to draw the earth over the furrow as desired. Corn planters are provided with several sets of plates at various heights to accommodate the machine to the varying conditions as they may arise. Thus, in certain sections, the corn is planted in furrows made by the lister, and, to span the high ridges between the furrows, very high wheels are necessary.
Conveniences. There are many devices to be found on the modern planters which are designed to save time. The tip-over seed box is one. Thus if it is desired to change the seed in a seed box for any reason it is not necessary to pick out the seed corn kernel by kernel. A wheel on which to wind the check wires through the last row is another convenient device. This wheel is placed for convenience of use as hung under the seat, and the other is placed on a bracket over the planter wheel at either side. The first location is the most convenient when preparing to reel the wire; but the side location permits the wire to be reeled as the last row is planted, the reeling being in plain sight of the driver and
![]() Fig. 146. The open and double type of corn planter wheels.
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
there is no necessity of crossing the wire with the team.
Some friction device must be used to drive the reel.
The double marker, or a separate marker for each side and which may be raised to a vertical position when not in use, is undoubtedly the most convenient marker. There is less time consumed in putting it in use and there is no crossing of the lines with the draw rope. Where the soil is hard and heavy, a roller should be used in preference to the drag head marker.
**Adjustment.** In addition to a selection of the proper seed plate, or calibration of the planter, as it is sometimes called, the machine should be kept in proper adjustment and good working condition when in the field. One of the more usual methods of adjusting the planter is by means of a "front," the part of frame which supports the runners, level. If the front be tipped back or forward, the corn will be deposited in hills back or ahead of its proper location and will not form perfect rows crosswise.
**QUESTIONS**
1. What are the essentials of a good corn planter?
2. What is the difference between the "full hill" and the accumulative drop?
3. Is it important to use graded seed?
4. What is the variable drop?
5. Describe the various styles of furrow-openers used on even planters, and give their merits.
6. What are some of the tools used?
7. What are some of the conveniences used on modern planters?
8. How should planters be adjusted for accurate check-rowing?
CHAPTER XXXVI
CULTIVATORS
Development. The development of the corn cultivator exemplifies and typifies the development of agricultural methods during the past century. Originally, corn, or maize, to be more accurate, was planted and cultivated almost entirely with hand labor. Early in the single- or double-shovel cultivator was introduced to assist the hoe, but later the straddle or single-row cultivator was developed. At the present time the double-row cultivator is typical of modern methods. The single- and double-shovel cultivators have been discarded from field operations, and only the single- and double-row cultivators are left.
Selection of Cultivators. Whether or not the double-row cultivator can be made to do the same amount of work with greater economy than the single-row is a question that many farmers are trying to decide. The solution of this problem will depend largely upon local conditions. It is unquestionably true, however, that the successful use of the two-row cultivator has been limited to those regions where pre-parting the ground and in planting and tending the crops. The two-row cultivator is not an implement well designed to select and destroy individual weeds, nor is it capable of being adjusted to cultivate each hill of corn, regardless of whether or not that hill may be in a straight row. The two-row cultivator is used successfully where good farming sup- plies are available, where there is a free supply of prepared seed beds, and straight corn rows. If this high-class farming is practiced, the two-row cultivator will be found a necessary
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part of the equipment of the modern corn grower. The use of the two-row cultivator is a question upon which opinions of some of the best farmers differ. This indicates that, in addition to the necessary field conditions mentioned, the personal factor is one that makes for success or failure.
Walking Cultivators. The walking cultivator is made both with and without a tongue. The advantages of the tongueless kind are that they are lighter and require less turning room than the other. The difference in cost is small. On the other hand, the tongueless cultivator works very well only with a well broken and evenly-gated team.
Cultivator Construction. One- and two-row cultivators have many features in common, they will be discussed together. Perhaps the most important feature to be decided upon in the selection of a cultivator is the shovels equipment. Shovels may be attached to the cultivator by means of shovels for each two gangs. By gang is meant the beam, the shanks, and the shovels attached thereto. The four-shovel cultivator is adapted to deep cultivation; the six and eight to more shallow cultivation, covering the space between the rows more thoroughly but less deeply. With a large number of shovels and shanks, the gangs become fully engaged with soil if the ground is entirely free from it. A compromise is represented by the six-shovel cultivator, which is the most popular throughout the corn belt.
The cultivator beams are now quite generally made of steel, although wooden beams may be purchased. Although
![]() A drawing showing a walking cultivator with wooden beams.
Fig. 147. A two-row walking culti-
vator with wooden beams.
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slightly heavier, the steel beam is not so easily clogged with trash. The shanks may also be of steel or wood, with the same advantages. A break-pin device or a spring trip should be provided to prevent breakage of the shank if a root or stone be struck by the shovels. The best cultivator shovels are made of soft-center steel hardened so as to give a bright polish.
The length of the shovels vary from two to four inches, and the wider shovels may be twisted so as to assist in throwing the furrow to one side. The straight shovels are adjustable upon their shanks to accomplish the same results. Where shallow cultivation is desired without a surface cultivator, the spring-tooth cultivator, with four to eight small teeth per inch, is used.
The coupling of the beam to the frame is one of the most important features of the cultivator, for it must enable the beam to be shifted horizontally and vertically and at the same time cause the shovels to remain in a vertical position. In order that this feature of the cultivator shall remain long service, due provision must be made for adjustment for wear.
The gangs should be so suspended that they will swing in a horizontal plane and not be lifted from the ground when swung to one side. Since there is a tendency to advance the shovels as they are swung to either side, it is easy to see why a long beam is more easily guided than a short one.
![]() Fig. 148. A riding cultivator with balance frame and handspur seat.
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As the long beam is swung to one side, it does not advance so much, because it travels in the arc of a larger circle.
Due provision should be made for varying the width between the gangs to suit the various conditions which may arise. This adjustment should be easily and quickly accomplished. The wheels should also be adjustable to various widths. Many cultivators are now made with reversible axles, that is, the axles are made in the form of the letter Z, one end of which is attached to the upper part of the cultivator and the other end serves as the axle proper. After the one becomes worn, the ends may be reversed and a new wearing surface presented.
**Wheels.** The wheels of a cultivator should be high and have a good tread to carry dirt up on the inside. Often the value of a cultivator is indicated by the construction of the wheels. To determine their strength, the width and thickness of the tires and the number and diameter of the spokes should be observed. The wheels should have interchangeable boxes which may be replaced after they are worn without requiring an entirely new wheel, and these boxes should be arranged so that when they are removed, the wheel is held in place by a collar on the inside arranged to exclude the dirt and dust, and the outer end of the wheel box is enclosed. The end of the wheel box had best be removable for filling with axe grease or hard oil. A supply of grease in one of these enclosed boxes will last for a long time.
**Balance Frame.** The balance frame is used on cultivators for two purposes; first to balance the weight of the operator on the wheels; and, second, to balance the cultivator when the gangs are carried out of the ground. The balance frame makes provision for setting the wheels forward or backward as required. It should be a feature of every riding cultivator.
![]() A diagram showing a balance frame on a cultivator.
FARM MACHINERY 241
**Guiding Devices.** To guide or steer cultivators, the tongue or the wheels are often pivoted and connected to levers in such a way as to be conveniently operated. The *pivoted tongue* enables the operator to vary the angle with which the tongue is attached to the cultivator. The tongue may be attached to a treadle to be worked by the feet and used continually for guiding the cultivator, or it may be attached to a lever, permitting adjustment for hillsides or for the team when they cannot be driven true to the ground.
Some form of treadle guide is shown in Fig. 118. A two-row cultivator with four gangs is shown in Fig. 119. The guide must be provided with the two-row cultivators, as it is not possible to guide each pair of gangs independently. The treadle guide may be attached to the gangs only, or it may govern the direction of wheels at the same time. It is claimed that this double arrangement requires less effort on part of the operator, for he can change his direction without moving wheels and the team must do the work. On the other hand, the shifting of the gangs alone gives a much quicker action.
**Seats.** The seat of the riding cultivator is made in two forms, the straddle seat and the hammock seat. The first is placed upon a stiff arm extending back from the frame, and the second has the seat suspended on a metal strap between two uprights. The seat of the straddle type is more rigid and is universally used on lever and treadle-guided cultivators. The hammock seat offers a good opportunity to operate the gangs with the feet, as the seat support is not in the way.
![]() A drawing showing a two-row cultivator with four gangs guided by a treadle device.
Fig. 118. A two-row cultivator with four gangs guided by a treadle device.
![]() A drawing showing a two-row cultivator with four gangs guided by a lever.
Fig. 119. A two-row cultivator with four gangs guided by a lever.
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Surface Cultivators. The surface cultivator is apparently gaining favor throughout the corn belt. It is provided with long flat shovels which shave the ground from one to two inches below the surface, cutting off the weeds and pulverizing the surface. The surface cultivator has a special implement which has been the author's experience that go- pher or surface shovels attached to the shovel cultivator with an extra arch between are anything but satisfactory. It is necessary that the guages be of very rigid construction or the shovels will not run at an even depth and will not be easily controlled.
The surface cultivator will work satisfactorily only where the ground is in good silt and free from torpedoes.
The Disk Cultivator. The disk cultivator is preferred by some corn growers. It is generally used in connection with the reaper or for tilled corn if it is on a consider- able soil in one direction. Strength and durability of the parts, especially the bear- ings, are the important things to consider when making a selection.
![]() Fig. 138. A surface cultivator.
![]() Fig. 141. A disk cultivator.
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QUESTIONS
1. Trace the development of the cultivator.
2. What are some of the factors which should be considered in mak-
ing a selection of a cultivator?
3. In what ways does the direct advantage has the riding cultivator
over the walking cultivator?
4. Describe the construction of the tongueless walking cultivator.
5. Describe some of the important features of modern cultivators.
6. Why are the following types of equipment for culti-
vators?
7. Describe a good method of assessing the damage.
8. What adjustment should be provided in the cultivator?
9. What is the purpose of the balance frame?
10. What is the difference between a pivoted tongue and pivoted wheels?
11. What two types of seats are used on cultivators?
12. Describe the construction of the surface cultivator.
13. To what use may the disk cultivator be put?
CHAPTER XXXVII
THE GRAIN BINDER OR HARVESTER
Of all the machines which have been invented and developed during the past century, perhaps none has been the means of saving more labor than the modern grain binder. It has been the main factor in reducing the amount of labor required to produce a bushel of wheat from three hours to ten minutes, and at the same time has greatly improved the quality of the product.
The grain binder has undergone little change in the last twenty years nor is there any important improvement proposed or desired at the present time. The test of time has eliminated from the field the unsatisfactory machines, in spite of the fact that the binder is a very complicated machine and must often do its work under very adverse circumstances. For these reasons this chapter will be a discussion primarily of the modern grain binder.
Size. Formerly the standard binder was a 5-, 6-, or 7-foot cut machine. More recently, by the use of tongue trucks to care for the side draft, the 8-foot machine has become popular among farmers who have large areas of grain to cut. Under favorable conditions and with large areas the push binder (cutting 12 feet) may be used economically. These machines require at least six horses, and four horses are generally used on the eight-foot-cut machines.
Selection. Convenience and proper range of adjustment, and adequate means of lubrication are the important things to keep in mind in selecting a binder. The variety of grain harvested with the grain binder requires a wide range of adjustments.
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345
Fig. 35. A modern harvester at work.
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Tongue Trucks. The tongue truck is one of the newer attachments for the binder, and is a device which is highly satisfactory, especially on the wide-cut machines. It is quite impossible with these wide machines to arrange the hitch in such a way as to overcome side draft. The tongue truck is the only satisfactory method of relieving the horses of this burden.
Sagging Draft. It has become a quite common practice of late to mount a small gasoline engine upon the binder to drive the machinery, relieving the horses of all work except that required in drawing the machine on its wheels. This makes it possible to save a crop on wet, soft ground where an ordinary binder would fail because the main wheel will sink into the ground. The binder was originally mounted upon skids or sled runners and used to save a crop where the soil was so wet and sticky that the main wheel of the binder would become so thoroughly filled with mud as to refuse to revolve.
Operation of Binders. It should be the pride of every binder operator to so manage and adjust his machine that
![]() Fig. 153. The harvester shown in Fig. 152, with some of the parts removed.
| FORCE |
CAMSHAFT ON ARMS |
ELEVATOR |
RESULT |
| VALVE WHEEL |
PULLEY |
DRIVE BELT |
VALVE WHEEL |
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perfect, well-bound bundles will be formed and tied. To procure such bundles, attention must first be given to the adjustment of the reel, which should so catch and deliver the standing grain that it will fall evenly and smoothly upon the platform apron or canvas. If the grain is straight and standing well, the reel should be set far enough ahead and low enough that the grain will be slightly bent back over the platform when cut off. This will cause it to fall directly back at right angles to the cutter bar. Often the grain varies in position in different parts of the field, and adjustment of the reel should be made from time to time while the machine is in motion.
Again, the proper adjustment of the binder attachment and the butt adjuster canvas should not be overlooked. In all machines these two parts are adjustable. The binder attachment may be slid forward and backward, enabling the operator to place his hand on the top of the butt of the bundles as he may desire. In like manner, the butt adjuster may be set so as to push or pat the straw into an even bundle at the butt end and to push the straw back more or less as desired.
Sometimes a binder will give trouble in tearing the straws from the frame. This trouble is due to the fact that the rollers over which canvases pass are not parallel or square with the frame. If trouble of this kind occurs, the elevator frames and rollers should be immediately trued up. Provision for adjustment is found on all machines, and the carpenter's square will be found a useful means of securing accuracy.
The main drive chain of a binder, if run loosely and if dry or muddy, has a tendency to climb the sprocket teeth and, in slipping in place again, give the machine a jerky motion as if some part of the machine were catching or striking some
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other part. This action makes the difficulty hard to locate.
It is easy to overcome by simply tightening the chain and by oiling.
The elevator chain, the long chain which drives the ele-
vator rollers, should not be run too tight, as it increases the draft and the wear of the parts. Machines are some-
times greatly damaged in a short time by running this chain too tight.
Adjustment. To make bundles of the proper size, the binder provided with a clutch which is placed in gear by the trip when sufficient grain has been gathered by the packers to form a bundle. If the spring which holds the clutch pawl, or dog, in place be lost or broken, the clutch will not be positive in its action and will form undesired bundles. If larger or smaller bundles are desired, the bundle-sizer spring should be adjusted, and not the compress spring or the tension connected with the needle shaft. The latter spring is used to relieve the strain upon the parts, and should not be made too tight.
Causes of Failure to Tie. The part of the binder which requires the most careful adjustment is the tying mechanism. Mention can only be made here of two misadjustments and their causes, one being customary for those who practice band binding to examine the band that comes from the machine when the machine fails to tie. Often the cause of failure is whether
frayed or cut off clean, the kinks in the twine, or the knot, if there should be one in one end of the band, will indicate at once the cause of
![]()
A knotted twine.
![]()
A twisted twine.
![]()
Two disk binders.
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The failure to make a complete knot. The names of the various parts of the tying mechanism may be learned from the accompanying illustration. If the needle does not carry the twine over far enough, the twine disk, or cord holder, will grasp only one strand, and the knot will be tied only in one end of the cord, with the other extending back to the machine. This condition is shown in No. 1, Fig. 155, and may be caused occasionally by a straw interfering with the placing of the twine.
When the twine disk is too tight, the symptoms will be much like those just described, except that one end of the band is frayed (No. 2) indicating that it has been cut off by being pinched too tightly and that the spring should be loosened. If both ends are cut off irregularly, as shown in No. 3, it is quite a sure sign that the holder is too tight.
If the band which holds the finger down upon the knottor hook, is too loose and does not hold the ends of the twine while the knot is pulled over the hook forming the knot, the ends of the band will appear as shown in No. 4. The same kind of band is found when the knife cuts the twine too soon before the knottor finger has closed over it.
![]()
A diagram showing how a knot can be tied incorrectly.
Fig. 155. The ends of bands which have not been tied properly. (After Steward in Trans. Am. Soc. A. E.)
156
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If the needle has become bent or the pinnau which actuates it worn until the needle does not place the twine squarely over the notch in the twine holder, a loose band will be produced as shown in No. 5, Fig. 155; that is, there will be a knot in one end, and the other end will be cut off squarely but without a kink in it.
If the needle of the modern binder becomes slightly bent, it may be hammered back without fear of breakage.
**QUESTIONS**
1. Why is the grain binder an important machine?
2. In what sizes are grain binders manufactured?
3. What are the important features involved in the selection of the grain binder?
4. To what use may the tongue truck be put?
5. When may the machinery of the harvester be driven with a guiding wheel to prevent damage?
6. To what purpose should the binding mechanisms of the harvester be adjusted?
7. To what extent should the elevator rollers, main and elevator chains be adjusted on a binder?
8. What adjustment should be made to change the size of the bunched?
9. Explain five causes for failure of the knottter to tie a knot.
CHAPTER XXXVIII
CORN HARVESTING MACHINES
Sled Corn Cutter. These machines are arranged with stationary knives set at an angle on the edge of a platform and at such a height that the standing stalks will be cut off as they are grasped in the arms of the operator standing or sitting upon the platform. The machine is mounted either on wheels or on a wagon, and is drawn by one or two horses. When an armful of stalks has been collected, a stop is made and the corn laid in piles or is shocked at once. These sled cutters are often homemade and are constructed in a variety of shapes and forms.
Several machines have been devised with arms and other mechanisms to assist in gathering the stalks; but these machines, although quite successful, have not come into extended use, owing perhaps to the fact that, if a more expensive machine were desired than the simple sled harvester, the corn binder would be purchased.
It has been found that the average acreage harvested in a day by two men and one horse with a sled harvester was 4.67 acres, the amount ranging from 2 to 10 acres. This variation is undoubtedly due largely to the weight and condition of the corn. The same laborers could not successfully handle extremely heavy corn or corn which does not stand upright.
![]() Pt. 155. A sled corn harvester.
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The Corn Binder or Harvester. Because of the general introduction of the silo, the corn binder is used more than ever before. In filling the silo the corn must be cut rapidly, and besides it is much more conveniently handled when bound into bundles. When the corn is shocked, the use of the harvester will not show much economy over cutting by hand; this, however, is disagreeable work, and the use of the
![]() A corn harvester of the vertical type at work.
Fig. 157. A corn harvester of the vertical type at work.
machine is to be commended because it does away with much of it.
Results of an investigation of corn harvesting methods*show that the average acreage cut per day with a binder was 7.73 acres. The average life of the corn harvester was 8.17 years, cutting on an average a total of 608.77 acres. The amount of twine used per acre was 2.44 pounds, and one man was able to shock the corn on 3.31 acres in one day. From this
*Farmer's Bulletin 303, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
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data the cost of harvesting and shocking an acre is made up in the following items:
| Cost of machine and interest on investment |
8.20 per acre |
| Driver and team |
.46 per acre |
| Twine |
.305 per acre |
| Shocking |
.485 per acre |
| Total cost |
$1.503 per acre |
If a large acreage is harvested annually, the cost per acre will be much reduced. In modern siloing operations the corn is loaded directly upon wagons, and the cost of shocking, which is about one-third of the cost as given above, is not incurred.
Types of Corn Binders. There are two general types of corn binders upon the market: those which bind the corn in an upright position, and those which convey the cut corn to a horizontal deck before binding. There is also an intermediate type in which the corn is neither vertical nor horizontal, but somewhere between the two, or inclined. Each of these types is well tried out, and is successful, and they differ but little in the essentials of construction. Dividers on either side of the row gather and lift the down stalks, and extend across the opening between the dividers carry the stalks back to the binder proper. There are usually three pairs of these conveyor chains, one pair for the butts, one pair of main chains, and one pair for tall corn.
At least one machine does not have the usual packer found on the others and on the grain binder. In this machine
![]() A corn harvester of the standard Chilton type.
Pig. 153. A corn harvester of the standard Chilton type.
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The conveyor chains are made to extend farther back, and during the time a bundle is being tied the lugs or fingers are allowed to fold back, not forcing the corn upon the needle.
Three horses are usually used with the corn binder, though in heavy corn four horses, two teams in tandem, can be used to good advantage, and the extra power is much needed.
The care and operation of the corn binder do not differ materially from that of the grain binder. The employment of the tying mechanism is just the same. The service demanded of the corn binder, however, is much more severe, and it does not have as long a life as the grain binder.
The Corn Shocker. The corn shocker is an implement with cutting mechanism very similar to that of the corn binder. A platform is provided on which a revolving cylinder pole is provided, and is made to revolve and collect the cut corn and form it into a shock. When a shock is formed, the machine is stopped and the shock tied and then lifted from the platform and swung to the ground by means of a derrick and windlass. The fingers which extend out from the center pole are then allowed to drop, and the center pole is removed and thrown away.
This machine has only about one-half the capacity of the corn binder, as much time is consumed in removing the shocks. Other disadvantages are first, the shocks are small and do not stand well; and second, the fodder is not as convenient to handle as what is found in bundles. In favor of it, it has been said that it is a one-man machine, and that this is a saving in the cost of twining.
Corn Pickers. The successful corn picker is one of the most recent of agricultural machines, although inventors have been trying to invent a machine for field picking for nearly two-hundreds of a century. The mechanical difficulties to be overcome and the lack of an imperative need for the
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machine are the main reasons why this machine has not been perfected to the extent that it could be manufactured and sold in the usual way.
**Construction.** As usually constructed, the corn picker, sometimes called the corn picker-husker, has dividers which straddle a row of standing stalks and gather them into an upright position similar to the action of a corn harvester. Then the stalks are run through rollers set at an incline and provided with spirals in such a way that the stalks are conveyed back as fast as the machine is moved forward. These rollers pinch off the ears, which fall into a conveyor at one side of the rollers and are carried to the husking rolls. These rolls revolve in pairs, and, by means of steel studs or husking pins set in the rolls, grasp the husks and pull them from the ears. The ears are then lifted and the shelled corn are then elevated into a wagon drawn beside the machine. The better machines have a fan for blowing out the chaff and husks and saving all of the corn.
The corn picker-husker is one of the heaviest of field machines, and under average conditions requires five large or six medium-large draft horses to draw it. A driver is required, and two men or boys with teams and wagons are
![]() A corn picker-husker at work.
Fig. 123. A corn picker-husker at work.
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needed to haul away the corn as it is gathered and husked. An elevator for unloading the corn is quite an essential part of the complete outfit.
There is naturally much difference of opinion in regard to the relative merits of the use of the corn picker-husker over hand picking. It is to be recognized that conditions vary greatly, and it is upon local conditions that its success will
![]() A corn husker and shredder at work.
Fig. 103. A corn husker and shredder at work.
depend. The machine, on account of its great weight, cannot well be used when the soil is wet. Again, the machine does not do its best work in corn that is lodged badly. It will not pick up any ears not attached to the stalks.
**Corn Huskers and Shredders.** In many localities the husker and shredder is quite a popular machine, and it is right that it should be so, for by this means methods utilizing the entire corn plant are sure to become more general.
The modern husker and shredder consists in snapping rolls to remove the ears from the fodder as it is fed to the
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machine, a shredder head to reduce the fodder to fine pala-
table stock feed, husking rolls to remove the husks from the
ears, an elevator to elevate the husked corn into a wagon,
and an elevator or blower to convey the shredded fodder
![]() A section of a corn husker and shredder.
Fig. 161. A section of a corn husker and shredder.
away from the machine. Most machines have devices for
saving the shelled corn. Some of the larger machines have band
cutters and self-feeders.
The size of the husker is designated by the number of
rolls. An 80 roll husker will husk from 25 to 30 bushels
of corn per hour, and require from 16 to 20 horsepower.
The cost of shredding varies from $2.50 to $6 per acre.
QUESTIONS
1. Describe the sled corn harvester. Is it practical?
2. What are the principal items and the amount of each in the
cost hardware of a corn harvester?
3. Describe the two general types of corn harvester.
4. Describe the construction of the corn shaker.
5. Describe the construction of the corn picker-husker.
6. Which of these two machines has the best advantage?
7. What can you say of the economy of the husker and shredder?
8. Describe the construction of the corn husker and shredder?
9. How many ears can be picked and shelled designated, and
what is the capacity of the various sizes?
258
CHAPTER XXXIX
HAY-MAKING MACHINERY
MOWERS
The modern mower has become a standard machine, and the various makes differ in details only. Inventors have devised many styles of cutting machines, but all have given way to the reciprocating knife which acts between guards or fingers, giving a shear cut.
Types. The center draft mower, with the cutting bar directly under the mower, is used in front of the driving wheels, is manufactured in a limited way. The main advantage of this type of machine seems to be that the team does not walk over the new-mown grass and tramp it into the stubble This advantage is offset by the convenience of the side cut machine, the type in general use.
Size. Mowing machines may be secured in almost any size from the one-half mowers at 3½- or 4-foot cut to the 8-foot cut. The 4½- and 5-foot cuts are known as the standard machines, and the 6-foot cut as the standard wide-cut machine. The wide-cut machine is usually made somewhat heavier than the standard machines, yet they are adapted only to certain conditions where the service consists largely in straight row mowing.
Construction of Mowers. The weight of a mower determines how much extra its driving power, but this is also increased by the design of the wheels and the distribution of the weight. The drive wheels should be high and have broad tires. The usual widths of tires are 3½ and 4 inches.
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It is best that the wheels be placed far apart, as this makes a better balanced machine as far as draft and driving power are concerned.
The main shaft should be a smooth or "cold rolled" shaft throughout its entire length, and should be of liberal size. Roller bearings for the main shaft are desirable, as they not only reduce friction but also protect the shaft in the frame and furnish a good reservoir for a supply of oil. It is well that the wheels be provided with a sufficient number of pawls to engage the axle ratchets without much lost motion. There should be little lost motion throughout the entire mechanism, as it is highly desirable to have the knife start as soon as the drivers and prevent the guards from becoming jammed.
There is at the present time a considerable difference in the size of the gears used in mowers. Besides being strong
![]() Fig. 103. A modern mower at work.
260 AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
enough, these gears should be of liberal dimensions, especially in width, to resist wear. It is an advantage to have the gears so arranged that the thrust which exists between separate pairs of gears shall balance as far as possible.
Due provision should be made to keep the gears well lubricated and well protected from dust. There is no good reason why the gears should be left un lubricated and not be arranged to run in oil, although this is not practiced.
The small, fast-moving gear pinion is the first to wear out, and the construction of the mower should be such as to permit this pinion to be easily replaced. There is considerable end thrust on the crank shaft upon which the bevel gear pinion is placed, owing to the tenacity for the gears to follow each other when they are not in perfect alignment with each other, as is usually provided for. Some of the best mowers upon the market are made with a ball-thrust bearing. Other mowers have hardened steel washers to take the wear, and in any case there should be means of adjusting for wear.
The chain drive mower is subject to some extent at the present time to wear due to its form. There are at least two disadvantages of the chain-driven mower, in which one pair of gears is replaced by a pair of sprockets and a chain or link belt; first, it is not as positive in action as the gears; and second, the chains do not seem to be as durable as the gears.
Usually mowers have but two pairs of gears, but some mowers have three pairs of gears, and this is desirable as to the latter. At least one maker has two speeds for the knife, obtained by changing gears. The lower crank end of the crank shaft should have a bearing which will permit adjustment for wear. One of the most common methods of making this adjustment is to replace an interchangeable brass bush used as the bearing lining. In mowers there is an adjustable cap to the bearing, which may be adjusted by
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means of the bolts which hold it in place and by the use of liners under the edges of the cap.
It is to be expected that the severest wear will come upon the pitman. The pitman bearings are difficult to lubricate.
A mower which does not provide for adjustment and replacement of the wearing parts of the pitman and crank is not modern. Owing to the difficulty of keeping adjustable parts tight, they are put on usually made of metal, lined with brass or babbitt, and capable of being replaced at small expense.
Provision is made in every modern mower for the replacement of the wearing parts of the cutting mechanism and for their adjustment to the fullest extent. This statement refers to all mowers, whether hand or power-driven, regardless of sections of it; the guards or their ledger plates, which provide one-half of the cutting edges; the clamps which hold the knife over its guide; and the wearing plates which support the rear edge of the sickle. All of these parts are subject to rapid wear, and even when made of the best materials they must be replaced several times during the life of the mower. It is not an uncommon matter to find that a mower has been discarded when it could be made practically new by the replacement of parts whose cost is but a small part of the whole.
The cutter bar of a mower should be carried as far as possible upon the main truck, in order to reduce the draft due to dragging the bar. This is usually accomplished by suitable linkage and springs which may be adjusted in such a manner as to carry all of the weight, except enough to keep
![]() Fig. 103. A side-draft mower.
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the cutter bar to the surface of the ground. A draft rod direct from the doubleteeth to the cutter bar assists in lowering the draft, and is universally used on modern mowers.
Adjustments of the Mower. The adjustments of the mower are of the greatest importance. First, the cutter bar should be in alignment, or should extend out to the side of the mower at right angles to the crank shaft. If not in perfect alignment, this may cause undue wear and tear, if not causing early breakage. There is sure to be more or less wear in the hinge joints of the cutter bar, and
![]() An illustration showing the proper adjustment of the cutter bar.
Fig. 164. An illustration showing the proper adjustment of the cutter bar.
an adjustment must be made for this wear from time to time. The device for aligning the cutter bar differs in each type of mower, yet it is to be found in all good mowers.
Secondly, the pitman arm must be so adjusted that it or to travel equally over the guards at the ends of the stroke. Misadjustment in this respect is often the cause of failure to cut properly. The method of adjustment varies with different mowers. In some the length of the pitman is changed; in others, the length of the drag bar. It is also true that many mowers do not offer a ready means of adjustment.
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The sickle must be so adjusted under the clips that each section will form a shear cut with the ledger plates. The clips which hold the knife down are made of malleable iron or steel and are adjusted by bending down with a hammer. They must be kept tight enough to hold the blade clearly between the knife and the ledger plates about one-eighth the thickness of ordinary paper. The guards must all be in line so that the above adjustment will be possible. Bent guards may be hammered back into line, as they are made of malleable iron and are not easily broken. The alignment should be tested by sighting over the ledger plates. If the mower leaves stumps of long stems, and the blade is in good condition, it is advisable to inspect every one of the guards to see if they have been bent out of line. The rear of the knife is supported by steel wearing plates which assist in keeping the points of the sections down over the guards. If these become worn until they no longer keep the knife in place, new ones must be put in, which may be done at small expense.
The sickle rake is a very useful implement. It is poor economy to use a dull knife, owing to the increase of wear upon the machine and the poor quality of work which is sure to be performed. All nicked or broken sections which cannot be sharpened should be replaced. If many of the sections are damaged, it is best to buy an entirely new knife.
HAY RAKES
The Sulky Rake. The sulky rake is made either to be dumped by hand or, by engaging a pawl on the tooth bar with a suitable ratchet on the wheels or axle, the machine is made self-dumping. The self-dump rake costs but little more than hand-dump and has the additional advantages.
In selecting a sulky rake one need only consider the size and spacing of teeth to suit the conditions to be met. The
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teeth are made in two sizes, of 3/16-inch and 1/2-inch round steel, with one or two coils at the top to give more or less elasticity and with either pencil or chisel points. The teeth are spaced from 3/4 to 5 inches apart. The heavier rakes are used for
![]() A modern self-dump sulky rake at work.
Fig. 155. A modern self-dump sulky rake at work.
the heavier crops like alfalfa and sorghum. A rake should be so constructed as to be easily dumped and to thoroughly clean itself.
Side-delivery Rakes. The side-delivery rake has much the same function as the tedder. Instead of merely turning the hay, however, the side-delivery rake has a revolving toothed cylinder acting in the opposite direction and set at such an angle that when the cylinder is turned by a horse, fluffy window through which the air can circulate readily.
Where the hay is light, it is put in good shape for the hay-
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loader. Where the hay is extremely light, two windows may be thrown together.
There is much difference in the mechanism of the side-delivery rakes. In general, there are two types: (1) the one-way rake, which has revolving forks to throw the hay to one side into a window; and (2) the reversible rake, which gathers the hay and conveys it onto an endless apron across the machine and which may be driven in either direction. The first type is in more general use and is the cheaper machine.
![]() A three-bar side-delivery rake at work.
Fig. 146. A three-bar side-delivery rake at work.
The fork machine, which is much like the tedder except that the forks are set in an oblique row and throw the hay forward to one side, are preferred by many practical hay growers. Cylinder rakes, which have a cylinder to which they roll it to one side, have the advantage of simplicity, but the rolling action given to the hay tends to make it into a close, compact, rope-like window through which the air does not circulate as readily as it might. Many of the fork machines
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are so arranged that the direction of the throw of the forks may be reversed and the rake used as a tedder.
HAY LOADERS
Where hay is stored in the barn, the modern hay loader is almost indispensable, as its use will pay for itself in the saving of labor in one or two seasons. In general, there are two types of hay loaders: the fork loader and the endless-apron or carrier loader. The first of these is of simpler con-
![]() A fork hay loader at work.
struction and is a machine that forces the hay well onto the load.
The endless-apron loaders have one main advantage, and that is they do not agitate the hay severely and do not tend thereby to shake off the dry leaves. This advantage applies only to the handling of such crops as clover, alfalfa, and other similar crops. With other crops, however, this endless-apron machine does not force the hay onto the load readily, for, when the hay is allowed to pile up at the end of the loader, the apron tends to drag the hay back. At least one loader has been brought out recently with the apron above the hay instead of below, in an attempt to overcome this
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difficulty. In selecting a loader, it would be well to see that it will pick up the hay cleanly, either from the swath or the windrow; will pass over the obstructions, and at the same time will not pick up old trash which may be on the surface of the ground. The loader is made largely of wood in the form of light strips, and for that reason should be carefully housed when not in use.
**HAY TEDDERS**
Modern haymaking methods demand that the hay be cured as quickly as possible and that it shall not lie in the sun or dew to become bleached and stunted. To do this, the drying of the plants must be hastened by the circulation of air through the loose hay. The leaves give up moisture to the air rapidly and draw upon the supply in the stem, and for this reason they should be prevented from drying up and falling off.
The tedder is a machine arranged to pick the hay from the stubble where it has fallen from the mower and has been trampled down more or less by the plowing over it, and throw it into a light fluffy layer through which the air may freely circulate.
The size of the tedder is determined by the number of forks which stir up the hay. The 8- and 10-fork machines are the sizes in general use. Most of the modern machines are made almost entirely of steel and, when carefully braced to give rigidity, are often preferred over the modern wooden-frame machines. Various combinations of gears, sprockets, and chains are used to drive the shaft giving motion to the
![]() Fig. 163. A steel frame hay tedder.
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forks. One does not seem to have any special advantage over the other. The chain is the more flexible connection and costs less to repair than a broken gear when an accident occurs.
MACHINES FOR FIELD STACKING
In many localities where hay is one of the principal crops it is common practice to stack the hay in the field until a time when it may be dispersed of either as loose hay or by baling and shipping. The factory-made machines used for field stacking are the sweep rake and the stacker. Each of these machines may be secured in a variety of styles.
Sweep Rakes. The sweep rake may be a simple affair drawn over the stubble on skids or runners, or it may be mounted upon wheels with elaborate mechanism for balancing and raising the teeth. With some of these rakes the team is divided and one horse placed at either side, and with others the team is hitched to a tongue in the rear. The latter type, generally called the three-wheeled rake, is the more expensive and, although the team may be handled to better advantage, is difficult to guide.
![]() A haying scene showing an over-shot stacker and sweep rake.
FIG. 105. A haying scene showing an over-shot stacker and sweep rake.
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Stackers. Field hay stackers are divided into two classes, the plain overshot and the swinging stacker. The first has a row of teeth, corresponding to the teeth of the sweep rake, on the end of long arms hinged near the ground. The hay is drawn up by the teeth and held in position by the arms. By means of a rope and pulleys the teeth are raised to a vertical position and the load of hay allowed to slide back onto the stack. The objections of this type of stacker are that the hay must always be raised to a certain height regardless of the height of the stack, and the hay is always dropped in the same place on the stack, causing it to settle unevenly.
The second class of stackers consists of a revolving arm, which may be raised to any height and locked in place by a brake engaging the rope; then the hay may be swung over the stack and dumped. As there is some choice as to where the load may be dumped, this style of stacker offers several advantages. It may also be used in loading hay onto the wagons.
Homemade Stacker. Homemade field stacking ma-
![]() A homemade field stacking outfit.
Fig. 176. A homemade field stacking outfit.
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chines are quite generally and successfully used. In addition to homemade models of the machine described, the hay fork can be successfully used to unload hay from a wagon onto a stack by the use of some sort of pole and pulley arrangement, as illustrated. Where a hay loader is available, this system of stacking offers advantages when the hay must be hauled some distance before stacking and where it is desired to build an evenly high stack. Apparatus for doing field work with the hay fork may be purchased by those who do not care to make their own outfits.
BARN HAY TOOLS
**Barn Equipment.** The equipment for putting hay into barns consists essentially of forks or slings to hold the hay while being moved from the load, hay carriers with ropes and pulleys, and a track on which the carriers run.
**Forks.** There are at least four types of hay forks in use, each of which is adapted to particular conditions. The **single tine** has spurs at the lower end which stand out at right angles to hold the hay. The hay is released by tripping the spring mechanism that holds the tine in place. The **double-harpoon fork** is adapted to handle hay which hangs together, and is used where it is not desired to lift large quantities at one time.
The **double-harpoon fork** is much similar to the single-harpoon fork except that two times are provided instead of one. It may be secured in lengths from 30 to 35 inches.
The **grapple fork** is used for short hay. It is provided with curved tines which swing toward each other like ice tongs, firmly gripping the hay. The tines are of various
| Single tine fork |
Double harpoon fork |
Grapple fork |
| Illustration showing a single tine fork. |
Illustration showing a double harpoon fork. |
Illustration showing a grapple fork. |
The **grapple fork** is used with short hay. It is provided with curved tines which swing toward each other like ice tongs, firmly gripping the hay. The tines are of various
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lengths to suit conditions, and vary from four to eight in number. The latter may be used in handling manure.
![]()
A diagram showing three types of hay forks: 1 is the simple harpoon, 2 the double harpoon, 3 the derrick fork, and 4 a four-tined grapple fork.
Fig. 171. Types of hay forks in general use: 1 is the simple harpoon, 2 the double harpoon, 3 the derrick fork, and 4 a four-tined grapple fork.
**Slings.** Hay slings are webs made up of ropes and stick which are placed under and in the load of hay in such a way that the projecting ends may be brought together and the hay lying in the sling raised at one time. To release the hay, a spring catch is provided in the middle which allows the sling to part when tripped.
Hay may be handled very quickly with slings; as much as 1000 pounds may be handled at one time if the equipment is strong enough. Thus a wagon-load of hay may be removed in three or even two sling loads. To obviate the trouble of placing a sling within a load, a fork may be used for all but the last wheel which is taken out by a sling on the rack.
**Carriers.** Carriers are made specially for forks, for slings, or for both. The latter kind is known as a combination carrier. The size varies much with the service. Light carriers are used with forks, and heavy carriers with double trucks are used with slings. Carriers which may be used in either direction from the stop in the track are called "two-way" slings.
![]()
A diagram showing a hay sling.
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carriers." If the lower part of the carrier can be turned about without removing from the track, the carrier is said to be *reversible*.
Tracks. A rather large variety of steel and wooden tracks for carriers is found upon the market. The common track is usually made of material similar to that shown. Steel tracks usually have a T or cross form of cross section. Often the latter is called "double-beaded" tracks. Various forms of switches are provided to convey the rope around the track, depending upon the point of loading. In round barns, pulleys are provided for carrying the rope around the circular track.
![]() A horse carrying on a steel track.
**Fig. 173.**
QUESTIONS
1. What is the standard cutting mechanism for mowers?
2. Describe the two general types of mowers.
3. Discuss some of the important features of construction.
4. Why is a mower designed with a curved blade?
5. What parts of a mower are subject to excessive wear?
6. Describe the two principal adjustments of a mower.
7. Explain how a mower is equipped with a snubbing or snub knife.
8. Explain the construction and use of the hay lifter.
9. Describe two types of side-delivering rakes.
10. Describe two types of hay loaders and give the merits of each.
11. State the advantages and disadvantages of swinging stackers.
12. How may homemade outfits be arranged for field stacking?
13. Describe the usual barn equipment for handling hay.
14. Describe the construction of single- and double-harpoon, decriek, and graple forks.
15. What advantage do slings offer for unloading hay?
16. Describe the different hay curries.
17. What kinds of hay currie trucks are in general use?
CHAPTER XL
MACHINERY FOR CUTTING ENSILAGE
Types of Cutters. There are two general types of ensilage cutters upon the market, and a third which is used to a limited extent. These types may be best distinguished by the shape of the knives which are used. The first is the radial knife machine, the cutting knives of which are attached to the side of a large balanced wheel. These knives make a shear cut on the ensilage plate, thus cutting it into pieces. The second type may be designated as the twisted knife machine. The knives of this type, which are two to four in number, are attached to spiders on the main shaft, the knives being twisted to such an extent that a cylinder is formed. The
![]() An ensilage cutter of the radial-knife type equipped with shown at work.
Fig. 175. An ensilage cutter of the radial-knife type equipped with shown at work.
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fodder is fed directly into the cylinder. The third type of machine has a large number of narrow, hook-shaped knives arranged spirally around the main shaft, and may be designated as the spiral knife machine. These cut as well as split the fodder as it is fed directly into the cylinder.
Considering the relative merits of these various types of machines, the radial knife certainly has the advantage in simplicity. The fan blades are attached directly to the main rotating wheel, and this single part forms the principal portion of the machine. All that is required in addition is the feeding mechanism. The knives of this machine are more easily sharpened, as they are at least straight on the flat side. As the knives are often supported their entire length, they may be thinner, requiring less grinding in sharpening.
![]() Image 1: A close-up view of a radial knife cutter.
![]() Image 2: A close-up view of a twisted-knife cutter.
![]() Image 3: A close-up view of a spiral knife cutter.
The twisted-knife machine is capable of very rigid construction and is safe against an explosion from overspeed. The spiral knives may be sharpened by filing without being removed from the machine. Most machines can be
712. 275. Cutting heads of three types of reaping cutters: 1 is the radial knife; 2 is the twisted knife; and 3 is the spiral knife.
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furnished with interchangeable shredder knives for prepar-
ing dry fodder.
Elevating Mechanism. The pneumatic elevator, or
blower, offers many advantages over the carrier elevator.
It is easily adjusted to a side of any height and is less likely
than others to cause trouble. It requires considerably more
power than either of the other two elevators, but it would
seem that in many cases the blower requires at least one-half
of the power supplied. If the engine is large and there is a
surplus of power, the convenience of the blower may overbal-
ance its extravagance in consuming power. The blower is
more durable than the long chain elevators. It must be
driven above a certain speed or sufficient blast will not be de-
veloped. In this respect, the blower is better than the pipe and
always be set nearly vertical, or the silage will settle to one
side of the pipe and not be elevated.
Self-feed. The advantages of the self-feed are so great
that every machine should be provided with one. This self-
feed should be capable of having its speed adjusted to furnish
a desired length of cut. The length of cut may be varied in
some machines by means of a lever, while in others the length
of an inch is the popular length of cut among many feeders.
In addition, the force feed should have a safety lever for
instantly reversing the feed rolls and carrier in order to pre-
vent accidents.
Mounting. Ensilage cutters may be mounted either on
skids or on trucks. The trucks add much to their conveni-
ence, and should always be provided for the larger machines.
In selecting the machine it is well to notice if the truck is of
good suitable construction. There has been a tendency to use very small wheels, often of cast iron, which are very liable to break.
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Construction. Although simplicity is desirable, care should be used in selecting a cutter to see that it is provided with a good strong main shaft, supported in good, long, babbitted bearings, and mounted in a substantial frame. The gearing should be strong enough to stand the variable load. The rolls should be flexible so as to grip the fodder firmly. The self-feed should be mounted either so as not to require folding when changing location, or so as to be easily folded.
Selection of an Ensilage Cutter. The selection of an ensilage cutter is rather a difficult task, as these machines are of quite recent de-
velopment and adequate information concerning the relative merits of the various types is not at hand. In deciding upon the size or capacity of each ensilage cutter are involved. On the average it will be found that a cutter will require about one horsepower for each ton of capacity per hour.
The gasoline engine, either portable or trac-
tion, makes a good ensilage cutter. Its principal ad-
vantage lies in the fact that it does not require constant attention. As many farmers have ensilage cutters,
the cutters often do not serve their purpose. The power to be used and the type of elevator are points to consider in
![]() A twisted-knife ensilage cutter equipped with a chain-driven elevator.
Fig. 174. A twisted-knife ensilage cutter equipped with a chain-driven elevator.
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deciding the size. It is quite an advantage to have a machine large enough to take the bound bundles of fodder without cutting the bands. The smallest cutter equipped with a blower which will do this will require at least a 12-horse-power engine, and the engine must be literally rated to work successfully.
The common practice of using the steam traction engines of the neighborhood to furnish the power is to be condemned; first, because there is not an extra outlay of money for machinery; and secondly, because the ordinary traction engine furnishes abundant power for even the largest cutters. When these large engines are used, it is best to buy a large cutter and rush the silo filling through. The corn harvester may be operated by a smaller engine, but the filling bucket, in order that the fodder will be available as fast as needed.
**QUESTIONS**
1. Describe three types of knives for ensilage cutters, and state some of the advantages for each.
2. What are the two main elevators used for elevating ensilage?
3. What is the usual length of cut of corn silage?
4. Upon what kind of truck should the ensilage cutter be mounted?
5. Describe some of the important constructional features of an ensilage cutter.
6. What are some of the important factors to be considered in making a selection of an ensilage cutter?
CHAPTER XLI
THRESHING MACHINES
Development. It is a big step of progress from the simple flail to the modern threshing machine. The use of the flail required the time of a man for the entire winter season to thresh even a very moderate crop of small grain which he had grown; whereas the modern machine is able to thresh hundreds of acres of grain in a single day, delivering it cleaned and ready for market.
The Operation of Threshing. The modern threshing machine performs four quite distinct operations. The first is the process of threshing or shelling. This is accomplished when the unthreshed grain passes between the teeth of a revolving cylinder, or thresher, and the straw. In this operation, the machine separates the straw from the grain and chaff. This operation is performed by the grate, the beater, the check board, and the straw rack. Third, the grain is separated from the chaff and dirt by screens in the shoe and by a blast from the fan. Fourth, by means of the stacker and the grain elevator, the straw is delivered to one point and the grain to another.
Cylinder. The cylinder of a threshing machine is built up with heavy bars of steel mounted on disks or spiders, into which the teeth are fastened by thread ends or nuts or by keys. There are two sizes of cylinders in use, known as the small and the big cylinder. The big cylinder usually has about 300 teeth per inch at its circumference; but this will depend upon its size, but varies from about 300 revolutions for the big cylinder to 1100 revolutions for the smaller one.
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The Concave. The concave is made up of heavy bars into which teeth similar to cylinder teeth are fastened. It is located below the cylinder, and receives its name from its shape. The number of rows of teeth may vary according to the kind and condition of threshing, and may be varied by inserting removing bars. The concave may be adjusted by raising or lowering, the threshing effect being greater when the teeth are high and entered well into the teeth of the cylinders.
The Grate. The grate consists of a number of parallel bars with open spaces between, placed directly beyond the
![]() A section of a modern threshing machine.
concave teeth. A large part of the grain and chaff is allowed to pass through this grate before reaching the straw rack beyond.
The beater is a webbed wheel beyond the cylinder, which beats the straw into a stream as it comes from the cylinder and enables it to be passed quickly over the straw rack.
The Straw Rack. The straw rack is a vibrating rack which allows the stream of straw to pass over it but which sifts out the grain. There are many types of straw racks in use, and these vary in their construction and shaking motion.
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The Grain Pan or Conveyor. This is a solid removable bottom which extends from the cylinder back to the shoe and catches all of the grain coming from the grate and through the straw rack.
The Shoe. The shoe is the frame which carries the sieves. In it the grain is separated from the chaff as the grain and chaff pass over the sieves and strike a blast of air from the fan. The sieves and the blast from the fan are subject to adjustment, and upon their skilled manipulation depends largely the efficiency of the machine in cleaning the grain.
The Self-Feeder and Band Cutter. The self-feeder is an attachment which receives bound bundles and pulls them into the cylinder, where they are crushed, and uniformly feeds the grain into the cylinders.
Straw Stackers. Formerly the straw was taken care of by a carrier, which consisted of a frame over which an endless web was drawn. Later this type of carrier was made to swing in different directions from the machine. Most machines of the present day are equipped with wind stackers, blowers, or both. The wind stacker receives the straw from the straw rack and blows it to any part of the stack desired, reducing the amount of labor involved.
The Weigher. The majority of modern machines are equipped with a weigher to measure the grain as it is delivered into the wagon or into bags. If the machine is simply provided with an attachment for weighing grain into the wagon box, the area for so doing is called the grain elevator.
Size of Threshing Machines. There are usually two dimensions given to a threshing machine, or separator: the first is the length of the cylinder, and the second is the inside width of the machine, where the various separations of grain, straw, and chaff are brought about. The sizes vary from
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18x22 inches to 4x36 inches, and 32x54 inches to 36x38 inches. The 36x38-inch separator requires from 25 to 40 actual horsepower to operate it successfully; and such a machine will thresh from 500 to 1000 bushels of wheat in a day, or about twice as much oats.
**Selection of a Threshing Machine.** The choice of a threshing machine depends largely upon the amount of grain to be threshered and also upon the method followed in threshing. In the United States, it is customary for the threshing to be done by experts who make a business of that kind of work. There are some localities where the individual farmer owns a threshing outfit, in which case the smaller sizes are used. Special machines are provided for special conditions. The threshing of oats and peas requires a special machine, as well as the threshing of clover.
**QUESTIONS**
1. Describe the four distinct operations performed by the modern threshing machine.
2. Name the parts that perform each operation.
3. Describe the construction of the cylinder.
4. Describe the concave and its adjustment.
5. What is the main purpose of the grate?
6. What is the purpose of the head, and what work does it perform?
7. What is the purpose of the grain pan?
8. What function is performed by the shoe?
9. Describe the principle of operation of the self-feeder.
10. What is the work of the weigher?
11. How is the size of threshing machines designated?
12. What are some of the important considerations involved in the selection of a threshing machine?
CHAPTER XLII
FANNING MILLS AND GRAIN GRADERS
The Use of a Fanning Mill. The final selection of small grain seed must be made by mechanical methods. The plant breeder may well afford to make a hand selection of seeds, but the practical grower will find it quite impossible. There are from 700,000 to 1,000,000 wheat berries, about 12,500,000 alfalfa seeds, and as many as 120,000,000 timothy seeds in a bushel. A kernel of corn contains about 100,000 kernels. A bushel of oats contains 1/4 lb. of oats, which permits seed corn to be graded by hand more readily than other grains. However, it is more likely not to be done at all.
Another vital requirement of good seed is that it shall not be mixed with any weed seeds which will foul the land and reduce the value of the crops. Also, in order that the modern seeding and planting machinery may do its work best, the seed should be free from trash and be uniform in size and weight. The first step to be taken in securing a uniform stand lies in cleaning and grading the seed.
Often two or more grains are grown together or become admixed with each other, and the fanning mill is called upon to separate out the different kinds. To summarize, the functions of the fanning mill are:
1. To clean grain, separating out trash and foul seeds.
2. To grade grain, securing the best seed.
3. To separate different kinds of grains.
What the Fanning Mill Can Do. The fanning mill or grain cleaner can only grade, clean, or separate grains when
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there are certain physical differences between the grains to be separated. It is reasonable to think that no machine can separate two grains whose difference lies wholly in the name or color. The modern fanning mill is arranged to utilize several of the physical differences which may exist between grains. These differences may be, (1) difference in weight, (2) difference in size, (3) difference in shape.
In addition, the roughness of the hull and the location of the heavy part of the seed may be used to some extent in making certain selections or separations. A separation based upon a variance in weight is made by means of a strong current of air. Some grain graders use this method almost entirely at the present time, and formerly all machines depended principally upon "fanning" to do the separating, hence the name fanning mill. No doubt, the heavier grains are the most desirable for seed, and therefore fanning is the most important feature of the modern fanning mill.
Sieves, screens or riddles are used to grade the grain according to size. The grain first passes through a coarse screen, which takes out all the large particles, then over a finer sieve, or a combination of finer sieves, which lets the small seeds pass while retaining enough and which retains the larger seeds in one or more grades.
![]() Fig. 171. A section of a fanning mill in operation. The grain drops down into the hopper until after it has passed through the sieve.
Watermark: A section of a fanning mill in operation. The grain drops down into the hopper until after it has passed through the sieve.
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Striking examples of how use is made of differences in shape are found in the devices arranged to separate wheat from oats. In one device a riddle is provided with cells having a reverse turn. The short wheat grains are able to pass through this riddle, but the long oat kernels cannot. Another device consists of a cloth apron over the grain on the sieve, which maintains the grain in motion and pre-
vents the longest kernels from passing through, because the cloth prevents them from being upended. The wheat kernels being heavier, pass through without difficulty.
Certain grains like rye, for example, are heavier at one end of the kernel than at the other, and if these grains are allowed to fall a certain distance they are quite apt to strike upon their heavy ends. This principle is made use of to a certain extent in some machines.
Some of the weed seeds which are found in grass seed have a horny or bur-like hull which enables the seeds to adhere readily to both sides of the cloth and remain in contact. This characteristic of the seeds is made use of, in separating them out, by passing the seed in a thin stream over a felt roll.
In general, there are two types of fanning machines: First, those in which the air blast is directed upon the grain at all times under the sieves; and second, those which use the air blast independent of the sieves and riddles. The first of
![]() A drawing showing a machine used for separating wheat from oats.
Fig. 175. Another view of the type of machine shown in Fig. 174.
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these is the older type. It has a rather large capacity for the amount of sieve surface provided, and when properly handled will do good work. The latter type, however, has the greater refinement and is capable of more careful selection.
The Selection of the Fanning Mill. There is a tendency among certain manufacturers to build a fanning mill of such light construction as to be neither durable nor able to withstand hard service. These mills soon become rickey and loose in all of the joints. Therefore, in making a selection of a fanning mill, after determining definitely that it will do the desired work, it should be carefully examined to see whether or not the frame and the body of the machine are made of good material and are put together with wooden keys and nails as means of fastening the joints which the blast is directed below and through the sieve.
Fig. 103. A section of a fanning mill in which the blast is directed below and through the sieve.
should be guarded against. The shoe which carries the sieves should be well made to withstand the constant vibration to which it is subjected, and conveniently arranged for the adjustment of its length. It is best that the length of the shaking stroke be subject to adjustment, as small seeds require a shorter stroke than large ones.
Operation and Care. The air blast should be subject to regulation, either by changing the speed of the fan or by varying the volume of air supplied, which will permit it to be adapted to all conditions. Too little attention is often given to the construction of the sieves. The frames should
![]() A diagram showing a section of a fanning mill.
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be made of selected material and well put together, and the wire cloth should be firm and not easily distorted. Perforated sieves are the best when made of zinc. They are the most accurate, as the perforations are quite sure to be of the same size. Their capacity, however, is less, and they prevent the passage of a blast of air through them.
Sieves should be well equalized. A poorly balanced sagged sieve has its efficiency greatly reduced. It would be well to provide a rack for storing the sieves while not in use. The practice of piling them one upon the other is not at all to be commended.
**QUESTIONS**
1. Why is the fanning mill necessary in the grading of small-grain reed?
2. What are the three functions of a fanning mill?
3. Upon what three physical differences in seed does separation depend?
4. What devices are used to separate by differences in weight? In size? In shape?
5. Describe two types of fanning mills.
6. What points of construction should be observed in making a selection of a fanning mill?
7. Describe the adjustments of the blast and sieves in a fanning mill.
8. Of what materials are the sieves made, and what is the advantage of each?
9. How should the sieves be cared for?
CHAPTER XLIII
PORTABLE FARM ELEVATORS
The Portable Elevator. One of the most recent machines which has been developed to relieve the farmer of some of the hardest work to be found upon the farm is the portable elevator. Nothing is more tiring than shoveling corn into a crib after husking all day. The shoveling of wheat and other grains is equally laborious. The portable elevator not only does away with the hard work but also saves time and reduces the help required, both of which are to be obtained only at a premium during a rush season. A good elevator will do the work of from two to five men.
Besides saving labor, time, and men, the portable elevator makes possible the construction of more economical cribs and granaries. These can be built much higher, thus increasing their capacity without increasing the cost of the roof or the foundation. With elevators, one is not compelled to build cribs or granaries on low foundations when wet ground makes them unsafe.
In general, the portable elevator outfit consists of a dumping jack to lift the front wheels of the wagon and cause the load to flow to the rear; a hopper into which the load is fed; an inclined elevator with a chain carrier of flights or cups, which carries the grain to the highest point in the crib; a spout or conveyor to distribute the grain in the crib; and some source of power, either horse power or engine.
The Lift Elevator. The lift elevator is made in two styles, the overhead and the lowdown. The former has a yoke or
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frame under which the load is driven; the lifting is done with either ropes or chains running over pulleys above and back to a winnow below. The overhead type is the simpler of the two, but has a little more difficulty to move. Ropes are cheaper than chains, but are less durable.
Nearly all of the various devices known for heavy lifting are used with fairly good success, such as the worm gear, the screw and nut, the hydraulic lift, the rack and pinion, and the windlass. The worm gear with windlass is one of the most common and most satisfactory.
As a usual thing, a roughcast worm gear is not a lasting part of a machine, and if portable elevators are to be put in constant use no doubt greater refinement would be necessary at this point.
The pump and cylinder, or the hydraulic jacks, are built with lifting chains attached to the hubs of the front wheels, or with the cylinder placed directly under the front axle. In the latter type the piston rod has a yoke at the top which engages the axles and raises the entire front end of the
![]() Fig. 131. A portable farm elevator mounted on a truck and equipped with a folding hopper and a low-draw dumping jack.
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wagon as the oil, which is always the fluid used, is pumped into the cylinder below the piston. The hydraulic jack does not raise the load with an even motion, owing to the intermittent action of the pump.
The screw and nut device acting upon the principle of the screw jack has one bad feature, and that is the lack of protection of the screw from rust and dirt, as it must be bright and well lubricated at all times. The rod and pinion is a device used on at least two makes. This is connected to the frame end of the wagon by a connecting rod. The wagon is raised on the platform. This method obviates the necessity of dumping wagons of long and short wheel bases. All Jacks should have a quick return motion for returning the wagon to place.
Wood and steel are used in the construction of the dumping jack. Owing to this fact that the implement is usually exposed more than any other, the wood construction is not, at least, the steel construction is to be preferred. If the jack is to be moved from place to place often as conditions may require, it should be provided with a truck, which most manufacturers will furnish at a slight extra cost.
The Hopper and Elevator. The hopper, or elevator extension, is so constructed as to remain in a vertical position or swung to one side so that the bag may be driven into the jack or dump. In the first type, to assist in lifting the hopper, springs or a windlass should be, and usually are, provided. The carrier may be continuous through the hopper and elevator, or a separate carrier or web may be provided for each. The first arrangement permits the hopper to be placed midway between two wheels, thereby to overload the chains of the carrier, which, in many cases, have too little strength for their strength. The low hopper is a decided advantage in unloading a low-wheeled wagon.
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Cups and Drag Flights are used for conveying the grain up the carrier. The cups seem to be of the most desirable construction when the loaded weight is carried upon rollers.
Fig. 132. A portable elevator equipped with an horizontal conveyor for distributing the grain.
In the first place, these carriers will be the more durable, as the scraping action of the flights cannot help but produce an undue amount of wear, even when guides are provided to keep the flights free from the bottom of the elevator trough. In the second place, the cups will handle any kind of grain.
The Derrick and the Conveyor. The derrick for holding the elevator at the proper angle is an important part of the machine. It should be so arranged that it may be erected quickly after being folded down, and should be provided with a powerful windlass. Cables are more durable than ropes, especially when greased occasionally to prevent rust.
If the elevator is to be moved often, the elevator proper, the hydraulic mechanism, and the derrick must be placed on a truck. Some of these trucks are very cheaply constructed; yet, unless the elevator is to be moved far and often, an expensive truck is not needed.
FARM MACHINERY 391
All elevators can now be secured with conveyors which may be installed in the ridge of the crib or granary and which permit the grain to be discharged through a spout to any point. This is accomplished usually by having spouts to fit into the conveyors and by having the conveyors shifting the whole conveyor on rollers. If the elevator is to have permanent position in the building, the conveyor is almost essential. If the building is not too large, a better arrangement is to ele-
vate the grain to the highest point possible, often to a cupola, and distribute it through a spout to the bins. The conveyor complicates the machine, and should be dispensed with if possible.
If a two- or three-horsepower gasoline engine is at hand, it may conveniently be used to furnish power for the farm elevator; otherwise, a one-or two-horse sweep-power should be purchased.
**Selection.** The selection of a portable elevator finally resolves itself into the choosing of a machine to suit the kind or kinds of grain to be elevated, and a careful inspection of the construction of the machines, as well as obtaining from the maker a guarantee insuring a satisfactory performance.
**QUESTIONS**
1. Why is the portable elevator an important machine for the farm?
2. Describe the various mechanisms which are made use of in the lifting jack.
3. Describe some important features of the construction of a portable elevator.
4. Of what materials are portable elevators made?
5. What are the relative merits of cups and flights?
6. Describe the construction of the derrick.
7. How are these elevators used in large cities?
8. What features should be given careful consideration in the selection of a portable elevator?
CHAPTER XLIV
MANURE SPREADERS
The Utility of the Manure Spreader. The manure spreader will not only enable an operator to spread much more manure in a given time than it would be possible to do by hand with a fork, but better work is performed. A manure spreader will thoroughly pulverize the manure and spread it evenly over the layer of soil. If the manure is spread by hand, the manure is not properly pulverized but is spread in large chunks or bunches, which “fire fang,” thus causing a large part of the fertility to be lost.
Construction. A manure spreader consists essentially of four parts: (1) A box with a flexible, movable bottom, called an apron; (2) gearing, or a mechanism to drive, at vari- out of the box, the manure; (3) the machine to beat the beater; (4) a beater or toothed drum, which receives the manure from the apron, pulverizes it and spreads it evenly under the machine; and (4) a truck to carry the box and to enable the power to drive the machine.
![]() A modern manure spreader at work.
Fig 185. A modern manure spreader at work.
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**Types.** There are two general types of manure spreaders, classified by the construction of the aprons. The **endless apron** passes over rollers or reeds at each end of the box, and is arranged to be driven in one direction only. As soon as the manure is spread on the upper side of the box, it is likely to receive another load. This type of apron is more likely to become fouled by manure passing through the upper side and lodging in the inside of the apron below. In freezing weather this manure on the inside becomes frozen, and is quite likely to cause breakage. The slats are placed quite close, however, and in many instances these troubles are not experienced with this type. One advantage of the endless apron spreader has the slats of the apron hinged so that while on the under side they hang vertically, preventing the manure which comes through the upper side from lodging below. Again, another style of endless apron does not have slats over much more than half of its length, and in this way prevents fouling by leaving the under side open. In other instances, a return motion is provided with a chain which drags the manure over the tight floor of the box. Usually this type of apron, or conveyor, to be more correct, is used only with the small-sized machines, as the amount of power required to drag the load is much greater than to move it on an endless belt.
The **return apron**, after discharging its load, is brought back into position again by a reverse motion. The return apron spreader has more mechanism than the endless apron, on account of this return motion. The front end board is attached to the apron and draws the load well into the beater at the finish.
A few endless-apron spreaders have a front end board that remains with the load, and which, after the load has been spread, is brought forward again by hand.
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Main Drive. The main drive from the rear wheels, which furnish the power to the beater, is an important part of the spreader. Gears and chains are used to transmit the power.
Chains offer an advantage in case of breakage, as a chain can be easily replaced when required. Breakage is more likely to occur when starting the machine than at any other time. To prevent the beater from throwing out big lumps of manure when put in motion, a rear end board is provided, which is raised when the machine is started. The beater may also be moved away from the manure when going into gear, thus overcoming this difficulty.
The Beater. The beater for pulverizing the manure is made of cast iron or steel, and is driven at high speed against the manure fed to it by the apron. It should be constructed of durable material; wood bars are generally used to hold the teeth, but beaters made entirely of metal are used on a few machines. The size does not seem to be so important so long as the teeth are given the proper speed to pulverize the manure. The angle of attack in relation to the apron is important, for if placed too low it tends to drag the manure over without pulverizing it. Beaters placed high are quite apt to cause the machine to be of heavy draft.
The teeth of some beaters are placed in diagonal rows around the beater, which tends to comb the manure from the center toward the load is deepest, toward the outside, giving a more even distribution.
![]() A diagram showing a beater mechanism attached to a tractor.
Fig 184. One type of driving mechanism attached to the beater.
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295
Several devices have been invented to spread the manure over a wider swath than the width of the machine. Under average conditions the machine requires all the power available to properly pulverize the manure needed to cover the whole field.
Retarding Rake. To prevent the manure from being thrown over in large bunches, a retarding rake is provided in front of the beater. In some machines this is given a vibrating motion which tends to level the load.
Apron Drives. There are at least two mechanisms in use for moving the apron at various rates of speed toward the beater. One is the worm drive, in connection with a face wheel and pinion to give variable speeds. This device gives uniform spreading but does not prevent the apron from moving too fast, as when the spreader is ascending a hill and the load has a tendency to slide back into the beater. As a general rule, a worm gear when used in this way does not give well. Some of the latest machines have this gear enclosed so as to run in oil.
The ratchet drive is simple but does not give a steady motion. It is very easy to obtain a wide range of speed with this device. The ratchet acts only in one direction, and in hilly localities the apron must be provided with a brake to prevent it from feeding too fast on steep slopes.
The return motion for return-apron spreaders is usually separated from the feed, and safety devices are provided to prevent the possibility of having both motions in gear at the same time.
![]() Plate 157. Two types of driving mechanism in the apron.
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The Truck. The truck of the manure spreader is important, as it is often the first part to wear out. Steel wheels are quite generally used now, and in dry climates they are preferable to wooden ones. It is also important that the frame of the truck be constructed of durable material, which should be well designed and trussed. Maple is to be preferred to ash for the frame.
Capacity. The capacity or size of a manure spreader is designated in bushels, but this seems to be an arbitrary unit at the present time. As now rated the capacity would be more nearly represented by cubic feet.
Low-down Spreaders. The latest development in manure spreaders is the low-down spreader, which is built so that the top of the bed is very low. It is obvious that this type of construction reduces the labor in loading by the fork, and it also saves convenience for filling from a litter carrier.
![]() Fig. 186. A low-down spreader.
Wagon-box Spreader.
The wagon-box spreader is a machine designed to be placed on a truck or wagon, and drawn by a horse or mule. The power is transmitted by sprockets clamped to the rear wheels. This machine is small, light, and cheap; it furnishes an opportunity to use the truck for other purposes. The manure spreader, however, is a machine in such constant use as to demand a truck of its own.
QUESTIONS
1. Why is machine spreading of manure to be preferred to hand spreading?
I am not sure how to answer this question based on the given text. I don't see any specific questions about machine vs hand spreading mentioned in the text. The text does mention that low-down spreaders are "the latest development" and that wagon-box spreaders are "designed to be placed on a truck or wagon", but these aren't presented as questions.
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2. What are the four essential parts of a manure spreader?
3. Describe the two types of aprons in use, and what are the advantages of each.
4. What is a drag chain conveyor?
5. What is the use of a front end board?
6. Describe two types of main drive.
7. How should the main drive be constructed?
8. What is the purpose of the rear end board?
9. State the purpose of the retarding rake.
10. Describe two systems of apron drives and give the merits of each.
11. What points should be observed in selecting a truck?
12. How is the size or capacity of a manure spreader designated?
13. What is the advantage of a low-down spreader?
14. Describe the wagon-box spreader.
CHAPTER XLV
FEED MILLS AND CORN SHELLERS
Feed Mills. The work of the feed mill is the reduction of grain to meal. In some machines it is necessary that this process be accomplished by two stages, especially if ear corn is to be ground. The corn first passes between a set of crushing stones, then through the same mechanism of grinding plates or burstones. Feed mills differ most in the construction of the grinding plates or burstones.
Grinding Plates. Burstones are used where a very fine meal, such as is required for table purposes, is desired. Most feed mills used for grinding feed for live stock have chilled-iron grinding plates. These plates are wear well, and can generally be replaced with a small expense when worn out. These grinding plates are made in a variety of shapes, although the flat or disk shape is the more common. They are sometimes made cone shaped. Roller mills are used to some extent for grinding feed for live stock. These mills are usually made smooth and depend upon the crushing of the grain to reduce it. The roller may have a milled surface and revolve against the fixed part or grinding plate.
Balance Rollers. Power mills are usually arranged to be driven by a belt or a tumbling rod. A balance wheel is considered a de-
![]() Fig. 157. A belt-driven feed mill.
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299
sirable feature of a power mill, as it enables the machine to run more steadily. When two kinds of grain are to be ground together, a desired hopper is quite an advantage. Most feed mills are equipped with safety devices which release the grinding plates and prevent damage should something hard be fed into the mill, or with quick releases which will enable the operator to separate the grinding plates quickly. A chute should be provided with an elevator or suction attachment to assist in carrying for the ground feed as it is prepared.
**Selection of a Mill.** The selection consists primarily in securing a machine constructed with bearings which will run well and can be adjusted easily, and with grinding plates which can be easily replaced and adjusted. The capacity of the mill is such that the amount of feed which the machine grinds in a given time depend upon the condition of the grain and the fineness of grinding. Furthermore, the capacity of the feed mill usually becomes less and less from the time the grinding plates are new until they are replaced. A good feed mill should grind five bushels of corn or two to three bushels of oats for each horsepower.
**CORN SHELLERS**
There are two general types of corn shellers on the market, one is known as the spring or picker sheller and the other as the cylinder sheller.
![]() Fig. 193. A small twine-hole picker-wheel sheller equipped with self-feeder, also shown in Fig. 194.
**Spring or Picker Sheller.** The spring or
![]() Fig. 194. A twine-hole picker-wheel sheller equipped with self-feeder, also shown in Fig. 193.
**Sheller.** The spring or
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picker sheller is the one in more general use and is adapted to smaller machines. The shelling mechanism consists of the picker wheels, the bevel runner, and the rag iron mounted on a spring. These three form a triangular open chute through which the corn passes. A lever is provided with each wheel to adapt the machine to large or small ears. On large machines a self-feeder is provided, which arranges the ears endwise and feeds them into the sheller. In shelling large cobs of corn, extension feeders are provided to convey the corn from the crib to the self-feeder.
**Cylinder Shellers.** The cylinder sheller consists of a beater wheel within a cylinder made up of parallel steel bars.
![]() Fig. 195. A section of a picker-wheel sheller.
The corn is fed into one end of the cylinder, and, as the ears pass along, the corn is shelled by being crushed against the cylinder by the revolving beater wheel. Cylinder shellers break up the cobs more than picker shellers.
**Separating Device.** All power shellers should be provided with a screen and a separating device to force out the chaff and dust. Sometimes a vibrating rack or riddle is substituted for the sieve. After being cleaned, the corn is elevated
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into the wagon box, and the cobs are conveyed is another direction by a cob carrier.
**Capacity.** The size of a picker sheller is designated by the number of "holes," or sets of shelling wheels, and these vary from one to eight. A hand machine to perform this with as many as eight holes. The average size is the four-hole sheller, which will usually shell from 100 to 200 bushels an hour; the six-hole will shell from 200 to 300 bushels an
![]() A section of a cylinder sheller.
Fig. 141. A section of a cylinder sheller.
hour; and the eight-hole, 500 to 600 bushels. The cylinder sheller is made in the large sizes only, some having a capacity of as much as 800 bushels per hour. The power required for operating a cylinder sheller is about two horsepower. The four-hole power shellers with all attachments will usually require about eight horsepower. The power required to operate cylinder shellers will vary with the size, style, and the manufacturer's number.
**QUESTIONS**
1. What is the work of the feed mill?
2. Describe the various types of grinding plates used in feed mills.
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3. How is the grain reduced by means of rollers?
4. What are some of the attachments of a feed grinder?
5. What is the capacity that is usually provided?
6. What are some of the important features to be considered in the selection of a feed mill?
7. What horsepower can be expected per horsepower per hour?
8. What are the two distinct types of corn shellers in use?
9. Describe the shelling mechanism of the spring or picker sheller.
10. Describe the cylinder sheller.
11. Describe the various arrangements provided for a sheller.
12. What is the capacity of various sizes of corn shellers?
13. How much power is required?
CHAPTER XLVI
SPRAYING MACHINERY
Successful fruit growing at the present time depends largely upon an intelligent and skillful fight against fungous diseases and injurious insects. Even the small orchardist finds that he cannot afford to overlook the spraying of his trees at the proper time. Field spraying has been introduced recently to exterminate also certain noxious weeds, such as mustard and clover.
Hand Sprayers. There are a multitude of hand sprayers or syringes upon the market, but it is not the purpose to take up these. The use of these appliances is limited to the greenhouse or to shrubbery. The bucket sprayer is one step in advance, and may be used quite successfully on a few trees if they are not too large. Most of these sprayers throw the spray upwards, and this is undesirable, as it causes the spray falls upon the foliage. In many cases this is undesirable. The spray should be driven into the foliage in such a way that the underside of the leaves and the inside of the flowers will be reached by the spray solution. A liberal use of brass in the construction of the small sprayers is one of the features which make them so popular.
The Barrel Spray Pump. The smallest and cheapest machine for spraying small orchards is the barrel pump. Where a few trees are to be sprayed, this is undoubtedly the machine that should be selected.
The pump may be mounted on either the end or the side of the barrel. If located on the side, the pump will more nearly remove all of the solution from the barrel, as the
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suction pipe extends to the lowest point. It is an advan-
tage to have the pump low, as the handle is then in a more
convenient position. If the holes cut for the pump and the
filling funnels are not too large, a barrel in a horizontal posi-
tion, with two heads, is more right and less likely to go to
pieces when empty than one with only one head.
All the working parts that come in contact with the
spray solution should be brass, as it is the only metal in use
which will resist the corrosive
action of some of the solutions
in common use. The valves
should be either ball or poppet,
with removable seats. The ball
valve is used on small pumps of
a nominal size, making this
part of the pump as good as
new. Brass poppet or disk
valves may be renewed in the
same manner, or they may be
repaired by grinding. Fine
enough with oil is placed be-
tween the valve and its seat
and the valve turned back and forth in a rotative manner until the surfaces are ground to a perfect fit.
The plunger type of cylinder has many advantages. It is of easy access for repairs, and it is easy to determine whether or not the plunger is leaking. The packing is often placed between two disks, which cause the packing to expand as it ages. This is done on all plunger-type pumps with the stuffing box and the inside plunger is to be guarded against. Of course, double-acting pumps must have stuff-
![]() A diagram showing a plunger-type pump with a handle and a large air chamber.
Fig. 192. A good type of barrel
every pump with such agitated
spray solution should be brass.
The valves should be either ball or poppet,
with removable seats. The ball
valve is used on small pumps of
a nominal size, making this
part of the pump as good as
new. Brass poppet or disk
valves may be renewed in the
same manner, or they may be
repaired by grinding. Fine
enough with oil is placed be-
tween the valve and its seat
and the valve turned back and forth in a rotative manner until the surfaces are ground to a perfect fit.
The plunger type of cylinder has many advantages. It is of easy access for repairs, and it is easy to determine whether or not the plunger is leaking. The packing is often placed between two disks, which cause the packing to expand as it ages. This is done on all plunger-type pumps with the stuffing box and the inside plunger is to be guarded against. Of course, double-acting pumps must have stuff-
FARM MACHINERY 305
ing boxes, but it is doubtful if the double-acting pump offers much advantage. If the pump cylinder is not sub-
merged, it should be placed near the surface of the liquid in the barrel. The air chamber should be large, as it
equalizes the pressure and makes the pump easier to operate.
Every barrel pump should be provided with an agitator to keep the heavy spray mixtures stirred. The double-paddle type is generally the most efficient type now in use, but the single agitator is more common use and is quite efficient.
Field Sprayers. Field sprayers differ largely in their con-
struction, as they are designed for spraying different crops.
First, in selecting such a machine, consideration should be given to the truck and the tank. These should be of sub-
stantial and durable construction. The gearing driving the
pump should be of good quality, consisting of gears, chains,
sprockets, cranks, cams, and eccentrics are used in this connection, but it has not been demonstrated that any one particular combination has any special advantages over any other. The size of the pump must vary with the number and kind of nozzles to be supplied. Some of the field ma-
chines used for spraying mustard and other weeds are of
large size, having as many as twelve nozzles and covering a width of twenty feet.
Convenience is one feature of great importance in the
field sprayer. The machine should be easy to fill and to
control. The position of the nozzles should be susceptible
of any adjustment which may be necessary. The pump and
driving mechanism should be of ready access for adjustment
or repair.
The Power Sprayer. Where there is a considerable
amount of orchard spraying to be done, the power sprayer will be found the most economical and efficient. Man power
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is expensive, and it is well-nigh impossible to maintain sufficient high pressure by hand to do the best kind of spraying.
Power. Steam engines have been used to some extent as a source of power for spray pumps, or steam has been used directly on the water supply. The high cost of the steam boiler has caused its replacement by the gasoline engine almost entirely. The gasoline engine is cheap in first
![]() A power sprayer.
FIG. 157. A POWER SPRAYER.
cost, cheap in operation, and is light, which make it especially adapted to the purpose.
The first requisite of a gasoline engine for a spraying outfit is reliability, i.e., must operate under adverse conditions, and there should be sufficient capacity to operate continuously without overheating.
Pumps. The plunger pump with outside packing of the duplex or triplex type is now being generally used in the
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307
better grades of spraying outfits. Since these are more accessible than the usual double-acting pump, they are more easily packed. The triplex pump furnishes a more even flow of liquid, but introduces extra parts and is undoubtedly of inferior construction. The air chamber should be designed to suit the kind of pump used.
The Drive. The drive from the engine to the pump is either a gear or a combination of gear and belt. If a gear is used, it is highly essential that the pump and the engine be mounted upon the same base, thus insuring much rigid construction.
Agitator. The most efficient type of agitator for power sprayers is the propeller type. The small screw propellers in the tank cause the liquid to circulate rapidly over and over in the tank, carrying the heavy particles in the spray mixture to the surface. Dash or paddle agitators do not produce this action.
The relief valve is one of the most sensitive parts of the modern sprayer. Its purpose is to regulate the pressure, allowing the surplus liquid pumped to return to the tank. The regulator valve, used in place of the relief valve and which cuts off the flow to the pump after a certain pressure has been reached, is a commendable device, as it relieves the engine of part of its load and thus reduces the wear upon it.
Tank and Truck. The tank and truck should be given careful attention. The tank should be made of material that may be moved about the most easily is the most desirable. For this reason, lightness is one of the requisites of a good spraying rig. As the sprayer must be hauled over soft ground, high wheels with wide tires for the truck are desirable. The construction should permit turning in very limited space.
Accessories. The hose, extension rods, nozzles, cut-offs, and other accessories are the things with which the operator
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must work directly, and often efficient work will depend upon their quality. Cheap hose is poor economy. The extensions are best when made of bamboo with a brass tube on the inside to carry the liquid. Good substantial ferrules should be provided at the ends to relieve the thin brass tube of all strains due to dragging a length of the hose about. A convenient and perfectly tight shut-off adds much to the pleasure of operation.
There are two general types of nozzles in use: the *Bordeaux* spray is produced by directing the jet against the edge of the orifice; and the Vermorel, which has an eddy chamber directly below the orifice. In the latter, the liquid is given a whirling motion, causing it to be driven from the orifice in a cone-shaped spray.
The Vermorel nozzle produces a fan-shaped spray, which has considerably more force than the spray from the Vermorel nozzle; by making the eddy chamber and the orifice large, the spray has much more force and capacity.
**QUESTIONS**
1. What is spraying machinery used for?
2. State some of the important construction features of sprayers.
3. What are field sprayers used for?
4. What adjustment should be provided for a field sprayer?
5. What power is most generally used for power sprayers?
6. Describe some of the different types of power sprayers.
7. In what different ways is the pump driven?
8. What types of agitators are used for power sprayers?
9. Describe two types of spray nozzles.
![]() Fig. 119.—The Bordeaux type and a cluster of four Vermorel nozzles.
CHAPTER XLVII
THE CARE AND REPAIR OF FARM MACHINERY
The efficiency of modern farm operations depends primarily upon the successful and judicious use of improved farm machinery. This fact is generally recognized. No other country uses more machinery than the United States. In 1910, $10 million worth of American farmer was annually buying 149,318,544 dollars' worth of farm machinery. This amount was equal to over 3.3 per cent of $4,499,319,838, the value of the crops raised. It is only possible at this time to make a rough estimate of what percentage of the farmers' profits 3.3 per cent of the value of crops. Perhaps 20 to 30 per cent would be too large. At least for farmers who buy, which almost 20 to 30 per cent of the profits is well entitled to earnest consideration.
Much has been written from time to time about the carelessness of the American farmer in caring for his machinery. Various estimates have been made of the life and depreciation of the more important farm machines. Perhaps, in many cases, these figures are exaggerated. Nevertheless, there is little doubt in the mind of the person who makes only a casual investigation, that average life of most farm machines is much less than it ought to be. An investigation on several farms in Minnesota* indicates the average depreciation of farm machines to be 7.3 per cent annually. It is to be noted that this represents the most favorable conditions, since the farms investigated were well cared for.
The rapid deterioration of farm machinery readily *Bulletin 117, Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station.
| CHAPTER XLVII |
THE CARE AND REPAIR OF FARM MACHINERY |
|
The efficiency of modern farm operations depends primarily upon the successful and judicious use of improved farm machinery. This fact is generally recognized. |
|
No other country uses more machinery than the United States. |
|
In 1910, $10 million worth of American farmer was annually buying 149,318,544 dollars' worth of farm machinery. |
|
This amount was equal to over 3.3 per cent of $4,499,319,838, the value of the crops raised. |
|
It is only possible at this time to make a rough estimate of what percentage of the farmers' profits 3.3 per cent of the value of crops. |
|
Perhaps 20 to 30 per cent would be too large. |
|
At least for farmers who buy, which almost 20 to 30 per cent of the profits is well entitled to earnest consideration. |
|
Much has been written from time to time about the carelessness of the American farmer in caring for his machinery. |
|
Various estimates have been made of the life and depreciation of the more important farm machines. |
|
Perhaps, in many cases, these figures are exaggerated. |
|
Nevertheless, there is little doubt in the mind of the person who makes only a casual investigation, that average life of most farm machines is much less than it ought to be. |
|
An investigation on several farms in Minnesota* indicates the average depreciation of farm machines to be 7.3 per cent annually. |
|
It is to be noted that this represents the most favorable conditions, since the farms investigated were well cared for. |
|
*Bulletin 117, Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station. |
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resolves itself into three heads: repairing, housing, and painting.
Of these, the repair item is perhaps the most important. The greater part of the average farm machine is not subject to wear, and if it breaks down ought to be rebuilt. Con-
sidering the modern gang plow, except the share, moldboard, wheelboxes, and axles, there are comparatively few parts sub-
ject to wear. All of these should be either adjustable or renew-
able at a small expense. The main parts of the plow, the parts which absorb the greater part of the cost of making, such as the share, the moldboard, and the wheels, are made of steel. Wheelboxes and wheel boxes are easily and cheaply replaced, and,
when renewed, make these parts of the plow as good as when it left the factory.
Repairing. To repair farm machinery successfully some system must be used, and the early spring is the time of year to give attention to this matter. How many times machine has been taken from storage in the spring, or whether the machine is needed, and the owner finds that he has forgotten to order certain repairs, which he remembers, were needed at the close of the previous season. When he proceeds to order these repairs from his agent, he finds that others have done likewise; and the agent, the jobber, and the manufacturer are usually so busy with orders for new machines that they do not carry all their stock in stock except at the factory, and for this reason plenty of time must be allowed for filling orders. Again, it would be a decided advantage to repair the machinery at the time of the year when work is less pressing. On most farms
FARM MACHINERY 511
some of the winter months offer a good opportunity to do miscellaneous work of this character.
**System of Repairs.** A definite system has proven to be very useful in keeping farm machinery in repair. As each machine finishes its work for the season and is placed in the implement place, a tag with a string is taken from a convenient place and attached to the machine, indicating that the machine needs for the next year. It is much easier to make this record at that time than later, as everything is fresh in mind. An inspection of this tag at any time will show just what the machine needs in the way of repairs. Before the busy season all the machinery should be gone over systematically, and the needed parts sent for or repaired in the home shop.
More important than the promptness upon the matter of systematic repairing than upon any other phase of the care of farm machinery.
**Housing.** It may be demonstrated that rust is more destructive than wear. A striking example of this is found in the harvester. Its average life extends over a certain term of years, largely independent of whether it harvests 40 or 200 acres of grain during its life. Again, consider the automobile shops and factories machinery which has lasted as long as the harvester and which, instead of being in operation a few days in a year, is in operation ten hours or more day in and day out without rest.
Wooden parts are affected more by exposure to the weather than metal parts but both are materially injured. Not only is the life of machinery shortened, but its efficiency, the quality of its work, is lowered by not being carefully protected from the weather. The average farm requires about $1000 worth of machinery. This may be nicely housed in a building costing $200, an investment that will pay good dividends in protecting and prolonging the life of the machinery.
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The construction of the implement house will be discussed in a later chapter.
Painting. Painting is simply providing each implement with a house of its own. Wooden parts deteriorate rapidly when moisture is allowed to penetrate the surface. Wood decays and warps, rendering it weak and useless for the purpose for which it is used. unprotected iron, whether exposed to the weather or not, combines with oxygen in the air, rusts, and gradually wears up its strength until beyond decay in this manner so rapidly that they must be replaced after a term of years. To protect these metals, their surfaces are coated with paint to keep out the moisture and air. Railroad companies and large corporations find it profitable to keep their rolling stock painted.
Perhaps there is no better paint for implements, not taking into account a personal dislike which some have for the color, than red lead and linseed oil. This paint will adhere well to clean surfaces of wood and iron, and is affected about as little by the weather as anything that can be used.
Besides prolonging the life of the machines themselves, a machine painted in good condition commands more respect and is looked upon as being a better machine. The author can recall specific instances where a coat of paint has increased the selling price of machinery fifty per cent or more.
QUESTIONS
1. How much does the American farmer spend annually for farm machinery?
2. What percentage is this of his gross and of his net income?
3. What is the average depreciation of farm machinery?
4. Explain why keeping farm machinery in good repair is important.
5. Describe a system of keeping all farm machinery in good repair.
6. Why is the housing of farm machinery so important?
7. Give several reasons why machinery should be kept painted.
![]() A page from AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING book.
PART SIX--FARM MOTORS
CHAPTER XLVIII
ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES AND DEFINITIONS
Farm Motors. Farm motors as discussed in this text include machines which furnish power for operating farm machinery. Of the broadest and most general farm machinery includes farm motors. Owing to a lack of space it will be possible to consider only such motors as are in general use for agricultural purposes.
Energy. Energy may be defined as the power of producing a change of any kind. It is the function of a motor to utilize and transform energy in such a way that it may be used in some useful capacity. There are two principal forms of energy: (1) potential or stored energy, like that contained in unburned fuel; and (2) kinetic, or energy of motion, an example of which is the energy of the wind.
Sources of Energy. The sources of energy which are made use of by farm motors are feed, fuel, and the wind. The first two of these represent potential energy and the last represents kinetic energy.
The Most Important Farm Motors. The motors which are used generally for operating farm machinery are the horse, the windmill, the gas, gasoline, or oil engine, and the steam engine. Other types of motors, such as the water wheel and the electric motor, are used to a limited extent for agricultural purposes. All of these motors, with the exception of the electric motor, are prime movers; that is, they take the energy
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in the form of food, fuel, or wind and convert it into mechan-
ical energy, which may be used in driving machinery. The
electric motor is driven by electric energy, furnished either
by an electric generator, driven by a prime mover, or by
chemical action like that of the storage battery.
Forces.
A force is that which produces, or tends to pro-
duce or destroy, motion. A force has two
characteristics, magnitude or size, and direc-
tion. The unit by which the magnitude of a force is designated or measured is the pound. The pound is the action of the force
on a given mass defined as one. When two or
more forces act at a point their combined
action is equal to the action of one force,
called the resultant. In a reverse manner a
force may be divided into components, which act in different directions from that of the force.
Work.
When a force acts through a certain distance, or
when motion is produced by the action of a force, work is done. Work is often defined as the product of force times distance.
The Unit of Work.
The unit of work is the foot pound,
or the equivalent of the force of one pound acting through a distance of one foot. Thus, for example, the work done in
raising a weight of one pound five feet or five pounds one foot would be five foot pounds.
Power.
Power is the rate of work. In determining the
rate of work time is a factor. Thus the measurement of
power consists in determining the number of foot pounds of
work done in a certain time.
The Unit of Power.
The unit of power in common use is
the horse power. It was established arbitrarily, and is
equal to 33,000 foot pounds of work per minute. Thus if the
![]() A diagram showing a force vector labeled "Force A" with arrows indicating direction and magnitude.
Fig. 151.
![]() A diagram showing two forces acting on an object at different points, labeled "Divided Force A" and "Divided Force B". Arrows indicate direction and magnitude.
Fig. 194.
FARM MOTORS 315
product of the force in pounds by the distance in feet traveled in one minute be 33,000, one horsepower of work would be done. In measuring horsepower it is customary to determine the number of foot pounds of work done in a minute and divide by 33,000. For example, suppose a horse walks 165 feet per minute and exerts a pull of 200 pounds on his traces; then the horsepower developed will be:
$$200 \times 165 = 33,000 \text{ horsepower}$$
QUESTIONS
1. What is energy?
2. What is the function of a motor?
3. Explain how a motor converts energy.
4. What are the principal sources of energy?
5. Name the most important farm motors.
6. What is a prime mover?
7. What is power?
8. How may a force be illustrated?
9. Illustrate resultant and component forces.
10. Define torque.
11. In what units is work measured?
12. Define power.
13. What is the common unit of power and what is its equivalent?
CHAPTER XLIX
MEASUREMENT OF POWER
The Necessity of Measuring Power. The cost of power is one of the largest items in the cost of performing farm operations. In general, operating costs on modern farms can be readily divided into the cost of labor, of power, and of machinery. It is desirable to keep each of these items as low as possible, as long as it will make the total cost lower. Of these three items the labor and power costs are by far the largest, and it is necessary that they be carefully analyzed them carefully. In order to determine the cost of power accurately, it is necessary to know how the power furnished by different motors may be measured and compared.
Quantities Which Must Be Determined. Power has already been defined as the rate of work. Then in measuring power it is necessary to determine the amount of work done in a certain length of time. Thus the problem is simply a matter of determining these three quantities, the force, the distance, and the time.
Measuring the Power of an Engine. The power of an engine is commonly measured by applying a so-called Proun brake to the pulley or fly wheel. This brake increases the friction until the rotation of the fly wheel is reversed to rotate the fly wheel or pulley within the brake when held stationary. By allowing the arm of this brake to rest upon a scale, the force required to move the pulley or wheel within the brake is found.
The distance traveled in one minute by this force as measured by the scale is equal to the circumference of a circle
FARM MOTORS
317
whose diameter is twice the length of the brake arm, times the number of revolutions made by the engine in a minute. Thus it is seen that it is difficult to make a simple test of
![]() A diagram showing a brake system with a pulley and a brake arm. The text "Brake Pulley" and "Brake arm" are labeled on the diagram.
Fig. 187. The Prony brake as applied to the pulleys of the steam engine to measure the power. (From Farm Machinery and Farm Motors).
An engine. All that is needed is a brake, a scale for measuring the force, a speed indicator or revolution counter, and a watch to determine the revolutions per minute.
The distance per minute multiplied by the force as indicated by the scale gives the number of foot-pounds of work done in one minute. Thus, if 30 feet per minute and 33,000 gives the horsepower. Stated in the form of a formula it is as follows:
$$\text{H.P.} = \frac{\text{net load on scale} \times 2 \times \text{length of brake arm}}{(in ft.) \times 3.1416 \times \text{rev. per min.}}$$
$$\text{H.P.} = \frac{33,000}{(in ft.) \times 3.1416 \times \text{rev. per min.}}$$
**Dynamometers.** A dynamometer is an instrument used in measuring power. The Prony brake referred to above may be called a direct-reading dynamometer, in that in the measurement the power is used up by friction.
A dynamometer which measures
![]() A diagram showing a direct-reading dynamometer with a pointer and a dial. The text "Direct-reading Dynamometer" is written on the diagram.
Fig. 188. A direct-reading dynamometer.
friction.
PIECE OF PAPER WITH TEXT WRITTEN ON IT
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the power while still allowing it to be used in driving the machine is called a transmission dynamometer. Instru-
ments used for measuring the draft of implements in the field are called traction dynamometers. Those which simply indicate by a needle and dial the draft or force required
![]() A recording dynamometer as designed by the Agricultural Engineering Section of the Iowa Agr. Exp. Station.
Fig. 119. A recording dynamometer as designed by the Agri-
cultural Engineering Section of the Iowa Agr. Exp. Station.
to move the implement are called indicating or direct-reading
dynamometers. One provided with rolls of paper operated
by clock mechanism or by a wheel in contact with the ground,
over which a pencil moves and records the draft, is said to be a
recording dynamometer. There are also a few kinds on the
market which average the draft over a measured run.
QUESTIONS
1. Why is an understanding of the measurement of power im-
portant?
FARM MOTORS 319
2. What quantities must be determined in the measurement of power?
3. Describe in detail how the power of an engine is measured.
4. Explain the formula for calculating horsepower.
5. What is a dynamometer?
6. Describe a recording dynamometer.
7. How is a dynamometer made a recording instrument?
CHAPTER L
TRANSMISSION OF POWER
Not all machines can be so placed as to be driven directly by the motor, and so there must be some means of transmitting the power to the machine.
**Belting.** One of the most common forms of transmitting power from one rotating shaft to another is by belting. In this case the power is transmitted by the friction between the belt and the pulley, producing rotation. While transmitting power by belts, the belt will tend to "slip" on the "tight side," than on the other, or "slack side." The actual force transmitted is equal to the difference in the tension of the "tight side" and the "slack side." The power transmitted depends also upon the speed of the belt or the distance the force travels in a given time.
**Horsepower of Belting.** In installing a power plant of any sort, where belts are used, it is necessary to determine the size of belts which will transmit the desired amount of power. A formula quite generally used in estimating the horsepower of leather belts is as follows:
$$\text{H. P.} = \frac{\text{V} \times \text{W}}{1000}$$
where H. P. equals the horsepower; V the velocity of the belt in feet per minute; and W the width of the belt in inches.
If the speed of the driving pulley, which furnishes power, and its diameter be known, V may be easily obtained by multiplying the circumference of the pulley in feet by the revolutions per minute. A belt should seldom travel more than 300 feet per minute before it becomes too hot to handle safely.
FARM MOTORS
321
than 4000 feet per minute, and 2000 feet is a more common velocity.
**Leather Belting.** Leather is the standard material for belting and is considered the most durable, when protected from heat and moisture. A good leather belt should last from ten to fifteen years when used continuously. It is constructed by placing the grain or smooth side next to the pulley, as the strength of the leather is largely centered in this side of the belt; if run with the smooth side out it is quite apt to become cracked.
In order that leather belts should render good service they should be properly cared for.
As a belt bends, the fibers of its length are drawn together, and for this reason belts should be oiled or lubricated. Neatfoot oil is the standard oil for this purpose. There are many good belt dressings on the market, but there are others which are not so satisfactory. A leather belt works best when pliable enough to adhere closely to the pulley, and rosin and other such materials are to be avoided.
**Rubber Belting.** Rubber belting is made of canvas thoroughly covered with rubber. It is made in thicknesses of two-ply and up, three- and four-ply being common thicknesses. Such a belt operates quite satisfactorily under wet conditions.
**Canvas Belting.** Canvas belting consists of several thick-
nesses of canvas, four- and five-ply belts being the most com-
mon. The canvas is thoroughly stitched together and then filled with oil to keep out the moisture, and finally painted.
![]() Sample of canvas, rub-
ber, and rubber belting.
Fig. 268. Sample of canvas, rub-
ber, and rubber belting.
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The canvas belt is the most economical in cost and is very strong. It lengthens and contracts, however, with moisture changes; hence it is not suitable for pulleys at fixed distances. Canvas belting is used largely in connection with agricultural machinery, being almost universally used in driving threshers and similar machines.
Lacing of Belts. The common practice of splicing belts is by means of a rawhide thong, often called a belt lace.
Holes are punched at about five-eighths inch from each end of the belt and opposite each other. In order to give greater strength, two rows of holes are often punched on one side of the belt, leaving back further from the end of the belt. The accompanying illustration shows a good style of lacing. The lace on the side next the pulley should not cross diagonally from one hole to another, but should extend directly across the space.
Where the belt does pass around an idler and thus be compelled to bend in both directions, the lacing is most satisfactory. There are many forms of patent belt splices and wire lacing on the market, some of which are quite satisfactory. Several forms permit the ends of the belt to be separated by removing a rawhide pin in the lacing.
Pulleys. Pulleys on which belts run are made of wood, cast iron, or steel. Wooden pulleys are made in halves, arranged to be easily clamped to the shaft. Cast-iron and steel pulleys are somewhat more in demand than wooden ones.
Wooden pulleys are the cheapest and are very conven-
![]() Pig. int. A wooden pulley.
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FARM MOTORS 223
ient to attach, but are not so durable as those made of metal. Metal pulleys are sometimes covered with leather in order to increase the friction of contact with the belt. Pulleys from which belts are not to be shifted should have a crowned face. This will cause the belt to keep in the center of the pulley, owing to the fact that the belt always tends to run to the convex part of the pulley. The power which supplies the power is generally spoken of as the driver, and the one receiving the power is designated as the driven pulley.
**Calculating the Speed.** It is an easy matter to calculate the speed or the diameter etc., of a given pulley. Suppose it is found that the diameter of a given pulley multiplied by its revolutions per minute is equal to the diameter of the driven pulley multiplied by the number of its revolutions per minute. If any three of the four quantities involved are known, the fourth may be easily obtained.
**Link Beiting.** A common method of transmitting power in agricultural machinery is by means of link beiting running on sprockets. Link beiting is positive in its action, as there can not be any slippage. It is very strong, but its use is often objectionable on account of the noise which it makes and because it cannot be operated at high speed.
The chain seen in Fig. 394 is composed of links or sections which are made of malleable iron, and in others of pressed steel. Again, some expensive chains are made of steel rollers with short steel links riveted on the side.
**Rope Transmission.** Where power is to be transmitted some distance and where the shafts are not parallel
![]() A plain pulley.
Fig. 393. A plain pulley.
![]() A split from pulley.
Fig. 394. A split from pulley.
The rope seen in Fig. 395 is composed of links or sections which are made of malleable iron, and in others of pressed steel. Again, some expensive chains are made of steel rollers with short steel links riveted on the side.
![]() A rope transmission.
Fig. 395. A rope transmission.
Where power is to be transmitted some distance and where the shafts are not parallel
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ropes running over grooved pulleys or sheaves may be used to good advantage. Cotton or Manila ropes are used for this purpose. These grooves are arranged so as to cause the rope to wedge in, thus increasing the effect of friction.
Wire Rope or Cable Transmission. Where power is to be transmitted some distance, as from one building to another, wire cable can be used to transmit power. The pulley grooves should not wedge the wire rope, but instead should have a rubber filler on which the rope bears.
Triangles or Quadrants. The power from a windmill may be transmitted to a distant point by the use of triangles or quadrant-rails, as shown in Fig. 206. If the wires are long they are suspended on rocker arms.
Gearing. Gear is a very common method of transmitting power in agricultural machinery by means of gearing. The construction of the teeth is a matter of careful design, since they must be made to run smoothly together. In cast gears the teeth are cast to shape, while in cut gears they are machine made. Cut gears are generally more per-
![]()
A diagram showing a windmill with ropes running over grooved pulleys.
Fig. 205. An example of the trans-
mission of power by ropes and shackle.
A.I.A. 1927.
![]()
A diagram showing triangles or quadrant-rails used in transmitting power to a distant point.
Fig. 206. Triangles or quad-
rants used in transmitting
power to a distant point.
A.I.A. 1927.
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FARM MOTORS 325
fect, but are more expensive. Gears with parallel shafts are called spur gears; those with shafts at an angle are bevel gears.
Gears transmit power positively, as there is no slippage. A small gear wheel in mesh with a large one is often spoken of as a pinion.
Friction Gearing. Friction gearing transmits power by the friction of two surfaces in contact. The face of the driven pulley is usually of cast iron, and that of the driver is of paper or rawhide. Fric-
tion gearing is often used where the slip-
page is desirable to prevent breakage or to
start heavy loads.
Shafting. Power may be transmitted from one point to another by means of a round shaft, to which pulleys, sprock-
ets, or sheaves may be attached. This
shafting is usually supported by hangers carrying bearings.
Collars or rings are attached to the shaft to keep it in place. These collars should be near the pulleys, or at such short intervals as to prevent excessive vibration of the shafting while running. Usually the hang-
ers are placed from six to eight feet apart.
The power which the shafting will transmit depends upon the material and the revolutions per minute, and varies directly with the third power of its diameter.
A common formula for the horsepower of the shafting is:
$$\text{H.P.} = \frac{\text{D}^6 \text{R}}{}$$
50
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
where H. P. is the horsepower transmitted, D is the diameter of the shafting, and R is the number of revolutions per minute.
The above formula is for cold rolled steel shafting, the kind in general use.
**QUESTIONS**
1. Why is a study of the transmission of power an important feature of the study of machinery?
2. How is power transmitted by a belt?
3. What is meant by "tight" and "slack" sides of the belt?
4. Give the formulas for estimating the horse-
power capacity of a leather belt.
5. For what condition of service is leather
belting adaptable?
6. What is the life of leather belts.
7. For what kind of service is rubber belting best? Canvas?
8. Explain how a belt should be laced.
9. Describe the various kinds of pulleys in general use.
10. Why are pulleys necessary?
11. Explain how the rotational speed of one pulley may be obtained from another.
12. Where may link belting be used to good advantage?
13. What kinds of ropes are used in rope transmission?
14. Under what conditions should a wire Fig. 718. A link belt or chain transmission.
rope or cable be used?
15. How may triangles be used to transmit windmill power?
16. What is the difference between cut and cast gears?
17. Describe the construction and action of spur gearing.
18. Give the formula for the horsepower capacity of shafting.
![]() A diagram showing a link belt or chain transmission.
CHAPTER LI
THE HORSE AS A MOTOR
Power from Horses. The horse is the principal source of power for agricultural purposes, and will continue to be for an indefinite length of time. Considered in the aggregate, the horse and the mule furnish a large part of the total power utilized for all purposes. In the United States there are at the present time approximately twenty-one million head of horses and mules. The number has been increasing for the past ten years, but it is estimated that it will reach 25 million by 1900. If all of these were at work at one time, power to the amount of twelve to fifteen million horsepower would be developed.
Development. The prehistoric horse was not a large animal; but nature and man, by careful mating and selection, have produced different types, each suited for a special purpose, until the modern horse bears but little resemblance to the animal which existed as early as 1740. It was not until about the year 1800 A. D. that history records the use of the horse in the field.
The development of the horse has necessarily been very slow. Greater hardness, increased size and strength, greater beauty, and other desirable characteristics were recognized by men who made careful selections for mating and avoided undesirable qualities.
The horse has been called man's best friend in the brute world, and the ownership of a good horse is something that any man can be proud of. Notwithstanding the fact that the horse is an animated thing, it is the chief source of power on the farm, and may properly be considered a motor. It
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differs from all mechanical motors in that it is self-feeding,
self-controlling, self-maintaining, and self-reproducing.
Classification. The horse in one sense is a heat motor,
burning fuel in the shape of feed, and as such is a prime mover.
The thermal efficiency of a horse exceeds that of an average
steam engine, but does not equal that of a gas or internal-
combustion engine.
Capacity of the Horse. The amount of power that a horse
can develop depends largely upon its size and muscular devel-
opment. Experiments indicate that a horse exerts a pull on
![]() Fig. 515. Testing the draft of a horse. Also studying the effect of the height and length of the hitch.
his traces equal to from 1-10 to 1-8 of his weight when the
working day is not allowed to extend over eight to ten hours.
The speed at which the horse is able to produce the largest
draft will vary from 2 to 4 miles per hour. Thus, a 1500-
pound horse walking 2-4 miles per hour and exerting a pull
of 150 pounds, will develop one horsepower; and, furthermore,
he will be able to continue this for a period not longer than 10
hours. An increase in the rate of travel, or an increase of
the effort or draft, must result in a corresponding decrease in
the length of the working day.
14
FARM MOTORS 329
Maximum Capacity of the Horse. The maximum effort of the horse for a short time may exceed his own weight. In an actual test a horse weighing 1550 pounds and pulling on traces at an angle of 27 degrees with the horizontal exerted a pull of 1750 pounds. A draft horse must exert an effort of about one-half his weight while walking at a speed enabling him to develop, for a short time, as much as four or five horsepower. This must be of short duration and be followed by periods of rest.
The fact that the horse is such a flexible motor, being able to develop power much in excess of the normal rate, is certainly a great advantage for traction purposes, where the load is constantly changing because of the condition of the surface and the varying nature of the work. It is also true for a serious overloading, resulting in an injury to the horse.
Amount of Service. The horse on the farm does not do continuous labor. Investigation in Minnesota indicates that the average farm horse does not labor for more than 1000 hours per year. The useful life of a horse is usually considered to be seven years.
The Size of Teams. A well-trained horse will direct his effort at the command of his master; yet the manageable team for field work cannot well exceed four horses. A capable driver can drive a four-horse team practically as well as a two-horse team and manage almost any of the implements requiring four horses. It is true that larger teams than four horses are in use, but difficulty connected with driving, the difficulty with the harnessing and hitching will likely prevent any general increase of the size of the field team beyond four horses. As many as 32 horses have been driven by one man, but the assistance of several others is required in harnessing and hitching. In driving these large teams, which are used principally on the combined threshers of the large
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
farms of the West, the whole team is controlled largely by the two leaders. Thus, if a 24-hour team is to be made up, the two leaders will be followed by four horses abreast and these by the others arranged six abreast.
The Principles of Draft. Although horses have been used as draft animals since the dawn of history, it is strange to note that the principles of draft are not clearly understood, many points being open to argument. The individual horseman who has no professional training and no exclusive experi-
ments for his own benefit, and no professional experimentalist has found it possible to give the matter attention. Mr. T. H. Briggs, of England, who studied the subject of horse haul-
age, states that on an average the horse is made to waste as much as 30 per cent of his strength. In farm practice this wastage may vary greatly; yet, if it is generally true, the horse offers a fertile field for profitable investigations.
The amount of resistance that a horse can overcome, or the draft that he can exert, depends upon several factors; viz., his weight, height, and length, his grip upon the road surface, his muscular development, and the direction of the traces.
Weight. A heavy horse has several important advan-
tages over a light one. In going uphill, the ground upon the road surface is better—there is less tendency for him to slip; and, in the second place, with the heavy horse there is less tendency in pulling to lift the forefeet from the ground.
Height and Length. The latter point also indicates the advantage that a long-bodied horse has in pulling. The height of the horse is another factor which greatly varies, depending upon the height of hitch. It is common occurren-
ce to see the efforts of a horse limited by his weight and length, as his forefeet are lifted from the ground without permitting him to exert his full strength. It is an easy manner to demonstrate that a horse can increase his maximum
FARM MOTORS 331
effort about 200 pounds by having a man sit astride his shoulders. Experienced teamsters with light teams often make use of this method of assistance in an emergency pull.
**Grip.** The grip of the horse refers to the hold that he secures on the traces. In order to secure a good grip, for example, it is obvious that a horse without sharp shoes could pull but little on ice. In like manner the horse is often unable to obtain a sufficient hold on hard ground or pavement to exert his full strength.
**Muscular Development.** It is necessary that the horse have large and powerful muscles for these are really the motors of the animal's body. The object of the breeder of draft horses has always been directed toward the development of the muscles as well as the increase in size.
**The Proper Angle of the Traces.** The proper direction or angle of trace is a question on which there is much difference of opinion. In fact there are two phases of the subject; first, the angle of trace with which the horse will labor with the greatest ease and power, and secondly, the angle of trace which will move any load with the least force. The first of these is the most difficult to study. If the horse can realize that certain positions of the hitch, the trace, and the collar are most comfortable, he cannot tell his master so. The angle of trace has very a decided effect upon the maximum effort of a horse when drawing a load. A too great incline into the surface, thus adding to adhesion, grip and resistance, leading to a considerable extent the tendency to lift the forefoot from the ground. It is undesirable to maintain a low trace continually, because the horse is compelled to carry more or less of the load when less effort would be required to draw it. For maximum speed it may be desirable to carry a part of the horse's weight on the hind legs in the racing sulky, whether purposely or not, as arranged to do so.
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Referring to the angle of trace for the minimum draft, it is to be recognized that there are two distinct classes of implements to which horse labor is applied: (1) those intended primarily for moving heavy weights from place to place; (2) those designed for work on the soil. In the first case the draft is due chiefly to the friction of the machine and the rolling or sliding resistance of the surface. Thus, in Fig. 213, it is to be noted that a certain force, $W$, will lift the weight $A$, and another force, $F$, will slide on the surface. The least force, however, that will produce motion lies between these two, as $D$, and its direction depends upon the magnitude of each of the other two forces. In mechanics the angle this line makes with the horizontal is called the angle of draft.
If the angle of draft is less than the proper angle of trace should equal the ordinary angle plus the angle of the grade. With an implement like the plow, the line of least draft extends almost directly to the center of the place where the work is being performed.
The Length of Hitch. Lengthening the hitch does not have the effect that it is generally supposed to have. The principle of this is best illustrated by a complete control over the load and that the angle of trace is changed. Lengthening a horizontal trace ten or even fifty feet has practically no effect upon the capacity of the horse. Men are often found who think they can hold a horse at the end of a 50- or 100-foot rope. A trial is very convincing that they cannot do so.
![]() A sketch illustrating the angle of draft.
Fig. 213. A sketch illustrating the angle of draft.
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QUESTIONS
1. Why is the horse the principal source of farm power?
2. To what extent has the horse been developed as a farm motor?
3. In what way does the horse differ from mechanical motors?
4. What is the motor is the horse?
5. What relation is there between the weight of a horse and the power it can develop?
6. How does an increase in the speed or length of working day affect the power of the horse?
7. To what extent can a horse deliver power in excess of the normal rate?
8. How many hours of service does an average farm horse render in a year?
9. Explain how horses may be arranged in large teams for heavy loads.
10. Upon what factors does the amount of resistance a horse can overcome depend?
11. How does the height and length of a horse affect the resistance he can overcome?
12. What is meant by a horse's grip?
13. Explain the importance of muscular development in a draft horse.
14. Discuss the influence of angle of trace on draft.
15. Why is the angle of heat draft not always best?
16. How does the length of hitch affect the resistance a horse can overcome?
CHAPTER LII
EVENERS
The use of four- or five-horse teams, as now required for many implements, introduces many perplexing problems in connection with the hitch and the eveners for dividing the work evenly among the animals. In addition to the increase in the size of teams used with gang plows, disk harrows, drills, harvesters, etc., the tongue truck and the complicated patent eveners have been introduced, which add to the difficulty of understanding their operation.
There is little difficulty in dividing the load equally between the members of a two-horse team. The doubletree may be of any reasonable length, depending on whether it is desired to work the horses close together or to spread them. To divide the work equally between two horses, the end flukes of the doubletree must be placed at equal distances from the center hole. The wagon doubletree is usually 44 inches long, and the plow doubletree 30 inches. Large horses cannot be worked as closely as smaller ones. It is undesirable to work horses too closely, as all are worked more or less by not having sufficient room.
The Plow Eveners. When the horse is pulling on the end of an evener, his advantage or leverage is equal to the perpendicular distance between the extended line of draft and the line of resistance passing through the center hole, or the fulcrum, of the evener. This is illustrated in Fig. 214. If all the holes in the evener are in line, it makes little difference whether or not it is kept at right angles to the direction of movement. If the center hole is not in line
FARM MOTORS 335
with the two end holes, then the load is divided evenly only when the two horses pull evenly together. If one horse pulls in advance of the other, the load is no longer evenly divided. It is customary to place the end holes well toward the rear edge of the evener, and the center hole well toward the front edge. This placement of the holes adds materially to the strength of wooden eveners.
When the holes are made out of line and when the horses do not pull evenly, there may be much difference in the efforts of each. In Fig. 214, which shows a wagon doubletree in
![]() A diagram showing a wagon doubletree with labeled measurements.
Fig. 214. A wagon doubletree illustrating the effect of not having the holes for the crivets pins in a straight line.
actual use, the rear horse would be compelled to pull $S_4$ per cent more than the leading horse, the end of whose doubletree is only eight inches in advance.
**Three-Horse Eveners:** In order to divide a load among three horses, it is necessary to introduce a second lever, or some other device to take its place. A usual method of arranging such an evener is shown in Fig. 217. This is a combination evener, in which this instance does not space the horses evenly but indicates the general arrangement of the three-horse evener, or triptree. The factory-made triple-
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
tree usually has short metal levers placed over a wooden evener, as illustrated in Fig. 215. This gives the advantage of a shorter hitch. A shorter hitch will not cause an appreciable reduction of the draft, but will enable the team to have better control over the implement.
Four-, Five-, and Six-Horse Eveners. The four-horse evener is usually made as illustrated in Fig. 217. This consists in a four-horse evener with two doubletrests attached. The dimensions given are right for medium-sized horses when it is desired to work them together as closely as practical.
There has been a decided increase in the use of the 14-inch gang plow during recent years. This plow makes a load too heavy for four average horses, and five or six horses should be used. It is undesirable to work five horses abreast, for, if one horse falls out of line, the others must follow the lead, the load or line of draft does not come directly behind the center of the team and there will be much undesirable side draft. It is better to put two horses in the lead and use eveners such as those shown in Fig. 217. This will put the team directly in front of the load and will avoid the side draft. Instead of the short levers placed under the rear doubletree
![]() Fig. 215. A factory-made tripletrest which offers advantage of a closer hitch.
![]() Fig. 216. A plain five-horse evener.
![]() Fig. 217. A plain five-horse evener.
FARM MOTORS 337
to equalize the draft between the leaders and the two horses directly behind them, a short, vertical evener of metal or a chain and pulley may be used. In the case of the five-horse evener, the end hole for the single horse hitch should be four times as large as the center hole of the evener and the end hole for the four horses working in pairs. In case of the six-horse evener, the holes in the team should be twice as far from the center hole as the hole for the four-horse hitch.
Plain Eveners. Simple or plain eveners are much to be desired. There is absolutely nothing to be gained by a complicated system of levers and toggle joints. If there is to be an equalization of draft, there should be a flexible joint at which the eventor is attached to the plow or other implement at more than one point, the hitch cannot be truly flexible.
Overcoming Side Draft. With four horses hitched abreast on a sulky ploved line of draft lies outside of the line of return, and this tendency can be overcome by pulling the front end of the plow away from the land. This tendency can be partly overcome by adjusting the front furrow wheel in such a manner as to pull the plow toward the plowed land, as previously discussed. (See page 203.)
The tongue truck is the only satisfactory means of off-setting draft, and for this purpose it is a commendable device. The truck should be provided with heavy flanged wheels
![]() A combination three-, four-, five-, and six-horse evener.
Fig. 513. A combination three-, four-, five-, and six-horse evener.
**AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING**
which will engage the surface of the ground and give a thrust directly across the line of draft. This arrangement, no doubt, adds a little to the draft, but it adds much to the convenience of handling the team, especially on the harvester.
When three horses are to be hitched to an implement with a tongue attached in the line of draft, much may be accomplished by crowding the two horses on one side of the tongue closely together as possible and putting the single horse out as far as possible.
![]() A diagram showing a three-horse hitch with a tongue attached in the line of draft.
Fig. 218 shows an attempt offered in an agricultural journal some time ago as a successful method of overcoming side draft by running three horses on one side of the tongue and one on the other. The chain pulls back precisely the same amount that it pulls the one side of the disk harrow ahead.
**QUESTIONS**
1. Why is it more important to study evens now than formerly?
2. How closely should horses work?
3. Explain how a horse can make deep holes of a doubletree may influence the distribution of the load.
4. Describe the construction of three-horse evens.
5. Explain how an even may be arranged to hitch five or six horses to one plow.
6. Why are simple or plain evens desirable?
7. What is the best way to overcome side draft?
8. Why is it not possible to remove side draft by running a chain across a machine?
228
CHAPTER LIII
WINDMILLS
Utility. The windmill is adapted to work which may permit of a discontinuance during a period of calm. It is adapted to regions where wind of a velocity sufficient for its operation prevails generally throughout the year. One line of work which will permit of a discontinuance during calm is peeling wood. For this reason the use of the windmill is confined largely to this purpose.
When properly installed and working under proper conditions, the windmill is perhaps one of the most economical of all motors. As a source of energy it costs nothing; the cost of the power is due solely to the interest on the investment and to depreciation and repairs.
Development. The use of windmills dates back to a very early time, and many and other wheels were used as the first form of power before heat engines were thought of. The windmill years ago reached a rather high stage of development in Europe, those of Holland being especially famous. The Holland or Dutch mills represent a distinct type, in that there were usually four canvas sails mounted on a wooden frame. The speed was regulated by varying the angle of the surface of the sails with the wind. In most cases the mill was turned toward the wind by hand. A water-stated windmill was developed in the United States about 1883.
The Wind. Wind is simply air in motion. It represents kinetic energy, and the windmill obtains power from it by reducing its velocity, causing a certain amount of energy to
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be given up. It is easy to see that it would be impossible to reduce the velocity to zero and obtain all of the energy of the wind, because it must flow past the windmill.
**Types of Mills.** There are many types of windmills on the market, and they may be classified in several ways: (1) by the material used in construction, (2) by the type of construction, and (3) by the use to which they are put. Formerly the wheels were made almost entirely of wood, but since the introduction of cast iron wheels, there is no doubt good authority that the steel wheel is more efficient and will operate in a lighter wind than the wooden wheel, owing to the thinness and the shape of the fans. Windmills may be also either direct-stroke mills or geared mills. Direct-stroke mills are used solely for pumping purposes; a stroke is made with each revolution of the wind wheel. In order to prevent the machine from being thrown by a light wind, a stroke is often used to reduce the number of strokes in proportion to the number of revolutions of the wheel. Most steel mills are now geared in this way.
Windmills used solely for pumping are called pumping mills, and the power is transmitted from the wind wheel by means of a belt, which has a reciprocating motion. When a rotating motion is desired a vertical shaft is run from the mill to a point from which the power may be transmitted to a machine by any of the more usual methods. Such a mill delivering its power by a rotating shaft is said to be a **power mill**.
**Size of Mills.** The size of windmills is indicated by the diameter of the wheel. Common sizes used for pumping purposes are 8- and 10-foot wheels. Power mills are often built much larger, with wheels 20 or more feet in diameter. Wheels of large diameter must be made very strong to be able to withstand the wind, and the extra weight thus
**FARM MOTORS**
required tends to reduce the efficiency. Especially large windmills have been attempted, but they have not been successful.
**Construction.** The most important points involved in the construction of a windmill are the strength and the rigidity of the wind wheel and the durability of the bearings and gears. The wheel must necessarily be light, yet it must be carefully constructed or it may be destroyed by the tremendous stress imposed upon it. The bearings should be large, material that resists wear, and be easily replaceable. The gearing should also be of liberal dimensions.
**Lubrication.** One of the most important features of the windmill is provision for adequate lubrication by means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of means of mean
The wheels are usually made with a sufficient amount to last for a month or more. Many mills are destroyed by failure to give them attention in this respect. Some makers have tried to provide roller bearings which will not be seriously damaged when adequate lubrication is not provided.
**Regulation.** All windmills must have some means of regulating their speed. One common method is to have a small side vanes that turns the wind wheel edgewise to the wind as the velocity of the wind becomes high. Another plan is to set the wheel to one side or center at the center on which it is mounted, when the unequal pressure tends to turn the wheel away from the wind. Again, windmills have a tendency to turn around on the main as the rotation speed increases, and this is overcome by using a centrifugal governor. In some wheels the sections are hinged and are connected with a centrifugal governor which allows them to be turned partially out of gear as the wind velocity increases.
**Power of Windmills.** One authority concludes that the power of a windmill increases as the cube of the wind velocity
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
and also as the square of the diameter of the wheel. A later investigator found that the power varied more nearly as the square of the wind velocity and about the 1.25th power of the diameter of the wheel. The following table, reproduced from the work of Mr. E. C. Murphy, indicates in a general way the amount of power furnished by different kinds of mills under different conditions.
Power furnished by windmills under different conditions.
| Name |
Kind |
Diameter in feet |
Number of sails |
Velocity of wind in miles per hour |
Horsepower |
| Monstrous |
wood |
12 |
96 |
100 |
20 |
357 |
| Challenger |
wood |
12 |
100 |
100 |
20 |
350 |
| Halliday |
wood |
22.5 |
100-144 |
80 |
20 |
89 |
| Ancientator |
steel |
12 |
21 |
200 |
20 |
135 |
| Ideal |
steel |
12 |
21 |
200 |
20 |
606 |
| Perkins |
steel |
14 |
32 |
20 |
20 |
609 |
**Towers.** Like the windmill proper, the tower may be built either of wood or steel. With the increase in the cost of wood the steel tower has come into more general use. The usual height of tower for a pumping mill varies from 20 to 60 feet. The wooden tower usually has four posts made of 4x4 or 5x5 metal. The steel tower is made up of three or four posts of angle irons. The steel tower is now almost universally galvanized for protection against corrosion. This is also true of the steel windmill. It is desirable to have the wheel placed well above all obstructions to the wind, in the case of a tower this means that the top of the wheel on a high tower is regarded as better than a large wheel on a lower tower which does not permit the wind to reach the wheel with full force.
FARM MOTORS 343
QUESTIONS
1. To what kind of service is the windmill adapted?
2. Is the windmill an economical motor?
3. How long has the windmill been used?
4. How does the windmill obtain power from the wind?
5. Can the windmill obtain all the energy of the wind which strikes it?
6. How may windmills be classified?
7. What is the difference between a direct-stroke and a back-
gear mill?
8. To what uses may a power mill be put?
9. How is the size of a windmill designated?
10. What are some of the important features of the construction of a windmill?
11. What special provision for lubrication may be provided?
12. Describe the design of a wheel that may be utilized.
13. How does the power of a windmill vary with the diameter of wheel?
14. How does the power of a windmill vary with the wind velocity?
15. Describe the construction of the windmill tower.
CHAPTER LIV
THE PRINCIPLES OF THE GASOLINE OR OIL ENGINE
Relative Importance. The general introduction of the gasoline or oil engine to do certain classes of work on the farm places it next to the horse in importance among the various farm motors now in use. So general has become its introduction and so varied its uses that it is now imperative that every farmer be familiar with the principles of its operation and its application.
Classification of Motors. The gasoline or oil engine is a heat engine, since its function is to convert heat or heat energy, liberated by the combustion of gasoline or oil, into mechanical energy. With this respect it is to be classed with any motor using fuel of any sort.
The gasoline or oil engine is an internal-combustion engine or reciprocating engine, in which a sufficient amount of air to support combustion, is ignited inside of a closed cylinder. The steam engine might be styled an external-combustion engine, in that the combustion takes place outside of the boiler or vessel withholding the pressure produced. In the internal-combustion engine the heat released causes an increased pressure of the gas within the cylinder, forcing the pistons to compress it, which pushes upon the piston and cause it to move forward, allowing other pistons to expand and do work.
Fuels. The gasoline or oil engine does not differ essentially from the gas engine, the difference consisting primarily in a device called the carburetor, provided to convert the
FARM MOTORS
345
liquid fuel into a gas. Kerosene and fuel oils are more difficult to vaporize, or gasify, than gasoline, and for that reason a special carburetor must be provided when they are used; but this does not respect the kerosene or fuel oil engine which does not differ essen-
tially from the gasoline engine.
For this reason it is entirely correct to speak of all internal-combustion engines burning either gas or liquid fuels after this manner as gas engines.
The gas engine is very simple, more so, in fact, than the steam engine. The accuracy with which various functions must be performed is the only thing which prevents the gas engine from being a simple affair to operate.
**Types.** There are two general types of gas engines on the market today, namely, the four-stroke cycle and the four-cycle engines. It is perhaps more proper to style these types as the two-stroke cycle and the four-stroke cycle, inasmuch as two and four strokes of the piston are required to complete the cycle in each type, respectively.
A cycle is a term used to designate a complete set of operations which must take place in every engine to enable it to operate. The most important part of the liberation of energy in the gas engine is intermittent. This is true of all recipro-
cating motors, but more operations are required in the gasoline engine than in the steam engine. The four-stroke cycle
![]() Fig. 228. A horse-
power indicator for gas en-
gines. One of the most
useful is for water.
70, 219. A gasoline car-
buretor which draws air as it is drawn past the nozzle.
![Diagram showing how a gasoline carburetor draws air as it is drawn past the nozzle.]
70, 219. A gasoline carburetor which draws air as it is drawn past the nozzle.
70, 219. A gasoline carburetor which draws air as it is drawn past the nozzle.
70, 219. A gasoline carburetor which draws air as it is drawn past the nozzle.
70, 219. A gasoline carburetor which draws air as it is drawn past the nozzle.
70, 219. A gasoline carburetor which draws air as it is drawn past the nozzle.
70, 219. A gasoline carburetor which draws air as it is drawn past the nozzle.
70, 219. A gasoline carburetor which draws air as it is drawn past the nozzle.
70, 219. A gasoline carburetor which draws air as it is drawn past the nozzle.
70, 219. A gasoline carburetor which draws air as it is drawn past the nozzle.
70, 219. A gasoline carburetor which draws air as it is drawn past the nozzle.
70, 219. A gasoline carburetor which draws air as it is drawn past the nozzle.
70, 219. A gasoline carburetor which draws air as it is drawn past the nozzle.
70, 219. A gasoline carburetor which draws air as it is drawn past the nozzle.
70, 219. A gasoline carburetor which draws air as it is drawn past the nozzle.
70, 219. A gasoline carburetor which draws air as it is drawn past the nozzle.
70, 219. A gasoline carburetor which draws air as it is drawn past the nozzle.
70, 219. A gasoline carburetor which draws air as it is drawn past the nozzle.
70, 219. A gasoline carburetor which draws air as it is drawn past the nozzle.
70, 219. A gasoline carburetor which draws air as it is drawn past the nozzle.
70, 219. A gasoline carburetor which draws air as it is drawn past the nozzle.
70, 219. A gasoline carburetor which draws air as it is drawn past the nozzle.
70, 219. A gasoline carburetor which draws air as it is drawn past the nozzle.
70, 219. A gasoline carburetor which draws air as it is drawn past the nozzle.
70, 219. A gasoline carburetor which draws air as it is drawn past the nozzle.
70, 219. A gasoline carburetor which draws air as it is drawn past the nozzle.
70, 219. A gasoline carburetor which draws air as it is drawn past the nozzle.
70, 219. A gasoline carburetor which draws air as it is drawn past the nozzle.
70, 219. A gasoline carburetor which draws air as it is drawn past the nozzle.
70, 219. A gasoline carburetor which draws air as it is drawn past the nozzle.
70, 219. A gasoline carburetor which draws air as it is drawn past the nozzle.
70, 219. A gasoline carburetor which draws air as it is drawn past the nozzle.
70, 219. A gasoline carburetor which draws air as it is drawn past the nozzle.
70, 219. A gasoline carburetor which draws air as it is drawn past the nozzle.
70, 219. A gasoline carburetor which draws air as it is drawn past the nozzle.
70, 219. A gasoline carburetor which draws air as it is drawn past the nozzle.
70, 219. A gasoline carburetor which draws air as it is drawn past the nozzle.
70, 219. A gasoline carburetor which draws air as it is drawn past the nozzle.
70, 219. A gasoline carburetor which draws air as it is drawn past the nozzle.
[Page Number]]
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engine is the more simple to explain of the two types and, for that reason, should be considered first. It is to be assumed that the reader understands the gas engine to consist of the essential parts as illustrated in Fig. 221. These parts, as far as a consideration of the cycles is concerned, consist of a cylinder with a gas-tight piston attached by a connecting rod to a crank on which the fly wheels and pulleys are attached, and two valves, an inlet valve to let the gases into the
![]()
A simple
Four-Stroke
Cycle Engine.
![]()
A four-stroke
Compression or Working
Cycle Engine.
![]()
A four-stroke
Expansion or Exhaust
Cycle Engine.
![]()
An Inverse
Expansion or Exhaust
Cycle Engine.
Fig. 221. Illustrating the four-stroke cycle engine. In a four-stroke cycle engine to obtain a power or working stroke, a cylinder and an exhaust valve to let the burnt gases out.
**Four-Stroke Cycle.** The four strokes in the four-stroke cycle engine are: (See Fig. 221.)
First, the suction stroke, during which the piston increases the volume at the closed end of the cylinder and thus draws into the cylinder through the inlet valve a charge of vaporized fuel, and enough air to furnish a sufficient amount of oxygen to support combustion.
Second, the compression stroke, during which the piston makes a return stroke and compresses the gases into the clear-
14
FARM MOTORS 347
ance space at the end of the cylinder. This operation is necessary in order to get the full power out of the fuel.
Third, the expansion stroke. Just before the end of the compression stroke the ignitor acts so that combustion takes place; and at the end of this stroke there is a high pressure ready to act under the piston, pushing it forward, thus doing the work.
Fourth, the exhaust stroke, during which the piston returns toward the closed end of the cylinder and the exhaust gases are pushed out through the exhaust valve. At the end of this stroke the piston is again at the beginning of the suction stroke. To complete the cycle it is noticed that two entire revolutions of the crank shaft and fly wheels have been required and that only one of these four strokes is a working stroke, or a stroke during which the engine is receiving power. During this working stroke, the fly wheels must furnish the energy to keep the engine in motion.
Two-Stroke Cycle Engine. The two-stroke cycle engine is an attempt to increase the number of working strokes by providing an auxiliary chamber in which the gasoline or fuel mixture is given such an initial compression that at the end of this stroke it is drawn from unburned gas into a compression, readily displacing the burned gas in the cylinder. This displacement takes place so quickly that it is possible to compress the fresh gases during the return stroke. These operations are shown in Fig. 222, which shows in outline an engine using the crank case as a compression chamber. Owing to the larger number of working strokes for a certain relative speed the two-stroke engine has a higher efficiency than the four-stroke.
As the events in the two-cycle engine occur in every revolution instead of once in two revolutions, the two-cycle engine is of more simple construction. A secondary shaft operated by a reducing gear for opening the valves and making one
348
AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
revolution to two of the crank shaft, is not required, and in many engines the main valves are dispensed with by making the piston uncover ports or openings in the cylinder walls for the admission of fresh gases and the escape of those burned. This simplicity of construction enables the two-cycle engine
![]() A diagram showing the two-stroke cycle engine.
Fig. 22. Illustrating the questions which take place in the two-stroke cycle engine: A. suction into crank case. B. compression in crank case. C. combustion in cylinder. D. expansion in cylinder. E. exhaust from cylinder combined with B. (From Farm Machinery and Farm Motors.)
to be built and sold at a lower cost than the four-stroke cycle engine.
On the other hand, the two-cycle engine does not operate with the same economy in fuel consumption as the four-stroke cycle. If the cylinder diameter is large, the mixing of the fresh and burned gases is so great that there cannot be the best scavenging or cleaning of the burned gases from the cylinder without a loss of unburned gases to the exhaust. Very large engines are made on the two-cycle plan by introducing an additional compression cylinder which blows air to clean out the burnt gases.
The two-cycle engine is a little more difficult to manage, as a rule, and the carburetor and the ignition system are more susceptible to slight misadjustments. This is no doubt largely due to the fact that there cannot be as sharp a suction upon the carburetor as may be had with the four-cycle engine.
FARM MOTORS 348
This sharp suction is very valuable in assisting to vaporize the fuel by the rapid rush of air through the carburetor.
**QUESTIONS**
1. Why is the gasoline or oil engine an important farm motor?
2. To what class of motors does the gasoline or oil engine belong?
3. Why is the gas or oil engine an internal-combustion engine?
4. Why is it correct to speak of the gasoline or oil engine as a gas engine?
5. Describe the four-stroke cycle type of engine.
6. Describe the two-stroke cycle type of engine.
7. Compare the advantages of the two-stroke and four-stroke cycle engines.
CHAPTER LV
ENGINE OPERATION
Essentials of Operation. Someone has said that there are four features of the action of the gasoline or oil engine which must be right or the engine will not run and furnish power; and if they are right, the engine will run in spite of everything, assuming for the time being that the working parts are in such adjustment as to permit of free movement. These four features are:
1. Proper mixture of gas and air.
2. Compression.
3. Ignition.
4. Correct valve action.
The Gas Mixture. During the suction stroke of the piston, the cylinder is drawn full of air mixed with a sufficient amount of fuel vapor. The amount of air and fuel vapor must be in about the correct proportion or the mixture will not burn. For instance, if there be little fuel or if it be improperly vaporized, the mixture will not be ignited by the spark produced by the igniter. On the other hand, the mixture will not burn if the proportion of fuel vapor be too large; oxygen of the air must be present to support combustion. Pure fuel vapor or gas will not burn, nor will very rich mixtures.
Now the range of proportions in which the air and fuel vapor may be mixed and still give a combustible mixture is quite limited, and the range of mixtures which will give a good steady sparking is even more restricted. A satisfactory mixture that will burn has been stated by one authority to
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be about one part of gas or fuel vapor to four parts of air. The same authority gives one part of fuel vapor to fourteen parts of air as being the leanest mixture that will burn.
It is to be remembered in this connection that of every one hundred parts of air only 23 parts are oxygen; and it is the oxygen that supports combustion. The largest constitu-
ent of air, however, is nitrogen, eight parts of the one hundred. Nitrogen is entirely inert, and in the gasoline engine cylinder it occu-
pies space which would be more desir-
ably filled with gasoline and oxygen.
In changing from a liquid to a vapor,
the fuel is increased in volume some 600
to 700 times. This means that the ratio
of the volume of liquid fuel used to that
of air must vary from 1 to 800 up to
about 1 to 16,000. From this we see
why the carburetor of the gasoline engine
is such a sensitive affair.
Not only must the ratio of fuel to air be quite constant, but the difficulties encountered are magnified by the fact that the mixing must take place between colorless gases and "slight unburned" gases. It is therefore necessary
to resort to tests that will show the condition of the mixture.
If the mixture can be adjusted until it will burn, then the adjustment for the proper mixture is easy. A too rich mix-
ture is indicated by black smoke from the exhaust; and one too lean, by a sharp, prolonged exhaust, indicating a slowly burning mixture. The smoke of a too rich mixture is black,
while that of a too lean mixture is white.
When the engine is provided with a lift-or-crisis governor, the needle or supply valve should be adjusted to require the least number of explosions necessary to furnish a given
![]() Fig. 213. An ex-
ample of a carburetor
shown in section.
The fuel enters through
a nozzle at right angles
to the stream of air through
which it passes, and
when the engine is run
at high speed.
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
amount of power and then be slightly closed. The adjustment which gives the least number of explosions does not give the most economical setting of the needle valve, and that is why the valve should be closed slightly.
**Testing the Mixture.** The most perplexing trouble comes when it is impossible to get a single explosion. In this case, the engine should be tested with gasoline alone, whether the cylinder is flooded with fuel or whether there is not enough gasoline vapor present to make an explosive mixture. Of course, tests should be made to determine that the ignition system is perfect and that an explosive mixture would be ignited if there should be one in the engine cylinder.
One way to test for gasoline in the cylinder is simply and clear the cylinder thoroughly of all gasoline by turning the engine over several times. This being done, an entirely new attempt to start the engine will usually meet with success.
A test may be made of the nature of the mixture in the cylinder by holding a lighted match to the relief port of the engine when turned over. A rich mixture will burn as it comes in contact with the air; an inflammable mixture will snap back into the cylinder; and a mixture which is too lean will not burn at all.
**The Compression.** It is necessary that a gasoline engine compress the mixture of gasoline vapor and air before ignition or the full power of the fuel will not be obtained. Failure to do so is usually due to leaks, either past the piston or through the valves.
**Leaks.** Piston rings are provided to make a gas-tight fit between the piston and the cylinder. Sometimes these rings become stuck in their grooves by charred oil and do not spring out against the cylinder walls as they should. When this happens, it is advisable to use a good lubricating oil, for the rings should be thoroughly cleaned. Where the
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trouble is not serious, the rings may be loosened by feeding in kerosene through the lubricator. When the rings become worn, they should be replaced.
Leaks may also take place past the valves. Often charred oil will lodge on the valve seat, preventing it from closing tightly. Cleaning will often overcome this difficulty; but when scored or pitted, the valve must be ground on its seat with emery and oil until a perfect fit is again secured.
**QUESTIONS**
1. What are the four fundamental essentials of gas engine operation?
2. What is meant by an explosive mixture?
3. What are some of the difficulties encountered in obtaining an explosive mixture?
4. What are the indications of a rich mixture? A lean mixture?
5. Explain how the quality of the mixture may be tested.
6. How does compression influence the power of an engine?
7. What are the common causes for the loss of compression?
![]() Fig. 724. A sectional view of a gas engine cylinder, showing the position of the valves and connecting rod.
CIRCUIT VOLTAGE
CIRCUIT VOLTAGE
CHAPTER LVI
GASOLINE AND OIL ENGINE OPERATION (Continued)
Ignition. The burning of the fuel in a steam plant is continuous from the time of kindling the fire until the plant is shut down. In the gasoline engine the fire is quickly extinguished, lasting but a part of one stroke of the piston, necessitating the ignition of additional fuel as it is taken into the cylinder. If at any time for four strokes there is a failure to ignite the fresh fuel, no power will be obtained from that particular cylinder. As in the case of failure to secure the proper mixture and compression, the gas engine will not operate unless each charge is successfully ignited.
Development. As indicated, the firing of each charge in the cylinders of a steam engine depends on the devices that accomplish its ignition system. One of the principal difficulties encountered by the early inventors in developing the gas engine was that of securing ignition. The early attempts consisted largely in carrying an open flame into the cylinder by means of suitable valves. Later, the hot tube was used generally with success, but this was also unsatisfactory. The hot-tube igniter consisted of a short length of pipe screwed into the compression space and kept at red heat by means of an outside flame. During compression the unburned gases pushed the burned gases up into the tube until the fresh fuel came in contact with the hot surface of the tube, causing ignition. It is not possible to regulate the time of the ignition with this device, and consequently it is only well suited with a small engine, at least, the fuel required to keep the tube hot is often an important part of the entire cost of operation.
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These shortcomings on the part of the hot-tube igniter, and the rapid development of the electric igniter have caused the general abandonment of the former.
There are two general classes of electric ignition systems in general use. These systems are generally known as the "make-and-break" system and the "jump-spark" or high-tension system. Each has its attendant advantages and disadvantages. The make-and-break system is used largely in connection with stationary engines, while the jump-spark is used with variable-speed motors, like the automobile.
The Make-and-Break System. In the make-and-break system of electric ignition two electrodes or points are pro-
![]() A diagram showing the working parts of a make-and-break system of ignition. Four standard dry cells form the usual battery. The spark coil is shown at the left, and the ignitor rod at the right. The ignitor rod is connected to one electrode, and the switch to the other. When the switch is closed, current flows through the circuit, producing a spark between the electrodes.
Fig. 217. A diagram showing the working parts of a make-and-break system of ignition. Four standard dry cells form the usual battery. The spark coil is shown at the left, and the ignitor rod at the right. The ignitor rod is connected to one electrode, and the switch to the other. When the switch is closed, current flows through the circuit, producing a spark between the electrodes.
vided in the compression space of the engine cylinder, and are insulated from each other in such a way that an electric current will not flow through them unless they are made to touch each other. When an electric current is broken, there is a tendency to produce a spark at the point where the separation takes place. By placing a spark coil in the circuit the size of the spark may be much increased. The system consists
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
primarily in providing a source of electricity and suitable mechanism to bring the points together at the proper time and to separate them at the proper time for the sparks so produced to fire the mixture in the cylinder.
The make-and-break system does not use high-tension or high-voltage electricity. Voltage corresponds to pressure, or ability of the engine to overcome resistance. For this reason the make-and-break system does not require such careful insulation as does the high-tension system. There are, however, the moving parts inside of the cylinder, and the mechanism operating it is such that it is not convenient to make provision for varying the time of ignition. Failure on the part of the make-and-break system may be generally termed "fat spark," which means that the spark is blown down of insulation. There are many other minor causes of failure, but space does not permit a discussion of them here.
**Testing the Make-and-Break System.** When an engine fails to start, a test should be made of the ignition system. This is generally done by making and breaking the circuit by hand outside of the engine cylinder, and judging as there is no spark upon opening or closing the switch, whether or not it is sufficient to ignite the charge. After the insulation on the wires becomes worn and damaged, there may be an escape of electricity without passing through the igniter points. The igniter points may become covered with scale, oil, or dirt which will prevent the electricity from passing from one to the other when desired. Often the movable points fail to work properly due to lack of oil, preventing the sharp, quick separation of the points, which is quite necessary to secure a good, fat spark.
![]() Picture of a diagram showing a make-and-break ignition system.
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The Jump-Spark System. The jump-spark system does not have any working parts inside of the cylinder, where they are exposed to the high temperature there present. The mechanism is such that it is convenient to vary the time of ignition when this is used to regulate the speed of the engine, as is the case in the case of the automobile engine. The jump-spark system requires the use of an induction coil, which, when connected to one of the terminals of a battery, supplies electricity, increases the voltage to such an extent that when suddenly cut off the new or induced current jumps a small gap. The usual spark plug is only a provision for placing this gap inside of the engine cylinder. Owing to the high voltage of the jump-spark system, certain wires must be very carefully insulated in order that the gap of the spark plug shall be the path of least resistance for the current to pass through.
Testing. It has been suggested that tests be made with the make-and-break system of ignition to determine whether or not trouble is encountered in breaking order when trouble is encountered. A convenient way of testing the jump-spark system is to remove the spark plug and lay it upon the cylinder and manipulate the circuit-breaking mechanism by hand. If a good spark be obtained, it may be assumed
![]() A sketch showing the essential parts of a jump-spark system of ignition.
Fig. 721. A jump-spark or induction coil, as described to show construction.
![]() A jump-spark or induction coil, as described to show construction.
Fig. 722. A jump-spark or induction coil, as described to show construction.
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
that the trouble lies elsewhere than in the ignition system.
The Batteries. Any form of electric ignition requires a source of electricity. One of the most general forms on the market is the dry-cell battery. It represents, perhaps, the cheapest source of electricity, as far as first cost is concerned. When the cells are able to furnish a sufficient quantity of electricity, they will continue to do so until exhausted. One perplexing features of the use of dry-cell batteries is the matter of determining when the cells are exhausted, as there is no change in the outside appearance.
There are instruments, known as spark plugs, which can be used one to determine how much current a dry cell will furnish; and where many dry cells are used, this instrument should always be on hand to detect exhausted cells. If an instrument is not available, the strength of a dry cell may be judged from the size and character of the sparks produced when tested.
Storage batteries make a very satisfactory source of electric current for ignition purposes. Provision must be at hand for recharging when they become exhausted.
Magnets and Dynamos. Perhaps the most satisfactory source of electric current for gasoline engine ignition is the magneto or dynamo, which is a small instrument for making electricity by mechanical means. Indications are that it will be only a
![]() A spark plug in operation during demonstration stand.
Fig. 219. A storage battery.
![]() An automobile with a storage battery.
Fig. 220. A storage battery.
![]() An automobile with a storage battery.
Fig. 221. An oscil-
lating magnet in demon-
stration stand.
Magnets and Dynamos. Perhaps the most satisfactory source of electric current for gasoline engine ignition is the magneto or dynamo, which is a small instrument for making electricity by mechanical means. Indications are that it will be only a
FARM MOTORS 359
comparatively short time until the magneto will be considered a necessary part of the equipment of the gas engine.
At the present time the magneto is regarded as almost a necessity in the operation of the automobile engine. In selecting a magneto dynamo, care should be taken to see that it is well adapted to the service required and that it is properly installed.
Valve Action. The last of the four essentials for the successful operation of the gas engine is proper valve action, or the correct timing of the valves. It is obvious, after what has already been written on this subject, that the valves must open at the proper time to let the gases into the cylinder, close at the proper time to withhold them for the period required, and then again to let the burned gases escape. The suction or inlet valve on farm engines is usually operated by the suction produced by the piston during the same stroke. As a result of the adjustment of the light spring which closes the valve, it is self-timing. The exhaust valve should open before the end of the expansion stroke, to allow the free escape of the burned gases, and must close about at the end of the exhaust stroke. The exhaust valve for an average-sized engine is made to open when the crank is about 30° from dead center, but the time will vary with the speed and size of the engine. Directions should be found with each engine for the setting of the valves.
![]() A dynamo called the Auto- spark.
FIG. 255. A dynamo called the Auto-spark.
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
**QUESTIONS**
1. Why is ignition so important to the success of a gas engine?
2. Describe the hot-tube igniter.
3. What are the names of the two systems of electric ignition?
4. Describe the spark-ignition system of electric ignition.
5. Explain how this system may be tested.
6. Describe the jump-spark system of ignition.
7. Explain how this system may be tested.
8. Describe the use of dry cells as a source of current for electric ignition.
9. How does the dynamo or magneto furnish electricity for ignition purposes?
10. Why is valve action or timing important?
11. Describe in a general way when the inlet and exhaust valves should open and close with reference to the position of the crank.
CHAPTER LVII
SELECTING A GASOLINE OR OIL ENGINE
The selection of a gasoline or oil engine for the farm is not easy, owing to the many features of the problem involved.
First, there is the size or horsepower to be decided; second, the type, involving such features as weight and speed; third, the mounting; and fourth, the quality of the engine.
The Size. The gasoline or oil engine is used on the farm for many purposes at the present time, and the power required varies with each different use. The following list gives the more common uses for the gasoline engine and indicates the approximate amount of power required:
Washing machine, ½ to 1 H.P.
Churn, ½ to 1 H.P.
Pump, ¼ to 2 H.P.
Grindstone, ¼ to 2 H.P.
Electric generator, 1 H.P. or more.
Feed mill, 3 H.P. or more.
Portable sawmill, 5 to 15 H.P.
Corn sheller, 2 H.P. or more.
Ensilage cutter, 5 to 25 H.P.
Threshing machine, 6 to 50 H.P.
It is to be noticed that the first four machines require a rather small engine, while the others either require considerably more power or they may be operated more advantageously when of a size suitable to a medium-sized engine. The feed grinder may be obtained in almost any size; but where magazine bins are not provided and where it is expected
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
to give the grinder attention while in operation, a large one is a decided advantage. A grinder using six to twelve horse-
power will grind feed at such a rate that one man will have all he can do to provide grain for the hopper and to shovel away or bag the ground feed.
Enslage cutters, when provided with a pneumatic ele-
vator or blower, require considerable power, and it is an advantage to have a machine which will take undivided burden of the work. Such a machine, a 12-horse-
power engine, or larger, is required.
There are small threshing machines on the market which require little power for their operation, and are no doubt a success where a small amount of grain is to be threshed. The small-sized machines, equipped with the modern labor-saving attachments, such as the self-feeder and the wind stacker, require about 12 horsepower for their successful operation. The other larger machines mentioned may be procured at almost any size to accommodate the size of the engine pur-
chased.
From this analysis it would seem that there are two classes of work on the average-sized farm which require two sizes of gasoline engines if the work is to be performed economically.
The first class of work is that which requires more power than is needed to overcome the friction within the engine itself, or to operate it. After enough fuel is furnished to keep the engine in motion, the additional fuel used is converted into useful work. The percentage of the total fuel required to operate the engine proper, when under full load, is not far from 25 per cent for average conditions. Thus it is seen that it will require much more fuel to operate a 12-horsepower engine empty, or under no load, than to operate a 15-horse-
power engine under full load.
1
FARM MOTORS 363
The average farm well will not furnish water faster than it could be pumped with a small 1½- or two-horsepower engine; so a larger load cannot be provided by increasing the size of the pump or the number of strokes per minute. The question then arises whether it would be economical to purchase an engine for pumping is contemplated, whether it would not be best to purchase a much larger engine than actually needed in order that it may be used for other work. If the pumping is to be continuous, that is, every day, it will be found more economical to buy a small engine to do the pumping and a comparatively larger one for the other work.
This will be explained by the following calculation:
Fuel per year for 1½-horsepower engine, light pumping load, 2 hours per day, 365 days = 80 gallons times 365 = 28,800 gallons
Fuel per year for 8-horsepower engine, light pumping load, 2 hours per day, 365 days = 160 gallons times 365 = 58,400 gallons
Difference equals 143.3–73. A special type of engine costs $123. A special type of engine costs $123.
At 15c per gallon, 9.13 times 15c equals $13.09.
This will more than pay for the interest on the cost of the smaller engine, and its depreciation. If the comparison be
![]() A vintage hand-cranked pump.
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
made with a larger engine, the difference in the cost of operation would be greater.
The Type of Engine. The type of engine to select will depend largely on the kind of service required. If the engine is to be placed upon some horse-propelled machine, like the binder, to drive the machinery, a light-weight engine is highly desirable. Lightest weight may be secured by selecting a high-speed two-stroke cycle engine. The four-stroke
![]() A grain binder with a two-stroke cycle engine attached.
Fig. 254. A gasoline engine used to operate the machinery of a grain binder.
cycle may be made quite light by introducing high rotational speed and using refinement in construction. Usually, high speed is conducive to increased wear and short life. Modern automobile design has, by improved methods and materials of construction, practically overcome the objections to the high-speed engine.
FARM MOTORS 565
The average farm machine does not require an extremely steady power, and for this reason the hit-or-miss governed engine is the most satisfactory for average conditions, on account of its simplicity and economy. Where an engine is used to drive a heavy machine, such as a plow or a manger, or an engine with extra-heavy fly wheels should be used.
**The Mounting.** The stationary engine has many advantages over the portable engine in that it can be better protected and, when mounted upon a good foundation, can perform its work under the best conditions satisfactorily. The mounting of the stationary engine is simple; it may also perform such other work as may be brought within its limits. It will prove highly satisfactory to locate the pump house, the farm shop, and the milk house so as to enable the power from one engine to be used in all.
**The Quality.** A poorly constructed and inadequately equipped engine is a poor investment at any cost. A gasoline engine should be able to run and furnish power for a time, but it should be so constructed and of such material as to have a long life and require the minimum amount of attention and repair. In considering the purchase of an engine, cognizance should be given to the chief factor which causes the manufacturer to build a high-grade engine,—namely, the desire to earn a high price by selling it. This is true even though the vital parts of a gasoline engine, as of any machine, are those which wear and which must be adjusted and repaired. The following points are important: First, these parts should be provided with adequate lubrication, as it is the principal factor in reducing wear. Second, the size of the parts that wear should be of liberal dimensions and of a good quality of material. Third, the parts should be easily adapted to change. Fourth, the parts should be easily replaced when worn out.
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Testing. A brake test may be made of the engine to determine the amount of power it will deliver and the amount of fuel required per horsepower per hour. In addition to
![]() A gasoline engine arranged for a test. The brake is on the determining the power of the engine, if the test be continued for a time (two hours or longer) an examination may be made of the efficiency of the cooling system and of the
Fig. 252. A gasoline engine arranged for a test. The brake is on the
FARM MOTORS
367
ability of the engine to carry a full load without any overheating of the bearings, or other disorders.
Estimating Horsepower. The horsepower of a gasoline engine may be estimated from the diameter of the cylinder, the length of stroke, and the revolutions per minute. If these quantities are known for several engines, a comparison of their horsepower may be made. Such an estimate can only be considered approximate, however.
A satisfactory formula for estimating the horsepower of gasoline engines of the four-stroke cycle type is as follows:
$$\text{B.H.P.} = \frac{\pi D^2 L R}{18,000}$$
where $D$ = diameter of cylinder in inches.
$L$ = length of stroke in inches.
$R$ = revolutions per minute.
For two-stroke engine cylinders the formula should read as follows:
$$\text{B.H.P.} = \frac{D^2 L R}{13,600}$$
Another formula which has been suggested for vertical tractor engines is:
$$\text{B.H.P.} = 66 \frac{D^2 L R}{1,000,000}$$
For horizontal engines the formula is made to read as follows:
$$\text{B.H.P.} = \frac{75 D^2 L R}{1,000,000}$$
These formulas will agree very closely with the brake horsepower of tractor engines developed in public test.
E.W. Roberts
W.F. MasGruge
368 AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
In selecting an engine, the accessories are often given little attention, when they should be carefully inspected; and if the engine is not well equipped in the way of first-class accessories, they should be selected.
The lubrication system should be permanently installed and so arranged as to give sufficient and proper internal supply of oil. The multiple oil pump is to be highly recommended in this connection. Exposed oil holes, which may become filled with dirt and grit, should be guarded against.
**Summary.** The following outline is suggested to aid a purchaser in making a comparison of the merits and value of different engines. The information asked for in this outline should be so obtained from all the engines considered.
**THINGS TO CONSIDER IN SELECTING AN ENGINE.**
| Name of engine. |
|
| Type—steam, air, or portable. |
|
| Rated horsepower. |
|
| Diameter of cylinder. |
|
| Length of cylinder. |
|
| Revolutions per minute. |
|
| Piston speed per minute. |
|
| Calculation horsepower by formula. |
|
| Cooling system. |
|
| Frame—construction. |
|
| Metallic body—construction, accessibility, and adjustment. |
|
| Cylinder and piston—construction. |
|
| Crank—construction. |
|
| Gears—construction. |
|
| Valecage—construction and accessibility. |
|
| Ignition system—construction and protection. |
|
| Lubrication system—construction and completeness. |
|
**QUESTIONS**
1. What are the principal features to be considered in selecting a gasoline or oil engine?
FARM MOTORS 369
2. What will determine the size to be selected?
3. Why is it not economy to use a large engine for light work?
4. How does a power washer differ from a hand operated to operate a farm pump? A churn? A washing machine? A feed mill? A corn sheller? An enlauge cutter? A threasing machine?
5. What is the most common type of engine used on farms?
6. Where may a portable engine be used to advantage?
7. What are some of the indications of quality in a gasoline or oil engine?
8. Of what use would a test of the horsepower be?
9. Explain how the horsepower of an engine can be estimated.
10. A four-stroke cycle engine has a cylinder 8 inches in diameter; the stroke is 10 inches long and it operates at 300 revolutions per minute. Estimate its horse power.
11. What are some features to consider in selecting the accessories of an engine?
Note:---A list of the parts that should be inspected in selecting a gasoline or oil engine.
Note:---The instructor here should furnish the students with problems in the reading of the horsepower of engines, perhaps measuring certain engines and comparing the estimated horsepower with manufacturer's rating.
CHAPTER LVIII
THE GAS TRACTOR
The Utility of the Gas Tractor. The gas tractor—and reference is here made to the tractor with the internal-combustion engine—has developed faster during the past ten years than has any other machine used on the farm. On the broad prairies, where the conditions are the most favorable for its use, it is rapidly taking first place over the horse; and in less favorable localities, where intertilled crops are grown, the gas tractor is being successfully tried out. All this has
![]() A small gas tractor plowing. It may be successfully operated by one man.
Fig. 276.
taken place despite the fact that ten years ago the gas tractor was an unusual sight. No one reason can be given for this increase in power farming. The new broad open fields of the West, the rapid development of the internal-combustion
FARM MOTORS 371
engine, and especially the factor of economy, are suggestive causes.
The tractor has been regarded as unwieldy in small fields, but this difficulty has been largely overcome by using the proper system in laying out the lands. One convenient system is to lay out the fields in lands of such widths as to lose little time in turning at the ends. A strip is left at each side of the field of a width equal to the turning strip at the ends, and sides and ends are turned last by plowing around the entire field.
The tractor was first introduced for plowing, as this requires more power than any other kind of farm work; but it is also now being generally used in seeding and harvesting. In many instances several of these operations are carried on at the same time.
A gas tractor consists of an engine, the transmission, and the truck. These parts will now be discussed under separate heads.
The Engine. The trac- tor engines differ materially from any other internal-combustion en- gine. No one type of engine has been generally adopted for traction purposes. However, nearly all are of the four-stroke cycle type. The differences in these motors lie in the number of cylinders, the speed of the engine, and the method of getting power.
The single-cylinder engine has a decided advantage in simplicity. It is easier to manage a one-cylinder than a two-
![]() Fig. 227. The motor of an oil-burning tractor.
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cylinder engine. If the engine is not in proper adjustment there is no tendency to continue to operate it, as when there are two or more cylinders, letting the remaining ones furnish more than their share of the power. A multiplicity of cylinders, on the other hand, for a given power, reduces the magnitude of the impulses and thus to a large extent relieves the gearing of severe shocks. The multiple-cylinder engine is therefore more easily started and more agreeable to operate for that reason. There seems to be little doubt but that greater skill is required to keep the complicated engine in proper adjustment and repair.
Clutch. As the gas engine cannot be started under load, it is necessary to have a clutch to engage the engine with gears or with chains and sprockets that transmit the power to the drivers. This clutch is generally used to engage a pulley when the engine is used to drive a stationary heavy machine with a belt, when the traction gear is engaged by friction.
In construction, the clutch consists of shoes usually made of wooden blocks, which, by suitable levers, are made to bear against a disk or other surface with sufficient pressure to cause the power to be transmitted through the parts in contact. The form and material of the friction surfaces vary widely. Sometimes the clutch takes the form of two cones, hence the name cone clutch. Again, the friction may take place between a series of disks, one-half of which are attached to the engine shaft and the other half to the transmission. This type of clutch is called a multiple-disk clutch, and the disks are usually engaged by the pressure of a spring which may be brought to bear at the most suitable time.
![]() Fig. 234. One form of clutch. The wooden blocks are made to bear against a disk or other surface with sufficient pressure to cause the power to be transmitted through the parts in contact.
| Fig. 234. One form of clutch. The wooden blocks are made to bear against a disk or other surface with sufficient pressure to cause the power to be transmitted through the parts in contact. |
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The clutch is a vital part of the tractor and should be located as close to the engine as possible. The higher the speed at which the clutch rotates the smaller force it will have to transmit.
The gearing. The gears are an important part of the tractor. They should (1) be of liberal dimensions and of great strength; (2) be constructed of such materials as to resist wear to the greatest advantage; (3) be adequately lubricated and protected from dirt and grit.
Change of Speed. Change of speed is especially desirable with light tractors and is quite necessary where the land is relatively level. With heavy tractors it is drawn limited by the load it is able to draw up the steepest incline. If a reduction of speed be made for inclines or hills a larger load may be carried continuously.
A reverse in direction of travel or a change of speed is accomplished in two general ways: by sliding gears, which is the accepted method now used in automobiles; and by planetary gears. The first is the simpler method but is not so convenient of operation.
Planetary gears take their name from the gears being fitted to a revolving frame or spindle.
The Truck. One of the most important parts of the modern tractor is the truck, which consists of the frame and steering and drive wheels. The frame is the backbone of the tractor, and to it are attached the bearings that carry the main axle and the shafts which support the gears.
The Steer Wheel. Two methods of constructing the axle of the steering wheels are in common use. In one the
![]() A diagram showing a tractor's steering mechanism, including a steering wheel, gear box, and drive wheels.
Fig. 259. The truck for a 225 tractor, showing steering gear, and steering and driving wheels.
Two methods of constructing the axle of the steering wheels are in common use. In one the
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axle is pivoted at the center, and steering is accomplished by revolving the axle about this pivot or king bolt. The main advantage of this system is that the steering wheels may be turned while the tractor stands still.
In the other style the axle is pivoted just inside of each steering wheel and each wheel is turned about its own pivot. This style of steering mechanism is easy to handle while in motion. It is quite positive, that is, there is no slack to take up in the chains, and it is of more rapid action than the other style.
The Traction Wheels. The traction wheels should be carefully considered in making a selection of a tractor, because certain wheels are adapted to certain conditions. If the ground is very hard, it is advisable to use wheels which are high desirable that both the drive and the steering wheels be as high as practical. Wheels of large diameter present a larger section of their periphery to the surface of the ground, and so cut in but slightly. Extensions are provided by all manu-
facturers for making the drive wheels wider for work in soft ground. Where the soil is exceedingly soft, the enter-
ing depth of the wheels must be used. It is possible to use this type of tractor in marsh or swamp soils or over sand where it is impractical to use horses.
The Equipment. Too much emphasis cannot be laid upon the importance of securing a tractor which is well equipped. Often there is a serious loss of time resulting from the poor quality of parts that cost but a few cents. A purchaser should see that the tractor has modern high-class ignition, carburation, and lubrication systems.
QUESTIONS
1. What are some of the conditions under which the gas tractor can be used with economy?
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2. To what kinds of work is the present gas tractor adapted?
3. What are some of the advantages and disadvantages of the multiple-cylinder engine for a tractor?
4. Why is the clutch an important part of the gas tractor?
5. Describe the differences in the slide, cone, and multiple-disk clutches.
6. Why is the gearing an important part of a gas tractor?
7. How may a change of speed be accomplished?
8. What is the purpose of the frame?
9. Describe two styles of steering wheels.
10. Discuss the construction of traction wheels.
11. Why should the equipment of the tractor be given careful consideration?
CHAPTER LIX
THE STEAM BOILER
The Steam Power Plant. A steam power plant consists essentially of two parts, the steam boiler, for generating steam by the combustion of fuel, and the steam engine, which con-
verts into work the energy contained in the steam. It is
customary, however, to refer to the entire steam plant as the
steam engine, when the plant is small. When the boiler and
engine are mounted on wheels and arranged with suitable
gearing for propelling itself as well as for drawing loads, the
outfit is referred to as a traction engine. Of late years it
has become common practice to use the term tractor for
the steam tractor. The subject of the steam power plant will
be divided into three parts, confined to as many chapters,
as follows: the steam boiler, the steam engine, and the steam
tractor. At one time the steam engine as defined above and
the steam tractor were the principal sources of powerfor
agricultural purposes, when large units were required. The
development of the internal-combustion engine and tractor
has been more rapid in recent years than that of the steam
engine and tractor.
The Principle of the Steam Engine. The steam engine is
a heat engine, in that its function is to transfer the heat pro-
duced by the combustion of fuel, usually wood or coal, into
mechanical energy. It might be styled an external-combus-
tion engine, in that combustion takes place outside of the
boiler proper and the heat is absorbed by passing the hot
gases through tubes surrounded by water.
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In an open vessel water cannot be heated above the boiling-point of 212° F., but heat continues to be absorbed and is used in the formation of vapor. Water under pressure boils at a higher temperature. Thus if the pressure inside the container exceeds 212° F., and the external atmospheric pressure, the boiling point would be about 228° F. Changing water into vapor increases its volume many fold. At atmospheric pressure the volume of the vapor is about 1700 times that of the liquid. At 100 pounds pressure the volume of the steam is about 240 times the volume of the liquid. Water vapor, or steam, is a colorless gas which obeys all of the laws of gases so far as expansion and change of temperature are concerned.
Functions of a Boiler. The functions of a boiler are to absorb heat from the hot gases produced by the burning of fuel and to transmit it to the water contained within, causing it to boil and produce steam. The steam boilers used in agricultural plants and in traction engines are usually called fire-box boilers, or furnaces, which may be placed either directly underneath the main part of the boiler or entirely within it.
Location of the Furnace. Boilers with the fire box outside of the boiler proper are called externally-fired boilers. This type can safely be used for stationary work and are usually employed in small farm engines. The fire-box boilers, or furnaces. Those which have the furnace within the main body of the boiler, or shell, as it is called, are said to be internally-fired boilers. Most of the boilers used in agricultural practice and all of the boilers used for traction engine service are internally fired.
The Vertical Boiler. The vertical boiler is used in small units where space is especially valuable. It consists of a cylindrical shell containing a furnace in the lower end, over which is placed a tube sheet or plate and a system of tubes.
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These boilers are not considered very durable and are quite difficult to clean properly.
The Locomotive Type of Boiler. The locomotive type of boiler is the one most generally used for traction engine service. It consists of a fire box made of steel plates, in which the furnace is placed, and a smoke box extending forward, containing a comparatively large number of tubes; a smoke box at the front end; and a stack to carry the smoke away.
The fire box is almost entirely surround-
ed with water. The plate directly above the fire is called the crown sheet and the plates forming the sides of the boiler are called side sheets. In some instances fire boxes are so made as to have water beneath the grates; such a boiler is said to have a water bottom.
The boiler has a cylindrical chamber riveted to the top of the shell, in which the steam collects and from which it is drawn off by means of a device called the steam dome, and is a device for drying the steam.
All parts of the boiler are made of the best steel plates, and the seams are carefully riveted together. The joints are made
![]() A diagram showing a section of a locomotive type boiler, with a firebox, smokebox, and tubes.
Fig. 548. A boiler of the locomotive type in section: J., steam dome; D., smoke box; C., fire box; D., grates; E., tubes; F., crown sheet.
![]() A diagram showing a cross-section of a locomotive type boiler, with a firebox, smokebox, and tubes.
Fig. 549. A boiler of the locomotive type in section: J., steam dome; D., smoke box; C., fire box; D., grates; E., tubes; F., crown sheet.
FARM MOTORS 379
tight by caking or battering the edges of the seams down with a special tool designed for the purpose. The flat plates of the fire box are supported by bolts or studs running from one plate to the other. These are called stay bolts, except those over the crown sheet, which are called crown bolts. The boiler is usually provided with a valve at the lowest point, which can be opened to allow any sediment in the boiler to be blown out.
In the management of the locomotive type of boiler, great care should be taken to keep the water over the crown sheet at all times.
**Return-Flue Boilers.** The return-flue boiler has a large cylindrical shell in which a comparatively large flue is placed, large enough to take all the gases from the furnace. The heated gases pass to the front end and then back through tubes to the smoke box in the back end. One objection to this type of boiler is that it has no grate surface which can be provided. This type, however, is regarded as one of the safest, and is very economical in the consumption of fuel.
**Capacity of Boilers.** The capacity of a boiler is usually designated in horsepower. Formerly this meant the capacity to supply enough steam for an engine of the designated horsepower. Now boiler horsepower means the capacity to absorb a certain amount of heat in a given time. The standard boiler horsepower is 300 B.H.P., and this gives the capacity to evaporate 30 lbs. of water per hour into steam at
![]() A sectional view of a return-flue boiler.
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70 lbs. pressure by the gauge from the feed water at a temperature of 100° F.
It is easy to see, however, that the capacity of any boiler depends on its ability to burn fuel, or the area of the grate surface, and on the heating surface which will absorb the heat produced. Thus it is possible to estimate the capacity of the steam boiler from the size of the grates, allowing from $\frac{1}{2}$ to $\frac{1}{4}$ square foot for each horsepower. In like manner the horse-power may be calculated by determining the area of heating surface and the number of pounds of fuel burned per hour and tubes which have heated gases on one side and water on the other, and allowing 14 square feet of heating surface for each horsepower.
**Quality of Steam.** As steam leaves the boiler there is a tendency for it to carry water with it in the form of spray. It is the purpose of the steam dome to cause the water to settle out of the steam before it reaches the engine. The steam which con-
tains water in the form of spray is called wet steam, and the proportion of water to steam is sometimes called the quality of steam. Steam which does not contain any water is said to be dry steam. When dry steam is passed through highly heated tubes it is heated above the boiling point of water for this reason, and when it leaves these tubes at a temperature in this condition the steam is said to be superheated. Some boilers are provided with superheaters for raising the temperature of the steam in this way. To prevent the loss of heat it is customary to cover the pipes leading the steam from the boiler to the engine with some non-conductive material in order that pipe covering may be used.
**Boiler Gauge cocks.** All boilers must be provided with certain accessories, in order to permit of their successful operation and management.
**Gauge Cocks.** Boilers are usually provided with two or three gauge cocks to enable the fireman to determine the
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height of the water within the boiler. If the gauge cock below the surface of the water be opened, a cloud of white vapor will be emitted; if the cock in connection with the steam space be opened, a colorless gas will escape. In this way the height of the water may be determined at any time. It is customary to put the gauge cock slightly above the level of the crown sheet or upper tube.
The Gauge Glass. In addition to the gauge cocks, the gauge glass is provided, which shows directly the height of the water in the boiler. Care should be taken to see that the gauge glass does not become clogged with sediment and thus fail in accuracy. The low water condition is reached when the water has no longer sufficient heat to keep the boiler. Steam is not a good conductor of heat; if the plates become uncovered they are quite sure to become so hot as to be softened and perhaps destroyed by the pressure of the steam. Low water is one of the common causes of boiler explosions.
The Pressure Gauge. Another essential accessory for the steam boiler is the pressure gauge. This instrument indicates the pressure within the boiler in pounds per square inch. The usual pressure gauge consists of a hollow brass tube curved to a circle, which tends to straighten as the pressure within increases. By connecting this tube with a needle over a graduated dial, by suitable mechanism, the pressure may be indicated directly. A siphon directly below the gauge tube prevents from entering and heating the tube and changing its elasticity.
The Safety Valve. Every boiler should be provided with a safety valve, which will permit the escape of the steam as fast as generated, after a certain pressure has been reached, in order that the pressure shall not exceed the strength of the boiler. The usual safety valve is held closed by a spring which may be adjusted for the desired pressure. Care should
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be taken to see that the pressure valve is kept in working order, and that it is not set too high for the strength of the boiler. It should also have sufficient capacity to release the steam as fast as it can be produced in the boiler under any condition.
The Fusible Plug. As an additional safety device, a fusible plug, containing a substance which will melt at a point with low melting point, like tin, is placed at the highest point of the crown sheet which will be first exposed by low water. When, because of low water, the plate becomes heated, the soft metal core of the plug melts away, causing the steam to blow on the fire.
The Boiler Feeder. In order to receive additional water the boiler must be provided with some sort of feeder. One such device is the cross-head pump, which is attached directly to the cross head of the engine and can be operated only when the engine is running. The cross-head pump has a steam cylinder and may be operated by steam from the boiler. This type of pump is practically as small as a steam engine.
Another form of boiler feeder is the injector, which takes steam from the boiler and, by allowing it to pass through a converging cone, converts it into kinetic energy. As this steam strikes a supply of cold water within the injector it condenses, but the impact drives the water into the boiler.
The Feed Water Heater. Many boilers are provided with feed water heaters which use the exhaust steam from the engine
![]() A spring-loaded safety valve.
Fig. 242. A spring-loaded safety valve.
![]() A fusible plug, which is placed at a point where it will be exposed by low water.
Fig. 243. A fusible plug.
![]() A standard type of cross-head pump.
Fig. 244. A standard type of cross-head pump.
Many boilers are provided with feed water heaters which use the exhaust steam from the engine
FARM MOTORS 383
to heat the water as it is forced into the boiler. The heat thus saved may amount to as much as ten to fifteen per cent.
**Boiler Management.** In managing the boiler care should be taken to see that the flues are kept free of soot, in order that the heated gases may come in direct contact with the metal, and that the boiler is kept clear of incrustation on the inside. Such accumulations do not have the heat-conducting properties of the steel and result in a serious loss of heat. If the flues are too small, or if they are too thick, the heat may not be carried away from the plate fast enough to prevent it from becoming overheated. Thus care should be taken not only to use water which is free from foreign substances, but also to clean the boiler frequently.
![]() Fig. 146. A feed water heater in which the water is heated by the Foaming sometimes occurs in a boiler, due largely to the presence of dirt, alkali, grease, or other foreign matter. It causes a large amount of water to be carried away with the steam, and prevents the engineer from determining accurately the true level of the water. Great care should be taken in managing the boiler when foaming takes place. Low water must be avoided at all times; and against; and if at any time it should occur, the further generation of heat should be stopped and the boiler allowed to cool. It is inadvisable to try to remove the fire, as it is quite sure to increase its intensity. The best procedure is to cover the
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fire with ashes, earth, or even green coal. Do not try to feed more water into the boiler, as cold water is quite apt to crack the hot plates and the great amount of steam suddenly generated may cause an explosion. The steam boiler under pressure contains a large amount of energy, and a boiler explosion is very disastrous.
**QUESTIONS**
1. What are the essential parts of a steam power-producing plant?
2. Explain how heat is converted into power by the steam plant.
3. Why is steam used instead of air?
4. What two general locations may be given to a furnace?
5. Describe the vertical boiler and the conditions to which it is adapted.
6. Describe the construction of the locomotive type of boiler.
7. What is meant by a return-flue boiler?
8. How is the capacity of a boiler designated?
9. How much water can be safely estimated?
10. What is meant by "quality of steam"?
11. What is the use of gauge cocks and the gauge glass?
12. What is meant by "boiling point"?
13. What is necessary to provide a boiler with a safety valve?
14. Describe the use of the flueable plug.
15. What is meant by "safety valve" feeder?
16. What is the use of the feed-water-heater?
17. Describe in a general way the management of a steam boiler.
18. What is meant by "booming".
19. What should be done in case of "low water"?
![]() A diagram showing the components of a steam engine.
CHAPTER LX
THE STEAM ENGINE
Mounting. Steam engines used in agricultural work are usually mounted directly upon the boiler, making with the boiler a complete power plant, as in the case of a portable or traction engine. An engine mounted upon a masonry foundation is said to be a stationary engine. All such engines do not differ essentially in construction.
Principle. The steam engine consists fundamentally of a cylinder containing a close-fitting piston. This piston is overhung on two crossheads, which are connected in turn through a connecting rod to a crank on the engine shaft. The crosshead is operated between guides. The steam is admitted at the ends of the cylinder through valves contained within the steam chest. The proper action is given to the valves by an eccentric on the end of the shaft, or by means of a lever valve actuated by a cam, which extends into the steam chest in the case of a nonreversing engine, or to the reversing mechanism of a reversing engine. As steam enters the cylinder it pushes on the piston and causes it to move forward. When the piston has completed a part of the stroke, the valve closes, but the expanding pressure of the steam in the cylinder enables it to perform additional work on the piston. At the end of the stroke the steam is released, and the pressure is applied to the opposite side of the piston. This is all done automatically.
![]() Fig. 241. A sectional view showing the motion of a crosshead of a simple engine.
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by the valve mechanism, or valve gear, as it is called. The piston is fitted with rings which expand against the walls of the cylinder, making a gas-tight fit. The power developed by the engine is proportional to the travel of the piston in one minute, and this is determined by the stroke of the piston.
Compound Engines. The compound engine has two cylinders. The steam is admitted first into the smaller one and allowed to expand to a certain pressure, and then it passes to the second, where it expands more fully. The compound engine enables the cylinders to be maintained at more nearly
![]() A sectional view of the cylinders and steam chest of a compound engine.
Fig. 248. A sectional view of the cylinders and steam chest of a compound engine.
the temperature of the steam when the steam expands, it cools; and as much steam as is admitted after the expansion of a cylindrical, some of it condenses, losing part of its power. Compound engines also tend to equalize the pressure of the steam on the piston throughout the stroke, giving a steadier motion and lowering the stress upon the working parts.
The Double Engine. Many traction engines are provided with two cylinders instead of a double engine. The crankshaft turns on one shaft, but are arranged at an angle of 90 degrees with each other, so that at no time can both cranks
386
FARM MOTORS
387
stop in line with the connecting rod, or be on dead center, in such a way that the engine cannot be started by the applica-
tion of steam.
The two-cylinder engines give a steadier motion but are not usually economical in the use of steam as the single-
cylinder engines are, and are more expensive to build.
The Fly Wheel. All steam engines and especially single-
cylinder engines must be provided with a fly wheel to carry the engine over dead center, when the steam cannot act effec-
tively upon the piston. It is customary to make this fly
wheel in the form of a pulley, from which the belt may be run to other machines as desired.
The Governor. The object of the governor is to maintain a uniform speed. The usual construc-
tion of a governor is similar to that shown in the
accompanying illustration. The fly balls are thrown outward by centrifugal force as they are rotated, thus gradually closing the valve through which the steam may pass. Governors may be adjusted for different speeds.
Lubrication. One important fea-
ture of the operation of the steam engine is the lubrication of the piston, which is usually accomplished by admitting oil with the steam. The two devices in common use for oiling the cylinders are (1) a pump and the lubricator. The oil pump is driven by the engine and is simply a small pump connected with a suitable reservoir for the oil.
It can be adjusted to feed oil at any specified rate. The best kinds have a sight feed device, which enables the engineer to see the rate at which the pump is feeding the oil.
![]() A common type of govern-
or.
Fig. 249. A common type of govern-
or.
![]() A diagram showing how a governor operates.
Fig. 250. A diagram showing how a governor operates.
![]() A diagram showing how a pump operates.
Fig. 251. A diagram showing how a pump operates.
![]() A diagram showing how a lubricator operates.
Fig. 252. A diagram showing how a lubricator operates.
![]() A diagram showing how an oil pump operates.
Fig. 253. A diagram showing how an oil pump operates.
![]() A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
Fig. 254. A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
![]() A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
Fig. 255. A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
![]() A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
Fig. 256. A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
![]() A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
Fig. 257. A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
![]() A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
Fig. 258. A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
![]() A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
Fig. 259. A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
![]() A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
Fig. 260. A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
![]() A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
Fig. 261. A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
![]() A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
Fig. 262. A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
![]() A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
Fig. 263. A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
![]() A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
Fig. 264. A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
![]() A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
Fig. 265. A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
![]() A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
Fig. 266. A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
![]() A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
Fig. 267. A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
![]() A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
Fig. 268. A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
![]() A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
Fig. 269. A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
![]() A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
Fig. 270. A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
![]() A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
Fig. 271. A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
![]() A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
Fig. 272. A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
![]() A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
Fig. 273. A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
![]() A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
Fig. 274. A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
![]() A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
Fig. 275. A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
![]() A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
Fig. 276. A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
![]() A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
Fig. 277. A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
![]() A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
Fig. 278. A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
![]() A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
Fig. 279. A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
![]() A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
Fig. 280. A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
![]() A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
Fig. 281. A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
![]() A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
Fig. 282. A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
![]() A diagram showing how an oil lubricator operates.
Fig. 283. A diagram showing how an油润滑器操作。
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
The lubricator consists of a tank of oil connected under-
neath with a short column of water. The excess weight of
water over that of the steam when applied at the bottom of
the oil reservoir enables the oil to be fed through a small
valve, a drop at a time. The accompanying illustration
shows the construction of a lubricator.
QUESTIONS
1. How is the farm steam engine usually mounted?
2. Explain the principle of the steam engine.
3. Describe the compound engine, and what advantage does it offer?
4. What are the merits of a double engine?
5. Why is it necessary for a steam engine to have a fly wheel?
6. Describe the action of the governor.
7. Describe the action of the steam engine lubricator.
8. What other cooling device is in common use?
![]() A diagram showing the construction of a lubricator.
CHAPTER LXI
THE STEAM TRACTOR
A steam boiler and engine mounted upon skids or on a truck to permit them to be moved from place to place make what is called a mobile steam engine. If an engine be pro-
vided with means of transmitting its power by gearing for trans-
mitting the power to the traction wheels, thus enabling it to propel itself forward over the ground and perhaps pull a load after it, the outfit is called a steam traction engine, or a steam tractor. The latter term has come into use recently.
The steam boiler and the steam engine have been dis-
cussed under separate heads. This chapter will be devoted to a discussion of the features of the steam tractor other than the boiler and the engine.
The Mounting of the Boiler. There are two general types of mounting for the steam tractor boiler. One has a frame connecting the traction and steering wheels in such a manner as to form a truck sufficiently strong to support the boiler. As now generally manufactured this is called the under-
mounted tractor, but a general name for this style of construc-
tion is top mounting.
Again, the boiler may be used as the frame for the engine and the truck, in which case the gearing is attached to the boiler by brackets or flanges riveted to the boiler. This construction, called top mounting, is in more general use, but is criticised by some because the boiler is subject to the streness produced in transmitting the power from the engine to the traction wheels. When the traction wheels are
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
mounted on brackets attached to the side of the boiler, the boiler is said to be side mounted.
When an axle is provided for the traction wheels and it is placed at the rear of the engine, it is said to be rear mounted. As it is quite impossible to keep the traction wheels in the side-mounted engine perfectly true, the rear-mounted form is generally recognized as being the more preferable of the two. Any wear or spring at the outer ends of the axles will allow the
![]() A rear-mounted double-cylinder steam tractor.
Fig. 251. A rear-mounted double-cylinder steam tractor.
wheels to approach each other at the top and to spread at the bottom, thus throwing the gearing out of alignment.
Some rear-mounted boilers have the main axe mounted with radius arms, that the boiler may be carried on springs and still permit the gearing to be in proper mesh at all times.
The Mounting of the Engine. The usual method of mounting a boiler consists in attaching it to brackets or flanges riveted to the top of the boiler proper. This construction is generally referred to as top mounting.
As previously mentioned, another type of construction provides a frame sufficiently strong to carry the boiler and
FARM MOTORS 301
engine. In this case the engine is placed underneath the boiler, and is steered under mounted. This construction relieves the boiler of stress due to the transmission of power and places the engineer so it may be attended by the engineer standing on the ground.
The Steering Wheels. The steering wheels of the steam tractor engine are generally mounted on an axle which may be turned by means of a hand wheel and a worm gear.
![]() A top-mounted steam tractor.
Fig. 355. A top-mounted steam tractor.
By turning the hand wheel a chain attached to one end of the axle is shortened, while another at the other end is lengthened. In large engines the power for steering is often supplied by a separate engine or is derived from the main engine by friction clutches.
The Traction Wheels. The traction wheels of a steam tractor are important features of the outfit when the tractor is to be used for drawing loads or machines. The supporting power of the wheels depends upon the diameter of the wheel.
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
and the width of the tire. On soft ground, it is customary to provide an extra width of tire in the form of extensions, which may be removed when not needed.
In order to grip the surface of the soil sufficiently, the traction wheels must be provided with cleats, lugs, grouters, or spikes, which grip the soil and enable the tractor to exert a greater pull on the ground. The traction wheels should be adapted to the conditions under which they work.
**Rating.** The size or capacity of the steam tractor is designated in horsepower. Formerly it was customary to indicate its tractive power in terms of horses. This rating has since become known as nominal rating, and is being superseded largely by the brake horsepower rating, which indicates the actual power output of the engine proper. This rating is ordinarily about three times the nominal rating.
A large part of the power of the engine is used in propelling the tractor and in overcoming the friction of the gearing. Thetractive efficiency of a tractor is the ratio between the power furnished by the engine and the power delivered at the drawbar. This ratio varies from 50 per cent for soft ground to 70 per cent, but on soft ground it may run as low as 35 or 40 per cent. On hard roads it may be much higher than 50 per cent.
**Control.** The control of the steam tractor is placed (1) in a throttle, through which the admission of steam to the engine is controlled; (2) in the reverse, which controls the direction of rotation of the engine; and (3) in a clutch similar to that described for gas tractors which connects the engine to the transmission. Most steam tractors have a brake by which the tractor may be held in neutral.
**The Clutch.** The clutch on a steam tractor universally operates within the fly wheel of the engine. The friction
FARM MOTORS
393
shoes used are made of wood, and are forced out against the rim of the fly wheel by suitable linkage.
The Differential. In order to permit the tractor to turn corners, or change direction a mechanism must be introduced which will allow one traction wheel to travel faster than the other. This mechanism is called the differential. There are two types of differentials, the bevel gear and the planetary.
The Gearing. The gearing of a steam tractor is an important part of the outfit, especially when the tractor is used for direction changes. It is now necessary to make the gears very ample in size and of material which will resist wear to the greatest extent and still be capable of resisting the shocks which must necessarily come upon them. Furthermore, the tractor should be provided with means of excluding dust and grit from the gears, and with a system of lubrication that will at all times keep the gears amply lubricated.
QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the different types of boiler mounting.
2. Explain two ways of mounting the engine.
3. In what two ways may large tractors be steered by power?
4. What are some of the important features in the construction of the traction wheels?
5. What is the purpose of the clouts on the drive wheels?
6. How is the power capacity of a steam tractor designated?
7. How is it possible to steer a steam tractor?
8. What is the purpose of the differential gearing?
9. Why is the gearing of a steam tractor worthy of careful attention?
LIST OF REFERENCES
Instructions for Traction and Stationary Engineers, William Boss.
Farm Engines and How to Run Them, James H. Stephenson.
Farm Machinery and Farm Motors, J. B. Davidson and L. W. Chase.
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Power and the Plow, L. W. Ellis and Edward A. Rumley.
Physics of Agriculture, F. H. King.
The Gas Engine, F. R. Hutton.
Gas Engine Principles, Rodger B. Whitman.
Farmers' Bulletin 176.
The Use of Alcohol and Gasoline in Farm Engines. U. S. Dept. of Agr. Farmers' Bulletin 277.
PART SEVEN—FARM STRUCTURES
CHAPTER LXII
INTRODUCTION; LOCATION OF FARM BUILDINGS
The study of farm buildings is important to those engaged in agricultural pursuits, for the following reasons:
1. The amount of capital invested in farm buildings is large.
2. Convenient farm buildings conserve labor.
3. Comfortable buildings for live stock conserve feed and insure maximum production.
4. The health of farm animals and the quality of the products produced by them depend in a large measure upon the sanitary condition and lighting of the farm buildings.
**Capital Invested in Farm Buildings.** The fixed capital of farms is divided by the 1910 Census into land, buildings, implements, machinery, and live stock. The relative importance of these is shown by the percentage which each bears to the whole.
Land: 69.5 per cent
Buildings: 17.8 per cent
Live stock: 12.0 per cent
Implements and machinery: 3.1 per cent
**Conservation of Labor by Convenient Arrangement of Farm Buildings.** It is difficult to estimate the saving of labor which can be effected by convenient arrangement in relation to their relation to one another. This, however, is an important matter, because the loss on account of inconvenience is accumulative, and the aggregate for a year is large. Thus
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the total distance covered in a year in walking 300 feet and return four times a day is over 145 miles, and a saving of 30 minutes every day for a year is equal to nearly 19 days of ten hours each. As far as possible the arrangement of farm buildings should embody the principles incorporated in modern shops and factories.
Comfortable buildings conserve feed to such an extent that under modern conditions it is practically impossible to produce meat or dairy products profitably without them. It is true that authorities differ on this point. Some maintain that provision from temperature changes is not of great importance for the health of farm animals, while others hold that protection from wind and wet is essential. Sanitary farm buildings maintain the health of farm animals. Pure air is as essential as good food. Poor ventilation furnishes the best conditions for disease germs to flourish, while proper lighting dispels diseased by destroying germs. The best quality of milk can only be produced in sanitary herds.
Laying Out the Farm. By the laying out of the farm is meant the arrangement and location of the fields, buildings, and lots. This is a subject which naturally precedes the arrangement and design of farm buildings, for it is well-nigh impossible to consider one farm building fully without taking into account its relation to other buildings and to the fields of the farm on which it is located.
The proper arrangement of a farm is fundamental in securing convenience, system, and economy in its operation and management, and may determine the success or failure of the enterprise.
In laying out the farm an almost endless number of conditions must be considered, among which may be mentioned:
1. The amount of good and poor land.
2. The location of the hills.
FARM STRUCTURES 397
3. The location of the woodland.
4. The location of water.
5. The natural drainage.
6. The original shape of the tract.
The features to be desired are:
1. Convenience of access, economy of fencing, and convenience of rotation, of the fields.
2. Convenience of relation to one another, to the fields, to the lots, and to the highways, of the buildings.
A map of the farm showing location of buildings, lots, fields, streams, roads, and draining is very helpful. Each
![]() A diagram illustrating the arrangement of farm buildings.
Page 30
Fig. 251. An inconvenient arrangement of farm buildings.
field should be designated by a particular name or number and the exact acreage indicated. Such a map is extremely useful in planning the operations of the farm, the rotations, and in calculating the amounts of fertilizers, seed, etc.
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
To illustrate the great differences to be observed in farm-
stead plans, attention is called to the two accompanying
sketches. The first of these (Fig. 253) is the plan of a farm-
stead just as it is at the present time. To do the morning
cleaning of the house and barn, a man must walk 2000 feet,
it is necessary to walk 2400 feet outside of the buildings.
Besides this bad feature notice how inconveniently the garden
is placed from the house. The well, also,
instead of being be-
tween the house and barn, is beyond the
barn.
Compare this plan with the next. The house is 150 feet from
the road and the barn 200 feet from the house, which is not too
close when located in the right direction.
The prevailing winds are either from the
southwest or south-southwest,
east, and the odors
from the barn are seldom carried toward the house. The
implement and wagon shed also includes the shop and
the milkhouse. If the well could be located near this shop,
so much the better, as at this point a gasoline engine could
be used to do all the light work. In doing the morning work,
a man needs to walk only 900 feet, a saving of 1500 feet
over the former plan.
![]() A good arrangement of farmsteads.
A GOOD ARRANGEMENT OF FARMSTEADS.
Fig. 253. A good arrangement of farmsteads. A good arrangement of farmsteads showing the location of the principal parts of the farm are indicated.
PUBLIC HUSBANDS.
FARM STRUCTURES 399
**Principles of Location.** In locating the farm buildings, it is well to incorporate as many of the following principles in the plan:
1. Have the buildings near the center of the farm, giving due consideration to other advantages.
2. Needless fences should be avoided, on account of first cost and the cost of maintenance.
3. A pasture should be adjacent to buildings.
4. The buildings should occupy the poorest ground.
5. The buildings should be located with reference to the water supply.
6. The buildings should be on a slight elevation whenever possible.
7. A southwest slope is desirable.
8. The soil on which buildings are to be placed should be dry and well drained.
9. A timber windbreak should be secured.
10. The place chosen for the house should be near the house.
11. The barns should not be located on high hills, because of difficulty of access from fields and roads.
12. The buildings should not be placed in low valleys, on account of the lack of air and good drainage and the danger from frost.
13. The buildings should be located on the side of the farm nearest the school, church, or town.
14. The house should not be less than 100 feet from the highway.
15. The barn should be about 150 to 200 feet from the house, and not in the direction of the prevailing winds.
16. The barn should be in plain view from the house.
17. The lots should be on the farther side of the barn from that of the house.
18. Several views from the house are desirable.
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19. All buildings should serve as windbreaks.
20. The shop and machine shed should be convenient to the house, the barn, and the fields.
Two general systems of arranging farm buildings have been developed in this country. For want of better terms, they may be designated as the distributed system, in which a separate building is provided for each kind of stock or for each kind of machinery that can be dedicated, and the concentrated system, in which everything is placed under one roof as far as possible, or the buildings are at least connected. The advantages of the first system may be stated as follows:
1. A greater amount of lot room is possible.
2. Different kinds of animals are separated.
3. There is less destruction in case of fire.
4. It is more economical for the storage of certain crops and machinery.
5. Better lighting is secured: wide barns are necessarily dark.
In turn, the following arguments may be advanced for the concentrated system:
1. The first cost is less: needed space is secured with the minimum of wall surface.
2. There is less expense for maintenance.
3. It is more economical of labor.
4. Better fire protection can be provided.
5. Maneure can be handled to the best advantage.
It is proved that opinions regarding arrangements vary greatly. It is to be expected that opinions and tastes will differ, as well as conditions, and all of these will determine the best arrangement for any particular location. Most farmsteads are the result of growth and development, and for this reason are not what they would be if built entirely at one time. As changes are made and new buildings constructed it is well to
FARM STRUCTURES 401
keep in mind the desired features and to approach the ideal as far as possible.
In commercial life it has often been found a matter of good business to dismantle certain buildings designed for milk production and entirely rebuild them. There are, no doubt, many farms so equipped that it would be a good business investment to entirely dismantle the existing buildings and rebuild in such a way as to insure a more economic operation.
**QUESTIONS**
1. Give four reasons why the study of farm structures is important.
2. What percentage of the fixed capital of the farm is invested in farm buildings?
3. Explain how a convenient arrangement of farm buildings con-
serve labor.
4. In what way will comfortable buildings conserve feed?
5. How is the quality of dairy products influenced by the character of the farm buildings?
6. Upon what general conditions will the layout of the farm depend?
7. What are the principal features to be desired in the layout of a
farm?
8. What are some of the principles involved in laying out the farm?
9. Discuss the distributed system of farm buildings.
10. Discuss the concentrated system of farm buildings.
CHAPTER LXIII
MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
Definitions. Mechanics is that science which treats of the action of forces upon bodies and the effects which they produce.
Statics is that division of the science of mechanics which treats of the forces acting on a body at rest, or in equilibrium. In its widest design, statics is the principal branch of mechanics to be considered, as nearly all the forces involved are those of rest.
Action of a Force. A force acting upon a body tends to produce motion in two ways:
1. It tends to produce motion in the direction of the force.
2. If a point of the body be fixed, it tends to produce motion about that point.
Condition of Equilibrium. Since a force acting upon a body tends to produce motion in two ways, the following conditions must be fulfilled in order that equilibrium exist:
1. The resultant of all the forces tending to move the body in any direction must be zero.
2. The resultant of all the forces tending to turn the body about any point must be zero.
The moment of a force about a point is the product of the force into the perpendicular distance from the line of the force to the point.
Moments tending to produce clockwise rotation are called positive moments, and those tending to produce counterclockwise motion, negative moments.
FARM STRUCTURES 403
Equilibrium of Moments. The forces acting upon a body are in equilibrium when the algebraic sum of their moments about any one point is equal to zero.
Stress. A stress is the resistance offered by a rigid body to an external force tending to produce deformation of its form. A rope suspending a weight is under stress. If a section of the rope be taken at any point, the force exerted by the part of the rope on one side of the section on the part on the other side to prevent the rope from parting or breaking, is termed the stress at a section. This word is used in two different senses for stress but strain is the change of form produced by a stress. Simple stresses are of three kinds,—tensile, compressive, and shearing.
Stresses are measured in pounds or tons in countries using English units. The pound is the more often used.
Tensile Stresses are those tending to pull the object or material in two ways to stretch it. A rope suspending a weight is under a tensile stress. A tie rod in a truss is subjected to tensile stress.
Compressive Stresses. Compressive stresses are those tending to crush the object or material into that placed on a column or on a foundation.
Shearing Stresses. Shearing stresses are those tending to slide one portion of the material over another, or when there is a tendency to cut.
The stress on riveted joint is a good example of complex stresses. Complex stresses are those formed by a combination of simple stresses. The stresses in beams are usually complex.
![]() A sketch illustrating tensile stress.
![]() A sketch illustrating compressive stress.
![]() A sketch illustrating shearing stress.
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Unit stress is the stress per unit area. Stresses are usually measured in pounds, and areas in square inches. The total stress divided by the area of cross section in square inches will give the unit stress.
$$S = \frac{P}{A}$$
when P = total stress in pounds.
A = area of cross section in square inches.
S = unit stress.
This rule applies only when the total stress is uniformly distributed and the stress is a simple stress.
Elasticity. Most bodies when subjected to a stress will be deformed. The amount the body is changed in shape is termed the deformation. An elastic body will regain its former shape when a stress is removed, if it has not been too great. Up to a certain limit the amount of change in shape is proportional to the stress. If the unit stress be increased to such an extent that the material will not regain its original shape after being deformed, the stress has passed beyond the elastic limit of the material.
Ultimate Strength. If the unit stress of any material be increased until rupture or breakage occurs, the stress pro-
ducing the failure is the ultimate strength of the material. If the nature be produced by a sudden increase in load, the ultimate strength so obtained is called the tensile strength. In like manner the ultimate compressive and shearing strengths are obtained. The breaking load divided by the original cross section gives the ultimate strength.
Working Stress. The greatest stress allowed in any part of a framed structure is called the working stress of that part.
In turn, the working strength of a material to be used for a certain purpose is determined by the stresses to which the material ought to be subjected when so used.
**FARM STRUCTURES**
405
**Factor of Safety.** The factor of safety is the ratio of the ultimate strength to the working stress of a material.
$$f = \frac{S}{\sigma}$$
where $S$ = ultimate strength, $\sigma$ = working strength, $f$ = factor of safety.
The engineer in charge of design is called upon to decide the factor of safety to be used.
The factor of safety should (1) be much below the elastic limit, (2) be large for varying loads, (3) be larger for non-uniform materials.
| Materials |
For steady stress |
For varying stress |
For shocks, etc. |
|
Timber |
8 |
10 |
15 |
Brick and stone. |
15 |
25 |
30 |
Cable. |
6 |
10 |
15 |
Wrought iron. |
4 |
6 |
10 |
Steel. |
5 |
7 |
15 |
This table is taken from an architect's handbook, and the factors of safety here recommended are nearly twice as large as are commonly used in designing farm structures.
**QUESTIONS**
1. Define mechanics. Define statics.
2. In what two ways does a force acting on a body tend to produce motion?
3. What are the two conditions for equilibrium?
4. Define moment of force.
5. What are the three types of moments exist?
6. Define stress. Define strain.
7. Describe a tensile stress. A compressive stress. A shearing stress.
8. Explain what is meant by the elastic limit of a material.
9. Define ultimate strength. Working stress. Factor of safety.
10. Upon what conditions will the size of the factor of safety depend?
CHAPTER LXIV
MECHANICS OF MATERIALS AND MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
The Strength of Beams. The strength of a beam or its ability to support a load depends upon three principal factors: (1) The way the beam is stressed or the way the load is applied or distributed and the beam supported; (2) the way the materials are arranged; and (3) the kind of material. These factors are represented by the maximum bending moment, the modulus of section, and the modulus of rupture.
The Bending Moment. The bending moment is a measure of the tendency of a beam to bend. A beam to be fixed solidly at one end, as would be the case if it extends into a solid wall, and a load or a weight to be suspended at the extreme end, as shown in Fig. 258. It is to be noted that the greatest stress in the beam would be at the point where it enters the wall. The stresses produced would tend to pull the material in two at the upper side and to crush it on the lower. If the weight be placed somewhere between the wall and the end, the stress on the beam would be less than in the first instance; in fact, the stress would be in direct proportion to the distance from the wall to the weight. The stress would also be in direct proportion to the size of the weight. Thus the tendency to break the beam, or the
![]() Fig. 258. A sketch showing a diagrammatic view of a beam supporting a load at one end and being fixed solidly at another end.
A diagrammatic view of a beam supporting a load at one end and being fixed solidly at another end.
FARM STRUCTURES 407
stress at the wall, would be twice as great for a 20-pound load as for a 10-pound load. It is to be noticed that the stress would be greater at the point where the beam enters the wall than at any other point; or, in other words, the maximum bending moment occurs at that point.
Expressed in the form of a formula:
where B M is the maximum bending moment, W the weight, and L the length of the loaded section.
If the beam be supported at both ends or extend into the wall at both ends, the maximum bending moment would have an entire- ly different value; thus, for a beam resting in supports at both ends with a load at one end,
$$\text{B M} = \frac{1}{4} \times \text{W L}$$
If the load be uniformly distributed over the beam, then
$$\text{B M} = \frac{1}{2} \times \text{W L}$$
The Modulus of Section. It is generally known that a 2x4 piece of wood will support a greater load when placed on edge than when laid flat. The modulus of section is simply a measure of the strength of a beam in relation to its cross-section of material. Thus, for a beam with a rectangular cross section,
$$\text{M S} = \frac{\text{bf}^2}{6}$$
where M S is the modulus of section, f the depth of the beam in inches, and b the depth of the beam in inches.
Thus it is seen that a 2x4-inch beam is twice as strong when set on edge as when laid on the flat; for, when placed on edge,
$$\text{M S} = \frac{\text{bf}^2}{6} = \frac{2 \times (4 \times 4)}{6} = \frac{32}{6} = 5.33$$
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If placed on the flat,
$$\frac{M S}{6} = \frac{4 \times 2 \times 2}{6} = \frac{16}{6} = \frac{8}{3}$$
or just one-half of the value previously obtained.
The Modulus of Rupture. The modulus of rupture is a measure of the strength of the material to resist transverse or bending stresses. Thus oak is stronger than pine. The modulus of rupture for various woods is given in the table which furnishes the values of the modulus of rupture quite generally used.
All of the values are per square inch of cross section.
| Wood |
Modulus of Rupture (psi) |
| White pine |
7,000 |
| Yellow pine |
5,000 |
| Oak |
13,000 |
| Hickory |
14,000 |
| Cast iron |
65,000 |
| Mild steel |
45,000 |
Formula for Beams. The general formula for beams may now be stated as follows:
$$Bending moment = \frac{\text{modulus of selection} \times rapture modulus}{factor of safety}$$
This formula may be used in calculating the strength of beams, but it is given here principally to explain how the strength of a beam is calculated. The following tables give the strength of columns or posts and beams.
Safe Strength of White Pine Beams. The following table gives the safe loads for horizontal, rectangular beams
| Depth of Beam |
Span in feet |
|
6 |
8 |
10 |
12 |
14 |
16 |
| 6 |
720 |
540 |
432 |
360 |
308 |
|
| 8 |
984 |
753 |
648 |
549 |
492 |
|
| 8 |
1280 |
968 |
768 |
640 |
548 |
|
| 10 |
2000 |
1500 |
1200 |
1000 |
857 |
|
| 12 |
2832 |
2160 |
1872 |
1632 |
1399 |
|
| 14 |
3920 |
2940 |
2352 |
1960 |
1680 |
|
409
one inch wide with loads uniformly distributed. If the load be concentrated at the center, divide by two.
For oak or Northern yellow pine, the tabular values may be multiplied by 1$\frac{3}{4}$; for Georgia yellow pine, by 1$\frac{3}{4}$.
For a discussion of the materials used in the construction of farm machinery, see Chapter XXXI.
**Safe Load in Pounds for White Pine or Spruce Posts.***
Size of post
in inches |
Length of post in feet |
|
8 |
10 |
12 |
14 |
16 |
| 4x4 |
7,680 |
7,033 |
6,533 |
|
|
| 4x6 |
11,520 |
10,550 |
9,800 |
|
|
| 5x6 |
12,800 |
12,000 |
11,200 |
|
|
| 6x6 |
19,090 |
18,216 |
17,352 |
16,490 |
15,620 |
| 7x6 |
23,480 |
22,550 |
21,620 |
|
|
| 8x6 |
31,800 |
30,300 |
29,820 |
28,780 |
27,940 |
| 7x8 |
24,220 |
23,350 |
22,540 |
21,690 |
20,930 |
| 8x8 |
35,450 |
34,590 |
33,730 |
|
|
| 8x10 |
44,320 |
43,480 |
42,640 |
|
|
| 9x8 |
47,970 |
47,130 |
46,310 |
|
|
| 9x10 |
60,000 |
59,090 |
58,260 |
| Square inch and weight from 153 to 199 pounds per cubic foot. | Square inch and weight from 153 to 199 pounds per cubic foot. | Square inch and weight from 153 to 199 pounds per cubic foot. | Square inch and weight from 153 to 199 pounds per cubic foot. | Square inch and weight from 153 to 199 pounds per cubic foot. |
|---|
| | *Kidder's Pocket Book. | *Kidder's Pocket Book.
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Sandstone of a good grade is an excellent building material. It has a strength of about 11,000 pounds per square inch and weighs about 140 pounds per cubic foot.
The sandstone is usually white, but may be any color durable, as a rule. A good stone will not absorb more than 5 per cent of its weight of water when soaked in water for 24 hours.
**Brick.** Brick is a material quite generally used over the country, and when of a good quality is quite satisfactory. Brick should be of uniform size, true and square, and when broken should show a uniform and dense structure. Good brick will not absorb moisture to an extent greater than 10 per cent of its weight, and the best will absorb less than 5 per cent. The crushing strength of brick should exceed 400 pounds per square inch.
![]() Hollow clay building blocks.
Fig. 268. Hollow clay building blocks.
Hollow clay blocks or tile are made of the same material as brick, and should have the same characteristics. Clay blocks are lighter than brick, and so the cost of shipping is less. They cost less by volume, and more wall can be built in a given time than with common brick.
**Lime.** Lime is used in mortar where the greater durability and strength of cement mortar are not needed. Quick lime should be in large lumps and should be free from cinders and dust. When placed with water it should form a paste without lumps. The regular lime mortar is usually made of 1 part of lime to 2 or 3 of sand.
**Portland Cement.** Portland cement is now generally used in the making of mortar and concrete. It should be finely
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411
ground and should set or harden neither too quickly nor too slowly. It should show a high tensile strength when hardened and sufficiently aged. It should not check, crack, or crumble on hardening. Where concrete is to be used in considerable quantities it should be carefully tested by standard tests.
Sands. Sand should be clean, durable, coarse, and free from vegetable and other foreign matter. Coarse sand is preferable to fine sand because the percentage of voids or open space between the sand grains is less.
Concrete. In a general way concrete consists of mortar in which there is imbedded more or less coarse material, like
![]()
A bottle of cement.
A block of sand.
A stone.
Concrete.
Fig. 851. Material required to make concrete to the proportioning of 1 part of cement, 2 parts of sand, and 3 parts of broken stone.
gravel or broken stone, called the aggregate. Thus it is seen that if the aggregate be good, durable material and the mortar be sufficient in quantity to surround all of the aggregate, the whole will be as strong as the mortar. In preparing concrete, therefore, it is desirable to obtain as dense a mixture as is practicable.
The mixtures indicated in the following table are in common use, and the amount of material required to make a cubic yard of concrete in each case is also given.
A rich mixture is used for beams, columns, and water-tight constructions.
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
Material for one yard of concrete of different proportions.
| Mixture |
Proportions |
Cement, bbls. |
Sand, bbls. |
Gravel, bbls. |
| Rich |
1:2:4 |
1.57 |
3.14 |
6.28 |
| Medium |
1:2:5:4 |
1.29 |
3.25 |
6.45 |
| Ordinary |
1:3:6:8 |
1.00 |
3.30 |
6.60 |
| Lean |
1:4:8 |
.85 |
3.40 |
6.80 |
Additional note: 1 bbl. of Portland cement weighs 376 lbs.; a sack, 48 lbs. A barrel contains 5.5 cu. ft. between heads. Concrete weighs about 150 lbs. per cu. ft.
A medium mixture is used for thin foundation walls and for floors and sidewalks.
An ordinary mixture is used for heavy walls which are not subject to heavy strains.
A lean mixture is used for heavy work where the material is subjected to only compressive stresses.
Reinforcement. Concrete is a very good material to carry compressive stresses. Concrete and steel have very nearly the same coefficient of expansion for changes in temperature. This makes possible the use of steel bars in concrete to resist tensile stresses, thereby reducing the amount of steel required in building construction.
Fig. 265. Sketch showing a combination of these materials to resist tensile stresses in building construction.
The steel is placed in position to resist tensile stresses to the best advantage, and then the concrete is poured over it. When used economically the cross-sectional area of the steel is equal to $\frac{1}{4}$ to 1 per cent of the cross-sectional area of the beams. The steel is usually placed from $\frac{1}{4}$ to 1 inch beneath the surface of the concrete, in order to be thoroughly protected from corrosion.
![]() A sketch showing a combination of concrete and steel bars to resist tensile stresses in building construction.
FARM STRUCTURES 413
QUESTIONS
1. Upon what three factors does the strength of a beam depend?
2. Define maximum bending moment.
3. What is the maximum bending moment for a beam 120 inches long and loaded at the center with 1000 pounds?
4. Define modulus of section.
5. What is the modulus of section for a 2x8?
6. Define modulus of rupture.
7. What is the modulus of rupture for white pine? Oak? Catt iron?
8. Give the general formula for beams.
9. What load will a 2x8 white pine beam carry if the beam be 10 feet long and the load be concentrated at the center? If the load be uniformly distributed over the length of the beam?
10. Give the principal characteristics of the following building materials: stone, brick, lime, Portland cement, sand, concrete.
11. Explain each rich, medium, ordinary, and lean mixtures; and the use of each.
12. Explain the principles involved in the reinforcing of concrete.
CHAPTER LXV
HOG HOUSES
Essentials. The essentials of a good hog house are warmth in winter, coolness in summer, dryness, good ventilation, and adequate light. In addition it should be so arranged and located as to be convenient not only for caring for the animals but also for securing pastureage. A building which thoroughly protects its occupants from rain and moisture is essential, even though for all but the colder climates. Parrowing houses must, of course, be made warm.
Location. Drainage is highly important, and a well-drained location should always be selected. If the soil is of a porous or gravely nature, it will make a more desirable site.
Types of Hog Houses. There are two general types of hog houses in common use. The first type is the individual or colony hog house, or not, as it is sometimes called, which is usually made portable and of sufficient size to accommodate one sow or farrowing house or one litter of pigs as they grow to maturity.
The second type is the large or concentrated hog house, sometimes called the combined hog house, or pigpen, and provides several pens under one roof. This type of building is of more elaborate construction, and in many instances special care is used in the construction to secure a warm building for farrowing purposes.
Advantages of the Colony House. There is much difference of opinion, even among practical hog raisers and breeders, in regard to the relative merits of the two types of hog
FARM STRUCTURES 415
houses which have been described. The advantages of the individual or colony house may be summarized as follows:
1. Each sow is free from disturbance at farrowing time.
2. Each litter is reared by itself, and too many pigs are not placed in a common lot.
3. The house may be located at the opposite end of the lot from the feed trough, thus requiring the hogs to exercise.
4. There is less danger of spreading disease, owing to the fact that each family is quite effectively isolated.
5. If the location of the house becomes unsanitary, it may be moved.
**Advantages of the Large Hog House.** The following advantages may be claimed for the large or concentrated hog house:
1. This type is almost essential for early litters in northern climates. It is possible to construct a warmer building to begin with, and, if necessary, artificial heat may be provided by means of a stove or heating plant.
2. It saves time in handling and feeding the pigs. In other words, less time is lost going from pen to pen. The distribution of feed and water becomes a big task where there are many pens to look after and where they are located at several different places on the farm.
3. The concentrated house saves fencing.
4. The large house is generally of more durable construction and of better appearance, adding thereby to the value of the farm.
5. It permits of larger pastures, which are more convenient to renew or cultivate when rotated with other crops.
Both types of houses are successfully used by practical men, and their choice must depend upon local conditions and individual tastes.
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Dimensions. A farrowing pen should contain from 40 to 140 square feet of floor. A common size is 8 by 10 feet. Stock hogs should have 6 to 12 square feet of floor, varying with their age. A farrowing pen usually has an outside pen, also, having an area of from 128 to 160 square feet or more.
![]() A diagram showing the dimensions of a hog house.
The cubic feet of air space per hog is not taken into consideration. Portable or individual hog houses are usually 6 by 8 feet or 8 by 8 feet.
When ventilating flues are provided, about 8 square inches of cross section should be provided for each grown animal.
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417
THE INDIVIDUAL HOG HOUSE
Construction. The individual hog house is constructed in a variety of shapes, of which the more general are the A-shaped house and the shed- and the gable-roofed houses. There does not seem to be a great difference in the merits of one shape over the other.
The A-shaped house has the walls and roof combined. It is usually built with 1/2 boards, with the cracks covered with battens. The door should be about 2 feet wide and 2 feet 6 inches high. A small window is usually located at each end of the house. A small ventilator in the ridge of the roof is desirable. It is recommended that the door be covered with burlap to prevent drafts in cold weather. Some breeders
![]() Side elevation of the house shown in Fig. 203.
Fig. 204. Side elevation of the house shown in Fig. 203.
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
prefer a cloth covering for the windows in place of window glass.
This type of house is generally built on skids or runners, which facilitate its moving from one location to another. These runners may best be made of 4 x 6 pieces, although 2 x 6 pieces are quite often used. Reinforced concrete skids have been used successfully for portable houses and have the advantages of being light and easily moved.
**Shed-roof House.** The shed-roof house takes more material than any other shape, and is not generally made. The floor, sides, ends, and roof may be so made as to be taken apart for moving. Such construction might be an advantage where the house is to be moved over a long distance; otherwise the use of skids would be far more convenient.
**Gable-roof House.** The gable-roof portable house has many advantages, the principal one being the convenience of having certain sections of the roof arranged for opening during mild weather and allowing the direct sunlight to enter. This can be done more effectually when the house is located east and west and a section of the south half of the roof is made to open. One or both of these sections may also be placed on hinges to open during warm weather.
This house is built on skids, and should be provided with the window and burlap curtain like the A type of house.
![]() End elevation of gable-roof colony house.
Fig. 268. End elevation of gable-roof colony house.
Zero Vars
FARM STRUCTURES 419
THE LARGE OR CONCENTRATED HOG HOUSE
Large hog houses, as distinguished from the colony house, vary largely in the arrangement of the windows, or the natural lighting. The value of direct sunlight in the hog house is generally appreciated.
Construction. Houses are usually located so as to extend east and west, and when so located should have the half-monitor or saw-tooth type of roof. The windows of this type are so arranged that those in the lower row permit the sun to shine into the first row of pens, and the upper row into the row of pens on the north side of the building. Hog houses built to extend north and south usually have gable roofs, and a row of windows on either side.
There is much difference of opinion in regard to the relative merits of these two types of roofs. It is safe to say that either will prove entirely satisfactory when properly constructed.
The half-monitor roof requires more material than the gable-roof house. The upper part of the building is solely for the purpose of letting sunlight into the black pens. Such construction prevents the proper control of the temperature, as there is a large pocket above into which the warm air may leak in each time the door is opened. The room thus is shaded more or less throughout the entire year. The open-
![]() A floor plan of a large hog house.
FIG. 268. A floor plan of a large hog house.
The upper part of the building is solely for the purpose of letting sunlight into the black pens. Such construction prevents the proper control of the temperature, as there is a large pocket above into which the warm air may leak in each time the door is opened. The room thus is shaded more or less throughout the entire year. The open-
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ings on the north side of the building are criticised severely by some as being highly undesirable. On the other hand, the principal redeeming feature of this type of house is that the windows may be placed so as to do the most good.
The house is 30 feet long and 18 feet wide at the eaves, and 30 feet wide. It is desirable that the alley-way be 8 feet wide, to permit a team and wagon to be driven through the house when desired. The pens at either side may be from 8 to 12 feet deep and about 8 feet wide. Fig. 267 shows a cross section of a house with the windows well arranged.
A cross section of a gable-roof hog house is shown in Fig. 278. The sunlight enters the east windows early in the morning and travels across the floor, as the sun rises higher, until nearly noon, when it is excluded until it begins to shine in through the west windows. It is to be noticed that this type of house uses only one-half of the space available, owing to the fact that there is not so much space in the upper part of the house.
![]() A cross-sectional diagram of a hog house with half moon roof. The diagram shows two sections of the house, one on each side of the central aisle. The central aisle is 18 feet wide and runs from left to right. The pen on the left side of the aisle is 14 feet wide and extends from top to bottom. The pen on the right side of the aisle is also 14 feet wide and extends from top to bottom. The roof of the house is a gable roof with a half moon shape on each end. The half moon shape on each end of the roof is called a "half moon" roof. The half moon shape on each end of the roof is called a "half moon" roof. The half moon shape on each end of the roof is called a "half moon" roof.
Fig. 267. A cross section of a hog house with half moon roof. This is located so as to exclude the warm air.
![]() A cross-sectional diagram of a hog house with half moon roof. The diagram shows two sections of the house, one on each side of the central aisle. The central aisle is 18 feet wide and runs from left to right. The pen on the left side of the aisle is 14 feet wide and extends from top to bottom. The pen on the right side of the aisle is also 14 feet wide and extends from top to bottom. The roof of the house is a gable roof with a half moon shape on each end. The half moon shape on each end of the roof is called a "half moon" roof. The half moon shape on each end of the roof is called a "half moon" roof. The half moon shape on each end of the roof is called a "half moon" roof.
Fig. 267. A cross section of a hog house with half moon roof. This is located so as to exclude the warm air.
![]() A cross-sectional diagram of a hog house with half moon roof. The diagram shows two sections of the house, one on each side of the central aisle. The central aisle is 18 feet wide and runs from left to right. The pen on the left side of the aisle is 14 feet wide and extends from top to bottom. The pen on the right side of the aisle is also 14 feet wide and extends from top to bottom. The roof of the house is a gable roof with a half moon shape on each end. The half moon shape on each end of the roof is called a "half moon" roof. The half moon shape on each end of the roof is called a "half moon" roof. The half moon shape on each end of the roof is called a "half moon" roof.
Fig. 267. A cross section of a hog house with half moon roof. This is located so as to exclude the warm air.
![]() A cross-sectional diagram of a hog house with half moon roof. The diagram shows two sections of the house, one on each side of the central aisle. The central aisle is 18 feet wide and runs from left to right. The pen on the left side of the aisle is 14 feet wide and extends from top to bottom. The pen on the right side of the aisle is also 14 feet wide and extends from top to bottom. The roof of the house is a gable roof with a half moon shape on each end. The half moon shape on each end of the roof is called a "half moon" roof. The half moon shape on each end of the roof is called a "half moon" roof. The half moon shape on each end of the roof is called a "half moon" roof.
Fig. 267. A cross section of a hog house with half moon roof. This is located so as to exclude the warm air.
![]() A cross-sectional diagram of a hog house with half moon roof. The diagram shows two sections of the house, one on each side of the central aisle. The central aisle is 18 feet wide and runs from left to right. The pen on the left side of the aisle is 14 feet wide and extends from top to bottom. The pen on the right side of the aisle is also 14 feet wide and extends from top to bottom. The roof of the house is a gable roof with a half moon shape on each end. The half moon shape on each end of the roof is called a "half moon" roof. The half moon shape on each end of the roof is called a "half moon" roof. The half moon shape on each end of the roof is called a "half moon" roof.
Fig. 267. A cross section of a hog house with half moon roof. This is located so as to exclude the warm air.
![]() A cross-sectional diagram of a hog house with half moon roof. The diagram shows two sections of the house, one on each side of the central aisle. The central aisle is 18 feet wide and runs from left to right. The pen on the left side of the aisle is 14 feet wide and extends from top to bottom. The pen on the right side of the aisle is also 14 feet wide and extends from top to bottom. The roof of the house is a gable roof with a half moon shape on each end. The half moon shape on each end of the roof is called a "half moon" roof. The half moon shape on each end of the roof is called a "half moon" roof. The half moon shape on each end of the roof is called a "half moon" roof.
Fig. 267. A cross section of a hog house with half moon roof. This is located so as to exclude the warm air.
![]() A cross-sectional diagram of a hog house with half moon roof. The diagram shows two sections of the house, one on each side of the central aisle. The central aisle is 18 feet wide and runs from left to right. The pen on the left side of the aisle is 14 feet wide and extends from top to bottom. The pen on the right side of the aisle is also 14 feet wide and extends from top to bottom. The roof of the house is a gable roof with a half moon shape on each end. The half moon shape on each end of the roof is called a "half moon" roof. The half moon shape on each end of the roof is called a "half moon" roof. The half moon shape on each end of the roof is called a "half moon" roof.
Fig. 267. A cross section of a hog house with half moon roof. This is located so as to exclude the warm air.
![]() A cross-sectional diagram of a hog house with half moon roof. The diagram shows two sections of the house, one on each side of the central aisle. The central aisle is 18 feet wide and runs from left to right. The pen on the left side of
FARM STRUCTURES 421
The lighting of this type of house is sometimes augmented by building a monitor above the alley-way and supplying two additional rows of windows. This construction adds con-
![]()
A cross-section diagram of a hog house with gable roof.
Description: The diagram shows a cross-section of a hog house with a gable roof. The structure has two main sections: the upper section (the gable) and the lower section (the body). The gable section is divided into two parts: the left part has a window on the side, while the right part has a window on the opposite side. The body section is divided into three parts: the left part has a window on the side, the middle part is open, and the right part has a window on the opposite side. The roof is sloped and has a ridge line running along its center. The walls are made of wood and have vertical slats.
Fig. 248. Cross section of a hog house with gable roof.
considerably to the cost. A type of house which is being used and developed in Iowa is one with a skylight running throughout the entire length of the building. This system of lighting
![]()
A cross-section diagram of a hog house with a skylight in the roof.
Description: The diagram shows a cross-section of a hog house with a skylight in the roof. The structure has two main sections: the upper section (the roof) and the lower section (the body). The roof section has a skylight in the center, allowing light to enter. The body section is divided into three parts: the left part has a window on the side, the middle part is open, and the right part has a window on the opposite side. The walls are made of wood and have vertical slats.
Fig. 249. Cross section of a hog house with a skylight in the roof. Enter light through skylight in center of roof.
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is obviously the best of all, as a solid band of sunlight must pass across the building every day, striking every part. With windows, only spots of direct sunlight enter the building, and even when great care is used in the design of the building this light strikes but a relatively small proportion of the total floor area. In many such types of buildings a portion of the entire building not covered by the sun's rays may be provided to light this portion thoroughly.
The objection has been raised that this skylight would be damaged by hail. An investigation shows that the loss of greenhouse glass is not great, and it would be possible to protect the glass with a wire net if thought befit. This construction, however, does not seem to be necessary, as the cost of wire and the cost of the sash for the skylight is not much greater than the cost of regular roofing materials. In some instances it may be necessary to arrange a shade under the skylight if the house is to be used much during the summer months.
The Foundation. The foundation of a hog house need not be heavy. A 6-inch concrete wall or an 8-inch brick wall will be found adequate if placed on a 12-inch footing. The foundation should extend below the frost line if the building is to retain its shape well.
Flooring. Wood and concrete are used for the hog house floors. Earth is objectionable on account of the difficulty of cleaning the floor constantly. Plank is not desirable, for it furnishes a harbor for rats. Concrete makes a very desirable floor but has the objection of being cold. Many practical breeders find that this objection has little weight if the floor be placed upon thoroughly drained soil and the hogs are provided with liberal amounts of bedding. A porosity in the floor will be overcome both ways. The usual sidewalk construction should be used for concrete floors.
FARM STRUCTURES 423
**Walls.** Drop siding upon 2 x 4 studding two feet on center is usually used for the walls of the hog house. In cold climates this construction with a layer of sheeting and building paper between should be used. Ship-lap makes a very desirable covering for the inside of the house.
Clay blocks make a very good wall, and are cheap. No doubt they will come into more general use. Concrete walls are very desirable, and, where gravel and sand can be secured cheaply, are much to be preferred over less durable construction.
**The Roof.** The usual method of constructing the roof is to lay shingles or prepared roofing over sheathing in the usual way. When nearly flat roofs are used, as with the half-monitor types, prepared roofing is preferable.
**Partitions.** Partitions should be 3/4 feet high. Solid partitions are advised by a few, as they keep the hogs separate; but when the hogs have become accustomed to seeing one another and the attendant they give little trouble from interference or fright. Doors and troughs should be arranged for convenience. The front partitions may be arranged to swing over the troughs for handy cleaning and feeding. Metal partitions, made of a metal frame with woven wire fencing across, have not generally proven satisfactory. As usually made they are not stiff enough, and generally give trouble from bending out of shape. If made heavy, metal partitions are quite expensive.
![]() Fig. 779. A gable-roof hog house made of concrete blocks.
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**QUESTIONS**
1. What are the essentials of a good hog house?
2. Where should a hog house be located?
3. Describe two types of hog houses.
4. Give the principal advantages and disadvantages of each type.
5. What is the purpose of a hog house?
6. Describe the following types of individual hog houses: the A-shaped, the shed-roof house, and the gable-roof house.
7. Describe the arrangement of windows in the half-monitor and gable-roof houses.
8. Explain how a skylight may be used effectively to light a hog house.
9. Describe the construction of the foundation, the floor, the walls, and the roof of a large hog house.
10. Discuss the construction and arrangement of partitions in a large hog house.
CHAPTER LXVI
POULTRY HOUSES
Location. Poultry houses should be located on well-drained, porous soil. Surface drainage is important, and, if necessary, it is always possible to modify the surface by grading. A gentle slope to the south or the southeast is best. A good windbreak is necessary, but there should be sufficient air drainage.
Poultry houses should not be made a part of, or located near, other farm buildings which may furnish a harbor for vermin that will prey upon the young fowls. Poultry houses may be quite close to the dwelling house, as in many instances the women of the farm have the care of the poultry.
Dimensions. Modern poultry houses are usually built on the basis of 100 square feet per each flock of 25 to 100 birds. There has been much development of each flock in regard to the amount of air and sunlight admitted to the poultry house; in fact, some houses are now built with one side entirely open to the weather. The poultry house is seldom built wider than 12 feet, although wider buildings may be more economical as far as space obtained for material used in feeding is concerned. The unit or section is usually 16 feet long.
Space for Each Fowl. The space for each fowl is usually based on the area of floor surface rather than upon the cubical space. Four to six square feet is usually allowed for each fowl. The breed of the fowl, the range or size of the lot, the climate, and the size of the house are factors to be taken into account in deciding upon the amount of space for each fowl.
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Small birds require less space, and the wider the range the less the space required. More space is needed if close con-
finement is necessary on account of the weather; and if the
flock is large each individual bird will have more freedom,
![]()
A plan of a modern colony poultry house. (1a. Eng.
89n. Bull. 132.)
Fig. 771. Plan of an American colony poultry house.
requiring less space per fowl. In some instances the floor
space per fowl has been reduced to 2½ square feet.
It is a good rule to allow at least one cubic foot for each
pound of live weight, or from 5 to 20 cubic feet per fowl. If
enough height be provided for convenience in caring for the
fowls, there will be plenty of volume.
The foundation of these houses are of light con-
struction and do not need elaborate or expensive founda-
tions. Colony houses are built upon skids. It is well that
the foundation of the nonportable houses be so constructed
as to exclude rats. If clay blocks or other masonry con-
struction be used, the foundation should extend below the
freez line, to overcome the damage which might be done by
FARM STRUCTURES 427
the heaving action of the frost. Masonry foundations are to be preferred on account of their greater durability.
**Walls.** Any wall construction will be satisfactory so long as it will prevent drafts, retain the heat, prevent the condensation of moisture, and furnish a smooth surface which may be easily cleaned by rain and other vermin. The following wall construc-
tions are generally used:
1. Walls made of a single thickness of boards, matched or battened.
Pls. 173, 174. The walls shown in Fig. 173 are too cold for anything except southern climates. Building paper may be used on the inside of the boards to make the walls air-tight.
2. Double wall, same as above, except ceiled on the inside. For general use this construction is fairly warm but gives trouble from condensation of moisture.
3. Same wall as No. 2, but the space between the outside and inside boards is filled with hay or other insulating material. This is a very warm wall and gives little trouble from condensation.
4. Same as No. 3, except the inside sheeting is replaced with lath and hard plaster. The latter gives a finish which may be thoroughly disinfected when desired.
5. Masonry walls of concrete or clay building blocks. Concrete makes a good wall for a poultry house if made double.
![]() A diagram showing the arrangement of a double-walled house.
FRONT ELEVATION
PLAN OF THE HOUSE SHOWN IN FIGS. 173 AND 174
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6. Small houses may be covered with prepared roofing laid over plain or matched lumber. Such construction is warm and air-tight.
Floors. The cheapest floor for the poultry house is the earth floor, but it is likely to give trouble from dampness, and is dusty and difficult to keep clean. Clay should be used for the floor in preference to a loam soil. The earth surface may be removed occasionally, or the entire floor may be replaced with new earth. Another objection to the earth floor is that it is not vermin-proof.
Board floors are quite expensive, not very desirable, and, to be warm, should be made double, with a layer of tar paper between the two layers of boards. Board floors are likely to form a harbor for rats.
Cement floors are the most durable, the easiest to clean and disinfect, and are quite reasonable in cost. The objec-
![]() PERSPECTIVE OF NESTS
Fig. 273. Detail of nest shown in Fig 272.
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FARM STRUCTURES 429
tions to the cement floor are that they are very hard, cold, and quite likely to be damp. A liberal use of litter on the floor will overcome the first two objections. If placed on well-
![]()
A diagram showing a section of a roof with a drop-off board.
Roosts and Dropping Board
Fig. 274. Detail of roosts and dropping board.
drained soil or on a porous foundation ofinders or gravel the floors ought not to give any trouble from dampness. Light sidewalk construction makes a satisfactory floor.
Roofs. The roofs of poultry houses are made in various shapes, the principal object sought with any style is to secure plenty of windows with the least material. Although gable
![]()
A perspective view of a house frame.
Perspective Framing
Fig. 275. The frame of the house of Fig. 271 to 274.
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
roofs and half-monitor roofs are used to quite an extent, the shed-roof house, extending east and west with the slope of the roof to the north, is the prevailing type in this country. This type of roof gives an abundance of room for windows or muslin curtains. Where the house is made portable and is to be moved among trees, as would be the case in an
![]() A photograph of a house shown in Figs. 271 and 272.
Fig. 275. A photograph of the house shown in Figs. 271 and 272.
orchard, the combination roof may be used to advantage. This roof is like the shed roof, except a small portion is made to slope to the front, reducing the height of the building.
Shingles may be used for the roof if the pitch is one-third or greater, and baling paper is used under the shingles to make the roof air-tight.
FARM STRUCTURES 431
Prepared roofing is very satisfactory for the roofs of poultry houses, as it is air-tight, and when a good quality is used its durability will compare favorably with shingles.
![]() Diagram showing a simple roof design with a center ridge and two side rafters extending to the eaves.
Roofs and Center House can be removed separately from the Poultry House
Note doors may be omitted
Fig. 272. Plan of a farm poultry house with shed roof. (12. Exp. Bldg. 12.) Windows. It is recommended by good authority that they should be at least 1 square foot of window glass well placed for each 16 square feet of floor area. The tendency in the development of poultry-house construction has been toward large glass or curtain fronts facing the south to let in the warmth during the day. The muslin curtains are mounted on frames which permit them to be opened and closed with ease. The openings for the curtains are covered with wire cloth or netting.
![]() Plan of a poultry house with shed roof, showing windows, doors, and curtains.
PLAN
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
Doors. The doors for poultry houses are found to be the most convenient when hung on double-acting hinges. Doors so hung can be pushed open even if the hands are filled.
Partitions. The partitions in continuous houses may be made of boards or plaster. It is quite a common practice to use poultry netting for the upper part, but the lower part should always be made solid.
Ventilation. Although flues or the King system (see chapter on ventilation) could be used to ventilate poultry houses, ventilation is generally secured by means of cloth fronts. For other farm buildings this means of ventilation has not proven satisfactory, but has been successful with poultry houses.
Types. Poultry houses are constructed after two plans: (1) the colony system, consisting of isolated houses usually made portable for each flock; and (2) the continuous system, consisting of several adjoining units with pens for each.
![]() Front Elevation
Fig. 278. Front elevation accompanying Fig. 277.
FARM STRUCTURES 433
Development, however, has brought out the following three popular types of houses:
1. The scratching-shed house is built in sections containing two rooms, one for feeding and scratching and the other for roosting and laying.
2. The curtain-front house, commonly called the Maine Station House. In this construction the roosting and laying room is in the rear of the scratching pen.
3. The fresh air or Talmud house. In this house the front and parts of the sides are open. No more protection is secured for the fowl at night than during the day. This is essentially a colony house, but may also be constructed on the continuous plan.
**Nests:** The size of the nests will depend on the size and breed of the birds, but should be 12x12 inches and 5 inches
![]()
A diagram showing the layout of a nest box with a door on one side and a window on another. The door is labeled "Door" and the window is labeled "Window."
**Fig. 279.** Details of the nests of the house shown in Figs. 277, 278.
**Detail and Perspective Nests**
DETAILED PERSPECTIVE NESTS
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deep for Leghorns or small fowls, and 14x14x8 inches for Cochin or Brahmas.
**Special Features.** The poultry house should be wind proof and free from drafts. A curtain placed in front of the roosts will keep fowls warm in severe weather.
The nests should be dark, for hens lay better in such nests, and the egg-eating habit is prevented.
Due protection against mites and lice should be provided by making the house smooth and free from cracks on the inside.
The nests, roosts, and droppings board should be removable for cleaning or spraying.
The roosts should be about 21/4 feet from the floors, with all bars at the same height, as ladder roosts cause the birds to
![]() PERSPECTIVE ROOSTS
Fig. 298. Details of roosts of the house shown in Figs. 277 to 279.
crowd to the top bar. The roosts are best when about 2 inches wide and only the corners rounded, and rigid enough to prevent one bird from disturbing others on the same bar. The bars ought to be placed 12 to 14 inches apart and 8 to 12 inches allowed for each bird.
FARM STRUCTURES 435
**QUESTIONS**
1. Where should the poultry house be located?
2. How much space should be allowed for each fowl?
3. Describe suitable foundations and walls for poultry houses.
4. Discuss the arrangement of windows for poultry houses.
5. What are the common types of roofs for poultry houses?
6. What materials may be used to good advantage in the construction of poultry houses?
7. Discuss the management of windows for poultry houses.
8. What are the curtain fronts for poultry houses?
9. Discuss the arrangement and construction of doors and partitions.
10. What is the usual provision for ventilation in the poultry house?
11. Describe the usual types of poultry houses.
12. What are the special features of poultry-house construction.
13. Discuss some of the special features of poultry-house construction.
CHAPTER LXVII
DAIRY BARNS
Essentials. The essentials of a good dairy barn may be enumerated as follows:
1. Warmth. Dairy cows cannot be expected to produce well unless comfortably housed. Cows protected from cold require less feed.
2. Sanitation. Since dairy products are used for human food and since there is nothing that is so easily contaminated with filth as milk, cleanliness and sanitation is perhaps the most important factor in their construction.
3. Ventilation. In order that cows shall produce well and remain healthy, they must be provided with plenty of fresh air.
4. Light. As explained in another chapter, adequate natural lighting is necessary to guard against disease.
5. Drainage. Barns must be dry; damp barns breed disease. Ample drainage must be provided.
6. Convenience in handling stock and feed must be considered.
7. Box Stalls. The barn must have provision for box stalls, also pens for young stock and the bull, unless other provisions can be made.
8. Storage room of sufficient capacity to suit conditions must be provided for feed.
Types of Barns. Dairy barns may be classified according to the method of handling the cows and also according to the height of the building. The open feed room type of dairy barn is arranged to let the cows run loose, and has but
FARM STRUCTURES 457
a few stalls for use in milking. This style is well adapted to certified milk production, as each cow may be groomed before milking. An objection to this type of barn is that the cows cannot be fed individually. It saves time in feeding, however, and the cost of construction is low.
The barn with stalls is the more common type. In comparison with the other system it may be said to be economical of room space, as only one stall can be used for her proper ration. The cows are under better control, and it is easier to save and handle the litter.
Shed or single-story construction has the advantage of being well lighted and easily kept clean, but is not economical in construction. This type usually has a monitor roof, with a row of windows on each side. A loft or storage floor supplies economical space and enables the barn to be kept warm more easily. In this case all light must come from side windows.
The Foundation. The foundation for a dairy barn should extend below frost and should be on firm soil. The width of footing may vary from 12 to 16 inches. An 8-inch foundation wall of concrete or hard-brick burned is sufficiently strong; a wall of rubble work should be wider. Sills should be 12 to 15 inches above the floor.
![]() Fig. 231. Floor plan of a modern dairy barn.
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
**Walls.** It is essential to have a wall dry and warm, and smooth on the inside. Drop siding is often used on the outside of the studding and smooth ceiling on the inside. In mild climates a single wall is satisfactory, but in northern climates a double wall must be used. A cement-plastered wall on the inside is very suitable from a sanitary standpoint. In extreme cold weather, however, snow may accumulate on the hay or chaffing. A monolithic, or solid, concrete wall is damp, but a hollow wall is very satisfactory. These walls are made with about a 4-inch air space between a 5-inch outer wall and a 3-inch inner wall, reinforced and tied together with iron or steel headers or ties.
**Windows.** Windows should be placed to give maximum light, usually 6 square feet of glass to 20 to 25 feet of floor space is adequate.
**Space Required.** A common rule is to allow 1 cubic foot of space for each pound of live weight housed. For the average dairy cow 500 to 700 cubic feet is sufficient when there is proper ventilation. The stalls should be from 36 to 42 inches wide under average conditions. The ceiling is usually 8 feet in the clear.
**Floors.** Cement floors are the most satisfactory, but are condemned because they are cold. But if dry and provided with sufficient bedding, they should be satisfactory in every way. They are by far the most sanitary. Board floors may be used but are expensive and are difficult to clean. No woodwork should be imbedded in cement but have cork and wood blocks are used to some extent but have not passed beyond the experimental stage.
**The Roof.** Shingles or a high grade of prepared roofing may be used.
**Size of Gutter.** The gutter is usually 14 or 16 inches wide and 4 to 10 inches deep. The bottom may be level,
FARM STRUCTURES 439
crosswise, or sloping to one side. The latter is objectionable, as cows sometimes slip in a gutter with a sloping bottom. The gutter should have a slope lengthwise of 1/16 to 1/10 inch per foot for drainage.
Facing of Cows. Opinions differ as to the advantages of facing cows or when no faces of stalls are used. Stalls that are in any convenient position do not face the light, which is said to be injurious to their eyes. Ventilation may also be more effective. The opposite system
![]() Fig. 32. Interior of a modern dairy barn.
gives advantages in removing the litter and in milking and handling the cows.
**Mangers.** The mangers for dairy barns are made of plank, concrete, or sheet steel. Concrete mangers are more satisfactory than wooden mangers, but are more expensive. They should be made continuous, with a drain at one end for cleaning. The back side of the manger must be from 4 to 6 inches high, enabling the cows to lie down. Mangers are usually about 3 feet in width over all. Box mangers should be made removable, to facilitate cleaning.
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
Patented mangers may be purchased which rest on the floor, having no bottoms, and which may be raised out of the way for cleaning.
Ventilation. (See Chapter LXXXIV on this subject.)
**Stalls.** Stalls for dairy cattle vary in length from 4 to 5 feet, and in width from 3 to 4 feet. The requirements of the different breeds in this respect vary widely. The length refers to the distance from the manger to the gutter. A stall 4 feet 6 inches long and 5 feet 6 inches wide is suitable for average conditions.
Wooden stalls or partitions are being rapidly displaced by metal ones. The modern stall, as shown in Fig. 282, is made entirely of pipe or tubing, with bolted connections. The size of pipe or tubing generally used has an outside diameter of 1\% or 1\% inches.
![]() A cross section through a stall in a modern dairy barn.
**Cow Ties.** One quite satisfactory method of securing cows in the stalls is by means of a strap around the neck snapped to a ring in a chain extending between the posts of the stall. This device permits of a reasonable amount of freedom for the cow.
The stanchion, however, is the device more generally used, and the latter models of swinging stanchions leave little to be desired. The old-style fixed stanchions were too rigid, but new patterns are supported at the top and bottom by short lengths of chain, giving greater freedom of movement to the cow.
| Table Title |
Description |
| Stall Details |
Details of Stall Construction |
| Feed Bury |
Feed Bury |
| Litter Bury |
Litter Bury |
| Stall Post |
Stall Post |
| Stall Post |
Stall Post |
| Stall Post |
Stall Post |
| Stall Post |
Stall Post |
| Stall Post |
Stall Post |
| Stall Post |
Stall Post |
| Stall Post |
Stall Post |
| Stall Post |
Stall Post |
| Stall Post |
Stall Post |
| Stall Post |
Stall Post |
| Stall Post |
Stall Post |
| Stall Post |
Stall Post |
| Stall Post |
Stall Post |
| Stall Post |
Stall Post |
| Stall Post |
Stall Post |
| Stall Post |
Stall Post |
| Stall Post |
Stall Post |
| Stall Post |
Stall Post |
| Stall Post |
Stall Post |
| Stall Post |
Stall Post |
| Stall Post |
Stall Post |
| Stall Post |
Stall Post |
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FARM STRUCTURES 441
QUESTIONS
1. What are the essential features of a good type of dairy barn?
2. Describe the various types of dairy barns with reference to methods of handling the dairy cows and the height of the building.
3. Discuss the construction of the foundation for a dairy barn.
4. In like manner discuss the construction of the walls and the roof.
5. How determine the proper amount of window surface?
6. Discuss the construction of the floor.
7. How many stalls should be provided for one cow?
8. What should be the size of the gutter?
9. Discuss the relative merits of having two rows of stalls face in or out.
10. What should be the size of the manger? Discuss its construc-
tion.
11. What should be the dimensions of a stall for a dairy cow?
12. Describe the construction of suitable stalls.
13. Describe the chain cow tie.
14. What advantages does the swinging stanchion offer as a cow tie?
15. Discuss the construction of mangers for the dairy barn.
CHAPTER LXVIII
HORSE BARNs
Some important features of horse-barn construction are:
1. The location should be prominent, as it is one of the most used of farm buildings.
2. Good surface and underdrainage are necessary.
3. The barn should be well lighted.
4. Provision for sufficient hay and feed must be considered.
5. Vehicle storage is often needed.
![]() Plan of a general farm barn.
Fig. 784. Floor plan of a general farm barn.
Space. Each horse will require from 700 to 1000 cubic feet of air space. The barn thus may be 16 feet wide for a single row of stalls and 30 feet long for a double row.
The foundation should be of stone, concrete, or hard-burned brick, and should extend below frost with sufficient width of footing. Piers of stone and concrete are often used.
Ceiling. The ceiling of horse barns should be at least 8 feet in the clear.
**FARM STRUCTURES**
443
**Walls.** The walls of horse barns need not be as warm as those for dairy barns. The single wall is often considered sufficient except in the most severe climates.
**Floors.** The floor may be of cement or plank, but clay is often preferred for the front half of the stall, at least. A shallow, covered gutter 2 inches deep is a good thing when properly placed.
**Facing.** The horses may be faced in or out, and the same conditions apply that were mentioned under dairy barns.
The feed alley should be at least 3 feet wide, and a width of 4 feet is desirable. A drive-way should be 8 feet wide for a wagon or manure spreader, and 12 feet wide for a tractor.
**Stalls.** Horse stalls are usually made of two-inch lumber. Pipe partitions have been used to a very limited extent. The accompanying sketch shows a very satisfactory type of stall where simplicity of construction is desired.
Single-stalls for horse-ways much in width, all the way from 3 feet 8 inches to 6 feet. Five feet is considered a good width. Double stalls are usually about 7 feet wide. A good length of stall is 9 feet 6 inches, measured from the front of the manger to the back of the partition. Box stalls vary from 8x9 feet for a small stall to 10x12 feet for one of liberal size. Stall partitions should be about 6 feet high.
**Mangers, etc.** Mangers are usually 2 feet wide and 3 feet 6 inches high. The floor of the manger should be about 15 inches above the floor.
![]() A general farm barn with a double stall.
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
Water troughs should be provided at a convenient point.
A harness room is essential in order to protect the leather
from stable fumes.
Hay carriers should be so installed as to enable the mow
to be filled readily.
Ventilation. (See Chapter LXXXIV.)
![]() Fig. 586. Detail of construction of a horse stall.
QUESTIONS
1. What are some desirable features in the horse barn?
2. How much space should be provided for each horse?
3. Discuss the construction of the horse barn with reference to foundation, ceiling, walls, and floor.
4. How wide should feed alleys be?
5. Discuss the construction of horse stalls.
CHAPTER LXIX
BARN FRAMING
Roofs. Several types of roofs are used in barn construction. The hip roof, which slopes from the four sides of the barn to a point, is sometimes used for small barns. The shed roof, which slopes only one way, is used for narrow barns. The gable roof slopes in two directions and has gables, from which the downspouts extend. Gable roofs are very commonly used for barns. The curb or gambrel roof is much like the gable roof, except each side of the roof has two pitches. This type of roof is quite generally used for barns, and, in addition to being quite rigid when properly constructed, it adds to the capacity of the haymow.
The plank frame is a modification of this type of frame heavy timbers are used, which are mortised and pinned together. Many barn frames have been made after this style, but the cost of the lumber and the advantages of the plank frame have caused an almost complete discontinuance of this style of frame. When now used it is a modification of the old frame.
The Plank Frame with Purlines. In this type of barn no attempt is made to keep the haymow free from framework, and the long rafters are supported upon the purlines resting upon posts throughout the frame. It is possible to keep the mow free from framework directly under the hay carrier track, and when so constructed it should not be inconvenient. This type of a frame is not generally popular, but there can be no objection to placing the posts supporting the rafters when they are properly placed.
446
AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
Fig. 231. A model Wing joint barn frame.
Fig. 232. A model Shaver barn frame.
FARM STRUCTURES 447
The Wing Joist Frame. The Wing joist frame is made entirely of 2-inch lumber. The frame consists of bents or sections placed at intervals of 10 to 16 feet. The wall posts usually have five pieces of 2-inch lumber below the mow, two pieces of 2-inch lumber on top of the mow, and three pieces of 2-inch rafters rest. Girders running across the barn from post to post are usually made of three pieces of 2-inch lumber. A
![]() A sketch of the Wing joist barn frame.
Fig. 253. A sketch of the Wing joist barn frame.
diagonal brace is placed from the top of the post supporting the plate to an inside post to care for the thrust of the rafters. Vertical siding is usually nailed to girts on the outside of the post, and horizontal siding is nailed to pieces of 2-inch lumber in the form of a box. Iron rods are sometimes used to brace the plates, but wooden braces are preferable,
**AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING**
owing to the fact that they are not only strong in tension but are stiff and make a more rigid structure.
A curb roof is used, and the rafters, which are usually 2x6's are strengthened at the curb by braces of inch boards or 2-inch pieces cut to fit underneath. The rafters are usually placed two feet apart on the larger barns of this construction,
![]() A sketch of the Shauver barn frame.
and should have diagonal braces to make the frame more rigid. The Wing joint frame is not adapted to barns over 40 feet wide.
The **Shauver Barn Frame.** The Shauver barn frame, as now constructed, consists of bents made up of 2-inch lumber and placed 8 to 16 feet apart, on which the wall and rafter
448
**FARM STRUCTURES**
449
coverings are placed. The Shawver frame is quite thoroughly braced in every way, as is shown by the accompanying drawing. It is one of the standard forms of barn frames.
Steel Frames. Steel frames are now manufactured for barns to a large extent, and the frame is made entirely of steel in the shop ready to set up. They are generally more expensive than the wooden frames.
Round Barns. In some localities the round barn is very popular. In general, it has two serious objections: (1) It is quite difficult to light a large round barn efficiently, and (2) it is difficult to arrange the barn so as to prevent a considerable waste of space. A larger space can be enclosed, however, within the wall of the round barn than in any other type using the same amount of material. Generally the frame for the round barn consists of studs, spaced about two feet apart, with round hoops of inch lumber Fig. 281. A sketch of a barn frame with posts and purlins.
Most round barns have a double pitch to the roof, with the rafter cuts as for the Wing joint frame.
QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the merits of shed, gable, and gambrel roofs for barns.
2. Describe the braced or full frame for a barn.
![]() A sketch of a barn frame with posts and purlins.
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
3. Describe the construction of a plank-frame barn with purlines.
4. Describe the construction of the Wing joint frame.
5. Describe the construction of the I-beam steel frame.
6. What are the principal advantages and disadvantages of a steel barn frame?
7. What are the objections to a round barn, and its principal advantages?
8. Describe the usual method of framing a round barn.
CHAPTER LXX
THE FARMAHOUSE
The purposes of a farmhouse are:
1. To be a home, a meeting place of the family.
2. To afford protection.
3. To house the various goods and treasures of the family.
4. To provide a place for the administration of the farm.
5. To amuse the landscape.
In brief, the farmhouse should represent comfort, convenience, and economy.
Location. Consideration should be given to the following features in the location of the farmhouse. The healthfulness of the location should be given first consideration. The house should preferably be near the barn, and on this account a hillside slope offers many advantages. A well should be within reasonable distance, if a supply of good water is not supplied by other means. The barn should not be too far away. A suitable place for a table garden should be near. If located too far from the road, the house will be isolated and inconvenient.
Designing the Farmhouse. Each house must be designed to fit particular conditions and requirements. Plenty of time should be used in preparing the plan. It is best to consult a practical builder or architect. The preliminary drawings should be drawn to scale in order that the planning may be carried on more intelligently. Arrangements should be made for possible changes.
The Foundation. The foundation should be made of good, durable masonry and should extend below frost for about
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
3½ feet, under most conditions. A brick wall 8 inches thick is sufficient. Stone walls are usually made 12 to 18 inches thick, according to the difficulty of laying a wall of less thickness. A concrete wall 6 to 8 inches thick is satisfactory. A double wall may be used where the outside wall is of stone or brick and the inside one of concrete. The footing of the wall should be 6 to 8 inches wider than the wall.
The Cellar. The cellar wall should extend at least 2 feet above the ground line, to provide window space for adequate lighting. Green clay should be taken to make the cellar walls dry and prevent moisture from seeping through. It is necessary to plaster the outside, making it air-tight, and to lay a drain tile line outside the footing. Often material can be saved by building the cellar under the entire house. Such construction is regarded as the most sanitary, if the cellar can be kept dry.
If a furnace is to be installed, the ceiling should be sufficiently high to provide room for the installation of the warm air pipes.
THE PLAN
The Dining Room. The dining room is often regarded as the center of the farmhouse, and is in most instances used as the kitchen. Where possible it should be large enough to contain not only the dining table, but also a library table and a bookcase. The dining room should have plenty of light, and a southern or western exposure is preferable.
The Kitchen. The kitchen of the farmhouse ought not to be too large, if it is not used as the laundry. Large kitchens are the cause of unnecessary work. It is best to arrange the kitchen with fixed cupboards and to provide a sink and a convenient location for the range.
FARM STRUCTURES 453
The Pantry. Every modern house should have a pantry, which is most convenient when in connection with both the kitchen and the dining room.
The Sleeping Rooms. The sleeping rooms may be as small as 10x10 feet, but 12x14 feet is preferable. All sleeping rooms should be provided with closets.
The Staircase. The staircase should be wide and not too steep. Winding steps are to be avoided.
The Bathroom. The bathroom may be as small as 6x8 feet, but 8x10 feet is regarded as a good size. It is most convenient for the installation of plumbing when located over the kitchen. The bathroom should have an outside window for ventilation.
The Washroom. Although not usually provided, the farmhouse should have a room where the men of the farm
![]() Fig. 793. First and second floor plans of a farmhouse.
Fig. 793 First and second floor plans of a farmhouse.
Fig. 793 First and second floor plans of a farmhouse.
Fig. 793 First and second floor plans of a farmhouse.
Fig. 793 First and second floor plans of a farmhouse.
Fig. 793 First and second floor plans of a farmhouse.
Fig. 793 First and second floor plans of a farmhouse.
Fig. 793 First and second floor plans of a farmhouse.
Fig. 793 First and second floor plans of a farmhouse.
Fig. 793 First and second floor plans of a farmhouse.
Fig. 793 First and second floor plans of a farmhouse.
Fig. 793 First and second floor plans of a farmhouse.
Fig. 793 First and second floor plans of a farmhouse.
Fig. 793 First and second floor plans of a farmhouse.
Fig. 793 First and second floor plans of a farmhouse.
Fig. 793 First and second floor plans of a farmhouse.
Fig. 793 First and second floor plans of a farmhouse.
Fig. 793 First and second floor plans of a farmhouse.
Fig. 793 First and second floor plans of a farmhouse.
Fig. 793 First and second floor plans of a farmhouse.
Fig. 793 First and second floor plans of a farmhouse.
Fig. 793 First and second floor plans of a farmhouse.
Fig. 793 First and second floor plans of a farmhouse.
Fig. 793 First and second floor plans of a farmhouse.
Fig. 793 First and second floor plans of a farmhouse.
Fig. 793 First and second floor plans of a farmhouse.
Fig. 793 First and second floor plans of a farmhouse.
Fig. 793 First and second floor plans of a farmhouse.
Fig. 793 First and second floor plans of a farmhouse.
Fig. 793 First and second floor plans of a farmhouse.
Fig. 793 First and second floor plans of a farmhouse.
Fig. 793 First and second floor plans of a farmhouse.
Fig. 793 First and second floor plans of a farmhouse.
Fig. 793 First and second floor plans of a farmhouse.
Fig. 793 First and second floor plans of a farmhouse.
Fig. 793 First and second floor plans of a farmhouse.
Fig. 793 First and second floor plans of a farmhouse.
Fig. 793 First and second floor plans of a farmhouse.
Fig. 793 First and second floor plans of a farmhouse.
Fig. 793454
AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
may hang their extra coats and stable clothes. This room should have lavatory facilities, enabling the men to wash before entering the dining room.
**The Laundry.** Nothing is more useful in a well-designed farmhouse than a room equipped as a laundry. When adequate drainage can be secured, it is best located in the basement.
**QUESTIONS**
1. What are the purposes of a farmhouse?
2. What are the requisites of a good location for a farmhouse?
3. What course should be followed in designing a farmhouse?
4. Discuss the general plan of a farmhouse.
5. How should the cellar of a farmhouse be constructed?
6. Discuss the special features to be considered in the planning of the dining room. The kitchen. The pantry. The sleeping rooms. The bathroom. The washroom. The laundry room.
![]() A diagram showing the layout of a farmhouse with labeled rooms.
CHAPTER LXXI
CONSTRUCTING THE FARMHOUSE
The Full Frame. The full frame corresponds to the pinned frame for barns, made of dimension stuff, mortised and pinned together, and in which the wall frames are raised as a unit. This framing began to be displaced by the balloon frame about 1830, and is now used only in a modified form. It rests on pilings rather than the balloon frame, but may not be any more substantial.
The Balloon Frame. The balloon frame is made of light timbers, usually 2 inches thick and of varying widths. The usual method of construction is to lay the sills, which may be either a box sill of two 2x8 timbers, or a 4x4 timber. The latter is hauled in and spiked at the angles, as in the corner. In this case the top of one sill is laid on the wall and the other on edge upon the first. The sills support the first floor joists, and from them also, the studs, generally 2x4's, are erected. The studs are made double at the corners and at each side of the openings for doors or windows. They are placed (for 2x4's) 12 inches o.c. (q.i.p.), the studs being doubled at the corners. The exterior walls are made of planks 2x4 scantlings. They may be extended by a second piece placed end to end and spliced with boards nailed on each side. The joists for the second floor are supported by a girder or ribbon of 1x4-inch boards let into the studding. The studding at each corner should have a 1x6-inch brace notched in, or a diagonal brace made from a 2x4 fitted between the studs. The rafters are usually spaced 16 inches o.c., and the joists.
A common practice is to box a sill, lay the rough
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
flooring, and place the studding on a bottom plate nailed to the flooring. To support the studding well, the rough flooring should be laid diagonally; otherwise all the studding on one side will be attached to one board.
It is very difficult to prevent a one-and-a-half story house from sagging, due to the thrust of the rafters on the plate, which cannot be held together.
**Bridging.** Bridging consists of diagonal strips, usually 1x3 inches in cross section, nailed between the floor joists to stiffen and strengthen them. Joists 8 to 16 feet long should be bridged once; those 18 to 24 feet long, twice. The floor should be leveled as the bridging is nailed fast. Two 10d nails should be used at each end of the bridging pieces.
The studs should extend from sill to plate in interior walls so as to fit outside walls, in order that shrinkage will be uniform.
![]() A concrete block house representing a good type for the farm.
FARM STRUCTURES 457
**Sheathing.** It is advisable to put sheathing on diagonally, as it then strengthens the frame very much, and the extra cost of wasted material and labor is not great. The white sheathing is best when made of matched lumber.
**Siding.** The best siding is white pine, but white weatherboarding. White pine is the wood generally used and is regarded as very satisfactory. Drop siding, or so-called patent siding, does not give a pleasing effect, although quite satisfactory in other respects. Stucco or plastered walls are very satisfactory when the plastering is on metal lath.
**Lathing.** The lathing should be carefully done, insuring uniformity of thickness throughout the room. In laying the second floor joists should be set in far enough to enable the lath to be nailed on straps and permit the plaster to clinch around the lath. The direction of lathing should not be changed, as there is a greater tendency to crack the plaster when shrinkage occurs. An extra 2x4 should be used in each corner so that the lath will have something to rest upon in placing the plaster.
**The Roof.** The pitch of the roof should be better, but a half-pitch makes a good roof. Wooden shingles are generally used, those of cypress or red cedar being regarded as the best. One thousand shingles laid 4 inches to the weather should cover 100 square feet; but when laid 4½ inches to the weather shingles should be laid 3½ inches apart. A half-inch shingle in bark which is made 28 layers thick and 20 inches wide. Five shingles should make a thickness of two inches. In laying the shingles, joints should be broken twice, and plenty of nails should be used in nailing them on. Creosote and other stains act as a preservative, but painting is not advisable. Shingles may be dipped in oil with good results, for which about 2½ gallons of linseed oil are required per M.
**The Interior Finish.** The interior finish should be considered in regard to the exterior finish may be useful. It should be plain, and
458
AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
all filigree and turned work should be avoided, as it is not durable. The cornice should be broad in order to protect the walls. The use of a water table, with an edge under the siding, insures a dry wall. Due provision should be made above windows and doors for excluding water. Only the best paint should be used, and perhaps there is none better than the old-fashioned linseed oil colored, when desired, with the proper tints.
**Plastering.** Back plastering is thought to be very beneficial in cold, wet climates, although not generally used. Back plastering may be either between the studbing or on the studding, with the second layer of finishing plaster on last coat of furthest side. The latter is regarded as the better method, but it is tenable that it tends to form some shrinkage in the former method. Metal corner beads should be used on all exposed plastered corners. The lime for lime plaster should be slacked at least 24 hours before adding hair. It should be then allowed to stand stacked up at least ten days before using. Lime mortar may be applied by adding to each batch of lime one part of sand and 1 to 13 parts of hair.
Hard plaster should be mixed according to the directions furnished by the manufacturers. These plasters give a harder wall and better protection against moisture.
The first coat of moisture is called the "scratch coat," the second the "trowel coat," and the third the "white" or "skin coat." Sometimes the third coat is omitted and the walls are left rough or given a "beast" finish, which is tinted with a calcimine wash.
**The Woodwork.** Dust lines should be eliminated as far as possible, and for this reason plain finish is desirable. The architraves or casings may be mitered or fitted with blocks at their joints, but they should always be painted as well as badly as the mitered corners. The block placed at the
FARM STRUCTURES 459
bottom of the casing to doors is called the plinth. The following are some additional suggestions:
1. Ample head room should be provided over stairs.
2. The sum of the rise and tread of steps should be about 7½ inches.
3. "Winders," or triangular steps", should be avoided.
4. A half post should be placed where the banister rail joins the wall.
5. Dimensions of windows are given by the number and size of sash units.
6. All sash should be carefully balanced. A good grade of cotton cord is satisfactory.
7. The stop head should be fastened with screws to permit of adjustment and the removal of sash.
8. Doors are made in three grades, A, B, and C. Those of standard size and dimensions are known as stock doors. Ventilation doors are made in two grades, A and B, of one size.
The Hardware. The butts, locks, knobs, and escutcheon plates should be of good quality. The usual grades of hardware are japanned iron, bronze plated, and solid bronze. Much can be added to the appearance of a room by using artistic, high-grade hardware. Loose pin, wrought-iron butts should be used, as they are stronger than cast-metal butts. Mortise hinges should be of preference over other types. Hinges should be of ample size and should permit the door to swing back against a stop on the wall.
The Finishing Woodwork. All woodwork should be sand-papered with the grain before the application of any finishing material. Nails should be well set and the holes well filled.
Two coats of hard oil or varnish make the cheapest but the least desirable finish. The best finish is five or six coats of shellac rubbed down. A wood filler may be used before
400
AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
the first coat. The final coat should be of the best grade of varnish. Floors are usually filled and varnished, or var-
nished with shellac and waxed.
Woodwork may be stained with water, oil, or spirit stains. Water stains are not deeper but do not preserve the wood as well as oil stains. Spirit stains are the most expensive and must be carefully applied, as any lapping shows badly.
QUESTIONS
1. Describe the full frame for houses.
2. Describe the balloon frame for houses.
3. What is your objection to a one-and-a-half story house as far as framing is concerned?
4. Describe bridging and state its use.
5. What is the difference between a wall on diagonally?
6. What are the relative merits of lap siding and drop siding?
7. What care should be taken in lathing a house?
8. Describe the construction and the materials used in building the roof.
9. What are some of the important features of the exterior finish of a farmhouse?
10. Explain what is meant by back plastering.
11. What care should be used in preparing plaster?
12. What does scratch coat, brown coat, and skim coat designate?
13. What is the purpose of a plastering wall?
14. What is a float used in plastering walls?
15. Discuss some important features of the woodwork.
16. What care should be used in selecting the hardware?
17. State how the woodwork may be finished.
18. What are the relative merits of the various kinds of wood stains?
CHAPTER LXXII
THE SILO
The Location of the Silo. In locating a silo, the matter of convenience should be given first consideration. It should be in direct communication with the feed alley in the barn. A good location is some four to six feet from the barn and joined to the feed alley by a chute extending up the entire height of the silo. A door should close the passage-way between the silo and the barn, so that when the silage cart is used to accommodate the silage cart, it will not only make feeding easier but will also provide a good place for storing the cart when not in use.
Nearly all types of modern silos are best located outside of the barn. As a rule, the silo does not need the protection of a building, and the space may be more economically used for other purposes. Furthermore, an inside silo is inconvenient to fill, as it is difficult to deliver the fodder to the ensilage cutter unless large driveways are provided, which again are not economical. The odor of silage is thought objectionable by some; but when the silo is located outside of the building and connected with it only by a chute, this objection can be overcome.
The Size of the Silo. The modern silo is round. This shape will resist the bursting pressure of the silage to the best advantage and permit of a more perfect settling of the silage, which is very important. A round silo has two dimensions, diameter and height. The diameter or cross section of the silo should be determined by the amount of hay that can be fed from the silo from 1/2 to 2 inches of silage should be fed from the silo
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
each day, after the silo is opened, to keep the silage fresh.
If a less amount is fed, a growth of mold is quite likely to start and travel downward as fast as, if not faster than, the rate of feeding.
The capacity of the right of the silo is readily determined by the length of the feeding season. It is an advantage, however, to have a deep silo. First, it is economical, as additional volume is obtained without adding to the expense of foundation and roof. Secondly, the silage depends upon the exclusion of air for its preservation, and the extra weight of silage in a deep silo prevents settling and assists in this direction. A deep silo requires setting and assists in this direction. In a silo of medium diameter, it may be that one large one, as there may be times when it is desired to feed the silage lightly.
Capacity of silos, and the amount of silage that should be fed daily from each.
| Inside diameter |
Height |
Capacity |
Across of cover of 15 tons per day |
Amount to be fed daily, |
| 12 |
30 |
67 |
4.5 |
758 |
| 12 |
32 |
74 |
5.0 |
755 |
| 12 |
34 |
80 |
5.3 |
755 |
| 12 |
36 |
87 |
5.7 |
755 |
| 14 |
30 |
61 |
|
1030 |
| 14 |
32 |
100 |
|
1030 |
| 14 |
34 |
109 |
|
1030 |
| 14 |
36 |
118 |
|
1030 |
| 16 |
30 |
119 |
|
1340 |
| 16 |
32 |
131 |
S.a)b)c)d)e)f)i)j)k)m)n)p)r)s)t)v)w)x)y)Z)A)B)C)D)E)F)G)H)I)J)K)L)M)N)O)P)Q)R)S)T)V)X)Z)A)B)C)D)E)(a) 8.0 (b) 1340 (c) 1340 (d) 1340 (e) 1340 (f) 1340 (g) 1340 (h) 1340 (i) 1340 (j) 1340 (k) 1340 (l) 1340 (m) 1340 (n) 1340 (o) 1340 (p) 1340 (q) 1340 (r) 1340 (s) 1340 (t) 1340 (u) 1340 (v) 1340 (w) 1340 (x) 1340 (y) 1340 (z) 1340 (A) 1700 (B) 1700 (C) 1700 (D) 1700 (E) 1700 (F) 1700 (G) 1700 (H) 1700 (I) 1700 (J) 1700 (K) 1700 (L) 1700 (M) 1700 (N) 1700 (O) 1700 (P) 1700 (Q) 1700 (R) 1700 (S) 1700 (T) 1700 (U) 1700 (V) 1700 (W) 1700 (X) 1700 (Y) 1700 (Z) 1700 (A) 229.2 (B) 229.2
FARM STRUCTURES 463
The usual amount of silage fed per day to various classes of stock.
| Kind of stock |
Daily rations, pounds |
| Buff cattle |
|
| Wintering calves 8 months old |
15 to 25 lbs. |
| Wintering breeding cows |
20 to 30 lbs. |
| Fattening beef cattle, 18-32 months old |
20 to 30 lbs. |
| Pulling steers, 18-32 months old |
20 to 30 lbs. |
| Latter stage of fattening |
12 to 20 lbs. |
| Dairy cattle, |
30 to 50 lbs. |
| Sow, wintering |
|
| Wintering breeding sheep |
3 to 5 lbs. |
| Pulling sheep, 18-32 months old |
3 to 4 lbs. |
| Fattening sheep, |
3 to 4 lbs. |
The preceding tables—which give the capacity of some of the more common sizes of silos, the number of pounds of silage which must be removed daily to lower the surface an average of two inches, and an average ration for each of various kinds of farm stock—should provide sufficient information for deciding upon the size of silo to meet ordinary requirements.
To explain the use of these tables, suppose silage is to be fed to 10 head of dairy cows, 8 head of calves, and 40 head of beef stock, for 200 days. The amount of silage required per day will be about as follows:
|
|
|
| 10 dairy cows, 40 lbs. each |
|
400 lbs. |
| 8 head calves, 25 lbs. each |
|
200 lbs. |
| 40 beef cattle, 20 lbs. each |
|
800 lbs. |
| Total silage fed per day |
|
1360 lbs. |
Referring to the first table, it will be found that a silo 16 feet in diameter will furnish 1340 pounds of silage when 2 inches is fed daily; hence 36 feet, or 216 times 2 inches, will be about the right height. Some allowance should be made for settling.
**Essentials of a Silo.** To preserve silage a silo must have impervious walls which will not permit air to enter or
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
moisture to leave. The wall must be strong and rigid enough to resist the bursting pressure of the silage, and sufficiently smooth on the inside to permit the silage to settle readily.
In addition to these absolute essentials, there are many features which add to the value of a silo and which should be considered in its selection. Some of these features are as follows:
1. It is highly desirable that a silo be as durable and permanent as possible. All parts should be constructed of materials which will insure a long term of service.
2. The silo should require a minimum expenditure of labor and material for maintenance. This refers to the adjustment of doors for shrinkage, expansion, repainting, and the substitution of new parts for those which have become decayed or otherwise useless.
3. The silo should have a wall which will prevent as far as possible the freezing of silage.
4. The silo should be arranged in such a manner as to be convenient for the removal of the silage. This refers directly to the construction of the doors.
5. In some cases it is desirable to have a silo which may be taken down and moved from one location to another.
6. A fire-proof silo may have the further advantage of serving as a fireproof building.
7. A silo should be sightly and should add to the appearance of the farmstead.
8. It is an advantage to have a silo of simple construction, which may be erected with the minimum of skilled labor, and in the construction of which there is little chance for expensive mistakes.
9. Lastly, the silo of the lowest cost per unit of capacity, giving due consideration to the other features of merit, is the most desirable.
**FARM STRUCTURES**
465
If these essentials and desirable features are kept clearly in mind, they will assist in comparing the various types of silos now in general use.
WOOD SILOS
The Stave Silo. The commercial stave silo is in more extensive use today, the country over, than any other type. When properly made, the walls are air-and-water-tight, smooth and rigid, insuring the preservation of the silage.
The durability of the stave silo depends largely upon the kind and grade of lumber used in its construction. Redwood, cypress, Oregon fir, tamarack, and white and yellow pine are the more common kinds of wood used, and their respective merits are arranged to be about in the order given.
The Plain Stave Silo.
The stave silo made of plain dimension lumber, without being beveled or grooved,is not satisfactory. Such material is comparatively cheap, but is very unstable. The walls are not at sight as when the staves are matched, and as soon as there is a little shrinkage there is a tendency for the staves to fall from place into the silo, and then the whole structure collapses.
![]() A good stave silo well anchored.
FIG. 294. A good stave silo well anchored.
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
Full-Length Stave Silos. Full-length staves are desirable, although more expensive. If spliced staves are used, the method of splicing should be carefully examined. The ends of the staves are fitted together by a U-shaped tongue and groove joint. This joint is made by sawing a groove in the ends of the staves to about 1-1/6 inch thick in saw cuts in inserting a steel spline about 1-1/6 inch thick in saw cuts in the ends of the staves to be spliced.
The Foundation. The stave silo should be put upon a good foundation. The foundation wall need not be wide, 12 inches being a good width, but it is well that it extend below the frost line. The soil on which the foundation is laid will be likely to be partly full during the coldest weather, the frost will not be deep near the foundation. Any masonry construction may be used for the foundation, but concrete is especially well adapted to the purpose.
Use of the Pit. It is doubtful if a pit is advisable with a stave silo, because the capacity so secured is economically obtained; but there should not be a shoulder or bench inside of the staves, as this will prevent the free settling of the silage. If a pit is used to increase the capacity of the silo, and the foundation wall is made flush with the staves on the inside at the time of erection, it will be difficult to keep the silo on the foundation as shrinkage occurs.
Anchors and Guying. The stave silo is a light structure and when empty is more or less at the mercy of the wind. To guard against any possible damage from this source, it should be carefully anchored to the foundation and guyed or braced in all directions. The anchors to the foundation should be at least four in number and may be made of bars or concrete blocks set into both sides of the silo. The top of the silo should be carefully braced to any adjoining buildings. The guy wires or cables should run in pairs to posts and buildings in opposite directions. These
FARM STRUCTURES 467
guys are more effective when extending out some distance from the base of the silo. The importance of this anchoring and bracing is urged upon all.
**The Roof.** Every silo should have a roof; (1) It adds to the appearance; (2) it strengthens and protects the staves; (3) it is the big factor in keeping the freecring; (4) it makes it a pleasing place in which to work. No attempt should be made to secure ventilation; in fact, an attempt should be made to retain the warm air in the silo as far as possible. Prepared roofing of good quality makes a durable silo roof. It is easily fitted to a conical form.
**The Doorway.** All commercial silos at the present time have a doorway large enough across which there are no obstructions except the crosties. This type of doorway offers certain advantages in removing the silage, and is just as satisfactory in other respects as the individual doorway. In selecting a silo, it is well that an examination be made of the door-fasteners to see whether or not the door makes a perfect fit.
**The Minneapolis Silo.** The Minneapolis silo, or so-called panel silo, is constructed of pieces of planks about 2 feet long, matched at the sides and beveled at the ends, set into vertical studding. The whole is then bound together by hoops, which require practically no adjustment, as there is little shrinkage lengthwise of the grain. Defective pieces in this silo may be repaired by cutting them out, driving down the pieces above, and inserting new ones at the top. This type of silo is very rigid and stable.
**MASONRY SILOS**
**The Concrete Silo.** Concrete is one of the best materials for silos. It is very important to make the concrete sill wall impervious to air and water. The more common method of
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doing this is to treat the inside of the wall, as soon as the forms are removed, with a wash of pure cement and water reduced to the consistency of paint. This wash thoroughly seals the pores of the walls and prevents the loss of mois-
ture and the admission of air. A coat of coal tar has been used with good results, and there are many patented compounds on the market which ought to be entirely satisfactory. In several cases there are no external means to seal the walls the juices of the slagstone sufficiently accomplishing this task, after two or three fillings, but this should not be relied upon.
Reinforcement. Another common mistake is the lack of reinforcement or the improper use of reinforcement. The bursting pressure of silage is considerable, about 11 pounds per square foot for each foot of depth, as an average; and this pressure must be fully cared for or the walls are sure to crack.
A mixture of one part cement, two of sand, and four of broken stone is recommended in order to make a good silo wall. If good natural gravel and sand are at hand, a mix-
ture of one to five will be satisfactory.
The Block Silo. There are two methods of using con-
crete: (1) in the form of blocks, which are made and cured before being laid in the wall; (2) the monolithic wall, require-
ing that all of forms be built before any concrete is used. The amount of labor in making and handling the blocks and lay-
ing them in the silo wall. So much labor is involved that it is likely to be the most expensive item of the entire cost.
The use of forms in the monolithic construction dispenses with a large part of the labor, but in turn offers some serious disadvantages. To obtain good, smooth walls, rather expensive forms must be made; and as the silo reaches some height, it becomes necessary to handle without expensive scaffolding and hoisting apparatus.
FARM STRUCTURE 469
**Monolithic Silos.** The solid wall does not offer serious objections in permitting the freezing of the silage, especially if provided with a good, tight roof. The concrete silo block is usually al ways made to contain an air space, and double forms may be used in the monolithic construction, making a double wall. When air circulation is restricted in the silo, this is done by horizontal partitions about every three feet of height, the double wall is perhaps the most satisfactory, as far as frost-proof qualities are concerned.
The cost of a concrete silo will depend largely upon local conditions. The cost of sand, gravel, and labor are the deciding factors. Under usual conditions, the cost should not exceed the cost of a first-class wooden silo. No attempt will be made here to discuss the construction of forms.
**The Hollow Clay Block, or Iowa Silo.** In general, this silo consists of a wall of vitrified clay building blocks reinforced with steel laid in the mortar joints. The roof is made of concrete, and the silo has a reinforced concrete door frame.
**Description of Clay Blocks.** The blocks are hard-burned building bricks made by pressing clay into curves of the silo wall, making a smoother wall on the inside. These
![]() Fig 295. A monolithic silo with con- crete roof.
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
blocks are of the same material and have the same characteristics as brick; in fact, in certain localities they are called hollow brick. If these blocks are of good material and hard-burned they are very durable.
The four-inch block has proven to be a very satisfactory size. Larger blocks are too large to handle with one hand, and smaller ones require more labor in laying. These blocks are laid on edge, making a four-inch wall.
The Cement Wash. If curved blocks are used and care is used in pointing and filling the mortar joints, the cement wash can be sufficiently smooth on the inside to omit the plastering, make the whole impervious, and a cement wash should be applied before the mortar becomes hard.
Reinforcement. The entire bursting pressure of the silage should be carried by steel wire imbedded in the mortar joints. Number 3 wire has been found to be a very satisfactory size. It is small enough not to interfere with the laying of the blocks, and fewer strands are required than of the smaller sizes. This wire should be annealed, and may be bent up to form a loop at each side by drawing it through a piece of pipe bent to the proper angle.
Fig. 285. The lower side made of hollow vitrified clay building blocks or tile.
To seal the mortar joints and a cement wash should be applied before the mortar becomes hard.
![]() A diagram showing a section of a silo with hollow vitrified clay building blocks or tile forming the lower side.
| Reinforcement. |
The entire bursting pressure of the silage should be carried by steel wire imbedded in the mortar joints. Number 3 wire has been found to be a very satisfactory size. It is small enough not to interfere with the laying of the blocks, and fewer strands are required than of the smaller sizes. This wire should be annealed, and may be bent up to form a loop at each side by drawing it through a piece of pipe bent to the proper angle. |
FARM STRUCTURES 471
The Doorframe. The doorframes is continuous with the crosties, which are at least 42 inches apart. The jambs are simply reinforced concrete beams. The crosties contain reinforced bars of equal strength to the horizontal reinforce-
ment in the wall proper, and extend back to each side into the open space in the blocks, to obtain a good grip upon the walls.
The sheathing over the bars are completely filled with concrete. The bars across the doorway are covered either by blocks filled with concrete or by concrete alone.
The Foundation. The foundation for the Iowa silo may be of any good masonry construction. It is im-
portant that the footings be placed below the front line. Concrete and hard-burned blocks have been used with equal success. A 4-inch footing and a 6- to 8-inch wall are all that is required, since the weight of the wall can be entirely substan-
tially added to the capacity of the silo. The extra expense involved is simply that of throwing out the earth within the foundation walls.
Floors. Although a floor is not absolutely necessary, it adds much to the convenience of removing and cleaning up the silage at the finish. Four inches of concrete will make an excellent floor. Paving blocks or sidewalk blocks have been used successfully. A few floors have been made by laying the hollow blocks flat and plastering with cement on top.
![]() Fig. 297. The wall of the Iowa silo.
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
The Roof. The roof of the Iowa silo is constructed of concrete, making this part as durable and lasting as the rest of the silo. The cornice is made of blocks laid flat-wise, and the center is made of two and one-half to three inches of concrete placed upon a conical form. The conical shape is very desirable for a concrete roof, as nearly all of the reinforcement may be confined in the base of the cone. If thoroughly reinforced at this point, there is little opportunity for failure. A window must be provided in the roof for filling the silo.
QUESTIONS
1. Where should the silo be located?
2. What are the factors that determine its diameter and height?
3. How does heat expand or contract with its diameter? How does the amount of material in the walls vary with the diameter?
4. How much slag should be fed from the surface each day?
5. What are the essentials of a good silo?
6. Discuss the construction of a good silo.
7. Upon what does the durability of the stave silo depend?
8. What are the merits of the plain-stave silo?
9. How can a stave silo be improved?
10. Discuss the construction of the silo foundation.
11. Can a silo pit be used to increase the capacity of a stave silo?
12. Describe how a stave silo should be anchored and gusseted.
13. Describe the construction of a double-walled silo.
14. Describe the construction of the Minneapolis or panel silo.
15. What is necessary to make a satisfactory silo wall of concrete?
16. How can a concrete silo be improved?
17. What kind of mixture should be used in preparing the concrete?
18. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the cement-block silo?
19. Describe the monolithic concrete silo.
20. Describe the hollow clay block or Iowa silo.
21. What are the desirable features of clay blocks for silos?
22. How can a clay-block silo be improved?
23. How can the clay-block silo be carefully reinforced?
24. Describe the construction of the doorframe, the foundation, the floor, and the roof of the Iowa silo.
CHAPTER LXXIII
THE IMPLEMENT HOUSE AND THE SHOP
The Value of an Implement House. It is not economical to have the machinery stored in the general barn or in any expensive building. The implement house or shed need only provide protection from the weather. Barns do not furnish good storage on account of the dust which must necessarily be about and because of the inconvenience.
The Location. The best location for the implement house is near the farm, but not too close to the concentrated group. A location about half-way between the house and barn and a little to one side of a direct line between the two buildings seems to be the most generally desirable. The implement house in this connection is thought of as providing storage for the farm wagon and other vehicles used upon the farm. Its location should be such that it will be convenient to drive to it so as to avoid unnecessary detouring from the barn with a team and enable the driver to pass as quickly as possible to the field or to town without extra travel.
The Size. The size of the house will depend on the number of implements to be stored. It is not best, however, to have the building too wide, as it will be inconvenient to remove certain implements on account of those stored in front of them. It would be better to build all of the space in a wide building. In preparing to build an implement shed, it would be well to determine the floor space required for each implement and then plan on having a certain place reserved for each. This arrangement will save much time in handling the implements.
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
The Foundation. The foundation need not be heavy; a 6-inch concrete wall will be ample if it be widened to 8 to 12 inches for the footing. Piers are very satisfactory for a frame building. If the walls of the house are to be of masonry construction, the foundation should extend below the frost line.
The Floor. A dry earth floor is customary in the implement house. A wood or concrete floor in the carriage or
![]() A convenient open-front implement house.
automobile room would be desirable, but not a necessity. Concrete is best, as boards or planks are likely to provide a harbor for rats and other vermin.
The Walls. The walls need only provide protection from the sun, moisture, and wind. Either drop or matched siding or plain boards with battens may be used. The plain boards, as usually erected, make a lighter wall after they have been covered with paint, but if the wall is to be used as a fence it makes a very good wall for an implement house and is not unduly expensive if the wall is not made too thick. A four-inch wall is sufficient if placed upon a good foundation, and, if the wall be long, it may be stiffened by an occasional pilaster. In like manner a four-inch brick wall will be found to be quite
FARM STRUCTURES
475
satisfactory. Hollow clay building blocks, when such mate-
rial of good quality can be readily obtained, make a very
desirable wall for the implement house. Blocks are much
cheaper than brick, and the need of a wall can be had in a given time.
One advantage of the massiveness of the walls is that they are nearly dust-proof than a single-board wall, and the imple-
ments they protect will present a better appearance at all
times. This feature is of little advantage except in the care
of the buggies or carriages. If a good, tight wall be provided,
it will not be necessary to cover the vehicles with a cloth, as
is practiced by many who take pride in the appearance of
their turnouts.
The Roof. The roof can be made well of an assortment
of materials. Roofing boards with battens make a good,
cheap roof for a narrow building, especially those with the
roof sloping one way only. A shingle roof, of at least one-
third pitch, of good quality, is quite satisfactory, but is not nearly as dust-proof as some of the other forms of construction. A layer of building paper over the sheathing, as commonly used in house construc-
tion, would improve it in this respect. Prepared roofing
makes a very desirable roof for an implement house, as it is
perfectly tight and when a good quality is used its durability will be equal to that of any other material. It is best to
take off to make the walls tight between the roof and the plate,
where it is desired to have a dust-proof building.
The Framework. The framing of an implement house
is not difficult. If a gable roof is used, 2x4 rafters placed
two feet on center will be sufficient for a building 16 feet wide,
if given at least one-third pitch. If the house has a shed roof,
3x4 rafters will be needed for each span if a one-third pitch.
A wider building should have 2x6 rafters, if the
building is to retain its shape. If the house is to have a sec-
475
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
ond floor, and the joists do not support the plate and prevent the thrust of the rafters from spreading the building, there should be several diagonal braces from the plate to the joist.
The implement house may be built with one side open. This will allow the horses to enter freely, to eat the dust; and the chickens of the farm, if not confined, will find the machinery a very satisfactory roosting place, much to the detriment of the machinery. If large doors are provided, it
![]() A cross section of a barn shown in Fig. 298.
Fig. 298. A cross section of the house shown in Fig. 298.
will not be inconvenient to store the various machines; in fact, one entire side may be made up of doors hung on a double track, half of them being on the outside track and the other half on the inside track. This arrangement permits of the storage of all implements at one point.
It is often an advantage to have a second floor, to accommodate the light implements, such as the cultivator, stalk cutter, corn planter, etc. The implements may be drawn up on a runway by means of a horse and a rope and pulley.
FARM STRUCTURES 477
THE FARM SHOP
Utility. From an extensive investigation on the life and care of farm machinery in Colorado, it is reported that 71.36 per cent of the farm machinery on farms not having shops needed repairs, while only 59.25 per cent on farms having shops needed repairs. These facts are taken by the writer of the bulletin to mean that the farm shop has a "real value beyond the occasional emergency job."
It is well-nigh impossible to maintain the efficiency of the farmer's machine without a well-equipped shop. It is not so much a matter of saving a few dollars by doing repair jobs, as it is a matter of getting the work done.
The Location. The location of the farm shop should be similar to that described for the implement house; indeed it may be made a part of or an addition to the implement house, as its usefulness is largely directed toward the farm machine. If a fire is desired, such thought should be taken at danger of fire. The location of the shop should be considered with reference to any stationary engine or other source of power the farm may have, so that the same power may be available for tools in the shop.
The Size. The farm shop may be built large enough to house a wagon or similar implement, or it may be just large enough to contain both a bench and an anvil with a minimum amount of working room. A shop 16 by 20 feet will be needed to accommodate large machines. On the other hand, a shop 8 by 10 feet will house a bench, a forge, and an anvil, and may be considered the minimum size for practical purposes.
Construction. The house should afford comfortable quarters for work during cold weather. If made wind-
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
proof, a stove may be put in. If a forge be installed, it and the anvil should be placed on earth, concrete, or some other kind of fire-proof floor. The exterior of the shop should be made to conform to the style of the other buildings about the property. The proper size of the shop should be estimated to get good, standard tools of known merit.
**QUESTIONS**
1. Why have a separate implement house on the farm?
2. Discuss the best location for an implement house.
3. How may the size of the implement house be determined?
4. Describe the materials used in the foundation, the floor, the walls and the roof of the implement house.
5. Describe how the frame of an implement house may be con-
structed.
6. To what use may the second floor of an implement house be
put?
7. Why is a repair shop needed on a farm?
8. Where should the farm shop be located?
9. What are satisfactory dimensions for a farm shop?
10. Discuss the construction of a farm shop.
**LIST OF REFERENCES FOR FARM STRUCTURES**
Building Trades Handbook.
Farm Buildings.
Radford's Practical Barn Plans.
Barn Plans and Drawings.
The Farmstead, I. P. Roberts.
Tuttle's Architectural Drawing.
Architectural Drawing, C. P. Administrator.
Practical Farm Buildings and Barns, U. S., Dept. of Agrit.,
Farmers' Bul. 120.
College Farm Buildings, Mich. Agt., Exp. Sta., Bul. 250.
Circular No. 104, Division of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agrit.
Architecte's and Builders' Pocket Book, F. E. Kidder.
Mechanics of Materials, Church.
Materials of Construction, J. D. Johnson.
![]() A page from an agricultural engineering textbook discussing farm structures.
FARM STRUCTURES
Farm Poultry House, Bul. 132, Iowa Agr. Exp. Sta.
Building Poultry House, Cornell Bul. 27.
Poultry House Construction, Michigan Bul. 266.
Poultry House Construction, Wisconsin Bul. 215.
Poultry Architecture, George B. Fisk.
Locomotive Construction of Hog Houses, Ill. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 100.
Hog House, U. S. Dept. of Agr., Farmers' Bul. 438.
Portable Hog House, Wis. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 153.
Suggestion for the Hog House, Ill. Agr. Exp. Sta., Cir. 95.
Economy of the Round Dairy Barn, Ill. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 143.
Sanitary Cow Stalls, Wis. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 180.
Plank Frame Barn Construction, John L. Shawver.
Hodgeson's Low Cost American Home, Illinois Agri-Culture Co., Bul. 100.
Modern Farming in the Midwest, Iowa Agr. Sta., Bul. 117.
Concrete Silos, Universal Portland Cement Co.
Specifications, International Correspondence School Text.
Ventilation Systems, King
King System of Ventilation, Wis. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 164.
PART EIGHT—FARM SANITATION
CHAPTER LXXIV
THE FARM WATER SUPPLY
The subject of farm water supply easily divides itself into the following heads, each of which will be discussed in turn:
1. The source of supply.
2. The quantity required.
3. The pumping plant.
4. The distribution system.
5. The storage tanks or reservoirs.
The Source of Water Supply. The first requisite of a suitable source of water supply is that it shall furnish pure water. It is fully realized at the present time that one of the most important places where the health of the family is to be guarded is the water supply, for so many diseases are traceable to polluted water. It is not so essential that water be pure classed with food, but it is from the water which may cause trouble in the human system. Water may contain a considerable percentage of certain mineral salts and yet be quite healthful. On the other hand, water may be quite free from all salts or mineral matter, be clear, cool, and sparkling, and still be filled with deadly typhoid or other disease germs.
Wells. The well is the most common source of water supply for the farm. Wells are divided primarily into two classes, with reference to their depth, as shallow and deep wells. The shallow well refers to those either dug by hand
| 1. |
The source of supply. |
| 2. |
The quantity required. |
| 3. |
The pumping plant. |
| 4. |
The distribution system. |
| 5. |
The storage tanks or reservoirs. |
| 1. |
The source of supply. |
| 2. |
The quantity required. |
| 3. |
The pumping plant. |
| 4. |
The distribution system. |
| 5. |
The storage tanks or reservoirs. |
| 1. |
The source of supply. |
| 2. |
The quantity required. |
| 3. |
The pumping plant. |
| 4. |
The distribution system. |
| 5. |
The storage tanks or reservoirs. |
| 1. |
The source of supply. |
| 2. |
The quantity required. |
| 3. |
The pumping plant. |
| 4. |
The distribution system. |
| 5. |
The storage tanks or reservoirs. |
| PART EIGHT—FARM SANITATION |
|---|
| CHAPTER LXXIV |
|---|
| THE FARM WATER SUPPLY |
|---|
| The subject of farm water supply easily divides itself into the following heads, each of which will be discussed in turn: |
|---|
1. The source of supply.
2. The quantity required.
3. The pumping plant.
4. The distribution system.
5. The storage tanks or reservoirs.
|
|---|
The Source of Water Supply. The first requisite of a suitable source of water supply is that it shall furnish pure water. It is fully realized at the present time that one of the most important places where the health of the family is to be guarded is the water supply, for so many diseases are traceable to polluted water. It is not so essential that water be pure classed with food, but it is from the water which may cause trouble in the human system. Water may contain a considerable percentage of certain mineral salts and yet be quite healthful. On the other hand, water may be quite free from all salts or mineral matter, be clear, cool, and sparkling, and still be filled with deadly typhoid or other disease germs.
|
|---|
Wells. The well is the most common source of water supply for the farm. Wells are divided primarily into two classes, with reference to their depth, as shallow and deep wells. The shallow well refers to those either dug by hand
|
|---|
| PART EIGHT—FARM SANITATION |
|---|
| CHAPTER LXXIV |
|---|
| THE FARM WATER SUPPLY |
|---|
| The subject of farm water supply easily divides itself into the following heads, each of which will be discussed in turn: |
|---|
1. The source of supply.
2. The quantity required.
3. The pumping plant.
4. The distribution system.
5. The storage tanks or reservoirs.
|
|---|
The Source of Water Supply. The first requisite of a suitable source of water supply is that it shall furnish pure water. It is fully realized at the present time that one of the most important places where the health of the family is to be guarded is the water supply, for so many diseases are traceable to polluted water. It is not so essential that water be pure classed with food, but it is from the water which may cause trouble in the human system. Water may contain a considerable percentage of certain mineral salts and yet be quite healthful. On the other hand, water may be quite free from all salts or mineral matter, be clear, cool, and sparkling, and still be filled with deadly typhoid or other disease germs.
|
|---|
Wells. The well is the most common source of water supply for the farm. Wells are divided primarily into two classes, with reference to their depth, as shallow and deep wells. The shallow well refers to those either dug by hand
|
|---|
| PART EIGHT—FARM SANITATION |
|---|
| CHAPTER LXXIV |
|---|
| THE FARM WATER SUPPLY |
|---|
| The subject of farm water supply easily divides itself into the following heads, each of which will be discussed in turn: |
|---|
1. The source of supply.
2. The quantity required.
3. The pumping plant.
4. The distribution system.
5. The storage tanks or reservoirs.
|
|---|
The Source of Water Supply. The first requisite of a suitable source of water supply is that it shall furnish pure water. It is fully realized at the present time that one of the most important places where the health of the family is to be guarded is the water supply, for so many diseases are traceable to polluted water. It is not so essential that water be pure classed with food, but it is from the water which may cause trouble in the human system. Water may contain a considerable percentage of certain mineral salts and yet be quite healthful. On the other hand, water may be quite free from all salts or mineral matter, be clear, cool, and sparkling, and still be filled with deadly typhoid or other disease germs.
|
|---|
Wells. The well is the most common source of water supply for the farm. Wells are divided primarily into two classes, with reference to their depth, as shallow and deep wells. The shallow well refers to those either dug by hand
|
|---|
| PART EIGHT—FARM SANITATION |
|---|
| CHAPTER LXXIV |
|---|
| THE FARM WATER SUPPLY |
|---|
| The subject of farm water supply easily divides itself into the following heads, each of which will be discussed in turn: |
|---|
1. The source of supply.
2. The quantity required.
3. The pumping plant.
4. The distribution system.
5. The storage tanks or reservoirs.
|
|---|
The Source of Water Supply. The first requisite of a suitable source of water supply is that it shall furnish pure water. It is fully realized at the present time that one of the most important places where the health of the family is to be guarded is the water supply, for so many diseases are traceable to polluted water. It is not so essential that water be pure classed with food, but it is from the water which may cause trouble in the human system. Water may contain a considerable percentage of certain mineral salts and yet be quite healthful. On the other hand, water may be quite free from all salts or mineral matter, be clear, cool, and sparkling, and still be filled with deadly typhoid or other disease germs.
|
|---|
Wells. The well is the most common source of water supply for the farm. Wells are divided primarily into two classes, with reference to their depth, as shallow and deep wells. The shallow well refers to those either dug by hand
|
|---|
| PART EIGHT—FARM SANITATION |
|---|
| CHAPTER LXXIV |
|---|
| THE FARM WATER SUPPLY |
|---|
| The subject of farm water supply easily divides itself into the following heads, each of which will be discussed in turn: |
|---|
1. The source of supply.
2. The quantity required.
3. The pumping plant.
4. The distribution system.
5. The storage tanks or reservoirs.
|
|---|
The Source of Water Supply. The first requisite of a suitable source of water supply is that it shall furnish pure water. It is fully realized at the present time that one of the most important places where the health of the family is to be guarded is the water supply, for so many diseases are traceable to polluted water. It is not so essential that water be pure classed with food, but it is from the water which may cause trouble in the human system. Water may contain a considerable percentage of certain mineral salts and yet be quite healthful. On the other hand, water may be quite free from all salts or mineral matter, be clear, cool, and sparkling, and still be filled with deadly typhoid or other disease germs.
|
|---|
Wells. The well is the most common source of water supply for the farm. Wells are divided primarily into two classes, with reference to their depth, as shallow and deep wells. The shallow well refers to those either dug by hand
|
|---|
| PART EIGHT—FARM SANITATION |
|---|
| CHAPTER LXXIV |
|---|
| THE FARM WATER SUPPLY |
|---|
| The subject of farm water supply easily divides itself into the following heads, each of which will be discussed in turn: |
|---|
1. The source of supply.
2. The quantity required.
3. The pumping plant.
4. The distribution system.
5. The storage tanks or reservoirs.
|
|---|
The Source of Water Supply. The first requisite of a suitable source of water supply is that it shall furnish pure water. It is fully realized at the present time that one of the most important places where the health of the family is to be guarded is the water supply, for so many diseases are traceable to polluted water. It is not so essential that water be pure classed with food, but it is from the water which may cause trouble in the human system. Water may contain a considerable percentage of certain mineral salts and yet be quite healthful. On the other hand, water may be quite free from all salts or mineral matter, be clear, cool, and sparkling, and still be filled with deadly typhoid or other disease germs.
|
|---|
Wells. The well is the most common source of water supply for the farm. Wells are divided primarily into two classes, with reference to their depth, as shallow and deep wells. The shallow well refers to those either dug by hand
|
|---|
| PART EIGHT—FARM SANITATION |
|---|
| CHAPTER LXXIV |
|---|
| THE FARM WATER SUPPLY |
|---|
| The subject of farm water supply easily divides itself into the following heads, each of which will be discussed in turn: |
|---|
1. The source of supply.
2. The quantity required.
3. The pumping plant.
4. The distribution system.
5. The storage tanks or reservoirs.
|
|---|
The Source of Water Supply. The first requisite of a suitable source of water supply is that it shall furnish pure water. It is fully realized at the present time that one of the most important places where the health of the family is to be guarded is the water supply, for so many diseases are traceable to polluted water. It is not so essential that water be pure classed with food, but it is from the water which may cause trouble in the human system. Water may contain a considerable percentage of certain mineral salts and yet be quite healthful. On the other hand, water may be quite free from all salts or mineral matter, be clear, cool, and sparkling, and still be filled with deadly typhoid or other disease germs.
485
or bored with a common well auger. These wells are usually of considerable diameter in order that there may be a reservoir for a quantity of water within the well itself. The shallow well is the one most commonly used, and is the one which should be most carefully protected. It is best to locate such wells at some distance from any leaching cess-pool, privy, or manure heaps. It is difficult to state just how far away, as some soils are much more open than others and the impurities will travel a correspondingly greater distance.
Fig. 306. A sketch showing how the water of a shallow well may become contaminated from manure yards and cess-pools. (Kansas Exp. Sta., Bur. Hlth.)
Then, again, drainage lines become quite thoroughly established in the soil in certain directions; and if the well and a source of contamination should happen to be placed in one of these seepage lines, the contamination would take place at a much greater distance than otherwise. It is best, however, that the well, especially a surface well, be located at least 100 feet from any diseased plant fifth.
Moreover, it is advisable to have a curb or wall against contamination from the surface: (1) The curb or well wall
AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
should be made water-tight for some distance below the surface; (2) the well should have a good, tight, platform or cover; and (3) the surface of the ground should be raised about the well so that all surface drainage will be away from the well.
Surround wells are the cheapest to build. A well with a per-
foot, 8-inch hole from 50' feet to a 12-inch hole, to over $2 for a four foot well across and wallled with loose stone. A good platform cemented over will cost about $10.
It might be mentioned here that concrete makes an ideal pump platform and will last indefinitely. One slab can be made loose to furnish access to the well.
Deep wells are usually either driven or drilled. A driven well is made by driving a casing into the ground to a casing, usually 11/4 inches in diameter, and simply driving it into the ground until the point reaches a water-bearing stratum of gravel or sand. The sand point is made of perforated brass over an iron frame, through which the water will readily pass into the casing. The pump cylinder is made a part of the casing, and valves are set in the casing to control the flow of water to fit the casing. Driven wells never extend through a rock stratum.
Drilled wells are made by operating a drill inside a casing which sinks as the drill provides the way. The mud and chips of stone are removed by pumping a stream of water through the drill and out through the casing. If desired, two small diameters of pipe may be used to encircle a part of it, it is called a tubular well. The usual diameters for drilled wells are 6 and 8 inches. These diameters permit the pump cylinder and piping to be entirely independent of the well casing. The usual cost of tubular wells, with casing, is $1 to $1.50 per foot. Drilled wells range in cost up to $6 per foot for an 8-inch hole drilled in granite, cost.
Deep wells are light sources of water but a better source of water supply than shallow wells, they are by no means entirely
FARM SANITATION 485
free from contamination. Occasionally drainage lines are so thoroughly established in the soil and through fissures in the rock that the water of the deep wells may be contami-
nated from the surface.
Springs are sometimes used as a source of water supply.
It is best that the spring discharge at as high an elevation as possible in order that there may not be many habitations above it. When springs furnish water from some depth, the
![]() A diagram showing how a spring may be protected from surface water.
Fig. 301. An improved spring showing how it may be protected from surface water.
water is quite sure to be free from all organic matter. In considering a spring as a source of water supply, it should be definitely known that a sufficient amount of water will be furnished throughout the year. Most springs are irregular in their discharge and at times furnish little or no water.
The water may be led from the spring into a tank above the farmstead, to which the water may be led in pipes and perhaps allowed to flow constantly, the surplus being wasted. If the spring is below the farmstead, yet high enough to permit a
484
AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
water to still lower levels, and if the flow is ample a hydraulic
ramp or pumping plant can be used.
Brooks or running streams form another source of water
supply, but should be carefully considered before using. A
close inspection should be made to determine whether or not
the stream is in any danger of pollution by surface washing
from manured fields or house and farm yards. River water
is quite apt to be turbid during the flood season. Streams
flowing through swamps or marshes, when flooded will fur-
nish water of the most desirable character.
Lakes usually furnish water that is clear and potable, ow-
ing to the fact that the water is purified by coming to rest and
allowing the impurities to settle. Often, in settled communi-
ties, where the practice is not forbidden by law, the banks
of lakes become a dumping ground for all sorts of refuse.
Such practice prevents the use of the water for human composition.
Drinking water obtained from a stream or lake should be
filtered. A box filled with sand and gravel or charcoal through which the water must pass is the most common type of filter.
The Quantity Required. Care must be taken, in selecting
a water supply, to determine that the quantity of water
available will be sufficient not only for all present needs but
also for any increased demand that may be foreseen. The
daily requirements must also be taken into account when
planning a reservoir or storage tank.
The amount of water consumed on the farm is required by the live stock for drinking purposes and by the
household. The house requirements depend largely on
whether or not plumbing fixtures are installed. The amount
consumed per day by each of the various farm animals is
about as follows: A horse, 7 gallons; a cow, 6 gallons; a
FARM SANITATION 485
bog, 3 gallons; and a sheep, less than 3 gallons. Dairy cows giving milk require additional water in proportion to the amount of milk given. Where sanitary plumbing is installed, about 20 gallons of water per day will be consumed for each person, large or small, and for all purposes, including the laundry.
QUESTIONS
1. Into what divisions or heads may the subject of farm water supply be divided?
2. What are the principal sources of water supply on the farm?
3. Explain how surface and deep wells are dug or drilled and cured or eased.
4. Describe how the well should be protected from contamination.
5. When may springs, running water, and lakes be used as a source of water supply?
6. How may the daily consumption of water be estimated?
7. Estimate the amount of water required on the home farm.
CHAPTER LXXV
THE PUMPING PLANT
The pumping plant for a farm water supply consists of some form of motor and a pump. Although many pumps are still operated by hand, a modern water system can scarcely be considered complete without a motor, for the simple reason that the motor is capable of delivering much more power than the hand. A specific instance is on record where a gasoline engine pumped the water for a dairy herd at a cost of one cent per day for gasoline; whereas two hours of hand labor, worth at least 20 cents per hour, were formerly required. It is a waste of money to pump by hand if a large quantity of water is required. The gasoline engine is used in many cases for pumping purposes; the windmill, the gasoline engine, and, in a few instances, the hot-air engine and the water wheel.
**Sources of Power.** A windmill is better suited by far for the pumping of water than for any other purpose. The power of a windmill is quite limited; yet an average pump requires little power. Furthermore, the power is not irregularly available; the rise of water is not considerable; but this is easily overcome. As discussed in a previous lesson, the cost of windmill power consists of the interest on the investment, and the depreciation and maintenance.
The gasoline engine is well adapted to the pumping of water. As has been stated, the average pump requires very little power; hence the gasoline engine has an advantage over other heat motors in that it is very economical in small units. A series of tests made a few years ago at the Iowa State College indicated that 20 barrels of water could be pumped
FARM SANITATION 487
against a head of 100 feet, or, in other words, lifted that distance, for every day in the year, at a cost of less than five dollars for gasoline. Again, the gasoline engine does not consume atmospheric air. If something goes wrong, the engine will likely stop without doing damage. A float or other safety device may be connected with the igniting system or fuel supply in such a way as to stop the engine when a certain height of water in the supply tank or certain pressure has been attained.
Hot-air engines have little to commend them other than their reliability and safety. Solid fuel of almost any kind, as well as oil and gasoline, is cheap. It is not economical of fuel, but where the fuel is cheap they may be operated at a reasonable expense.
Waterwheels can be used only in rare instances, and will not be discussed for this reason. There are, however, places where they may be used to advantage.
The pump is as important a part of the pumping plant as the motor. Pump troubles and repairs are always very annoying, and a pump of good construction and properly installed is always a good investment. The smaller the pump desired to operate a pump is small, as will be shown by the following table:
![]() Fig. 362. A good type of hand-operated water pump. This pump is provided with a handle which throws the windmill out of gear when the pressure has been reduced.
| AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING |
| Pump list. |
| No. |
ten |
Kind of cylinder |
Rimless |
Lift |
Gage, per min. |
H. P. used |
Hydraulic lift, ft. |
Efficiency percent |
|
|
2 1/2" |
brass lined |
8 |
50 |
5.81 |
105.91 |
0.732 |
57.0 |
|
|
3" plain iron |
|
5 |
6.74 |
100.00 |
0.919 |
52.6 |
|
|
3" brass body |
|
8 |
50 |
8.01 |
21.19 |
0.494 |
48.4 |
|
|
3" brass body |
|
100 |
7.53 |
255.85 |
196.5 |
45.6 |
|
|
26" |
|
800 |
100.00 |
22.12 |
259.47 |
34.7 |
|
|
1 4" |
plain iron |
8 |
100 |
103.75 |
|
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Important Features of a Pump.In selecting a pump, the service to be required of it should always be kept in mind. If the water is only to be lifted from a shallow well and delivered into a tank or pond under that, any common lift pump may be used. A lift pump is one in which no provision is made for forcing or lifting the water higher than the pump spout. Force pumps have the pump rod packed, making it water-light.
One of the most important parts of a pump is the cylinder, of which there are three common grades on the market; viz., plain iron, iron with brass lining, and brass-body cylinders.
The first is the cheapest, but is the least durable, as iron easily corrodes. Brass-lined cylinders are quite satisfactory, in that the iron supports and protects the brass, which is a soft metal. Brass-body cylinders are used where corrosion will occur, such as in wells of large diameter. Often in drilled wells of small diameter, brass-body cylinders with the caps screwed inside of the barrel instead of on the outside are installed, thus permitting the use of a cylinder of relatively large diameter. Brass-body cylinders will not stand severe service. When bented, they are almost past repair, and when worn out must be replaced by new ones because little material is provided for the threads.
Porcelain-
FARM SANITATION
459
lined cylinders are used where the water contains elements that corrode iron and brass.
**Plungers** are constructed to suit the lift under which they are to work. If the lift has but a few feet, one plunger leather which expands out toward the cylinder walls, making a water-tight fit, will be sufficient; but if the well is deep or the water in to be lifted against pressure, as many as four leathers will be found best.
![]()
A group of four plungers with leather sleeves.
Fig. 316. Some common types of pump cylinders. 1 is of plain cast iron, 2 is guarnetized, 3 is porcelain lined, 4 and 5 are brass lined, and 6 is an all-brass cylinder.
The valves are another important part of a pump. They should be designed to resist wear and to require the minimum of attention. There are at least four types of valves used in farm pumps. The hinge valve, made with a metal hinge, is the pathetic type of automatic valve and is used where the lift is not great. It is a simple valve and the cheapest, but is not well suited for high pressures. Poppet valves are those which lift directly from the seat, and are made with one or three prongs to guide the valve to its seat. These valves are the easiest to repair. Ball valves are used
459
490
AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
where the water is likely to contain sand, as the seat of the ball valve is usually quite narrow and the sand is not given an opportunity to lodge upon it.
**The Stock.** The part of the pump visible above the platform is called the stock, and may be made in a variety of styles. The simplest form is the lift pump, which, as a hand pump, was formerly made with wooden stocks, but now cast iron is generally used. The next simplest is the force pump, made after the plan of the common lift pump, with provision to prevent leakage about the pump rod.
Where the water is to be pumped into a storage tank and the pump is in a more or less exposed location, a three-way pump must be used. This consists of a valve that enables the water to be pumped out of the spout, or delivered through an underground pipe to the storage tank, or drawn from the tank through the spout.
In cold climates a pump should be protected against freezing by surrounding the valve with a frost-proof pit and providing for the drainage of the pump stock. If a complete air system of water storage is installed, a special pump must be provided which will pump a little air with the water; or a separate air pump must be used.
**QUESTIONS**
1. Is the pumping of water by hand ever economical?
2. What are the principal sources of power for pumping water?
3. Describe the steam engine, the gasoline engine, the windmill, and the hot-air engine, for pumping water?
4. Describe the difference between a lift pump and a force pump.
5. What are the relative merits of the different kinds of pump cylinders? Pump valves?
6. Describe the three-way pump and its use.
7. How should a pump be protected from freezing?
![]() A diagram showing a simple hand-operated water pump.
CHAPTER LXXVI
DISTRIBUTING AND STORING WATER
Water Pipe. After a consideration of the source of supply for a farm water system, the quantity of water required, and the pumping plant, the next thing to be considered is the distributing system or piping by which the water is conveyed to points where needed and to the reservoir for storage. For farming purposes, cast-iron pipe with leaded screwed joints is universally used. Cast-iron pipe with leaded joints is used for pipes four inches or larger in diameter, but pipes this large are seldom required in connection with farm systems. Wrought-iron or steel pipes placed underground should always be galvanized or coated with asphalt to protect them from rust. These are commonly galvanized.
Size of Farm Pipes. The two sizes of pipe generally used are three-fourths and one inch. In rare instances half-inch pipe may be used, but the flow of water through this size pipe is very slow, especially if a long length is used. The friction between the water and the walls of the pipe counteracts the pressure which causes the water to move. The following table taken from the "Cyclopedia of American Agriculture," indicates how great the friction is with small pipe.
Referring to the table it is seen that if a pump is delivering four gallons per minute through a length of 1/2-inch pipe 500 feet long, it must do so against a friction head or pressure of 270 feet of water. This would be impractical. Although the table does not include 3/4-inch pipe, the loss of pressure due to friction in this size pipe will be about one-half that in 1/2-inch pipe. The average farm pump will discharge about
| Size of Pipe |
Length (feet) |
Loss of Pressure (feet of water) |
| 1/2-inch |
500 |
270 |
| 3/4-inch |
500 |
135 |
| 1-inch |
500 |
68 |
492
AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
5 gallons per minute, which would require the use of pipe at least 1 inch in diameter or larger for mains, and the smaller sizes should only be used for branches. In many cases the pump is overloaded by using pipe of insufficient size.
Flow of water in pipes.
| Flow in gallons per minute |
Head in feet lost by friction in each 100 foot of length |
| 0.5 |
4 |
1-inch pipe. |
0.3 |
| 1.0 |
8 |
1-inch pipe. |
0.7 |
| 2.0 |
17 |
1-inch pipe. |
1.6 |
| 4.0 |
54 |
1-inch pipe. |
5.3 |
| 10.0 |
224 |
1-inch pipe. |
6.3 |
Piping Systems. There are two general types of underground piping systems on farms. The first of these is known as the "ramified" system, which consists of a main laid in the shortest possible line from the water supply to the farthest hydrant, with branches extending out on either side like branches of a tree. The one objection to this arrangement is that the water must pass through all hydrants constantly in use. There is, however, a saving in the cost of pipe, as smaller sizes may be used for the branches. The second type is known as the "circularity" system, in which the main pipe passes to all hydrants and the extreme ends are connected, if possible. With this system the water does not stagnate in any part.
In planning the distributing system, it is best to provide large mains if fire protection is desired. Valves should be put in various parts so that a disturbance in one part will not interfere with the use of the rest of the system. Often it can be arranged to have the fresh water, as pumped, pass through the house, thus providing drinking water.
FARM SANITATION
493
Water Storage. The size of the storage tank and reservoir will depend primarily on the kind of power used for pumping. It is customary to provide in storage a supply to last five days when the pumping is done by a windmill; and when a steam engine is used, the storage capacity may be reduced to a two-day supply.
The two general methods of storing water are by the use of the elevated tank and the pressure tank. The first of these depends upon gravity to force the flow of water, and the second upon mechanical power.
Towers and Tanks. The ideal location for an elevated water reservoir is upon some natural eminence. If the eminence is high enough to justify its elevation, it should be built beneath the surface like a cistern, thus insuring that the water will be kept cool. If there is no natural means of securing elevation, the tank must be placed upon a tower which is at a building. The height of the tower will depend upon the height of the buildings to which the water is to be delivered and upon the pressure desired. The tower may be made of steel, wood, or masonry. Masonry tanks are best, but often the cost is prohibitive.
A tank on a tower is exposed more or less to the weather and will give trouble from freezing. This is especially true of steel tanks. Wooden tanks are preferred over steel for out-
![]() Fig. 291. An Iron site with a wooden water storage tank on top.
Fig. 291. An Iron site with a wooden water storage tank on top.
494
494
AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
side locations, as they are easier to erect and are cheaper.
Cypress is considered one of the best woods for tank construc-
tion, and may be expected to last 15 to 20 years.
Tanks are sometimes placed in or on buildings, but great
care should be taken to determine whether or not the building
is sufficiently strong for the purpose. Water in quantity is
very heavy; 300 gallons will weigh 3500 pounds, to which
must be added the weight of the tank itself. Tanks placed in
residences have often caused settling of the framework under-
neath and consequent cracking of the plastering. In barns
they can be supported to better advantage.
Cement or concrete towers and tanks are coming into use
and, when properly built and reinforced, there is no reason
why they cannot be used in all cases.
The masonry silo provides what is seemingly a good loca-
tion for a water tank for a farm water supply. The tanks
themselves may be built of masonry if properly reinforced,
and plastered with cement plaster on the inside. The bottom
of the tank can be easily constructed of concrete, if built in a
conical form and reinforced to prevent cracking at the base.
The Air-Pressure System. The pressure tank, or pneu-
matic system, consists of an air-tight tank, a force pump,
Fig. 364. An air-pressure or pneumatic water supply system.
FARM SANITATION
and suitable piping. As water is forced in at the bottom of this tank, the air within is compressed, thus driving the water from the tank to any part of the system. As the effective capacity of the tank may be increased by having an initial pressure of air within it, and as the water con-
tinually absorbs a part of the air, an air pump or a pump to supply the air with the water must be provided.
As the water is thoroughly protected by being tightly enclosed, it may be placed where a freezing tempera-
ture is not reached. The cellar is thus the best location. It may, however, be buried in the ground, which has the advan-
tage that the water is kept at quite a uniform temperature throughout the entire year.
The air pressure tank for a water supply of small capacity is very expensive and costly. Where the storage capacity is large, however, the cost is so great as to almost prohibitive.
A ten-barrel tank with a
water storage capacity of six barrels will cost about $60, and larger tanks a correspondingly greater amount.
A more recent water-
supply system is known as the Perry pneumatic
water-supply system. It consists in a power-driven air compressor, a storage tank for air under pressure, and an air-
driven water pump which pumps the water as required, maintaining a pressure upon
the entire system. There is no storage of the water at all,
![]() A diagram showing a water supply system with a compressor, storage tank, and pump.
495
Fig. 384. A satisfactory method of install-
ing exposed hydrants.
Order casing
with screw cap.
Supply Pipe
from Compressor
below first line
to Storage Tank
Supply Pipe
from Storage
Tank to Pump
496
AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
other than that contained in the pipes. Definite information is not at hand concerning the cost or the success of this system. One distinct advantage of it is that water may be pumped from as many supplies as there are pumps. Thus one pump may supply well water for several purposes, and another furnish water for the bath and laundry.
QUESTIONS
1. What kind of pipe may be used in the distribution system, and what are the merits of each?
2. What are the sizes of pipe generally used for the farm water-supply system?
3. Explain how the loss of friction may be serious with small pipes.
4. Describe the ramified and circulatory systems of water piping.
5. What provision may be made for fire protection, for repair, and or other emergencies?
6. In what way does the amount of water storage vary with the source of power?
7. Describe the two general systems of storing water.
8. Discuss the construction of elevated water supply tanks.
9. What are the objections to an exposed water supply tank?
10. What care should be taken when the supply tank is placed in a building?
11. Why does a masonry silo make a good tower for a water supply tank?
12. Describe the air pressure or pneumatic system of water supply.
13. What are the advantages of this system and the main objection to it?
14. Describe the Perry system.
15. What is the principal advantage of this system?
CHAPTER LXXVII
PLUMBING FOR THE COUNTRY HOUSE
Modern conveniences for the country home are usually understood to include sanitary plumbing fixtures for the bathroom and for caring for the wastes of the household. The use of such fixtures is dependent upon an adequate water supply, a subject which has been discussed in the preceding chapters. There is nothing which will do as much toward rendering the house a more comfortable and pleasant place as the plumbing. It not only provides additional comfort and convenience to the extent that when once used it is considered indispensable, but it also guards the health of all members of the household.
Opinions differ widely in regard to the details of construction and design of sanitary plumbing. In all cases care must be used that unnecessary expense is not incurred in securing something which does not represent quality. As a rule the most simple fixtures are the most satisfactory. All parts of the fixtures, such as traps and overflows, should be so placed as to permit of ready inspection.
**Plumbing Fixtures.** In installing plumbing fixtures, consideration should be given to the mind. The usual fixtures installed in a country home are a sink and hot water appliances in the kitchen, and a bathtub, closet and lavatory in the bedroom. If the bathroom can be placed above or adjoining the kitchen the installation of the fixtures will be much simplified and much piping saved. The number of fixtures which may be installed will depend largely upon whether or not the house is to have furnace heat. If the house is to be
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heated with stoves, the bathroom can best be arranged to adjoin the kitchen, and the heat therefrom ought to prevent the freezing of the water in the pipes. For this reason the pipes should be protected as far as possible from the cold. It is not best, however, to place them in the wall, as they would then be decidedly more convenient to repair. One very satisfactory method of caring for the pipes is to provide a conduit with an removable cover which can be placed in such a way as not to detract from the appearance of the room. All of the fixtures requiring drainage should be clustered about the soil pipe which should extend from the cellar up through the building and out through the roof for ventilation. This soil pipe is universally made of four-inch cast-iron pipe, and its fittings inserted in proper places to receive the drainage from the various fixtures be provided at the bottom.
At a slight additional cost, hot water may be provided. All that is required in addition is a hot water or range tank
![]() A diagram showing a plumbing system for a two-story house. The vent pipe may be connected to a drain pipe under the floor. (McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1925, p. 36.)
It is best that a clean-out plug be provided at the bottom.
Fig. 39. A plumbing system for a two-story house. The vent pipe may be connected to a drain pipe under the floor. (McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1925, p. 36.)
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and a water front for the kitchen range or furnace, and the necessary piping. The range tank is galvanized and usually holds from 30 to 60 gallons.
The kitchen sink is one of the fixtures which is well-nigh indispensable. A cast-iron sink, porcelain lined and with a roll rim and a back piece, is the most convenient for cleaning. The porcelain-lined sink is just as serviceable, if not more so, than the solid porcelain, and is much cheaper. It is very difficult to keep a plain iron sink clean, and the advantages of the porcelain-lined will justify its purchase.
As a rule, the ordinary kitchen sink is 22 by 36 inches, and it should not be smaller than 20 by 30 inches. Though opinions differ, 32 inches is an average satisfactory height. One side may be conveniently arranged to receive the dishes as they are washed, permitting them to drain.
Bathroom Fixtures. The bathroom ordinarily contains three fixtures: a bathtub, a shower, a lavatory, and a water closet. Of recent years these fixtures have been made im- proved and cheapened so that until a good grade is within the reach of all. A serviceable bathtub is one of cast iron, porce- lain lined but with a wide roll at the top. Like the kitchen sink it should not have any woodwork connected with it. The best tubs have all of the piping, including the drains and overflow, cast in one piece. The ordinary size is 58 by 30 inches, and they may be had in any length from 4 to 6 feet.
The lavatory should be either solid porcelain or porcelain-enamelled cast iron. To avoid cracks in which dirt may accumulate, the back should be made solid with the bowl.
The water closet in general use is of solid white earthenware with siphon action. The cleaning jet should discharge from below the bowl and not from above it. Two kinds of flush tanks are in general use, the "low down" and the "high." The first does not make as much noise when
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flushed as the second but generally uses more water. The water is discharged from the second with considerable force, and for that reason is preferred by some.
**Back Vents.** In nearly all cities all fixtures are required by law to have vents from the traps to prevent the water which escapes from the pipe and prevents the entrance of foul gases into rooms from the sewerage below the floor. This system of piping is shown in the accompanying figure; it introduces considerable extra expense. In country houses there is doubtless little danger in omitting this extra piping.
There will be little difficulty in installing plumbing in a house not built especially for the purpose, providing there is room enough for the pipes and installing them before placing the pipes in place, but in most cases they can be left in exposed locations, which is some advantage.
The plumbing referred to and of the quality suggested will cost less than $200 almost anywhere in the Middle West; in fact, the average cost should not exceed $150.
**QUESTIONS**
1. What are some of the general considerations involved in the installation of plumbing?
2. Is it advisable to be arranging in houses without furnace heat?
3. How secure convenience in cleaning and inspection?
4. What are the usual fixtures required?
5. Discuss the merits of various grades of sinks.
6. What should be used for the operation of a lavatory?
7. Discuss the different types of water closets.
8. What is meant by back venting?
9. How much should the plumbing in an average farmhouse cost?
CHAPTER LXXVIII
THE SEPTIC TANK FOR FARM SEWAGE DISPOSAL
Modern plumbing fixtures for the farmhouse introduce a new problem, the disposal of the sewage. Present-day ideas concerning sanitation have made the privy and the cesspool less tolerable than formerly. The modern sewage disposal plant, however, will fill this gap to some extent, would not only prevent accumulation of sewage to harbor disease and contaminate the water supply, but should also provide for the saving of fertilizing material which otherwise would be wasted.
Disposal of Sewage into Rivers. If a large stream of water be near, the sewage may be discharged into it in a manner similar to that followed by the large cities. The organic material contained in the sewage when exposed to the light and air as it passes off down the river is rapidly purified by bacterial action. Rivers as a means of disposing of the sewage from farmhouses are rarely available and will not be discussed further.
The septic tank, where the cesspool has been the most common method of disposing of sewage in isolated places, it has but few features to commend it and should not be used if there is the least danger of its spreading disease. As usually constructed the cesspool consists of a cistern in the ground, with an open wall, usually of brick, through which seepage takes place. In some open soils this seepage is rapid, and no difficulty is experienced in disposing of the effluent at times. In impermeable or impervious soils, the solid matter of the sewage closes the porous walls to the extent that the liquids do
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not sweep away fast enough. If there is much grease in the sewage it is apt to become hardened over the surface of the walls, making them water-tight. To overcome this difficulty common lye has been used to cut the grease, with good success. All cesspools should be arranged with a manhole, which will permit the settlings or solid matter which collects in the bottom to be removed at regular intervals, perhaps once a year.
Many cesspools that have been in use for years are entirely satisfactory as far as observations go. The success of these is undoubtedly due to the purifying bacterial action which the sewage undergoes in the tank. At best, however, the cesspool is a dangerous means of disease of sewage and under such conditions would be of most improved value. Often the contamination of the water supply is effected at an un dreamed-of distance, resulting in typhoid fever, dysentery, and other complaints.
Principles of Sewage Disposal. The principle involved in the purification of sewage in the modern disposal plant, regardless of whether it be for city or private use, is largely that of destroying the suspended matter in the water by bacterial action. Outside of this, some results are brought about by settling, thus easing for a part of the suspended material.
When the sewage from a farmhouse, consisting of the wash water from kitchen and dairy and the discharge from plumb- fixtures, is drained into a dark reservoirand not disturbed for a time, rapid bacterial action takes place. The bacteria which work in a tank of this sort do not need light or air to live. The action is simply this: the bacteria feed upon the organic matter of the sewage and thereby partially destroy it; in addition, a part of this solid matter, or sludge, as it is called, is liquified.
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The reservoir provided for this purification by bacterial action is known as the septic tank. To secure the best results, this septic tank should be designed to exclude light and air and to bring the sewage to rest and hold it so for a time.
The purification of the sewage, however, is not completed in the septic tank. To complete the process, means must be provided to permit another class of bacteria to act upon
![]() A general view of a septic tank arranged to be connected with an underground irrigation system without a siphon.
(After Stewart.)
the sewage. These must have air and light or they cannot live. To supply the proper conditions for this second bacterial action, two plans are followed: the first is to provide a filter bed of coarse material, usually gravel, over which the sewage from the septic tank is discharged at intervals; and the second is to provide a shallow tile system from which percolation will take place. These tiles are usually placed within ten to twelve inches of the surface of the soil. In retentive, a shallow tile system is laid to carry off the purified sewage. In some places this filter system of drain tile is used
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as a means of subirrigation, furnishing the growing plants on the surface with moisture and fertility. It is to be noted that the discharge into the filter system should be intermittent, in order that the bacteria at work shall not be drowned.
Another plan of filtering which is used to some extent is to allow the discharge to trickle down through a bed of sand, which is then covered and perforated over, to a second tank in which the water level is maintained several inches below. The dripping of the sewage through the air corresponds quite closely to the sprinkling system of sewage disposal which is used to some extent in city plants.
**Size of Septic Tank.** The septic tank should be sufficiently large to hold the entire charge for about one day, in which case the best bacterial action will be obtained. Another rule tried out more or less by practice is to provide 20 gallons' capacity for each person in the household. There will be a settlement amounting to several pailfuls in the septic tank each year, and provision must be made for its removal.
**Construction of the Septic Tank.** Concrete is the best material for the septic tank. The tile line to the tank from the house should be of vitrified bell-mouthed tile with cemented joints.
![]() Diagram showing a septic tank.
Fig. 329. Section of a septic tank made entirely of concrete. It has a siphon and a filter bed of sand and gravel.
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Fig. 308 is a general view of a septic tank which has been built for as little as $18.65. It has a plank top, and the only means of cleaning it out would be to uncover the earth and remove the planks. Fig. 309 shows a sewage plant, with a filter bed attached. The filtered bed complete will cost by it- self about $20. The best results can be secured by placing the plant with a siphon. Fig. 310 shows a plan for laying the tile system to filter the discharge from the septic tank.
It is remarkable how thoroughly sewage can be purified by an efficient plant. Often the effluent or final discharge from the filter bed will compare in purity with the best well water.
QUESTIONS
1. How is sewage purified that is discharged into a river?
2. What are the objections to a cesspool as a means of disposing of sewage?
3. Discuss the construction of the cesspool.
4. How is sewage purified in a septic tank?
5. How can complete purification of the sewage be obtained?
6. Why is it necessary to have the sewage applied intermittently to the filter bed or irrigation tile?
7. Discuss the construction of the septic tank.
8. Estimate the cost of a sewage disposal plant for a household of ten people.
![]() A plan of a tile system for filtering the discharge from a septic tank.
Fig. 310. A plan of a tile system for filtering the discharge from a septic tank.
CHAPTER LXXIX
THE NATURAL LIGHTING OF FARM BUILDINGS
Development. If a comparison be made between the farm buildings of twenty-five years ago and those which are entitled to be called modern, it would be found that one of the principal differences lies in the natural lighting, or the amount of window surface provided. This change is due largely to a more general recognition of the value of light as a sanitary agent.
Purpose of Natural Lighting. The natural lighting of farm buildings has a three-fold purpose: (1) The principal purpose, to make the buildings more sanitary by destroying disease germs; (2) to provide a more convenient and pleasant place for the attendants to care for the animals; and (3) to provide more pleasant and comfortable quarters for the animals themselves. It is obvious that the first consideration for providing adequate natural light for farm buildings is to secure sanitary quarters for the animals. Direct sunlight is far more powerful and destructive to disease germs than diffused or reflected light, and for this reason as much direct sunlight as possible should be provided. Usually but a short time, frequently only a few minutes, is required for diffusion of light.
In regard to the value of diffuse light for destroying germs, Dr. Weirnair, an eminent bacteriologist, is quoted in King's book on Ventilation as follows: "The shortest time in which diffuse light in a room killed the bacillus of tuberculosis was less than a day, and the longest time was less than a week; generally one or two days' exposure killed the organisms. Some pus-producing bacteria required a week's
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time to kill them, while some intestinal bacteria were killed in a few hours. It was also found that bacteria are killed more quickly in moist air than in dry, contrary to general belief. The diffuse light as found in our dwellings is, therefore, a hygienic factor of great importance, and where direct sunlight is not available it should be carefully provided for."
It is believed that the above quotation represents a clear, authoritative statement of the value of diffuse sunlight in producing sanitary quarters.
Location of Windows. In locating the windows, great care should be taken that sunlight will be admitted in such a way as to allow the direct beams of light to sweep the entire floor. The angle of incidence of the sun's rays, or the distance of the sun above the horizon, for latitude 42° north varies from 70° the 22nd of June to 26° the 21st of Decem- ber. For other latitudes the angle of incidence is determined by the special autumn and fall equinoxes which take place March 21 and Septem- ber 21, and for 42° N., the angle is 48°. Sunlight is more useful in the winter time than in the summer, and it should be taken to make use of the winter sun rather than the summer sun. For practical purposes it can be assumed that the most desirable sunlight enters the windows at an angle of 45°.
Fig. 311. A sketch showing how the angle of incidence of the sun's rays changes with latitude throughout the year. This diagram shows that at latitude 42° N., the sun's rays enter at an angle of 48°.
![]() A sketch showing how the angle of incidence of the sun's rays changes with latitude throughout the year. At latitude 42° N., the sun's rays enter at an angle of 48°.
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Design of Windows. The window casings should be designed to intercept as little of the direct sunlight as possible. Stone or concrete walls of considerable thickness should be beveled on the inside so as to reduce the width of the beam of sunshine passing through the glass. For this reason windows that are long vertically are more desirable and most efficient than those which are wide but low. In the latter instance the casings and wall cut off a large proportion of the direct light admitted. The greater efficiency of the former is due also to the effect of over-hanging eaves located directly below.
Size of Windows. No definite rules can be given for the amount of window surface to provide in barns and other farm buildings, owing to the fact that the efficiency of the windows depends upon their location with respect to the sun. How ever, to provide one square foot of glass for every 20 to 25 square feet of floor surface. Judgment must be used in this connection, varying the amount with the location and shape of the windows. Dairy barns are generally provided with a larger window area than horse barns.
There is a tendency now to use extreme lighting in lighting dairy barns. Many barns have been built during recent years with entirely too much window surface. Such buildings are too cold when located in the northern climates, at least. Ade-
![]() Fig. 311. A sketch showing the effect of a window placed directly beneath a beam of sunlight admitted, the greater efficiency of such a window being due also to the effect of over-hanging eaves.
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quite window surface does not add materially to the cost of the construction and should not be admitted for this reason.
Wide buildings and basement barns cannot be lighted well, and for this reason should be guarded against. It is to be remembered in this connection that natural lighting is only one factor in providing sanitary quarters. Cleanliness and ventilation are more important; but none of these features should be neglected.
**QUESTIONS**
1. Describe the changes which have taken place in the natural lighting of farm buildings.
2. What is the threefold purpose of the natural lighting of farm buildings?
3. What value has direct sunlight in destroying disease germs?
4. Discuss how windows should be located to be the most effective.
5. What should be the general shape of windows, and what may be said concerning the thickness of casings and width of eaves?
6. Discuss the relation between window surface and floor surface in different types of buildings.
CHAPTER LXXX
LIGHTING THE COUNTRY HOME
Development. It is extremely interesting to study the development of the art of lighting, or illumination; yet it is not the function of this chapter to discuss this phase of the subject. Our fathers and mothers were compelled while young to learn by the light of the candle, the oil lamp, or the light of the fire in the fireplace. History relates how many of our famous men of the past century spent hours in the flickering light from the "back log" poring over a book which they were endeavoring to master. The petroleum industry was not developed until 1800, and the general use of kerosene lamps did not come until many years after this. The kerosene lamp, with its oil well, with chimney to draft the coal and produce more perfect combustion, was a great improvement over the ill-smelling and smoking tallow candle or dip.
The various sources of light for rural conditions are the kerosene lamp, the gasoline lamp or system, the acetylene lamp or gas jet, and the electric light plant. Alcohol might be burned in lamps, but at the present cost cannot compete with the petroleum oils. These various systems will be discussed in turn.
The Unit of Light--The Standard Candle. In comparing lamps it is necessary to refer to the unit of illumination, the standard candle by which all lamps are rated. The standard candle is defined as that amount of light which a certain size candle seven-eighths of an inch in diameter and burning 120 grains of sperma per hour. This standard is not very satisfactory, as it tends to vary. The International Unit of Light
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was adopted by the United States July 1, 1909, and is now the legal unit of light, and is practically equal to the standard candle.
The art of measuring the illumination of any source of light is called photometry. The principle involved consists in placing the source of light, or the lamp to be measured and a standard lamp whose candle power is known, at such dis-
tances from a screen that the intensity of the light from each equals that of the light from the other. In this way, therefore, it is to be expected that the intensity of the light at all points on the surface of a sphere at a certain radius from the source will be equal. As the surfaces of spheres vary as the square of their radii, the intensity of light varies inversely as the square of the distance from the source. This assumes that the light emitted by a source is not concentrated.
Kerosene lamps. Kerosene lamps are still in common use, and, although they have some very serious objections, their merits should not be entirely overlooked. In the first place kerosene lamps are cheap as far as first cost is concerned. The fuel is cheap and can be obtained almost anywhere. Kerosene lamps are quite safe; in fact, they excel many gas lamps in this respect. They are more economical than the matches than in the lamps themselves. The lamps are readily portable, which is not true of all sources of artificial light.
On the other hand there are many disadvantages. The odor of kerosene lamps is not pleasant, although it is more offensive to some persons than to others. Kerosene lamps require attention in the way of trimming the wicks and cleaning the chimney. If a large number of lamps are to be cared for, the time required daily is considerable. Much heat is developed by a kerosene light, which at times may be a serious disadvantage. The lamps also consume a large
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amount of oxygen and necessitates more rapid ventilation.
A large lamp will consume more oxygen than several persons.
There is more or less smoke com-
ing from the flame, which settles
as soon upon the furniture and
walls of the room.
The light from a kerosene lamp is a yellowish orange. It is not
white enough to be a perfect light.
Authorities differ as to the effect of the light from a kerosene lamp upon the eye, but it is gen-
erally regarded as a quite suit-
able light. The addition of a
mantle, however, is not of much
importance to a kerosene lamp to in-
close the flame, increases the
efficiency many fold. This will
be shown definitely in the data
from tests which will follow.
Mantles, however, are very fra-
zile and increase the cost of keep-
ing up the lamp in use. The
average kerosene lamp furnishes
light at the rate of 15 to 30 candle
power.
It is to be noted from the
table that the mantle has a de-
cided effect upon the efficiency
of lamps, raising the candle-
power-hours per gallon from 600
to over 3000. Gasoline-lamps are
in reality gas lamps, for they
![]() Fig. 118. A good type of ke-
rosene lamp. The efficiency of this lamp is increased by the use of a mantle.
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must convert the liquid into gas before it is burned. Gaso-
line lamps are either portable, with an individual generator,
or are connected to a system, with a common generator for
the entire system. Again, certain gasoline plants require a
special grade of light gasoline which is vaporized upon mixing
with air.
**Gasoline Lamps.** Gasoline lamps are not safe as kero-
sene lamps, yet when properly handled should not be danger-
ous. They should be filled only by daylight, and care should
be taken not to let the gasoline become exposed to the air
either through a leak or by spilling. A gasoline lamp, unless
of the vaporizing type, requires some time for starting, and
must be heated before the gasoline can be generated. While
it is burning, there is usually a hissing noise which is very
disagreeable. Gasoline lamps are universally mantle lamps,
and for this reason are very efficient. The most efficient
lamps are those which furnish the liquid to the lamps under
pressure, thus preventing the escape of the oxygen of the
air and heats it much as the kerosene lamp.
| Kind of lamp |
Size |
Where tested |
Candle power |
Candle- |
Con. per |
|
|
|
|
gall. |
gal. |
B. & H. Burner
Common flat Wick |
114 in. dia.
134 in.wish. |
Ia. Exp. Sta.
Pa. Exp. Sta. |
33.6
11.66 |
877
591 |
0125e
017e |
| Roeschter |
134 in. dia. |
Ia. Exp. Sta.
Pa. Exp. Sta. |
16.02
19.58 |
290 to
290 to |
003c
003c |
| Saronia with Ar-
gand burner and mantle |
74 in.dia. |
Ia. Exp. Sta.
Pa. Exp. Sta. |
27.46
30.26 |
1312 to
315 |
008c |
Chaneceter with
Argand burner
mantele |
|
|
30.6
32.4 |
334 to
402 |
0034c |
The efficiency of lamps,
| Candle power (watts) |
Candle power (candles) |
Candle power (candle-hours) |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
| | |
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Efficiency of gasoline lamps.
| Kind of lamp |
Where tested |
Candle power |
Candle- |
Cost per exa- |
|
|
|
power |
hour at 30c. |
| Bracket lamp |
Ia. Exp. Sta. |
51.2 |
2948 |
.0008c |
| Horn lamp |
Ia. Exp. Sta. |
300.9 |
4550 |
.0043c |
| Pressure lamp at 34 lbs. |
Ia. Exp. Sta. |
|
|
|
| Underneath generator |
Pa. Exp. Sta. |
36 to 46 |
1885 |
.0120c |
QUESTIONS
1. What are the improved systems of lighting?
2. How much kerosene lighted by artificial means in early times?
3. What is the common unit of light, and explain how it is established?
4. Explain how the illumination of a source may be measured.
5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of kerosene lamps?
6. What effect does the use of different fuels have upon the efficiency of lamps?
7. Discuss the merits of gasoline lamps.
By reducing the cost of light from kerosene, alcohol, and gasoline lamps compare? Discuss the cost of lighting the average farm-house during a period of one year with the different systems.
![]() A gasoline lamp. The taking is coiled so as to appear in the picture.
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CHAPTER LXXXI
THE ACETYLENE LIGHTING PLANT
The Principle of the Acetylene Plant. When a lighting system for the farm is desired which will furnish the equal of city service, the acetylene plant is one of the first to receive consideration. Acetylene gas is made by bringing calcium carbide in contact with water. In portable lamps the water is allowed to drip upon the carbide; but with larger plants, the carbide is fed into a rather large tank of water mainly to keep the temperature down. The reaction between the two substances of carbide and water is like that of unlaked lime and water, and the resulting residue is the same—not more or less than common white straw.
Calcium Carbide. The calcium carbide is made by subjecting a mixture of coke and lime to the intense heat of the electric furnace. The resulting product is of dark-gray color with a slightly crystalline structure. The carbide industry is practically monopolized in this country by the Union Car- bide Sales Company, from which all purchases must be made. Distributing depots are located at various points throughout the United States, where they bring in each state, or perhaps more in some instances. The cost of carbide at these depots is about $3.75 per pound, or $83.75 per ton. It is shipped in metal cans as third-class freight. The carbide is no more dangerous than unlaked lime; the only precaution necessary is to keep it free from moisture. There are four sizes of car- bide carried regularly in stock: viz., Lump, Egg, Nut, and Quarter. The last two sizes, Nut $\frac{1}{4}$ inch by $\frac{1}{4}$ inch, and Quarter, $\frac{1}{4}$ inch by $\frac{1}{12}$ inch, are the two commonly used in carbide fuel generators.
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Acetylene Gas. Acetylene is a colorless, tasteless gas composed entirely of carbon and hydrogen. It is lighter than air, but much heavier than coal gas. Acetylene burns with a very white light, almost like sunlight. It is easy on the eyes.
![]() A photograph of a high-pressure acetylene generator.
Fig. 318. A H-light acetylene generator.
and enables one to distinguish colors accurately. The combustion of acetylene deprives the air of about 21/2 cubic feet of oxygen for each cubic foot burned. The flame, for equal candle power, produces less heat than the kerosene lamp.
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Being a rich gas, acetylene will form a dangerously explosive mixture with air; yet an explosive mixture, which must contain between 3/4 to 25 times as much air as gas, is so unlikely to occur, on account of the ease by which gas leaks around pipes, that it is seldom heard of.
Acetylene will also cause asphyxiation. Yet not nearly so readily as coal gas, which is used for illumination in the cities. No fatal results from inhalation are on record, and it is claimed that death could not occur until the gas was present in the proportion of at least 20 per cent.
Production of Acetylene Gas. When calcium carbide is mixed with water, each pound should, of the carbide is chemically pure, produce 160 cubic feet of gas. This gas is very rich, containing about 1700 British thermal units per cubic foot, nearly three times that of coal gas. The commercial carbide yields from 4/5 to 5/4 cubic feet, depending upon its purity, the moisture absorbed, and the amount of dust present. Theoretically, .502 pounds of water will be needed for each pound of carbide burned but in practice only one pound as eight pounds are supplied. The most common size of burner used consumes .524 cubic foot of gas per hour, and gives a flame 18 inches long.
Other standard sizes are the 1, 3/4, and 3/4 cubic foot burners.
![]() Fig. 216. A section of the generator shown in Fig. 215 showing the clockwork mechanism operating the valve for admitting water to the weight for absorbing carbonic acid. The weight E is suspended from a wire B. The weight F is the agitator in the water tank for stirring the carbide. The pipe G is the gas holder. H is the gas filter.
A section of the generator shown in Fig. 215 showing the clockwork mechanism operating the valve for admitting water to the weight for absorbing carbonic acid. The weight E is suspended from a wire B. The weight F is the agitator in the water tank for stirring the carbide. The pipe G is the gas holder. H is the gas filter.
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
such a way that two jets of flame are directed toward each other, forming a fan-shaped flame.
Mantles are not used with acetylene burners, owing to the fact that it is almost impossible to light the gas without a slight explosion which would destroy the mantle. If mantles could be used they would raise the efficiency of the lamps many fold.
**Cost of Light.** If it is assumed that one pound of carbide, costing $4 per hundredweight, will furnish five cubic feet of gas, and that a burner using one-half cubic foot per hour will furnish 100 candle-power-hours per hour, it is obvious that the cost of acetylene light per candle-power-hour for comparison with other lighting systems. Thus if .5 cubic foot of gas costs 4/10 cent, which is the cost of 25 candle-power-hours of light, one candle-power-hour will cost 1/25 of 4/10 cent or .016 cent.
In a test of a portable lamp, made at the Pennsylvania agricultural experiment station, from 127 to 140 candle-power-hours were obtained from four pounds of carbide, costing 5/10 cents per pound. This would make the cost of light per candle-power-hour .043 cent.
**Essentials of a Good Acetylene Generator.** All acetylene light plants must have a generator whose function is to feed the carbide to the water, or the water to the carbide, which is known as "watering." The essentials of a good acetylene generator may be summarized as follows:
1. There should be no possibility of the existence of an explosive mixture in the generator at any time. The National Board of Fire Underwriters has prepared a list of generators which have passed inspection; and each buyer should see that the manufacturer's purchase has been inspected and listed.
2. The generator must include good generators.
3. The construction must be tight and heavy enough to resist rapid deterioration.
![]() A diagram showing the components of an acetylene generator.
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4. It should be simple in construction so as to be readily understood and not likely to get out of order.
5. It should be capable of being recleaned and recharged without loss of gas into the room.
6. There should be a suitable indicator to show how much oxide remains unused.
7. The plant should be completely used up, generating the maximum amount of gas.
Size and Cost of Plant. Generators are made in various sizes, the rating being based upon the number of ½-foot lights that can be supplied with gas. The sizes vary from 20-lights to 1000-light, but 25, 30, and 35 are the usual sizes. The list price of these generators is $150 and $150 dollars, respectively. In addition to the cost of the plant, the cost of the piping, fixtures, and installation must be added. For an eight-room house, the total cost will be about as follows:
Generator .................................................. $150
Piping system .............................................. 40
Drain and foundation for generator ................... 10
Fixtures, eight rooms and basement .................... 40
Barn additions ............................................. 15
Total .......................................................... $225
It is to be understood that this estimate cannot be made very definite owing to the varying number of fixtures required and the cost of labor, freight, etc.
QUESTIONS
1. How is acetylene gas made? How is carbide made?
2. Discuss the cost and sizes of carbide.
3. Describe the characteristics of acetylene gas.
4. Discuss the uses of acetylene gas.
5. What are the essentials of a good generator?
6. Iomize the cost of an acetylene plant.
7. What care should be used in maintaining an acetylene system?
CHAPTER LXXXII
THE ELECTRIC LIGHTING PLANT
Development. Two great improvements have recently been brought about which have done much to make the private electric plant far more successful than ever before. In the first place, the new tungsten incandescent lamp has practically reduced the consumption of electricity per candle-power to one-tenth that consumed by the carbon arc. Second, in addition to these two points, there have been some very decided improvements in storage battery construction, not only making them more reliable, but cheaper.
Electric Light. Illuminating engineers agree that the incandescent electric light is the nearest approach to the ideal light which can be obtained. Its first great merit lies in its convenience. It is only necessary to turn a button or switch and the light is on or off as desired. It is the cleanest of all lights, no dust, no soot, no odor. Furthermore, the electric light does not vitiate the air by consuming the oxygen. Of all lights it is by far the safest and may be taken directly into the room without fear of injury.
The serious objection to the electric light which has been raised in the past is its cost. The new tungsten lamp has done much to remove this objection, where it can be used, although it is rather fragile and cannot be used where the lamp is subject to shocks or sharp vibrations. Further, the cost of electric light may be somewhat overlooked on account of its comparative cheapness. The total cost of installing an electric plant is large, but not so much greater than the cost of installing an acetylene or gasoline plant. In addition to
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lighting, the electric current may be used for other purposes—small motors, electric irons, etc.
The Electric Plant. It does not seem practical to install an electric plant large enough to furnish power to the various machines used on the farm. Not only would the cost of installation be very great, but such a plant when used for lighting might be too expensive. An electric lighting plant consists primarily of a source of power or a motor of some sort, a generator or dynamo to furnish the current, the wiring, the lights, and, under all normal conditions, a storage battery to supply current when the motor and generator are not in use.
The Source of Power. Water-power makes an ideal power for the plant, as it is almost always very cheap. It is, however, not often available; hence, the principal source of power for the farmer's electric plant is the gasoline or kerosene engine. These, as has been shown, have developed to the point where they are quite reliable, and the power is furnished in small units at a very reasonable cost. Furthermore, the gasoline engine requires the minimum of attention while running, which is an essential feature of the entire private electric plant.
Dynamo and Generator. The electric current must be made to some electrical terms. Electric current has two properties: (1) The pressure or the voltage, which is the measure of the tendency on the part of an electric current to flow; and (2) the amount of current flowing, or the amperage. Thus a 110-volt lamp requires 110 volts of pressure or voltage to make its filament glow brightly. If the lamp be a 10-candle-power carbon filament lamp only one-half ampere will
![]() A diagram showing a light bulb with a filament.
Fig. 812. d is the common carbon filament lamp used in the new lampette lamp, which is shown in Fig. 813.
521
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pass through the lamp. The product of the volts by the amperes gives the electric power in watts, the watt being the unit of power. Thus for the lamp just referred to, the current consumption would be 110 x $\frac{1}{2}$, or 55 watts. One horsepower is equal to 746 watts. The output of a dynamo motor is rated in kilowatt-hours, or kilowatts per hour. Electricity is purchased by the kilowatt-hour, which is electric current at the rate of one kilowatt continued for one hour. One kilowatt equals 1.34 horsepower; thus to drive a one-kilowatt dynamo, a 1$\frac{1}{2}$- or 2-horsepower engine is provided, as some power is lost in the friction of the dynamo itself.
**Selection of the Plant.** In deciding upon a plant one of the first questions to be considered is what will be the voltage at which the plant is to be operated. Electric light plants are now made to furnish current at 25 to 110 or even higher voltage. The common voltages are 25, 60, and 110. The lower voltages have some advantages; viz., (1) first cost of the storage battery is lower; (2) the batteries have fewer parts; (3) they are more compact; (4) low-voltage lamps consume less; and (4) the lamps, having shorter filaments, are stronger.
The disadvantage of a low voltage lies primarily in the fact that it is not standard with any lighting plants and is inconvenient to procure lamps and other fixtures for it. There is another disadvantage connected with this system in connection with the wiring, especially if the current is to be transmitted far, since the size of wire required to furnish a given light with electricity varies inversely with the voltage. In other words, a wire will transmit twice as much electricity through a given size at 110 volts as at 55 volts.
If the maximum number of 25-watt lamps in service at one time does not exceed 30, then therefrom the dynamo from miscellaneous sources such as motors, flat iron, etc., does not exceed 500 watts, a one-kilowatt generator may be used. A one-horsepower gasoline engine will furnish
| Pass through the lamp. |
The product of the volts by the amperes gives the electric power in watts, the watt being the unit of power. |
| Thus for the lamp just referred to, |
The current consumption would be 110 x $\frac{1}{2}$, or 55 watts. |
| One horsepower is equal to 746 watts. |
The output of a dynamo motor is rated in kilowatt-hours, or kilowatts per hour. |
| Electricity is purchased by the kilowatt-hour, |
which is electric current at the rate of one kilowatt continued for one hour. |
| One kilowatt equals 1.34 horsepower; |
thus to drive a one-kilowatt dynamo, |
| a 1$\frac{1}{2}$- or 2-horsepower engine is provided, |
as some power is lost in the friction of the dynamo itself. |
| Selection of the Plant. |
In deciding upon a plant one of the first questions to be considered is what will be the voltage at which the plant is to be operated. |
| Electric light plants are now made to furnish current at 25 to 110 or even higher voltage. |
The common voltages are 25, 60, and 110. |
| The lower voltages have some advantages; |
viz., (1) first cost of the storage battery is lower; |
| (2) the batteries have fewer parts; |
(3) they are more compact; |
| (4) low-voltage lamps consume less; |
(4) lamps having shorter filaments are stronger. |
| The disadvantage of a low voltage lies primarily in the fact that it is not standard with any lighting plants and is inconvenient to procure lamps and other fixtures for it. |
|
| There is another disadvantage connected with this system in connection with the wiring, |
especially if the current is to be transmitted far, |
| since the size of wire required to furnish a given light with electricity varies inversely with the voltage. |
In other words, a wire will transmit twice as much electricity through a given size at 110 volts as at 55 volts. |
| If the maximum number of 25-watt lamps in service at one time does not exceed 30, |
then therefrom the dynamo from miscellaneous sources such as motors, flat iron, etc., does not exceed 500 watts, |
| a one-kilowatt generator may be used. |
A one-horsepower gasoline engine will furnish |
FARM SANITATION 533
the power unless required to do other work while running the generator. If pumping, churning, and other forms of light work are contemplated, a two-horsepower engine will usually be found very satisfactory. The storage battery must contain 56 cells, and if they are of the 20-ampere-hour size they will furnish all of the lamps with current for four hours.
![]() Fig. 115. Engine, dynamo, storage battery, and switchboard of an elec-
tric lighting plant.
The Cost of the Plant. The total cost of plant may be estimated as follows:
| Description |
Cost |
| 1-2 horsepower gasoline engine |
$125 |
| 1 1/4-kilowatt generator |
60 |
| 1 storage battery, 20-ampere-hour, 56 cells at $2.50 |
140 |
| 1 complete set of lamps |
25 |
| 12 tungsten lamps |
17 |
| 12 incandescent lamps |
3 |
| Wiring |
50 |
| Finishing |
30 |
| Total cost |
$498 |
The Cost of Light. The cost of operating the plant will be principally that of gasoline, which, at the usual price, will
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be between 1½ and 2 cents per hour. Twenty-25-watt lamps will furnish 400 candle-power. Thus the cost per candle-power-hour might be at a minimum .00375 to .005 cents. As the plant will seldom be operated at full capacity, the average cost will be much greater, perhaps double.
Operation. The electric plant is not difficult to operate by one who has had experience with electrical machinery. The engine and the dynamo will not require a great amount of attention. The storage must be supplied with electrolyte from time to time. The battery is also the least durable part of the entire plant, perhaps a new set of electrodes for the battery will be needed at the end of five years. A good engine ought to last at least ten years.
QUESTIONS
1. What improvements have made the electric lighting plants practical for farm homes?
2. What are the advantages of electric light?
3. Discuss the most serious objections to electric light.
4. Is it generally practical to install an electric lighting plant large enough for power service?
5. What are the various sources of power for electric lighting plants.
6. Define voltage. Amperage.
7. What is a watt? A kilowatt?
8. What is the relation between watts and candle power with tungsten lamps?
9. What are the advantages of a low-voltage system?
10. Why is its use increasing?
11. Insure the care of an electric lighting plant.
12. Discuss the cost of electric light.
13. Discuss the care and maintenance of an electric lighting plant.
CHAPTER LXXXIII
HEATING THE COUNTRY HOME
Systems of Heating. There are four systems of heating farm houses in use:
1. By stoves.
2. By a hot-air furnace.
3. By a hot-water furnace and radiators.
4. By a steam furnace and radiators.
Stoves. The first of these is in common use, and perhaps little can be written here without aid to the general information upon the subject. The stove was used by the early settlers, but coal shortly after coal was discovered, for the fireplaces of the time were not adapted to the purpose. As usually designed the stove is not an efficient device, as perhaps 50 per cent of the heat is lost up the chimney. It has other more serious shortcomings, however. In the first place the stove does not produce a uniform temperature, owing to the fact that the air is drawn into the stove through one or two imperfect openings. The success of any heating system depends primarily upon perfect circulation of the air. Air near the hot stove expands upon heating, becomes lighter and rises to the ceiling, and colder air takes its place. As the warmest part of the stove is several feet from the floor, the upper part of the room is usually much warmer than the lower. The inconvenience of having only a small amount of fuel in the stove, due to the dirt, soot and gases that result from its use are also objectionable.
If several rooms are to be heated, the management of the stoves becomes a troublesome matter. Almost any kind of fuel may be used in a stove, which is an advantage decidedly
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in its favor. Although coal requires less labor, wood is a clean and very desirable fuel. In certain sections of the country the fuel used is mainly corn cobs and other trash, and the stoves used are the so-called air-tight stoves which have a large firebox, in which the fuel is burned by being placed at one time. This magazine obviates the necessity of feeding the fuel at short intervals. There is, however, some danger from the explosion of the gas which is generated from fresh fuel before the flames start. The heat of the smoldering fire upon which fresh fuel is placed drives off certain combustible gases, which are ignited as soon as a flame starts to burn.
By far the most satisfactory stove for the cold winters of the North is the hard-coal burner. When of sufficient size and well designed, with a good large magazine, the hard-coal burner may be used to heat several rooms to a comfortable temperature. The high cost of hard or anthracite coal in certain sections of the country renders the use of such a heater questionable.
**Radiators.** In houses equipped with stoves an upper room can be comfortably heated by extending the stove pipe into the room and providing a radiator. This plan is highly commendable, as there is no additional expense connected with this arrangement than with the radiator, which should not exceed $8$, the value of a good one.
**Warm-Air Furnaces.** Heating houses by means of warm-air furnaces does not differ materially from the use of stoves. The furnace is simply a large stove placed in the basement, with pipes to convey the heated air to the various rooms above. By placing the furnace in the basement many of the objections against the use of stoves are removed, but those connected with their firing and cleaning is kept up, and it is least objectionable. Proper circulation of the air may be secured
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by arranging the pipes so that the temperature may be kept uniform in all parts of the house.
The warm-air furnace has an advantage in that a house may be heated up quickly, and likewise the disadvantage that the house will cool quickly when the fire goes down, owing to the fact that there is no storage of heat. The hot-air furnace is very bad about conducting dust and smoke into the rooms. Other cheaply constructed furnaces are provided in the fresh air outlets to keep them clean. The average life of a hot-air furnace will not exceed 8 to 10 years, and when it becomes old the plates are quite apt to be cracked or warped in such a way that there is a serious leakage of heat and cold air. It is to be noted in this connection that the furnace is so large that it must be built in sections, and seams cannot be avoided. As air does not have the property of absorbing a large amount of heat quickly, and the joints and castings are easily overheated.
In strong winds the circulation of the air in the flues is seriously interfered with. Often there is a corner room more exposed than the others that cannot be heated with the hot-air system.
Installation. In planning a house in which the warm-air system is to be used, thought should be taken to give the furnace a central location, that there shall be no long horizontal air pipes through which it will be difficult to start a draft. The size of the hot-air furnace is usually designated by the diameter of the fire pot, which ranges from 20 to 30 inches.
![]() A typical warm-air furnace.
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and over. The hot-air system of heating is much less expensive, as far as cost of installation is concerned, than the hot-water or steam system. The cost of a first-class furnace with double piping to protect the wood-burning stove from being overheated, in a house of six rooms, ought not to exceed $200.
The Hot-Water System. The hot-water furnace with variable radiators represents the most perfect system of house heating, but it is the most expensive of all and is slightly more difficult to regulate. Heat is heated by the furnace, and the consequent expansion and reduction in weight cause it to flow to the radiators above, where it becomes cooled and consequently heavier, causing it to flow downward to be heated again. An expansion tank is provided above all the radiators to accommodate the extra volume of water. The success of the hot-water system consists in providing a fur-
![]() Fig. 326. A hot-water heating system.
The hot-water furnace, although not in general use, is said to be very satisfactory.
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529
nace, piping, and radiators of sufficient size. The capacity of a furnace depends primarily upon its heating surface, al-
though the size is commonly designated by the size of the fire pot.
Radiators. Radiators, designed to give off heat from the water heated in the furnace, are made of cast iron, pressed steel, or pipe. In any case the amount of heat furnished is determined by the amount of surface from which the heat may radiate. This is always measured in square feet, and one feature of the design of a hot-water system is to provide a sufficient amount of radiating surface to heat each room. Radiators may be obtained with greater or less number of sections, various sizes, to furnish any amount of radiating surface desired.
Estimating the Radiation. One rule for determining the amount of radiation for climates where the temperature occa-
sionally falls below zero is as follows:
$$\text{Square feet of radiation} = \frac{\text{cubical contents of room}}{200} + \text{square feet of glass} + \text{linear feet of exposed wall}$$
$$2$$
The hot-water system will successfully heat rooms on the side of the house exposed to strong wind. It is much cleaner and the pipes last as long as those used in the hot-air system. The cost, however, he from radiator to be double that of the hot-air system. It is claimed that the hot-water system uses one-third less fuel than the hot-air furnace.
A steam system may be installed for heating residences, but it requires close attention and so is seldom used. In large buildings and factories it is universally used, the use of steam reducing to some extent the size and cost of piping.
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QUESTIONS
1. What are the four systems of heating farm houses now in use?
2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of stoves.
3. What are the fuels commonly used in stoves, and what are the advantages of each?
4. What is considered the most satisfactory stove for cold climates?
5. How may upper rooms be heated with the stoves below?
6. What is the cost of installing a hot-water furnace over stoves?
7. How durable is the warm-air furnace?
8. How much will a warm-air furnace installation cost for a six-room house?
9. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the hot-water system?
10. Upon what does the capacity of a hot-water furnace depend?
11. Of what materials are radiators made?
12. Explain by a practical example how the radiating surface required for a house may be estimated.
13. How well does a hot-water system compare with a warm-air system?
14. What are some of the objections to a steam heating system for farm houses?
CHAPTER LXXXIV
VENTILATION OF FARM BUILDINGS
**Importance of Ventilation.** One of the most important features involved in the design of farm buildings is that of ventilation. It is generally recognized that men and animals must have fresh air, and the most favorable conditions for life and health are those where air is as pure as possible in atmosphere. It is not practical to provide air as pure as this to animals housed in buildings designed primarily for shelter and warmth.
**The Standard of Purity.** The standard of purity, or the extent to which pure air may be vitiated with expired air and still be considered "pure," has been a matter of controversy. In general, the purity of air is designated by the number of parts of carbon dioxide in 10,000 parts of air. Pure air contains about four parts of carbon dioxide in each 10,000 parts.
De Chaumont, an authority on ventilation, held that six times parts of carbon dioxide in 10,000 parts of air should be the standard, and other authorities recommend various and greater percentages. In 1876, Dr. J. H. Burt, of Wiscon-
sin, recommended 16 parts as the correct standard, but em-
phasized the great need of experiments to determine definitely the correct standard. There is little doubt but that if this
lower standard were maintained generally, ventilation condi-
tions would be much better than they are now.
**Purpose of Ventilation.** The purpose of ventilation is
these: (1) To supply fresh air to the lungs of the animals;
(2) to dilute and remove the products of respiration; and (3)
to carry away the odors or the effluvium arising from the
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excreta. The first of these is the all-important purpose; for no animal can live more than a few minutes without air, but is able to go for some time without either food or water. The quantity of heat which a day's work produces exceeds the total quantity of food and water. This is indicated by the following table:
| Amount of air breathed by different animals. |
|
Per hour |
Per 24 hours |
Per 24 hours |
| Horse |
Cu. ft. |
Pounds |
Cu. ft. |
|
147 |
147 |
3402 |
| Cow |
116.8 |
224 |
2804 |
| Pig |
46.0 |
89 |
1103 |
| Swine |
30.0 |
68 |
729 |
| Mule |
17.7 |
34 |
425 |
| Rat |
1.2 |
2 |
3 |
To maintain the standard set by Professor King, which requires that the air at no time shall contain more than 3.3 per cent of air once breathed, the following amounts of air will be required each hour for the various animals indicated. This standard may be stated as 96.7 per cent, representing the purity of the air, and, as before stated, it is equivalent to between 16 and 17 parts of carbon dioxide per 10,000 parts of air.
Amount of air required per hour to maintain a standard of 96.7 per cent.
| Horses... |
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Horses...Cows...Swine...Sheep...Hogs...Man...Horses...Cows...Swine...Sheep...Hogs...Man...Horses...Cows...Swine...Sheep...Hogs...Man...Horses...Cows...Swine...Sheep...Hogs...Man...Horses...Cows...Swine...Sheep...Hogs...Man...Horses...Cows...Swine...Sheep...Hogs...Man...Horses...Cows...Swine...Sheep...Hogs...Man...4296 cu. ft. per head
119 cu. ft. per head
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fresh air fast enough to prevent the air from becoming foul beyond the permissible standard. The process of dilution may be accomplished in at least four different ways, as follows:
1. By a process of diffusion through cloth curtains.
2. By a difference in temperature.
3. By the difference in weight of masses of air of unequal temperature.
4. By mechanical methods.
Cloth Curtain Ventilators. Poultry houses quite generally and dairy barns in several instances have been ventilated by providing that the usual cheseloth curtains in place of the usual window glass. The theory of ventilation in this case holds that there is a diffusion of the foul air outward and the pure air inward through these curtains. Experiments which have been conducted to date, to determine definitely the efficiency of this system, show conclusively that it is unsatisfactory and unreliable. It is quite possible with any reasonable amount of curtain surface to provide the necessary pure air.
Action of Winds. The action of the wind is one of the simplest methods of producing ventilation. For instance, the wind provides ventilation when two windows are opened on opposite sides of a building. Such an arrangement would not be satisfactory on account of the heat being drawn in, subjecting the animals to chills. The dangers from drafts are overcome to a large extent by providing suitable inlets and outlets.
Fig. 311. A window arra- gement for providing ven- itation with the leat draft. It is made of two pieces of wood and made to close between the two panes of glass.
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
The Sheringham valve makes a satisfactory inlet. This is arranged by hinging the window at the bottom and allowing it to drop inward at the top between cheeks or triangular-shaped side pieces. The air in striking the inclined window is forced upward and through the opening into the room to pass directly onto the animals which may be housed in the building. The fresh air is diffused through the room and the foul air passes out through suitable flues, not unlike those to be described later. Cows' or eupolas are used in connection with outlet flues and are placed in such a manner that the winds in blowing across them produce a suction or aspirating effect in the flue.
Temperature System.
The principle that heated air rises is the theory basis of the majority of the successful ventilating systems now in use. The King system, invented after the design, the late Professor F. H. King, uses this principle as well as the principle that foul air is heavier than pure air when both are at the same temperature, and tends to settle towards the floor. For this reason, the inlets in the King system discharge pure air near the ceiling and the outlet flues receive the air near the floor.
![]() Fig. 217 showing one method of ar-
rangement of outlet flues.
Fig. 217 Showing one method of ar-
rangement of outlet flues. The flues may be brought together
in one or two rows, but it is better to have them distributed over
the whole length of the building.
FARM SANITATION 535
Size of Inlets and Outlets. Professor King advises four square feet each of intake and intake flues for each 20 adult cows, for an outlet flue 20 feet high; or, in other words, 36 square inches of cross section of flue should be provided for each cow. If the outlet flue be 30 feet high, 30 square inches of cross section will be sufficient. To be successful, there should be a rather large number of intakes and few outlets. The intakes should be as high, as straight as possible, and so smooth as practical on the inside. One common cause of failure of this system of ventilation is incorrectly constructed outtakes or outlet flues.
Often the flues are made of one thickness of lumber which dries out and leaves open cracks which prevent the flues from working. Again, it is a common occurrence to find that the flues are made with many sharp turns which restrict the flow of air through them. A gable roof, so designed as to produce a suction on the flues connecting into it when the wind is blowing, increases the efficiency of the system materially.
Mechanical Ventilation. Mechanical ventilation is practically unknown at the present time for farm buildings. It consists in providing fans or other power means for forcing air at a certain rate through the building. It is considered the only modern method of ventilation. The time may come when it will be considered in connection with farm buildings. All other systems depend more or less upon varying conditions of wind and temperature, which cannot be controlled.
![]() Fig. 12. Different methods of arranging the inlet flues in a King system of ventilation.
536
AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
**QUESTIONS**
1. Why is the adequate ventilation of farm buildings important?
2. Explain what is meant by "standard of purity."
3. What are some of the standards recommended?
4. What is the three-fold purpose of ventilation?
5. How much air is breathed per hour by the various farm animals?
6. How much air is required per hour for each of the various farm animals to maintain a standard of 90.7 per cent purity?
7. What is the effect of temperature on ventilation?
8. Describe the construction and discuss the efficiency of cloth-curtain ventilators.
9. Discuss the action of the wind as used in securing ventilation.
10. Describe the Sheringham valve.
11. What is the purpose of orifices or cupolas on ventilating flues?
12. What is the purpose of a fan in mechanical ventilation?
13. Describe the construction of the King system of ventilation.
14. What are the possibilities for mechanical ventilation?
**LIST OF REFERENCES**
Rural Hygiene, Henry N. Ogden.
Sanitation, Water Supply, and Sewage Disposal of Country Homes, Wm. Farnsworth.
Electric Light for the Farm, H. N. Schneider.
Disposal of Dairy and Farm Sewage and Water Supply, Oscar Erf.
Bulletin 143, Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station.
Sewage Disposal for Country Homes, A. E. Burston and F. M. Okey.
Bulletin VI, Vol. IV., Iowa Engineering Experiment Station, Ames.
Sanitation and Sewage Disposal for Country Homes, William C. Davidson, Bulletin No. 3, Missouri Engineering Experiment Station.
Electric Power on the Farm, Adolph Shane. Bulletin 25, Iowa Engineering Experiment Station, Ames.
Ventilation, F. H. King.
![]() A page from an agricultural engineering textbook discussing ventilation systems.
PART NINE—ROPE WORK
CHAPTER LXXXV
ROPE, KNOTS, AND SPLICES
A practical knowledge of the correct ways of tying, hitching, and splicing ropes is valuable to any farmer. His work is such that an extended use must be made of ropes; and such knowledge will not only be convenient and save time, but will also be a means of averting accidents. Only the more important knots, hitches, and splices will be discussed.
Kinds of Rope. Mention has been made in a former chapter concerning the various kinds of rope in use for transmitting power. The rope used for general purposes about the farm is hemp rope. As most of it is made from Manila hemp imported from the Philippine Islands, it is generally known as Manila rope. Cotton rope is sometimes used for halter or tie-rope.
In making rope, the fibers are first spun into a cord or yarn, being twisted in a direction called "right-hand." Several of these cords are then made into a "strand" by being twisted in the opposite direction, or "left-hand." The rope is finally made up of three or four of these strands twisted "round and round," according to the size of the rope, depending upon the number of strands used. The four-strand rope is constructed on a core, and is heavier, more pliable, and stronger than the three-strand, in any given size.
Strength of Rope. The following table gives the strength and weight of some of the common sizes of three-strand Manila rope when new and free from knots. The smallest
| Size |
Strength |
Weight |
| 3-strand |
100 lbs. |
1 lb. |
| 4-strand |
150 lbs. |
1.5 lbs. |
| 5-strand |
200 lbs. |
2 lbs. |
| 6-strand |
250 lbs. |
2.5 lbs. |
| 7-strand |
300 lbs. |
3 lbs. |
The strength of a rope varies with its size and condition. A rope which has been used for many years will have lost much of its strength. It is advisable to examine all ropes before using them, and to replace those which show signs of wear or weakness.
538
AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
size of pulley upon which the rope should be used is also given. The working strength, or the greatest load the rope should carry with safety, is given as about one-seventh of the breaking load.
Strength of different sizes of three-strand Manila rope, and size of pulley to use.
| Diameter |
Weight per foot |
Safe load |
Breaking load |
Diameter of pulley |
| Inches |
Pounds |
Pounds |
Pounds |
Inches |
| 1% |
3 |
55 |
400 |
2 |
| 2% |
5 |
130 |
900 |
3 |
| 3% |
7.6 |
230 |
1620 |
4 |
| 4% |
13.3 |
410 |
2880 |
5 |
| 5% |
18.9 |
530 |
4560 |
6 |
| 6% |
23.6 |
775 |
5440 |
7 |
| 7% |
28.3 |
1025 |
6480 |
|
**Good Knots.** The three qualities of a good knot have been stated as follows: "(1) Rapidity with which it can be tied; (2) its ability to hold fast when pulled tight; and (3) the readiness with which it can be undone." In Kent's Mechanical Engineering, Part II, Boulton states that "the principle of a good knot is that two parts which would move in the same direction if the rope were to slip should lay along side of, and touch each other."
**Parts of the Rope.** For the sake of clearness in the discussion of knots which is to follow, the student should understand what is meant by the following parts of a rope:
![]() A diagram showing the standing part of a rope.
Fig. 321. The standing part of a rope.
J. Standing part.
D. Drum.
The **standing part** is the long unused part of the rope, as represented by A, Fig. 324.
The **bight** is the loop formed whenever the rope is turned back upon itself, as B.
ROPE WORK
539
The end is the part used in leading the rope, as $D$ in the figure.
A loop is made by crossing the sides of a bight, as $C$.
KNOTS
The square or reef knot is one of the commonest knots used in tying together ends of ropes or cords. It is the knot that can best be used in bandaging or in tying bundles. It does not slip and is quite easily untied. In tying the square knot, the ends are crossed, bent back on themselves, and secured with a half hitch at each parallel strand of the opposite end. As usually tied both ends are on one side instead as shown in Fig. 325.
The Granny or False Reef Knot. If the ends of the rope are crossed finally in the wrong direction, the result is not the true square knot but what is known as the false reef knot, as shown in Fig. 326. This knot, when compared with the true reef knot, illustrates the first principle of knots. It is not a good knot, and is given to explain this principle.
The sheet bend or weaver's knot is universally used by weavers in tying together two ends of threads and yarns,
![]() A diagram showing how to tie a sheet bend or weaver's knot.
Fig. 327. Sheet bend, or weaver's knot.
![]() A diagram showing how to tie a Granny or False Reef Knot.
Fig. 326. Granny knot, or false reef.
![]() A diagram showing how to tie a Square or Reef Knot.
Fig. 325. Square, or reef knot.
540
AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
and is a good knot inasmuch as it is very secure, can be rapid-
ly tied, and easily untied. This knot is tied by forming a loop with one rope end, as shown in A, Fig. 327, and then passing the other end back through this loop, as shown at B. When pulled tight the knot takes the form shown at C.
The bowline knot is the best knot for forming a noose or loop which will not slip when under strain, and which can be easily untied. Fig. 328 shows one method of tying a bowline. By drawing the end of a loop through the standing part of the rope, as shown at the left in Fig. 328; then the end of the rope is passed through this loop around the rope and back through the loop, as shown at the right. This, perhaps, is the simplest way of tying this knot, but there are several other ways, such as:
The halter or running knot is used where it is desired that the rope shall bind, as on a post when tying a halter rope. This knot is made by bending the end of the rope over itself and carrying it through the standing part of the rope and back through the loop thus formed.
Often, in tying a halter rope, it is safer to use a bight of the rope through the knot and then pass the end of the rope through the loop so formed, as shown in Fig. 330. This knot unties somewhat more easily.
![]() Fig. 328. Bowline knot.
![]() Fig. 329. Hitching Noe.
ROPE WORK
541
HITCHES
The Half Hitch. The half hitch, as shown in Fig. 331, is not very secure, but is easily made.
The clove hitch, as shown in Fig. 332, is more secure than the half hitch. It is often used to fasten timbers together.
The Timber Hitch. The timber hitch, (Fig. 333) is used in attaching a rope to timber, lashing poles, and similar purposes. It is made by leading the end of the rope around the timber, then around the standing part, and back, making two or more turns on its own part. The strain in the rope will prevent the rope from slipping off.
The Blackwall hitch is used to attach a rope to a hook; and, although simple, it holds the end very securely. See Fig. 334.
Two Half Hitches. Two half hitches may be used to good advantage, for they prevent the rope from slipping under any strain. They are easy to form, as may be learned from Fig. 335.
The Sheepshank. The sheepshank is used in shortening a rope. It is made by gathering up the amount to be shortened and taking a half hitch around each end, as shown in Fig. 336. If it is desired to make a knot at some point between the ends of the rope may be passed through the bights.
FINISHING THE END OF A ROPE:
Whipping. Whipping is one of the best ways of preventing a rope from raveling; and, as the size of the rope is not
![]() Fig. 331. Clove hitch.
![]() Fig. 332. Half hitch.
![]() Fig. 333. Timber hitch.
![]() Fig. 334. Blackwall hitch.
![]() Fig. 335. Two half hitches.
![]() Fig. 336. Sheepshank.
AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
542
materially increased, it can be used where the rope is to pass through pulleys and small openings. Good, stout wrapping cord should be used for the whipping. A loop of cord is laid along the end of the rope, as shown at $A$, Fig. 337. The loop is then used to wrap the rope around itself, as shown at $B$, over the end of the rope. After the rope has been wrapped for a sufficient distance, the ends of the cord are pulled tight and then cut off, as shown at $B$.
Crowning the end of a rope consists in unraveling it for a short distance, usually 5 or 6 inches; then knotting the strands and turning them back and weaving them into the rope. This increases the size of the rope end, but makes a very firm finish. The strands are first knotted short, as at $A$, Fig. 338. Then with the aid of a pointed, smooth, hardwood stick the loose strands are woven alternately forward and under the knotted strands in the rope. When passed under three or more strands of the rope in this manner, the end of each loose strand may be cut off. To prevent kinks and to make a smoother finish, the loose strands may be slightly untwisted as they are woven into the rope. When finished, the crown should have the appearance of $D$, Fig. 338.
![]() Fig. 334. Black-wood hitch.
![]() Fig. 335. Two-pointed hitch.
P. 142, 535.
06-28-2023
ROPE WORK 543
SPlicing
The Short Splice. The short splice makes the rope larger at the splice, as a double number of strands are woven into the rope at one place.
Thus in case of a three-strand rope the splice is six strands thick, as shown at A, Fig. 337.
This splice cannot well be used where the rope is to run over pulleys.
To make the short splice, the ends of the rope are unlaid for a suitable length, which will vary from 6 to 15 inches, depending on the size of the rope. The ends are then locked together by tying by pairs strands from opposite ends of the rope, with a simple overhead knot, as shown at B, Fig. 339. After tying, the strands are woven into the rope in each direction by opening the rope with a hardwood pin and tucking them under every other strand of the rope. This tucking may be repeated two or more times and the ends then cut off, leaving a splice as shown at D.
![]() A diagram showing a short splice being made.
Fig. 337. Whipping.
The Long Splice. The long splice is not so bulky as the short space, and should be used where the rope is to run
![]() A diagram showing a long splice being made.
Fig. 338. Crowning.
544
544
AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
over pulleys. It is so made that ends of the strands are joined at different places, making the largest number at any one place only one greater than the number of strands in the rope. Thus with a three-strand rope the number of strands through the splice is four. In making the long splice, a much longer length of each end of the rope is unlaid. For a 3/4-inch rope, this should be about 18 inches; for a 1/2-inch rope, 24 inches; for a 5/8-inch rope, 36 inches; for an inch rope, 36 inches and so on. After unlaying the rope ends for the proper distance, they are locked together as shown at A, Fig. 340. By unlaying one strand from each of the rope ends and filling
![]() Fig. 339. Short splice.
![]() Fig. 340. Long splice, three-strand rope.
![]() Fig. 341. Long splice, three-strand rope.
ROPE WORK 545
in with one of the loose strands, bring the splice into the form shown at B. Then tie the strands and weave the loose ends into the rope as in the case of the short splice, as shown at C, finishing the splice by means of D.
The Side Splice.
A rope may be joined into the side of the rope in a similar way, as is shown in Fig. 341.
Rope halters can be conveniently made in a variety of forms, as shown in A, B, and C, in Fig. 342. The size of these halters will depend upon the size of the animals for which they are intended.
![]() A diagram showing a side splice.
![]() A diagram showing a short splice.
![]() A diagram showing a side splice.
![]() A diagram showing a short splice.
Their making does not require the use of any new principles other than those discussed.
QUESTIONS
1. To what practical use may a knowledge of knots be put?
2. Of what materials are ropes made?
![]() A diagram showing a rope halter.
![]() A diagram showing a rope halter.
![]() A diagram showing a rope halter.
546
AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
3. Describe the making of a rope.
4. What size of rope should be used for a 500-pound load?
A 1000-pound load?
5. What are the qualities of a good knot?
6. What is the most important principle of the knot?
7. Name and describe the parts of a rope.
8. Describe the following knots, and explain where they are useful:
The square or reef knot; the bowline knot; the bowline knot; the halter or slip knot.
9. Describe the following hitched and their use:
The half hitch;
the sheepshank; the half hitch; the Blackwall hitch; two half hitches.
10. What is the sheepshank used for? Describe how it is made.
11. Explain how the end of a rope may be finished by whipping. By crevassing.
12. Describe the making of a short splice. The long splice. The side splice.
13. Describe how three styles of halve may be made.
INDEX
Acetylene plant, 515; cost of, 619; generator, 517; produc-
tion of, 634, 517.
Agriculture Engineering, de-
fined, 12.
Air, amount breathed by ani-
mals, 80; used in gas mixtures, 550; standard of purity, 20.
Air pressure water system, 494.
Alcohol, distillation, 119.
Alfalfa harrow, 217.
Ammonia, 355.
Angle of incidence of sun's rays, 597.
Architectures, 321.
Area, computing, 334; problems,
37.
Answers, 21.
Ash wood, use in tools, 196.
Babbling boxes, 192.
Ball bearings, 191.
Balloon frame, for houses, 455.
Barrel staves, for horse, 442.
round, 448.
Barns, 445.
Basin method of irrigation, 132.
Bathtub fixtures, 499.
Beams, strength of, 406; form-
ing of, 407; bearing of a line,
53; of a plane, 53.
Bearings, ball, 191; adjust-
ment of, 193; narrow, 218;
rigging of a roller, 191;
self-aligning, 190.
Beech wood, 196.
Bedding, 320; canvas, 321; horsepower of oxen, 320; lacing of leather, 321; rubber,
320.
Bench munks, 45; adjustment,
466.
Bern, 104.
Bessemer steel, 197.
Bias of machine adjustment,
248; causes of failure to lift,
248; operation of tool box,
248; selection of sizes for
operation of tool box, 248;
size of tongue track, 248.
Birch wood, for machines, 196.
Blower, emulsifier oil; threader,
280.
Boiler feed water. See boiler feed water.
Boiler feed water. See boiler feed water.
Boiler feed water. See boiler feed water.
Boiler feeder. See boiler feeder.
Boiler feeder. See boiler feeder.
Boiler feeder. See boiler feeder.
Boiler feeder. See boiler feeder.
Boiler feeder. See boiler feeder.
Boiler feeder. See boiler feeder.
Boiler feeder. See boiler feeder.
Boiler feeder. See boiler feeder.
Boiler feeder. See boiler feeder.
Boiler feeder. See boiler feeder.
Boiler feeder. See boiler feeder.
Boiler feeder. See boiler feeder.
Boiler feeder. See boiler feeder.
Boiler feeder. See boiler feeder.
Boiler feeder. See boiler feeder.
Boiler feeder. See boiler feeder.
Boiler feeder. See boiler feeder.
Boiler feeder. See boiler feeder.
Boiler feeder. See boiler feeder.
Boiler feeder. See boiler feeder.
Boiler feeder. See boiler feeder.
Boiler feeder. See boiler feeder.
Boiler feeder. See boiler feeder.
Boiler feeder. See boiler feeder.
Boiler feeder. See boiler feeder.
Boiler feeder. See boiler feeder.
Boiler feeder. See boiler feeder.
Boiler feeder. See boiler feeder.
Boiler feeder. See boiler feeder.
Boiler feeder. See boiler feeder.
Boiler feeder. See boiler feeder.
Boiler feeder. See boiler feeder.
Boiler feeder. See boiler feeder.
Boiler feeder. See boiler feeder.
Boiler feeder. See boiler feeder.
Boiler feeder. See boiler feeder.
Boiler feeder. See boiler feeder.
Boiler feeder. See boiler feeder.
Boiler feeder. See boiler feeder.
Boiler feeder. See boiler feeder.
Boiler feeder. See boiler feeder.
Boiler feeder. See boiler feeder.
Boiler feeder. See boiler feeder.
Boiler feeder. See boiler feeder.
Boiler feeding water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm water supply,
Brooks as farm水供应，
Bedding tube, 44;
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting: location of:
Building frame construction for heating: lighting:
355; ventilation at:
351; ventilation at:
351; ventilation at:
351; ventilation at:
351; ventilation at:
351; ventilation at:
351; ventilation at:
351; ventilation at:
351; ventilation at:
351; ventilation at:
351; ventilation at:
351; ventilation at:
351; ventilation at:
351; ventilation at:
351; ventilation at:
351; ventilation at:
351; ventilation at:
351; ventilation at:
351; ventilation at:
351; ventilation at:
351; ventilation at:
351; ventilation at:
351; ventilation at:
351; ventilation at:
351; ventilation at:
351; ventilation at:
351; ventilation at:
351; ventilation at:
351; ventilation at:
351; ventilation at:
351; ventilation at:
351; ventilation at:
351; ventilation at:
351; ventilation at:
351; ventilation at:
350
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548
INDEX
Cable transmission. 324.
Calcium carbide. 615.
Candle, standard. 511.
Canvas bedding. 221.
Carburetor. 307.
Carburators. 345, 361.
Cart, narrow. 213.
Cart, narrow, machine material. 213.
Cast steel. 197.
Cement. 200.
Cement, Portland. 410.
Cesspool. 501.
Check method of irrigation. 131.
Chilled cast iron. 197.
Chlorine gas. 287.
Clutch, on tractors. 372, 392.
Combination of seeds. 406.
Combustion of gases. 544, 305.
Compound engine. 314.
Compound forces. 379.
Concentric wheels. 279.
Construction of proportions for: 412; reinforcement of: 412.
Concrete roads. 198; bridges. 203.
Connecting rod. 385.
Corn harvesters. 251; binders. 252; shakers. 254; shredder. 254; sieves. 255; corners. 256; adjust-
ment. 254; conveniences. 255; seeders. 256; drills. 257; seeders for: 258; drill-oversowers. 254; gradual seed spreaders. 254; variable drop. 233.
Cornsheller, machine. 29.
Cow ties. 440.
Crank shaft. 586.
Crowning a rope, 542.
Crowd sheet, 37.
Cutting machine: construction, 238; balance frame, 240; dock, 242; building devices, 241; machine parts, construction of, 247; surface, 248; walk-
ing track, construction of, 249.
Cultivars, 175; concrete, 178;
drills, construction of, 179; plow, machine parts of, construction of, 179; plow, machine parts of, construction of, 179; plow, machine parts of, construction of, 179; plow, machine parts of, construction of, 179; plow, machine parts of, construction of, 179; plow, machine parts of, construction of, 179; plow, machine parts of, construction of, 179; plow, machine parts of, construction of, 179; plow, machine parts of, construction of, 179; plow, machine parts of, construction of, 179; plow, machine parts of, construction of, 179; plow, machine parts of, construction of, 179; plow, machine parts of, construction of, 179; plow, machine parts of, construction of, 179; plow, machine parts of, construction of, 179; plow,
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the
tractor
Dairy barns. 486; construction materials for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for: drainage system for:
of farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm buildings with farm building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials used in building materials
Drilling machines. 87.
Drafts. Of plows. 204; principles
Draining. Drainage systems.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage ditches.
Drainage
DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
INDEX 549
Drawing instruments, 38.
Drills, 215; adjustment of, 229;
force feeds, 227; burrow-
ing drills, 228; hand-lift
press drill, 228; seed tubes,
229; hand-lift press drill, 230;
Dynamometers, 317.
Dynamo, 355.
Earth roads, 117; construction,
of, 117; 140; drainage of,
of, 147; extend, 147; grades,
of, 147; width of, 147.
Efficiency of lamps, 513; of a
machine, 513.
Electric light, 520; cost of,
electric light, 520.
Electricity, definition of,
plant, 520; source of,
electricity, definition of,
plant, 520.
Electric motors, 666.
Electrical terms, 523.
Elements of machines, 186.
Engineering, 186.
Elevators, enalage, 275; por-
tions of, 275.
Energy, kinds defined, 313.
Engineering, definition of,
Engineering laws, 368.
Engine gas laws, 368.
Engines, definition of,
powering of, 368.
measuring power of, 316;
operating power of, 316;
powering of, 368;
powering of, 368;
powering of, 368;
powering of, 368;
powering of, 368;
powering of, 368;
powering of, 368;
powering of, 368;
powering of, 368;
powering of, 368;
powering of, 368;
powering of, 368;
powering of, 368;
powering of, 368;
powering of, 368;
powering of, 368;
powering of, 368;
powering of, 368;
powering of, 368;
powering of, 368;
powering of, 368;
powering of, 368;
powering of, 368;
powering of, 368;
powering of, 368;
powering of, 368;
powering of, 368;
powering of, 368;
powering of, 368;
powering of, 368;
powering of, 368;
powering of, 368;
powering of, 368;
powering of, 368;
powering of, 368;
powering of, 368;
powering of, 368;
powering of, 368;
powering of, 368;
powering of, 368;
powering of, 368;
powering of, 368;
powering of, 368;
powering of, 368;
powering of,
engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
of engine gas laws (cont.), definition
550
INDEX
Governor, engine, 387.
Grinders, grain, 382.
Grain, seed, 382; 73, 89.
Grain, under irrigation, 115.
Graphite, as a lubricant, 159.
Fertilizer, manure, 165; 165;
cost of, 158; drainage of,
165; cost of, 165; surface construction, 156.
Grape cups, 195.
Gutter, effect of, on influence on
draff, 331.
cisterns, 18.
Gunter's chain measure, 19.
Haltera, rose, 545.
Harrow attachment for plows,
200.
Harrows, 211; cart for: 213;
construction of: 212; 215;
disk, 214; harrowing, 214;
springfoot, 213.
Hayvester, corn, 245: grain.
Hay machinery, barn: 270.
Haymaking machine: 270.
Heating a s y s t e m s: 255; in-
fluence of: 256.
Hickory wood, quality and
quantity: 260.
Hillside plow, 297.
Hitch length, of influence on
drifts, 330.
Hitches, 541.
Horse harnesses: 414; individual:
417; large, 418.
Horse, amount of service from,
289; cost of: 289; draft: 320;
size of teeth: 320; effect of,
of influence on drifts: 320.
Horsecart, features of con-
struction: 320; horsepower,
514; estimating,
engine power: 514.
Hot water heating system, 257;
Heater, corn, 256.
Hussey, Obed, 18L
Hydrostatic water, 57.
Ignition in oil engines: 254;
in gas engines: 257;
make-and-break system: 257;
implement, defined: 186.
Instruments for measuring details
of construction: 474; locu-
tions: 474.
Incandescent lamp, 511.
Injector, 382.
Junction box for leveling: 42;
for measuring: 18.
Lime soil: definition: 69
cart, cast: 197; wrought: 197.
Lithium battery for electric re-
ser-
used in ed.: 117; applying:
water in: I-30; crops grown
with it: I-30; per-
ioding land for: I-30; pur-
chase price of: I-30;
pound by law: I-30; supplying
water with it: I-30
Irrigation culture, I-16;
in humid regions, I-16.
Ischia, lifting. E87.
Junction box for leveling:
42
Jump-signit jars. J-37.
Kerosene lamps, G11
Knots, essentials of a good,
knotting. B-48
Knotter. binding. B-48
Knotter's formula. B-49
Labor farm. Influence of ma-
jor changes in use of inconven-
ient buildings on. B-95
Labor force and supply. B-48
Labor-saving efficiency of G11 me-
dium. G-11
Land roller. G-36
Landscaping the greenhouse. B-45
Laying out the farm. B-96
Leach, in oil engines. B-96
INDEX 551
Leather beating, 321.
Lettering, 57.
Level, 45; adjustments of, 46.
Leveling, definition of terms.
42; practice, 49; tile drains, 108.
Light, unit of, 51.
Limestone, 220.
Lime, for mortar, 410.
Limestone, 220.
Liners, 195.
Lime, for mortar, 410.
Liners, 195.
Lime, for mortar, 410.
Liners, 195.
Lime, for mortar, 410.
Liners, 195.
Lime, for mortar, 410.
Liners, 195.
Lime, for mortar, 410.
Liners, 195.
Lime, for mortar, 410.
Liners, 195.
Lime, for mortar, 410.
Liners, 195.
Lime, for mortar, 410.
Liners, 195.
Lime, for mortar, 410.
Liners, 195.
Lime, for mortar, 410.
Liners, 195.
Lime, for mortar, 410.
Liners, 195.
Lime, for mortar, 410.
Liners, 195.
Lime, for mortar, 410.
Liners, 195.
Lime, for mortar, 410.
Liners, 195.
Lime, for mortar, 410.
Liners, 195.
Lime, for mortar, 410.
Liners, 195.
Lime, for mortar, 410.
Liners, 195.
Lime, for mortar, 410.
Liners, 195.
Lime, for mortar, 410.
Liners, 195.
Lime, for mortar, 410.
Liners, 195.
Lime, for mortar, 410.
Liners, 195.
Lime, for mortar, 410.
Liners, 195.
Lime, for mortar, 410.
Liners, 195.
Lime, for mortar, 410.
Liners, 195.
Lime, for mortar, 410.
Liners, 195.
Lime, for mortar, 410.
Liners, 195.
Lime, for mortar, 410.
Liners, 195.
Lime, for mortar,
42
Markets; influence by roads. 32
Materials; mechanics of. 402
466; used in machinery. 33
Machinery; power. 336
of water. 337
Machinery; instruments for; to obtain force. 338
for; to obtain force. 338
for; to obtain force. 338
for; to obtain force. 338
for; to obtain force. 338
for; to obtain force. 338
for; to obtain force. 338
for; to obtain force. 338
for; to obtain force. 338
for; to obtain force. 338
for; to obtain force. 338
for; to obtain force. 338
for; to obtain force. 338
for; to obtain force. 338
for; to obtain force. 338
for; to obtain force. 338
for; to obtain force. 338
for; to obtain force. 338
for; to obtain force. 338
for; to obtain force. 338
for; to obtain force. 338
for; to obtain force. 338
for; to obtain force. 338
for; to obtain force. 338
for; to obtain force. 338
for; to obtain force. _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_ _and_
Mechanics defined.; mechanics of materials. Air pressure defined.; air pressure defined. Air pressure defined.; air pressure defined. Air pressure defined.; air pressure defined. Air pressure defined.; air pressure defined. Air pressure defined.; air pressure defined. Air pressure defined.; air pressure defined. Air pressure defined.; air pressure defined. Air pressure defined.; air pressure defined. Air pressure defined.; air pressure defined. Air pressure defined.; air pressure defined. Air pressure defined.; air pressure defined. Air pressure defined.; air pressure defined. Air pressure defined.; air pressure defined. Air pressure defined.; air pressure defined. Air pressure defined.; air pressure defined. Air pressure defined.; air pressure defined. Air pressure defined.; air pressure defined. Air pressure defined.; air pressure defined. Air pressure defined.; air pressure defined. Air pressure defined.; air pressure defined.
Mechanics: definition of.
Air pressure: definition of.
Air pressure: definition of.
Air pressure: definition of.
Air pressure: definition of.
Air pressure: definition of.
Air pressure: definition of.
Air pressure: definition of.
Air pressure: definition of.
Air pressure: definition of.
Air pressure: definition of.
Air pressure: definition of.
Air pressure: definition of.
Air pressure: definition of.
Air pressure: definition of.
Air pressure: definition of.
Air pressure: definition of.
Air pressure: definition of.
Air pressure: definition of.
Air pressure: definition of.
Air pressure: definition of.
Air pressure: definition of.
Air pressure: definition of.
Air pressure: definition of.
Air pressure: definition of.
Air pressure: definition of.
Air pressure: definition of.
Air pressure: definition of.
Air pressure: definition of.
Air pressure: definition of.
Air pressure: definition of.
Air pressure: definition of.
Air pressure: definition of.
Air pressure: definition of.
Air pressure: definition of.
Air pressure: definition of.
Air pressure: definition of.
Air pressure: definition of.
Air pressure: definition of.
Air pressure: definition of.
Air pressure: definition of.
Air pressure: definition of.
Air pressure: definition of.
Air pressure: definition of.
Air
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552
INDEX
Plows. 199: adjustment. 200; construction. 200; disk. 201; draft. 201; gauge. 203; gang. 201; harrow at-
tachment. 203; length. 201; number of rows. 203; section of. 199; size. 201; types of. 199.
Plumb line. 43
Pole, stand for houses. 497: fix-
tures. 497
Pump, for pumps. 489
Puncel's formula. 71
Punching machine. 65
Popular wood, qualities and uses. 126
Potatoes under irrigation. 126
Poultry houses, 423: construc-
tion and use. 423
425: size. 425: types. 425
Power, defined, 314: for light-
weight plows. 314
485: from horses. 257: mean-
ing of power. 257
for machinery. 361: trans-
mission of power. 361
Power mills, 285, 346
Preliminary survey, 64
Preparation of land, 198
Prime movers, 813
Prestressed concrete, 15: grade, 74
Pronk break, 316
Pumps, 485: important fea-
tures of. 485
Pumping plant, 486
Pumping engine, out of work.
engine. 363: for irrigation.
486
Pullers, 445: calculating speed
of pullers. 445
Pulltines, 445
Pullverizers, 221
Quadrants, for transmitting power, 357
Radiation, estimation. 529.
Radiation, type. 529: 529.
Rakes, sweep, 268: sulky, 255:
side delivery, 260.
Barnyard rake, attachment. 269.
Range pole, 21.
Rake teeth, attachment to rakes. 392.
Rectangle, area of, 34.
Reinforcement of concrete.
Reaper-binder. See Reaper-binder.
Reapers-binders. See Reapers-binders.
Reservoirs, for irrigation. 123;
for water supply. 897: size,
capacity of. 897
Essential detail, defined. 314
Belt-driven reaper-binder. See Belt-driven reaper-binders.
Reversible plow, 207.
Road drag, 150: elevation,
elevating road drag. 150
Road grader, see Road grader.
Road grader, see Road grader.
Road roller, see Road roller.
Road rollers, see Road rollers.
Road roller with blades of good,
quality and design. See Road roller with blades of good quality and design.
Road roller with blades of good,
quality and design (cont.). See Road roller with blades of good quality and design (cont.)
Road roller with blades of good,
quality and design (cont.) (cont.). See Road roller with blades of good quality and design (cont.) (cont.)
Road roller with blades of good,
quality and design (cont.) (cont.) (cont.). See Road roller with blades of good quality and design (cont.) (cont.) (cont.)
Road roller with blades of good,
quality and design (cont.) (cont.) (cont.) (cont.). See Road roller with blades of good quality and design (cont.) (cont.) (cont.) (cont.)
Road roller with blades of good,
quality and design (cont.) (cont.) (cont.) (cont.) (cont.). See Road roller with blades of good quality and design (cont.) (cont.) (cont.) (cont.) (cont.)
Road roller with blades of good,
quality and design (cont.) (cont.) (cont.) (cont.) (cont.) (cont.). See Road roller with blades of good quality and design (cont.) (cont.) (cont.) (cont.) (cont.) (cont.)
Road roller with blades of good,
quality and design (cont.) (cont.) (cont.) (cont.) (cont.) (cont.) (cont.). See Road roller with blades of good quality and design (cont.) (cont.) (cont.) (cont.) (cont.) (cont.)
Road roller with blades of good,
quality and design (cont.) (cont.) (cont.) (cont.) (cont.) (cont.) (cont.) (cont.). See Road roller with blades of good quality and design (cont.)
Road roller with blades of good,
quality and design (cont.)
Road roller with blades of good,
quality and design (con-
t.)
Road roller with blades of good,
quality and design cont.)
Road roller with blades of good,
quality and design cont.)
Road roller with blades of good,
quality and design cont.)
Road roller with blades of good,
quality and design cont.)
Road roller with blades of good,
quality and design cont.)
Road roller with blades of good,
quality and design cont.)
Road roller with blades of good,
quality and design cont.)
Road roller with blades of good,
quality and design cont.)
Road roller with blades of good,
quality and design cont.)
Road roller with blades of good,
quality and design cont.)
Road roller with blades of good,
quality and design cont.)
Road roller with blades of good,
quality and design cont.)
Road roller with blades of good,
quality and design cont.)
Road roller with blades of good,
quality and design cont.)
Road roller with blades of good,
quality and design cont.)
Road roller with blades of good,
quality and design cont.)
Road roller with blades of good,
quality and design cont.)
Road roller with blades of good,
quality and design cont.)
Road roller with blades of good,
quality and design cont.)
Road roller with blades of good,
quality and design cont.)
Road roller with blades of good,
quality and design cont.)
Road roller with blades of good,
quality and design cont.)
Road roller with blades of good,
quality and design cont.)
Road roller with blades of good,
quality and design cont.)
Road roller with blades of good,
quality and design cont.)
Road roller with blades of good,
quality and design cont.)
Road roller with blades of good,
quality and design cont.)
Rollers for roads, horse. See Rollers for roads, horse.
Rollers for roads, horse: power.
See Rollers for roads, horse:
power.
Rollers for roads, horse: power.
See Rollers for roads, horse:
power.
Rollers for roads, horse: power.
See Rollers for roads, horse:
power.
Rollers for roads, horse: power.
See Rollers for roads, horse:
power.
Rollers for roads, horse: power.
See Rollers for roads, horse:
power.
Rollers for roads, horse: power.
See Rollers for roads, horse:
power.
Rollers for roads, horse: power.
See Rollers for roads, horse:
power.
Rollers for roads, horse: power.
See Rollers for roads, horse:
power.
Rollers for roads, horse: power.
See Rollers for roads, horse:
power.
Rollers for roads, horse: power.
See Rollers for roads, horse:
power.
Rollers for roads, horse: power.
See Rollers for roads, horse:
power.
Rollers for roads, horse: power.
See Rollers for roads, horse:
power.
Rollers for roads, horse: power.
See Rollers for roads, horse:
power.
Rollers for roads, horse: power.
See Rollers for roads, horse:
power.
Rollers for roads, horse: power.
See Rollers for roads, horse:
power.
Rollers for roads, horse: power.
See Rollers for roads, horse:
power.
Rollers for roads, horse: power.
See Rollers for roads, horse:
power.
Rollers for roads, horse: power.
See Rollers for roads, horse:
power.
Rollers for roads, horse: power.
See Rollers for roads, horse:
power.
Rollers for roads, horse: power.
See Rollers for roads, horse:
power.
Rollers for roads, horse: power.
See Rollers for roads, horse:
power.
Rollers for roads, horse: power.
See Rollers for roads, horse:
power.
Rollers for roads, horse: power.
See Rollers for roads, horse:
power.
Rollers for roads, horse: power.
See Rollers for roads, horse:
power.
Rollers for roads, horse: power.
See Rollers for roads,
INDEX
road rollers.
Scraper attachments to rakes. See Scraper attachments to rakes.
Sections of townships. See Sections of townships.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scraper attachments to rakes.
Scrapes on road surfaces by road rollers. See Scrapes on road surfaces by road rollers
Scrapes on road surfaces by road rollers
Scrapes on road surfaces by road rollers
Scrapes on road surfaces by road rollers
Scrapes on road surfaces by road rollers
Scrapes on road surfaces by road rollers
Scrapes on road surfaces by road rollers
Scrapes on road surfaces by road rollers
Scrapes on road surfaces by road rollers
Scrapes on road surfaces by road rollers
Scrapes on road surfaces by road rollers
Scrapes on road surfaces by road rollers
Scrapes on road surfaces by road rollers
Scrapes on road surfaces by road rollers
Scrapes on road surfaces by road rollers
Scrapes on road surfaces by road rollers
Scrapes on road surfaces by road rollers
Scrapes on road surfaces by road rollers
Scrapes on road surfaces by road rollers
Scrapes on road surfaces by road rollers
Scrapes on road surfaces by road rollers
Scrapes on road surfaces by road rollers
Scrapes on road surfaces by road rollers
Scrapes on road surfaces by road rollers
Scrapes on road surfaces by road rollers
Scrapes on road surfaces by road rollers
Scrapes on road surfaces by road rollers
Scrapes on road surfaces by road rollers
Scrapes on road surfaces by road rollers
Scrapes on road surfaces by road rollers
Scrapes on road surfaces by road rollers
Scrapes on road surfaces by road rollers
Scrapes on road surfaces by road rollers
Scrapes on road surfaces by road rollers
Scrapes on road surfaces by road rollers
Scrapes on road surfaces by road rollers
Scrapes on road surfaces by road rollers
Scrapes on road surfaces by road rollers
Scrapes on road surfaces by road rollers
Scrapes on road surfaces by road rollers
Scrapes onroad surfa-
INDEX 533
Sectors, and gate, 224; hand
223; send-box broadcast, 221;
utility of, 222; wheeledarrow,
220.
Selfalignment bearing, 190.
Septic tank, 501; construction
of, 500.
Sewage disposal, principal rules of,
507; system of, 514; systems of,
501.
Shawnee, 186; 187; 188; 189;
Shawner barn frame, 446, 448.
Sherringham leaf, 534.
Shop, farm, 477.
Sickles, 199; growing, 337.
Slots, 461; essentials, 463; cat-
cation, 461; manurery, 463;
slats, 461.
Slit basin, 99.
Sluice box, 351.
Slings, hay, 271.
Splices, 543.
Spray machinery, 309.
Spraying method of irrigation,
309.
Springs, as water supply, 483.
Sprinkler system, 483.
Stackers, hay, 293; straw, 290.
Stalls, cow, 440; horse, 448.
State Highway Commission,
485.
Static defined, 402.
Steam boiler, 376; accessories,
376; functions of, 375; func-
tions of, 377; management
principles of, 375; types,
375.
Steamer, 385; steamers, kinds
of, 385; principle of, 385.
Steel Bemesser, 197; cast, 197;
mid., 197; soft center, 198;
Stone building. 469.
Stone road. 160; construction
of. 162; cost of. 165; main-
tenance of. 165.
Stoves. 529.
Strength of materials. 403; e.g.,
404; kinds of. 403.
Subgrade isolation. 132.
Subsurface packer. 220.
Subsoil plowing. 280.
Sugar bee under irrigation,
190.
Suitable poles. 201; adjustments
of. 202.
Survey as a sanitary agent,
506.
Survey measure. 19.
Surveyed defined. 15; prelimi-
nary. 64.
Surveying agricultural. 16.
divisions of. I7 problems. 26.
Surveyor's measure. 29; uses of,
18
Sweep rake. 62.
Tanks water. 493.
Tank size and use of. T29.
Team size. of. T29.
Tedder hay. T67.
Temperature system of ventila-
tion. T67.
Tests of concrete. T41: engines,
T42: fireproofing concrete,
T43: grouting concrete,
Threshing machinery. T78.
Tile bedding. T84: cement. T85;
drainage pipes and use of,
T86: roots of trees in. T89: select-
ment of tile in. T89.
Tile drains capacity of. T89;
cause of flow in. T89: construc-
tion of tile drain pipe. T90;
depths. T90: digging ditches,
T90: laying tile drain pipe,
T90: outlet of. T96: outfall
of tile drain pipe at outlet,
T96: outfall of tile drain pipe
at outlet of tile drain pipe at
outlet into field drainage pipe,
T96: outfall of tile drain pipe
at outlet into field drainage
pipe at outlet into field drain-
age pipe at outlet into field
drainage pipe at outlet into
field drainage pipe at outlet
into field drainage pipe at
outlet into field drainage pipe
at outlet into field drainage
pipe at outlet into field drain-
age pipe at outlet into field
drainage pipe at outlet into
field drainage pipe at outlet
into field drainage pipe at
outlet into field drainage pipe
at outlet into field drainage
pipe at outlet into field drain-
age pipe at outlet into field
drainage pipe at outlet into
field drainage pipe at outlet
into field drainage pipe at
outlet into field drainage pipe
at outlet into field drainage
pipe at outlet into field drain-
age pipe at outlet into field
drainage pipe at outlet into
field drainage pipe at outlet
into field drainage pipe at
outlet into field drainage pipe
at outlet into field drainage
pipe at outlet into field drain-
age pipe at outlet into field
drainage pipe at outlet into
field drainage pipe at outlet
into field drainage pipe at
outlet into field drainage pipe
at outlet into field drainage
pipe at outlet into field drain-
age pipe at outlet into field
drainage pipe at outlet into
field drainage pipe at outlet
into field drainage pipe at
outlet into field drainage pipe
at outlet into field drainage
pipe at outlet into field drain-
age pipe at outlet into field
INDEX
584
INDEX
Tongue truck; 328; for harrows, 273.
Tool, Defined, 186.
Tool shop, 477.
Transportation signs, 51.
Towers, water, 492; windmill, 493.
Township, division and num-
bering of, 25.
Traces, proper angle of, 311.
Traces, hay, 270.
Tracer pipe, 284.
Transit, 54.
Transmission of power, 226.
Transportation, cost of, 142.
Transporter, 143.
Tempered area of, 315.
Transformer, 34; trans-
mission of power by, 324.
Turntable, 309
Turning point, 52.
Ultimate strength of materials, 255.
Underdrainage, 59.
United States system of land
surveying, 100
Valve action in oil engines, 255.
Valves, for pumps, 493; safety,
381
Ventilation of farm buildings,
351; for air conditioning,
mechanical, 533; purposes of,
311; temperature system, 331.
Ventilation of barns, 255.
Vertical boiler, 277.
Wages. Influence of farm ma-
nual labor on wages. 526.
Warm-air furnace, 526.
Waste bank, 194.
Water balance. See No. 47; control of,
111; duty of; 56; hydrostatic,
179; importance of; manu-
alulation of soil water, 56; re-
quired for crops, 115 used in
irrigation systems, 108
Water level. 43; laying tile by,
286
Water pipe. 491; flow of water in,
491; sizes, 491; systems,
494
Water supply. 480.
Water tank. See Tanks
Welcher, 280
Wellhead. See Wells
Wells. 480
Whipping rope. See Ropes
Wood. Construction. See Con-
struction
Woodcraft. See Woodcraft
Woodcraft. Construction. See Con-
struction
Woodcraft. Development. See Devel-
opment
Woodcraft. Power. See Power
Woodcraft. Quality. See Quality
Woodcraft. Strength. See Strength
Woodcraft. Use of wood in construc-
tion. See Use of wood in con-
struction
Woodcraft. Uses of wood in construc-
tion. See Uses of wood in con-
struction
Woodcraft. Working stress defined,
404
Wire rope construction. See Con-
struction
Wire rope tensioning machine. See Ma-
chines
AGRICULTURAL TEXT BOOKS FOR HIGH SCHOOLS
Published by WEBB PUBLISHING CO., ST. PAUL, MINN.
This series of agricultural books, of which Agricultural Engineering is a representative, is planned especially for high schools in which agriculture is taught. The books constitute a complete four-year course in agricultural science, and their scope is well within the limits of the course. They are written by men who have had experience in teaching and who have made a conscientious presentation of facts. Each of the books listed below has suggestive subjects for discussion and demonstration at the close of each chapter. These books will meet the urgent needs of the modern agricultural high schools and will serve as a practical course that will meet the urgent needs of the modern agricultural high schools and colleges.
FIELD CROPS
By A. D. WILSON, agr. apt. of Farmers' Institutes and Extension, Minnesota State College, St. Paul; and C. W. WARRUTON, Agronomist, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
534 pages, 162 illustrations, cloth $1.50 net.
The aim of this book is to present the peculiarities of each of the various classes and varieties of farm crops, the handling of the soil, selections of seed, and general crop management. The book covers all important farm crops, including hay crops, silage crops, including alfalfa, clover, corn, and other legumes; how to plant and cultivate these crops; how to manage them; how to harvest them; root crops; sugar crops; fiber crops, including cotton, flax, hemp; tobacco, potatoes, in fact every farm crop of any importance in the United States; and how to manage them. In addition to this general classification of farm crops and their uses and relative importance, and to the treatment of each crop separately in its own chapter, the authors discuss the theory and practice of crop rotation and weeds and their control; they also treat the subject of fertilizers and manures; they discuss the use of farm machinery; they give information on the care of livestock; they discuss the methods of feeding livestock; they give information on poultry husbandry; they discuss the breeding of animals; they give information on beekeeping; they discuss the care of bees; they give information on dairy farming; they discuss the care of dairy cattle; they give information on dairying; they discuss the care of hogs; they give information on hog raising; they discuss the care of sheep; they give information on sheep raising; they discuss the care of swine; they give information on swine raising; they discuss the care of poultry; they give information on poultry raising; they discuss the care of hogs; they give information on hog raising; they discuss the care of sheep; they give information on sheep raising; they discuss the care of swine; they give information on swine raising; they discuss the care of poultry; they give information on poultry raising; they discuss the care of hogs; they give information on hog raising; they discuss the care of sheep; they give information on sheep raising; they discuss the care of swine; they give information on swine raising; they discuss the care of poultry; they give information on poultry raising; they discuss the care of hogs; they give information on hog raising; they discuss the care of sheep; they give information on sheep raising; they discuss the care of swine; they give information on swine raising; they discuss the care of poultry; they give information on poultry raising; they discuss the care of hogs; they give information on hog raising; they discuss the care of sheep; they give information on sheep raising; they discuss the care of swine; they give information on swine raising; they discuss the care of poultry; they give information on poultry raising; they discuss the care of hogs; they give information on hog raising; they discuss the care of sheep; they give information on sheep raising; they discuss the care of swine; they give information on swine raising; they discuss the care of poultry; they give information on poultry raising; they discuss the care of hogs; they give information on hog raising; they discuss the care of sheep; they give information on sheep raising; they discuss the care of swine; they give information on swine raising; they discuss the care of poultry; they give information on poultry raising; they discuss the care of hogs; they give information on hog raising; they discuss the care of sheep; they give information on sheep raising; they discuss the care of swine; they give information on swine raising;
534
162
1.50 net.
BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
By CHARLES S. PLUMB, Professor of Animal Husbandry, College of Agriculture, Ohio State University.
201 pages. $1.50
Beginning in Animal Husbandry is the only book published that is specially designed to meet the needs of students in Animal Husbandry courses at the college level. It is intended to serve as a text for the study of the subject and as a guide for the practical farmer.
The Importance of Animal Husbandry; Breeds of Horses, Cattle, Sheep and Swine; The Breeding of Animals; The Breeding of Sheep and Swine; etc. Herdsmen's Means and Inheritance; Selection for Breeding; The Breeding of Livestock; The Breeding of Poultry; The Breeding of Breeder; Composition of Plants and Animals; Influence of Foods on the Growth and Health of Animals; The Breeding of Fishes; The Breeding of Bees; Ratation; Coarse Feeds and Their Values; Concentrated Feeds and Their Values; The Breeding of Birds and Breeding Judging.
Feeding: Eggs and Incubation; Poultry Houses; Care of Poultry; Judging.
SOILS AND SOIL FERTILITY
By A. R. WITSON, Professor of Soils and Drainage, and H. L. WALSTER, Instructor in Soils, of the University of Illinois.
215 pages, well illustrated, cloth. $1.25 net.
No other book on soils presents the relations of the soil to the production of crops with so much clarity and completeness as this one. There are chapters on the following: Conditions Essential to Plant Growth, Organic Matter in Soils, Chemical Analysis of Soils, Fertilizers, Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potash; Soil Analysis; Farm Manure; Commerical Fertilizers; Physical Properties of Soils; Water Supply; Temperature and Its Relation to Plant Growth; The Relation of Crop to Climate and Soil; Soils of the United States; Management of Soils for Maximum Yield.
In addition to its value as a text-book, this book contains a wealth of information which can be used by teachers in their lectures and discussions. The use of technical language and the avoidance of technical matter make the book ideal for use in classes where no special knowledge of soils is required. Numerous laboratory exercises and demonstrations, with complete directions, is included.
POPULAR FRUIT GROWING
By SAMUEL L. GREEN, late Professor of Horticulture and Forestry, University of Minnesota.
300 pages. 120 illustrations. cloth. $1.00 postpaid.
This book covers the factors of successful Fruit Growing, with lists of fruits adapted to each state; Orchard Protection; Injurious Insects and Diseases; Fertilization; Irrigation; Manures; Propagation of Fruit trees, etc. A very popular book for schools and colleges. A new edition will be ready soon. For the College, Professor of Horticultur- ture, University of Minnesota, is just out.
VEGETABLE GARDENING
By SAMUEL B. GREENE, late Professor of Horticulture and Forestry, University of Minnesota.
250 pages, 8vo., illustrated throughout, $3.00, prepaid.
A manual on the growing and marketing of vegetables for home use and for the market. The immense scale of this book to farmers and gardeners, and its wide adoption for class-room work in agricultural schools and col-
leges, attests to its value and usefulness. It has been thoroughly revised. This is the 12th revised edition. We have a paper covered edition of this book which sells for $2.00.
DAIRY LABORATORY GUIDE
By G. L. MAETIN, Professor of Dairy, North Dakota Agricultural College.
140 pages, illustrated, cloth, 8vo., postpaid.
This laboratory manual offers a carefully organized series of exer-
cises covering the principles of modern dairy practice, with sugge-
stions for the preparation of reports on milk analysis, milk testing,
testing, manufacture, and marketing of Dairy Products. An indis-
pensable guide for classes in Dairying and for Creamerymen.
SILOS: CONSTRUCTION AND SERVICE
By M. L. KING, formerly Silo Expert, Iowa State College, and Orig-
inal Author of "Silos."
100 pages, well illustrated, cloth, 8vo., postpaid.
There is no recent American book on silo building, and none of any date that covers the many types of silos now in use and gives detailed information regarding their construction and operation. This book provides the principles of silo construction, and the advantages and dis-
advantages of each type; but more particularly it gives the actual methods used by leading manufacturers in constructing silos for large
farms.
RULES OF ORDER FOR EVERY DAY USE
AND CIVIL GOVERNMENT MADE PLAIN
By HENRY WADDELL GORDON, Author of the Great Historical Maps.
112 pages, Illustrated frontispiece, 8vo., postpaid.
There has long been a demand for an accurate Rules of Order text that was brief yet sufficiently complete for all practical needs. This is such a book. The matter is so clear, so well arranged, and so suc-
cessfully presented that it will be found useful by all who will find it will be found useful by all who will find it worth while to study it. The book also presents the main points of civil government that everyone ought to know.
OTHER STANDARD AGRICULTURAL BOOKS
AGRICULTURE FOR YOUNG FOLKS
By A. D. WILSON and E. W. WILSON.
A thoroughly practical treatise on Elementary Agriculture dealing with the every-day problems of the farmer.
This book is based upon the best modern conditions and scientific theories and treats each subject in a manner easily understood and readily applied to existing conditions on every farm. Prepared especially for boys and girls who have no previous knowledge of farming, it is interesting to the most experienced farm manager. Among the numerous subjects treated are: The Farm House; The Farm Garden; The Farm Dairy; The Care of Crops; Marketing; Farm Business; Management of Cattle; Roosts; etc., etc. Over 300 pages profusely illustrated. Price, $1.90 postpaid.
AMATEUR FRUIT GROWING, by Samuel B. Green. A practical guide to the growing of fruit for home use and the market, written with special reference to cold climates. Illustrated. 134 pp. Postpaid price, $1.50.
ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE, by H. J. Sheppard and J. C. McDowell. A complete treatise on practical agriculture, covering plant husbandry, animal husbandry, tillage, fencing, drainage, irrigation, seed, adopted in public and agricultural schools throughout the Northwest. 16mo. Price, $1.50.
WEEDS AND HOW TO ERADICATE THEM, by Thomas Shaw, giving the names of the most troublesome weed problem east and west of the Mississippi River. Illustrated. 16mo. Price, 16 copies, $20; 20 copies, $24; 30 copies, $30; 50 copies, $45; 100 copies, $80. Postpaid price, $1.50 per copy.
BLACKSMITHING AND BLACKSMITHING FOR THE FARMER, by A Complete treatise on blacksmithing by J. M. Drew. Written for farmers who want a workshop and for those who wish to spend some time daily. Illustrated. 16mo. Price, 12 mo., cloth, 50 cents; 24 mo., cloth, $1.00.
STANDARD BLACKSMITHING, HORSESHOEING AND WAGON BUILDING, by J. M. Drew. This book contains "blacksmithing," gives practical instructions by a successful blacksmith. The illustrations are taken from the subject published. Thoroughly illustrated. Price, 12 mo., cloth, $1.00.
GRASES AND HOW TO GROW THEM, by Thomas Shaw, describes how to grow grasses for hay and pasture from the standpoint of the farmer and the stockman. Price, 450 pages, cloth, $1.50 postpaid.
WEBB PUBLISHING CO.
ST. PAUL, MINN.
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