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+A BOY'S TEXT BOOK ON Gas Engines by FAY LEONE FAUROTE.
+TL 206 F3
+<img>A vintage illustration of a group of people gathered around a horse-drawn carriage in front of a large house.</img>
+TRENCH
+
+<img>Image of a plain, light-colored background with some small, faint dots scattered across it.</img>
+
+A
+BOY'S TEXT BOOK
+ON
+GAS ENGINES
+
+A Book for Boys
+Describing and Explaining in Simple
+Language the Automobile Gas Engine.
+
+By FAY LEONE FAUROTE, B. S. [M. E.]
+(Former Instructor Detroit Motor School)
+
+Published by the Author
+LANSING, MICHIGAN, U. S. A.
+
+LIBRARY OF CONGRESS
+Two Copies Received
+DEC 14 1907
+Copyright Entry
+Jan 2 1908
+CLASS A
+XXG, NO.
+195609
+COPY E.
+
+COPYRIGHT BY
+FAY LEONE FAUROTE
+1908
+
+<img>A circular stamp with text "LIBRARY OF CONGRESS" and a seal-like design.</img>
+
+<page_number>8-1118</page_number>
+
+PREFACE
+
+Knowing that the motor car is fast becoming the modern form of transportation, both in the social and commercial world, and feeling that the principles of the mechanism which constitutes its propelling power are as yet somewhat of a mystery to the average individual and to “Young America” in particular, the author feels that some of the simple explanations offered in the following pages of this book will be welcomed and appreciated. While they do not cover the entire subject, it is hoped that they may tend to shed some light, and in a way make understandable the construction and operation of the automobile gas engine.
+
+FAY L FAUROTE.
+
+November 25, 1907.
+
+A Four-cylinder Motor, so sectioned that it shows interior of cylinder, valves, piston,
+crank shaft and connecting rods.
+
+A BOY'S TEXT BOOK
+
+ON GAS ENGINES
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+Boys, when I was a small boy, I remember how much I was interested in everything which was mechanical. The engineer was my hero; the solving of the mysteries of an engine and the learning how to drive one, was my ambition.
+
+I remember well how I tried to read the dry, technical description of motors, steam engines and such things. I remember, too, how hard it was to understand those books; how the various technical terms used to bother me, until at last, in despair, I would throw the books aside. It seemed as if the men who wrote them never realized that boys existed,—that boys wanted to know about such things.
+
+At other times how glad I was when I found a good-hearted engineer who seemed to know and understand my feelings and my desire to learn. How easy it was to comprehend his explanations, because he used homely, everyday things to illustrate his meaning. He made you forget there was anything complicated about machinery. He simply took up one part at a time, and when he had
+
+finished with it, everything was as plain as the nose on your face.
+
+Boys, then and there I decided that if I ever did understand some of these seeming mysteries of engineering, I would write a book that boys could understand. I would write it so that they couldn’t help it, it would be so plain; there would be no secrets; they should know all about it, and what is more, should be able to reason it all out for themselves.
+
+<img>A diagram showing the essential parts of a gas engine.</img>
+Fig. 1—The Essential Parts of a Gas Engine.
+
+Let me tell you about each part separately. After we have gone over each part you will find that you will understand the action of the motor and other parts of the car well enough so that you will unconsciously reason it all out for yourselves. Some of the descriptions and explanations may at first seem unsatisfactory, but I think with a little thought and study you will be able to master them in a short time. I want your confidence, boys, and then I know we will get along all right together.
+
+<page_number>6</page_number>
+
+Fig. 3 - A Single-cylinder Horizontal Engine. Note location of valves in this type.
+
+<img>
+  Four views of a section of a Vertical Cylinder, showing position of valves.
+</img>
+
+Fig. 3 - Four views of a section of a Vertical Cylinder, showing position of valves.
+
+<page_number>10</page_number>
+
+THE FOUR-STROKE CYCLE.
+
+This subject looks like a bugbear, doesn't it. Well, it is one of the first things of which we shall have to dispose, and so we'll tackle it right away. We will start backwards, and take the word *cycle* first. If you will look in the dictionary you will find that this word means "a circle or orbit; an interval of time in which a succession of events is completed, and then returns in the same order."
+
+<img>A diagram showing a four-cycle diagram with different colored sections representing different strokes: Suction Stroke (white), Compression Stroke (gray), Working Stroke (black), Exhaust Stroke (light gray).</img>
+
+Fig. 1—A Four-cycle Diagram, showing sequence of strokes in this type of motor.
+
+This does not mean very much to you, does it? Well, let us go into it a little farther. Supposing you were running relay races around a block; you would run down on one side, across on another, back on the other side, and then back to the starting point, wouldn't you? You would have completed a cycle then because you have taken a "certain time in which a succession of events (streets) has been completed" and you are back again at the start ready to "return in the same order." There is not anything complicated about that, is
+
+<page_number>9</page_number>
+
+<img>A diagram showing the internal components of a gas engine connected to a grindstone.</img>
+Fig. 5.—Diagrammatic comparison between gas engine and a cannon connected with a grindstone.
+
+<page_number>Page 30</page_number>
+
+there? In other words just change the *four-stroke cycle* to a *four-street circle*, and this will help you to keep in mind the meaning of this term. Do you remember last Fourth of July when you had your cannon out, how many things you had to do to fire it, or in other words to complete the *cycle* of operations. You did four things, didn’t you?
+
+No. 1. You put in the powder.
+No. 2. You rammed it in with a ramrod.
+No. 3. You fired it by touching a match to it.
+No. 4. You cleaned it out.
+
+You had gone around your four-sided circle, and were back again, at the start, ready to do the same things over again. You were running a gas engine then, only you did not realize it.
+
+Let us assume for the sake of argument, that you had a bullet in your cannon, and that to this bullet was connected a rod which had its other end fastened to the crank of a grindstone. Then if the barrel of the cannon was long enough, and the rod which connected the bullet and crank was short, the bullet could not get out of the cannon barrel, could it? It would therefore have to go back and forth very much like the pedal on a grindstone does. Of course the rod and the crank would have to be very strong in order to keep the bullet in, but we will assume that they are, and that the bullet must travel back and forth inside the barrel. Now, if the bullet is going to stay in the barrel we must provide some way to load the cannon, and also to clean it out, there-
+
+<page_number>11</page_number>
+
+fore we will cut two holes in the end, one at I and one at E, and then instead of using powder suppose you use some explosive gas which will not leave so much soot behind it. You know how a squirt gun works—how you draw the water in by pulling out the plunger, and how you force the water out again by pushing it in again. Let us
+
+<img>A diagram showing the internal workings of a cannon. The top left shows a "Firing Hole" with a plug labeled "Plug L." Below this, there is a "Combustion Chamber" with a plug labeled "Plug J." To the right, there is a "Bullet." A pipe labeled "To Air" connects to the bottom right of the chamber. Above the chamber, there is a "From Gas Tank" connection. The diagram is labeled "Fig. 6."</img>
+
+work the cannon the same way. Let us call the *farthest point* to which the bullet travels going in “H” and the *farthest point* to which it travels going out “K.” Now let us assume that the bullet is at “H,” and that it is just starting out in the direction of “K.” If we open the hole “I” in the side of the cannon by taking out the plug “L,” and put a hose, connected with our gas tank, in there, then the outward motion of the bullet
+
+<page_number>12</page_number>
+
+"P" will pull the cannon full of gas, won't it?
+Before the gas has a chance to escape we will put in the plug "L" again. Now we have the cylinder full of gas, but as the bullet is at the end of its stroke, and cannot go any further, we will have to push the gas together again and get the bullet into position "H." This will be a good thing for the gas, because it will crowd the particles of it closer together, and make it explode quicker, so we will do this. Of course, in order to keep the gas in there we have had to close up the touch-hole of the cannon, but now that we are ready to fire it, we will take this plug out, and touch a match to the gas. An explosion follows, and the bullet travels from the position "H" to the position "K." All this time the crank of the grindstone must have been turning because the bullet and the crank are fastened together, and therefore, instead of traveling through the air, the bullet has used up its energy in turning the grindstone. When you get a grindstone started it is rather hard to stop, isn't it? And if you didn't stop it, it would keep on turning around, wouldn't it? If this is true, we might as well let it clean the cannon. As the hole "I" is connected with the gas tank, we cannot let it force the burnt gas out there, can we? We will therefore pull out the plug "J" in the hole "E" just as the bullet reaches the point "K" so that in coming back it will force the burnt gases and smoke out through the hole "E." Now we are all ready to start over again: the cannon has been cleaned out, and the bullet
+
+<page_number>13</page_number>
+
+still being fastened to the grindstone, which is turning, as a result of the explosion, would immediately begin starting out on another outward stroke. If we put in the plug "J" again and pull out the plug "L," the bullet or piston as we might call it now, will suck in another charge of gas. You can see that if you had two boys, one
+
+<img>Fig. 7 - Grinding a valve.</img>
+<img>Fig. 8 - A section of a cylinder showing location of various parts - end view.</img>
+
+of them to pull out the plugs, and another to fire the charge you could keep the gun firing steadily, and run the grindstone. After you have done this for a while you will get tired of taking out the plugs and putting them in, and standing there with a match lit all the time, and you would wish there was some way to make the grindstone, which.
+
+<page_number>14</page_number>
+
+was running, do all this for you. This is exactly what happened to some of the old engineers, and so they set about trying to accomplish this result. They succeeded in rigging a piece of machinery that would open and close these holes automatically, and with the introduction of electricity they also devised a way whereby the charge could be ignited by an electric spark instead of a match. The plugs which cover the holes, they called *valves* and the plug which contained the electric wires, used for firing the gas, they called a *spark plug*.
+
+Now let us see what we have learned in this chapter. We have found that it takes four strokes to explode one charge of gas
+
+1. *Suction stroke*, during which the gas is *sucked* into the barrel of the cannon, or cylinder as it is called.
+2. The *compression stroke*, during which the gas is *compressed* so that it will burn easier.
+3. The *explosive stroke*, or *working stroke*, called so on account of the fact that the explosive force of the gas is used to *turn* the wheel.
+4. The cleansing, or *exhaust* stroke, during which the burnt gas and smoke is *forced out* of the barrel.
+
+For this reason, a gas engine which works on this principle is called a *Four-Stroke Cycle Engine*. It requires *four strokes* to complete the entire operation and bring it back to the beginning ready to start over again.
+
+<page_number>15</page_number>
+
+THE CYLINDER
+
+So far we have confined ourselves to the parts of a cannon, but now that we are going to take up the study of the motor in its details let us call them by their regular names. The barrel of the cannon we will call a cylinder. In an actual motor a cylinder is made out of cast iron, carefully bored out inside, so that the hole is per-
+
+<img>
+A diagram showing the parts of a motor. The main components are labeled: Piston, Cylinder, Connecting Rod, Crank, Flywheel.
+</img>
+
+Fig. 9.
+
+perfectly round, and the sides of the wall as smooth as possible. You will realize that this is necessary as we want to reduce, as much as possible, any rubbing or friction, as it is called, between the piston and cylinder walls. Next we must provide some means of cooling these walls, as you know that the continuous firing would soon make them very hot. This is done by surrounding the cylinder with what is known as a water jacket.
+
+<page_number>16</page_number>
+
+through which water can be circulated, thereby carrying off the heat, and keeping the iron from getting red hot. We must also cut two holes in the side of the cylinder to make places for the valves and a place for the spark plug.
+
+A cylinder is generally mounted on its side in a one cylinder engine, and is set up on end when it is desired to use more than one. Therefore, in a one cylinder motor you will notice that the pis-
+
+<img>
+A close-up view of a horizontal one-cylinder motor, showing the piston, valves, and valve mechanism.
+</img>
+
+Fig. 10—End view of Horizontal One-cylinder Motor, showing piston, valves and valve mechanism.
+
+ton moves back and forth, whereas in a two-cylinder, four-cylinder or six-cylinder type, the pistons move up and down. As far as the action of the parts is concerned they work in exactly the same way, only that the valve mechanism has to be changed somewhat.
+
+The cylinder is bolted to a framework called the crank case which furnishes a solid foundation upon which it can rest.
+
+<page_number>17</page_number>
+
+<img>A detailed black-and-white illustration of a mechanical device, possibly a steam engine or a similar industrial apparatus. The image shows intricate details such as gears, pistons, and connecting rods. The background is filled with swirling lines, giving a sense of motion and activity.</img>
+
+VALVES
+
+You will remember that in first discussing the drawing in and cleaning out of the gas that two holes had to be cut in the sides of the cylinder wall. One of these through which the fresh gas might be sucked in, and the other through which the burnt gas might be expelled. Also remember that we kept these holes plugged except when it was necessary to have them open to perform their work.
+
+<img>
+A diagram showing the evolution of a valve.
+</img>
+
+Fig. 11—The evolution of a Valve.
+
+<img>
+A diagram showing a regular valve.
+</img>
+
+Fig. 12—A regular Valve.
+
+Now let us take a section of a valve and see how it is made up. You will notice first the little plug “A” which covers the hole in the cylinder; it is tapered very much like a glass stopper in a bottle for the reason that in this form it is easier to fit it to the opening; it can be “ground in” in the same way that a glass stopper can, in
+
+<page_number>19</page_number>
+
+order to make an air-tight fit. “B” is a rod known as the *valve stem*, and is simply a round piece of steel fastened to the valve plug “A.”
+“S” is a *valve spring* which holds the valve down into the cylinder wall, or *valve-seat*, as it is called.
+In order to open these valves you can see that all that is necessary for you to do is to *push up* on the *valve stem* “B.” This will raise the valve “A” away from its seat into the position shown by the dotted lines, leaving a space all around through which the gas may enter or leave. In
+
+<img>
+Three positions of a Valve Cam.
+</img>
+
+Fig. 13—Three positions of a Valve Cam.
+
+an actual motor, however, little irregular pieces of steel, cut out in general shape shown in Fig. 14 perform the operation of *raising* the valve. Fig. 13 shows three positions of one of these revolving pieces of steel, technically called *cams*, first, in the act of just starting to raise the valve; second, its position when the valve is entirely open; third, its position when the valve has just closed. If both valves are operated by these cams you can see that if they are set at the proper po-
+
+<page_number>20</page_number>
+
+sition they can be opened at different times and entirely independent of each other. If you will look at Fig. 3 you will see a complete motor, the **inlet valve** on the left side, and the **exhaust valve** on the right side. This figure will also show you the little cams in their various positions at different points of the four strokes. Sometimes the two valves, instead of being on *opposite* sides of the cylinder, are placed on the *same* side, and *both cams* are put on the *same shaft*, which, by the way, is called a *cam-shaft*.
+
+<img>
+A diagram showing the internal components of a motor with labels indicating "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS," "VALVE SHAFTS,", etc.
+</img>
+
+Fig. 14 - Names of Valve Parts.
+
+Fig. 14 shows two such valves, the left hand one opening, and the right hand one closed. The extreme left hand view shows the way they would look if viewed from the end. It also gives you the names of all the parts.
+
+Fig. 7 shows how the valves are “ground in.” The way you do it is to take the valve out, and coat it with very fine emery dust and oil, and then
+
+<page_number>21</page_number>
+
+put it back in place leaving off the spring, fit
+a wrench to it on top as shown in the picture
+and twirl it around as you would a glass stopper
+in a bottle until it is perfectly air-tight, after
+which the valve should be removed and both it
+and the valve seat carefully wiped off so that none
+of the emery will get into the cylinder or other
+working parts of the engine and cause them to
+be cut.
+
+There are several different ways of making
+valves and several places to put them so that you
+must not always expect to find them in the same
+place. Their action is the same, however, no mat-
+ter where they are situated or how they are oper-
+ated, and I think with a little examination and
+study you will always be able to find them and
+understand how they work in any engine.
+
+<page_number>22</page_number>
+
+THE PISTON
+
+The piston forms, as you will recall, the bullet in the cannon, which instead of leaving the barrel, was made to travel back and forth inside of the cylinder under the action of the explosive gas. Owing to the fact that a solid piece of iron would be very heavy and would get very warm, the real piston used in a motor is made hollow so that it is merely a shell. Instead of fastening the rod
+
+<img>A Piston, Piston Ring, and Piston Pin</img>
+Fig. 15
+
+to the end of it, a small rod, called the piston pin is in the center of it, and to this the connecting rod is connected. Fig. 16 shows a section of the piston. You will notice that the piston pin is kept from sliding sideways by a bolt that is screwed into it.
+
+Owing to the fact that both the cylinder walls and piston get hot, and that iron expands and
+
+<page_number>23</page_number>
+
+contracts according to its temperature, it is not possible to make a piston alone which would remain air-tight all the time. Engineers, therefore, found it necessary to put rings, which were cut at some point in their circumference, on the outside of the piston itself. These piston rings, due to the fact that they are cut, can accommodate themselves to the varying diameters of the cylinder, and can therefore keep an air-tight fit, even when
+
+<img>A diagram showing a section of a Piston, with a piston pin and end of connecting rods.</img>
+Fig. 16—A section of a Piston, showing location of piston pin and end of connecting rods.
+
+the piston is moving back and forth all the time. Most of you, no doubt, know that the plunger in a pump is made air-tight by one or a set of leather washers, which, owing to their pliable structure, can expand or contract so as to always fit air-tightly the pipe in the pump. Piston rings work in precisely the same manner, and are always kept lubricated so that they will work smoothly, thus doing away with any friction which might result.
+
+<page_number>24</page_number>
+
+THE CRANK SHAFT
+
+Most of you are familiar with a crank as applied to a grindstone. A crank in a motor is practically the same shape except that it is supported on two bearings instead of one and is therefore made in the form shown in Fig. 17. The crank shafts for two and four-cylinder motors are only a combination of two or four of these single cranks. Crank shafts are made up of steel, carefully forged, and then turned and ground down to proper size to fit the bearings for which they are intended. They are hardened and every precaution taken to keep them from wearing. They form one of the most important parts of the motor because they change the back and forth motion of the piston into the rotary motion of the fly wheel. The fly wheel in our former illustration was represented by the grindstone itself. In the real motor the fly wheel is made of cast iron, and after being carefully balanced so that it turns evenly, it is securely bolted to the crank shaft, so that they practically form one piece.
+
+<img>A drawing of a crankshaft.</img>
+Fig. 17—A Four-cylinder Crank Shaft.
+
+<page_number>25</page_number>
+
+THE CONNECTING ROD
+
+The connecting rod, as you can guess from its name, forms the connecting link between the piston and crank shaft, transferring the energy of the explosive gas, acting behind the piston, to the crank shaft and fly wheel, from which it can be transmitted to the driving wheels of the automo-
+bile. It is made up in some such form as shown in Fig. 18 and is made of steel or bronze. It has a bearing at each end, the smaller one fitting
+
+<img>A typical Connecting Rod.</img>
+Fig. 18—A typical Connecting Rod.
+
+around the piston pin, the larger one surrounding a portion of the crank shaft called the crank pin. Both of these bearings are lubricated by oil which splashes up from the bottom of the crank case when the engine is running. You will notice that one of the bearings is cut in two and bolted together so that you can take it off from the crank shaft, should you wish to examine it.
+
+<img>The two halves of the Connecting Rod Bearing.</img>
+Fig. 19—The two halves of the Connecting Rod Bearing.
+
+<page_number>26</page_number>
+
+THE CRANK CASE
+
+The crank case of a motor serves as a foundation for the engine, furnishes a support for the main bearings in which the crank shaft revolves and encloses the working parts in such a way as to provide for their lubrication and protect them from the dust and other substances which might materially hinder the proper performance of their functions. To a certain extent the crank case might be compared to the framework of the grindstone, although the latter does not answer as many purposes as the real crank case of the motor does.
+
+The case itself is made of iron or aluminum, and is so put together that, although practically air-tight, there is still a means provided for getting inside of it for examination of the working parts or an adjustment of the bearings.
+
+<img>A photograph of a four-cylinder crank case.</img>
+Fig. 20—The two halves of a Four-cylinder Crank Case.
+
+<page_number>27</page_number>
+
+THE CARBURETOR
+
+The carburetor or mixing chamber, as it is sometimes called, is a device used for obtaining an explosive mixture of gasoline and air. It consists, as shown by the accompanying drawing, of two principal parts, an air pipe and gasoline pipe, the latter running through the wall and discharging into the center of the former. In order to
+
+<img>A simple drawing of a Carburetor.</img>
+Fig. 21.—Simple drawing of a Carburetor.
+
+make sure that the amount of gasoline flowing out of the gasoline jet shall be just the right amount at all times it is necessary to provide a little gasoline tank, which forms a part of the carburetor casting itself, which is known as a float chamber, so that the amount of gasoline in the main tank will not affect the amount discharged at the nozzle. You can see why this is necessary if you think of a water tank or a dam. If the water was almost up to the top of the dam and you should bore a hole through the wall somewhere
+
+<page_number>28</page_number>
+
+near the bottom, the water would flow out faster than if the water was low. By putting this little gasoline tank in the carburetor itself and keeping a certain height of gasoline in this smaller reservoir, which always automatically shuts off the supply at the right time, you can make the pressure, and therefore the flow of the liquid, always the same. The illustration will show this plainly. For instance, when the gasoline gets low the little float will gradually drop down until the ball on the end of the float stem will open the valve in the gasoline pipe. The gasoline will then flow in from the tank until the proper amount has filled the float chamber and caused the float to bob up to its former position, carrying the ball, which closes the gasoline off, up with it. By this means the requisite amount of gasoline is always kept in the float chamber.
+
+The amount of air entering the mixing chamber is controlled by changing the size of the hole through which the air enters and the quantity of gasoline admitted is regulated by means of a needle valve in the gasoline pipe.
+
+Although many carburetors, in fact most of them, do not look like this drawing, yet their action is the same, and by careful study you will find that the same principles enter into their construction. Fig 22 shows an actual sectional drawing of a carburetor used on a four-cylinder motor. In this particular carburetor, however, the float chamber and float surround the mixing chamber, and the float valve, instead of being directly under the float, is at the right hand side and is oper-
+
+<page_number>29</page_number>
+
+ated by means of a lever. The needle valve, which is the little round rod having a "T" handle, running up through the center of the mixing chamber, controls the amount of gasoline flowing from the gasoline chamber to the nozzle. The air comes up through the bottom and around the gasoline
+
+<img>A typical four-cylinder carburetor.</img>
+Fig. 32-A Typical Four-cylinder Carburetor.
+
+jet. At the left you will notice a small valve which opens downward, which you do not find on the other carburetor. It is known as an auxiliary air valve and allows a certain amount of air to be added to the mixture, a small quantity of which is sometimes needed to keep the mixture just right. The throttle valve, which looks like a damper in a stovepipe and which controls the amount of gasoline vapor going in to the engine, will be seen in the upper pipe.
+
+<page_number>30</page_number>
+
+THE IGNITION SYSTEM
+
+The *ignition* system is the name applied to the batteries, coils, commutator and spark plug which, acting as a whole, produce an *electric spark hot enough* and at the *right time* to *fire* the charge in the cylinder. There are three ways in which an electric current may be obtained which have been found to be of practical use in automobile construction. First, by a dry battery; second, by a storage battery; and third, by magneto or dynamo. You can look up the construction of these things in any good book on electricity, so that I will not explain them further here. As the object of the whole system is to produce a sufficiently hot spark to fire the mixture at the right time, it is sometimes necessary to raise the pressure of the electric current. When either a dry battery or storage battery or a certain type of magneto is used, it is necessary to put it through what is known as an *induction coil* in order to *raise the pressure* so it will be high enough to *jump across* the two points in the cylinder.
+
+An induction coil consists merely of a bundle of soft wires around which is wound two separate coils of wire. The first, known as the *primary winding*, is of coarse wire, and the second, known as the *secondary winding*, is of fine wire. When the current flowing through the primary coil is rapidly made and broken, another current of very high voltage is created in the secondary circuit.
+
+<page_number>31</page_number>
+
+<img>
+A wiring diagram showing the electric circuit for one cylinder. The sketch is only diagrammatic—not a reproduction of any actual wiring system.
+</img>
+
+**Fig. 30—Wiring Diagram**
+
+- **Switch**
+- **Storage Battery**
+- **Dry Cells**
+- **Inductive Screw**
+- **Vibrator**
+- **Spark-Plus**
+- **High Tension Wire**
+- **Cylinder**
+- **Condenser**
+- **Primary Circuit**
+- **Commutator**
+
+**Components:**
+- **Soft Iron Core**
+- **Induction-Coil**
+
+The diagram shows the following connections:
+- High Tension Wire connects to the Spark-Plus.
+- Spark-Plus connects to the Vibrator.
+- Vibrator connects to the Inductive Screw.
+- Inductive Screw connects to the Primary Circuit.
+- Primary Circuit connects to the Storage Battery.
+- Storage Battery connects to the Dry Cells.
+- Dry Cells connect to the Condenser.
+- Condenser connects to the Commutator.
+
+The Commutator is connected to the Soft Iron Core, which is part of the Induction-Coil. The Induction-Coil is part of the Primary Circuit.
+
+When the current starts to flow through the primary winding, the bundle of wires immediately becomes a magnet and attracts the vibrator. As soon as this occurs, however, the flow of the current is interrupted and the vibrator resumes its former position and the action is repeated. Thus you can see that the coil automatically makes and breaks its own circuit. The rapidity with which this is done may be changed at will by adjusting the vibrator screw.
+
+<img>A diagram showing the four-stroke cycle of a four-cylinder engine. The diagram is divided into four quadrants, each representing one of the four strokes: Suction Stroke (top left), Compression Stroke (top right), Working Stroke (bottom left), Exhaust Stroke (bottom right).</img>
+Suction Stroke
+Compression
+Stroke
+Working Stroke
+Exhaust Stroke
+
+Fig. 34—The Four-cylinder, Four-cycle Diagram, showing the order in which the various cylinders do their work.
+
+Having thus obtained an electric current of sufficient strength to fire the mixture it is necessary to supply a device which will automatically open and close the electric circuit at the proper time. Such a device is called a commutator and consists of two parts; one a rotating part, actuated by the engine, which makes a metallic contact with one or more points on a stationary part, the points being so located that contact occurs at the proper
+
+<page_number>33</page_number>
+
+time for igniting the charge in any particular cylinder.
+
+In the *four-cylinder* wiring diagram (Fig. 25) in various parts of an ignition system may be easily seen. The electric current is furnished either by
+
+<img>A black and white illustration of a four-cylinder ignition system wiring diagram. It shows coils, a switch, a commutator, and cylinders. There are also batteries labeled "Dry Cells" and "Storage Battery".</img>
+
+**Fig. 25—Four-cylinder Wiring Diagram.**
+
+a set of dry cells or by a storage battery. *Four* individual coils and a *four point* commutator are used. The commutator is driven by means of bevel gears from the engine itself. A single switch controls the whole circuit, it being provided with two points, making it possible for either battery to be used at will.
+
+<page_number>34</page_number>
+
+Fig. 36—Types of Spark Plugs.
+
+<img>A diagram showing three different types of spark plugs.</img>
+
+<img>A diagram labeled "COMMUTATOR SPRING," "FIBRE BLOCK," "COMMUTATOR WIRE," "CAM SHAFT," and "COMMUTATOR CAM." This is a single cylinder commutator. Diagrammatic sketch.</img>
+
+Fig. 37—A Single Cylinder Commutator. Diagrammatic sketch.
+
+<page_number>35</page_number>
+
+<img>A diagram showing a two-point switch with three wires connected to a central circular component.</img>
+Fig. 28 - A Two-point Switch.
+
+<img>A diagram showing a four-cylinder commutator with two black rectangular contacts and two black cylindrical components connected by wires.</img>
+Fig. 29 - A Four-cylinder Commutator.
+
+<img>A diagram showing a two-cylinder commutator with a plunger-metal held in place by a spiral spring, a hard rubber ring, a stationary rotating contact maker (metal), and metal pieces contacting which wires are connected.</img>
+Fig. 30 - A Two-cylinder Commutator.
+
+<page_number>36</page_number>
+
+THE COOLING SYSTEM
+
+In order to prevent the walls of the cylinder from becoming red hot, it is necessary to cool them by some means, and this is done by surrounding the cylinder with a water jacket through which
+
+<img>A diagram showing piping and direction of circulation in a one-cylinder water-cooled motor.</img>
+Fig. 31—A Diagram showing piping and direction of circulation in a One-cylinder Water-cooled Motor.
+
+the cooling water is circulated. In order to prevent the water from boiling and evaporating, thus making the constant addition of water necessary, a radiator is introduced into the system. This radiator is made up of very thin tubes which give up their heat rapidly, thereby keeping the temperature of the water below the boiling point. A fan is also used sometimes to draw the air through between the tubes, thereby making the process of
+
+<page_number>37</page_number>
+
+cooling take place more rapidly. The system is so arranged that the water is drawn from the lower part of the radiator where the water is coldest by means of a pump and forced up through the water jackets and back into the radiator again. Several different styles of pumps are used, but a
+
+<img>A gear water pump diagram.</img>
+Fig. 32—A Gear Water Pump.
+
+very common one is the *gear pump* shown in Fig. 32. As you will see by the drawing, it consists of two gears en mesh with each other which revolve in the direction indicated by the arrow. The water entering through the inlet pipe is drawn around the outside and forced out through the outlet at the top.
+
+<page_number>38</page_number>
+
+Fig. 33—Front End of Motor, showing radiator fan and cam shaft gears.
+
+<watermark>General Pipe Co.</watermark>
+
+Fig. 34—A typical Radiator.
+
+<page_number>39</page_number>
+
+Fig. 35 - Valve side of a Four-cylinder Motor.
+
+Fig. 36 - Opposite side of same Motor showing Carburetor and Inlet Pipe.
+<page_number>40</page_number>
+
+Fig. 37 - Bottom view of same Motor with oil pan removed showing Crank Shaft, and Connecting Rods.
+
+Fig. 38 - Top view of same Motor showing Valve Caps and Holes for Spark Plugs.
+
+NOTE - Both views show motor mounted in ring frames used for assembling in factory.
+
+<page_number>41</page_number>
+
+THE TWO-CYCLE MOTOR.
+
+Although the four-stroke cycle type of motor is used by most of the automobile manufacturers, yet
+
+<img>A cross-sectional view of a two-cycle engine.</img>
+Fig. 39.
+
+there is another type which has given such good results that it is destined to become one of the important forms to be used in gas engine vehicle
+
+<page_number>42</page_number>
+
+manufacture. It therefore merits a brief descrip-
+tion. It has the advantage of being very simple in
+construction and operation, and for this reason
+it has become very popular among the marine
+engine builders, although with a few exceptions it
+has not as yet been accepted by motor car en-
+gineers. It is called a Two-stroke Cycle Motor,
+so named because it combines in two strokes the
+series of changes ordinarily accomplished in four
+in the four-stroke cycle type. Its operation may
+be seen by referring to the accompanying dia-
+grams. It is first assumed that the engine is being
+turned over by hand in the direction indicated
+by the arrow. You will note that as the piston
+moves up it will uncover a port (H), allowing the
+gasoline vapor from the mixing chamber to enter
+the crank case. As soon as the piston moves down
+again, a port (J) will be opened, allowing the
+mixture which has just been compressed to rush
+through a “by-pass” (F), into the “combustion
+chamber,” or upper part of the cylinder. Now,
+as the piston moves up again on the next stroke,
+this charge is compressed still more, then as the
+piston reaches its uppermost position the charge
+is ignited and the engine begins to work under its
+own power. The gases continue to act on the
+piston until nearly the end of the stroke is reached,
+when you will notice, by referring to the drawing,
+the exhaust port (G) is passed. At this point the
+burned gases rush out into the air. You will also
+notice that in order to aid the discharge and fill
+the cylinder again, as the piston travels a little
+farther down, the inlet port will be again uncov-
+
+<page_number>43</page_number>
+
+ered, and the next charge, which has meanwhile been taken into the crank case and compressed, will enter the cylinder, forcing the exhaust gases out. In order to prevent the vapor which has
+
+<img>A cutaway illustration of a reciprocating engine.</img>
+<page_number>Fig. 40.</page_number>
+
+just entered the cylinder from traveling straight across and out through the exhaust port, thus wasting a portion of the fuel, a "baffle plate" (K) is cast on top of the piston which deflects the gases toward the top of the combustion chamber, pro-
+
+<page_number>44</page_number>
+
+ducing a sort of whirling action which tends to
+scavenge the cylinder most thoroughly. In order
+to prevent the burning gases from traveling back
+into the crank case and igniting the gas there, thus
+producing a “back explosion,” a wire gauze (S)
+is placed in the “by-pass.” You will note that
+this type of motor has no valves, no cams and no
+cam shaft, in fact, its simplicity is such that it
+practically cannot get out of adjustment. It
+therefore is a form of gas engine which as soon
+as engineers are able to educate the public to its
+peculiarities bids fair to become as popular and
+practical as the four-stroke cycle.
+
+<page_number>45</page_number>
+
+INDEX
+
+Cam .................................................. 20
+Cam shaft ........................................... 21
+Cycle—explanation of four-stroke type ............ 9
+Cycle—explanation of two-stroke type ............. 42
+Cylinder .............................................. 16
+Connecting rod .................................... 26
+Connecting rod—lubrication of ..................... 26
+Crank case .......................................... 27
+Crank shaft ......................................... 25
+Carburetor ........................................... 28
+Commutator ....................................... 32
+Cooling system ..................................... 37
+Electrical ignition ................................ 31
+Exhaust valve ...................................... 21
+Fan—radiator ...................................... 39
+Float chamber .................................... 28
+Gasoline valve ..................................... 30
+Inlet valve ......................................... 21
+Induction coil ..................................... 32
+Ignition ............................................. 31
+Piston ............................................... 23
+Piston ring ........................................ 24
+Piston pin ........................................... 24
+Pump—water ....................................... 38
+Radiator ............................................ 39
+Spark plug .......................................... 35
+Switch—electric .................................. 36
+Valves ............................................... 19
+Valves—mechanism ................................ 21
+Valve grinding .................................... 21
+Water pump ....................................... 38
+Water cooling system ......................... 37
+Wiring diagrams—single-cylinder .............. 32
+Wiring diagram—four-cylinder .................. 34
+
+<page_number>46</page_number>
+
+ANOTHER BOOK BY THE SAME AUTHOR
+A bigger and more comprehensive work on the same subject.
+
+**"The How and Why of the Automobile"**
+
+<img>A vintage automobile.</img>
+
+Did you ever read a book which gave you just the information you wanted without being compelled to go through page after page of introduction and history?
+
+Did you ever talk to a stranger over your fence and talked with him and not at him who explained things in such a way that understanding the subject was really so simple?
+
+Do you remember when you used to study by outlines--how difficult problems seemed themselves--how the logical sequence of facts seemed to make what you expected to find hard, readily understandable?
+
+Do you remember the innumerable times you have said to yourself "If I only had somebody here to explain things--someone who would go through them step by step until I understood it--someone who would use homely and familiar examples to explain things--someone who would cover my head by using technical terms?"
+
+The author realized all these difficulties himself, because he has been through all these stages himself, but his experience as an instructor of a large motor school taught him the way to explain the various parts of a motor vehicle in simple language, so that even the boy of fifteen could understand and appreciate them.
+
+For this reason, we think that the physician uses a form of carburetor whenever he gives chloroform or ether--do you realize that a shotgun is a form of gas engine whose action is almost identical with that of an automobile motor?
+
+Do you want to know what a sliding gear transmission is--explained in such a way that anyone can understand it?
+
+Would you like to see what's inside of an automobile engine--would you like to know the name of every part--be able to tell intelligently about it and be your own mechanic--tell your chauffeur what to do--know when he is blushing or not?
+
+In short, would you like to know all about a motor car--how it works--how to drive it and how to take care of it? Then subscribe for a copy of
+
+**THE HOW AND WHY OF THE AUTOMOBILE**
+By FAY L. FAUROTE
+PRICE, $1.00 PREPAID
+
+Don't delay--send in your order today. Get the complete story of a motor car--the advanced course of which the book you have just finished is only the beginning.
+Address,
+Motor Text Book Dept. ROBERT SMITH PTG. CO., Lansing, Mich., U. S. A-
+
+<page_number>47</page_number>
+
+**“THE HOW AND WHY OF THE AUTOMOBILE”**
+
+A book of practical information for seekers after the fundamental facts regarding the gasoline engine and its application to the motor car.
+
+Interesting and instructive to both the beginner and the expert—the former for information, the latter for reference.
+
+Written by Fay L. Faurote, B.S. (M.E.), for five years closely associated with the development of the automobile, pioneer automobile factory, for two years instructor in the Detroit Motor School.
+
+The book, which is handsome bound in full cloth, printed on high-grade enameled paper, contains over 250 pages and 250 illustrations and covers the following subjects:
+
+**CONTENTS**
+
+**GENERAL THEORY OF GAS ENGINES—Simple explanation of cycle—**
+The four-stroke cycle—The two-stroke cycle—Advantages and disadvantages of each.
+
+**MOTOR DESIGN—What it is and its use. VALVES mechanical and natural—Formulas—Valve grinding—Valve and its influence on the motor—Valve griningling, how to do it—Valve nomenclature. CRANK CASE—The construction Bearings—Accessibility—Working parts—Uses. A crank case diagram showing three cylinders—one cylinder two, four and six-cylinder crank shafts—Crank case diagram showing instantly conditions in all cylinders—Diagram showing firing points and sequence of same. CONNECTING RODS Construction and material—Bearings—How they work. FUEL SYSTEM—The carburetor—A very simple explanation of carburation—The mixing valve—a few of the first types—Some of the modern carburetors—Foreign types. IGNITION—the make and break system—A simple explanation of the apparatus used. The JUMP SPARK SYSTEM—Electrical units. SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY—the dry cell—the storage cell—Dynamo's and magnetos—the dry cell—Commutators and timing devices—Spark plugs. Wiring diagrams.
+
+**COOLING SYSTEM—Air Cooling. WATER COOLING.—Direction of circulation. The water pump. The radiator. Auxiliary cooling solutions.**
+
+**THE TRANSMISSION—Reason for and use of transmission. SIMPLE EXPLANATION OF ACTION—Individual clutch type—the sliding gear—the three speed progressive—the three speed selective—the four speed selective—the five speed progressive—the five speed selective. METHODS OF DRIVING—Single chain drive—Double chain drive—Bevel gear drive. RUNNING GEAR—Front axle—Construction of—Steering gear. REAR AXLE Differential gear—the live axle—the dead axle—Wheel construction—Bearings. HORSE POWER DETERMINATIONS—Engine testing—Iндicated horse power brake horse power—Mechanical and heat efficiency—Road testing.
+
+What a Prominent Trade Paper Says About It.
+A **HANDBOOK OF PRACTICAL VALUE** —The latest addition to the popular type of automobile handbook. The How and Why of the Automobile is written so that anyone who has any interest in automobiles can achieve, namely, to present a plain, easily understood description of the modern automobile. Assuming that his reader knows nothing about the subject he has no intention to assume that a simple and technical manner as possible. The entire field is covered and completely that the work can be recommended as a handbook for beginners or those with only a limited knowledge of this subject.—Automobile, April 18.
+
+Send in your order at once—not delay. The price is $1.00 postage pre-paid, and the address is
+
+Motor Text Book Dept., ROBERT SMITH PTG. CO., Lansing, Mich., U. S. A.
+
+<page_number>48</page_number>
+
+<page_number>1</page_number>

Books_for_Boys_and_Girls/abc_butter_making-a_hand-book_for_the_beginner_1888.md

@@ -0,0 +1,880 @@
+A B C
+
+BUTTER MAKING
+
+---A--
+
+HAND-BOOK FOR THE BEGINNER.
+
+BY
+
+F. S. BURCH,
+
+EDITOR OF THE DAILY WORLD.
+
+CHUNG-O:
+
+C. S. BURCH PUBLISHING COMPANY,
+<page_number>188</page_number>
+
+JUBBY CORN MATILDA 4TH.
+
+<img>637.4 839</img>
+Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1888, by
+F. S. BURCH,
+In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C.
+<page_number>1</page_number>
+
+[API_EMPTY_RESPONSE]
+
+[API_EMPTY_RESPONSE]
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+<table>
+  <tr>
+    <td>MILKING.</td>
+    <td>Page</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Washing the Udder--The Slow Milker.--</td>
+    <td><page_number>17</page_number></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>The Jersey--The Best Time to Milk--</td>
+    <td></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Kicking Cow--Feeding during the Milking</td>
+    <td></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>-- Lead Talking--Milking Tubes--The</td>
+    <td></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Stool--The Pull.</td>
+    <td></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>CARE OF MILK.</td>
+    <td>23</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Animal Heat--Milk as an Absorbant--</td>
+    <td></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Stable Obobs--Cooling--Keeping in Pantry</td>
+    <td></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>or Cellar--Deep Setting--Temperature of</td>
+    <td></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>the Water--To Embe Cream Quickly--When</td>
+    <td></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>To Skim.</td>
+    <td></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>The MILK Room.</td>
+    <td>27</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>To have well Ventilated--Controlling the</td>
+    <td></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Temperature--Pure Air--Management of</td>
+    <td></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Cream--Stirring the Cream--Proper Tem-</td>
+    <td></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>perature at which to keep Cream--Ripen-</td>
+    <td></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Cream--Straining Cream--Cream in Winter.</td>
+    <td></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Burras Cotton.</td>
+    <td>30</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Rush Gouge Color--White butter--The</td>
+    <td></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+X CONTENTS
+
+Page
+
+Juice of Carrots—The Use of Anatto—Com-
+mercial Colors—Beginners generally use too
+much.
+
+Churning 32
+
+The Patent Lighting-Churn—Churning
+too Quickly.—The amount of time to prop-
+erly do the Work—Churning Cream at 60
+degrees—Winter Churning—Starting the
+Churn at a Slow Movement—The Churn
+with a Dead Stop—Stopping at the proper time
+—Grinding Butter—The Best Butter—Butter
+milk—Washing in the Churn—to Have the
+Churn sufficiently Large—Churning whole
+Milk—the Best Churn for the Dairy.
+
+Working the Butter 38
+
+The Right Temperature—to Get the Butter-
+milk out half-Half Worked Butter—Over-
+working—Use of the Lever—Working in
+the Salt—Rule for Salting Butter Salting
+Scots.
+
+Marketing Butter 43
+
+The way Four-fifths of the Farmers do it—
+
+The Right Way and the Wrong Way—Wait-
+ing for Better Prices City Customers—
+
+Have a Commission man Judge your Butter
+
+Packings and Shipping 46
+
+The Size and Style of Packings—Roll But-
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+<page_number>xii</page_number>
+
+ter—Packing in Earthen Jars—Tim Pack-
+ages—The Relative Cost of Wooden Pack-
+ages—Nine-pound Rule Boxes—To avoid
+"Woody" Butter—Butter-Boxes—Ex-
+cluding the Air—Print Butter—Uniformity
+of Color—Top of Packings—Keeping
+Packed Butter Cold.
+
+Thermometers in the Dairy 52
+
+Price of a Good Tested Article—The kind
+our Grandmothers' used—Floating Ther-
+mometers—Importance of their use.
+
+MAXIMS FOR A B C BUTTER-MAKERS. 54
+
+How to Make Good Butter. A chapter by Mr.
+N. Bigelow. 57
+
+<img>A small illustration of a butter churn.</img>
+
+<img>A blank page with a light yellow background.</img>
+
+INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+<table>
+  <thead>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Frontispiece. Jersey Cow Matilda 4th.</td>
+      <td>Page</td>
+    </tr>
+  </thead>
+  <tbody>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Milking Tube,</td>
+      <td>19</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Milk Stool,</td>
+      <td>20</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Milk Pail,</td>
+      <td>21</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Haney Deep Setting Can,</td>
+      <td>33</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Jersey Milk Can,</td>
+      <td>34</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Shot Gun Deep Setting Can,</td>
+      <td>35</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Cooley Can,</td>
+      <td>35</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Coneial Skimmer,</td>
+      <td>38</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Branch of Annato Tree,</td>
+      <td>38</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Sectoragonal Churn,</td>
+      <td>38</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Pendulous Churn,</td>
+      <td>38</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Bowl of Granular Butter,</td>
+      <td>34</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Barrel Churn,</td>
+      <td>36</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Daniels Butter Worker,</td>
+      <td>38</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Barska Butter Worker,</td>
+      <td>39</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Fat-Scraping Butter Maker,</td>
+      <td>41</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Butter Salting Scale,</td>
+      <td>41</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>White Ash Butter Tub,</td>
+      <td>46</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Nine-pound Bale Boxes in Crate,</td>
+      <td>47</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>I X L Butter Printer,</td>
+      <td>49</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>One-pound Butter Mould,</td>
+      <td>50</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td>Glass Dairy Thermometer,</td>
+      <td>52</td>
+    </tr>
+  </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<img>A blank yellow page with a few small black dots scattered across.</img>
+
+PREFACE.
+
+I DO NOT claim anything new or starting for this little work, nor do I claim to be what is usually termed "an authority" on the subject treated. A B C BUTTER MAKING is the result of my own experience in the dairy, together with an extended and careful observation of the experiences and practices of some of the most successful butter-makers in the country, and is an answer, in a complete form, to the numberless questions asked me (as Editor of the DAIRY WORLD), by beginners in the dairy.
+
+THE AUTHOR.
+
+<img>A blank, light yellow background.</img>
+
+MILKING.
+
+BEFORE we can make butter we must have milk, and a few suggestions on this important question will not be out of place here. In order that no dirt or hairs may find their way into the milk-pail, a careful dairyman will always brush off the teats and udders before milking. I am sorry to say, yet, I am sorry to see thousands of men who profess to be careful dairymen do not know this, and are sometimes guilty of that most uncleanly habit of softening up the teats by squeezing out a little milk on their hands. A large number of cows are utterly ruined every year through this practice. The milker who spoils a large number; noisy, loud talking and rough milkers help to spoil a good many more. The very slow milker, as well as the quick, jerky milker, who never strips the cow thoroughly, are helping to make a large number of our cows unsupple and sick. Milk in the morning and at o'clock in the evening are by far the best times to do the milking.
+
+<page_number>18</page_number>
+A B C BUTTER-MAKING.
+
+Some of our dear nurses should be milked three times a day for a week or more after calving. I might write a chapter on kicking cows, but after a while and exceedingly costly experience in this line will simply say I do not believe in them, and would not accept the best one I ever saw as a gift. I am convinced that if a nurse does not feed her calf, the calf of a cow during the milking, or a hungry animal will be too deeply absorbed in eating to "give down" all the milk. Better feed just before or immediately after milking. Keep strangers away from the stable during the milking hour; it is very disagreeable to hear the voice with some person in another part of the stable while milking; in short, do nothing that will be likely to draw the attention of your cow, or she will in a greater or less degree "hold up" a part of the milk. When possible, let no one else than the milker be of the same person, as the milker soon learns any little peculiarity of the animal, and knows exactly how to handle her, as well as readily detecting any unusual occurrence, such as shortage of milk, sore or caked teats, etc. Milk as rapidly as possible, and avoid hurting the teats with sharp and long finger nails by keeping them well pared. Never attempt to draw the milk from a very
+
+MILKING.
+19
+
+sore or inflamed teat with your hands; it only causes the animal great pain, and in nine cases out of ten you will fail to secure all of the milk. Milking tubes, made of silver, are not only great conveniences, but now that they can be bought so cheaply, are an absolute necessity, and all farmers should keep a few on hand for use in case of an emergency. The silver tubes are the best, and can be purchased for half a dollar each of almost any dealer in
+
+dairy goods. I have mailed thousands of them during the past few years to dairymen in all parts of the country, and have received hundreds of letters stating that valuable cows have been saved by their use. There have been rules for milking, but for the use of these tubes. It might be well to say right here that in no case would I recommend the use of tubes for regular milking, as their constant use would soon disintend the office of the teat, so that it would be necessary to wash the teat thoroughly before and be careful to push in slowly. If the teat is very sore the tubes may be allowed to remain in the teat
+
+<page_number>20</page_number>
+A B C BUTTER-MAKING.
+
+for a day or two, but I would advise that they be removed after each milking when possible, and always wiped perfectly dry.
+A good milking stool not only adds comfort to the milker, but also to facilitate the work to a greater degree than one would naturally suppose. I give an illustration of a handy stool, and as a novice can easily
+
+<img>A hand-drawn illustration of a milking stool with a bucket attached.</img>
+
+make one, I will simply say, make the leg according to the length of your own. Before closing this chapter on milking I want to say a word about the pail or vessel in which we pull or vessel to milk in. The best pail I ever used was a patent device called the "Michigan Milk Bucket," and were it not for the expense (I believe the price is two dollars), they would soon come into general use. The
+
+MILKING.
+<page_number>21</page_number>
+
+illustration shows exactly what they are—a combined pail, strainer and stool; and as the
+
+strainer prevents any dirt or hair from getting into the pail, and the close-fitting cover precludes any possibility of the milk absorbing stable odors, I cannot say too much in their favor. When the first pail was first placed on the marked, the strainer was at the bottom of the receiving cup, and all the dirt was washed into the pail, but the manufacturers altered them by placing the strainer an inch above the bottom of the receiver, and I believe that they are now as near perfect a milk pail as one could ask for.
+
+THE CARE OF MILK.
+
+I SHALL not attempt to enter into the chemistry of the milk. It would be out of place in this A B C treatise. One peculiar thing I wish to draw your attention to is the "animal heat." When the milk first comes from the cow you cannot help noticing that it has a sort of febrile smell, which soon passes off after exposure to the air. The "cavery" and "milk," of course, be allowed to pass off, but not in the stable, where the milk would be likely to take on a worse and more lasting odor.
+
+Milk is a great absorbent, and quickly takes on any and all odors which it comes in contact with. And when once taken on, they can never be got rid of. Therefore, the moment we are through milking a cow, we should either take the milk out of the stable and into another room, or pour it at once into a can or some vessel with a tight-fitting cover, that it may not absorb stale odors before we are through with the milking of all the cows.
+
+THE CAVE OF MILK.
+<page_number>23</page_number>
+
+think the best plan is to strain this milk at once into an ordinary deep setting can and
+
+<img>
+A large wooden barrel with a metal lid, labeled "HANRY CAN, BACK VIEW." The barrel is filled with milk and has a metal spout on top.
+</img>
+
+HANRY CAN, BACK VIEW.
+
+put the cover on tight. Remove the can, as soon as it is filled, to the milk-room.
+
+Now comes the cooling of the milk. To make good butter we must cool our milk rapidly. The sooner we cool it down to 47 degrees after it leaves the cow the better the butter will be. The old-fashioned way of setting the milk in shallow pans or crocks in the milk cupboard, where in summer was placed in the open air, so that the wind, is still kept up by a good many farmers, and this no doubt accounts for the steady pro-
+
+24
+A B C BUTTER-MAKING.
+
+duction of ten-cent butter with which our markets are always overstocked. If you expect to make good butter never set the milk in the pantry or cellar, as the odors which it will absorb there are just as numer-
+ous, if not quite so bad, as those in the cow
+stable. There is but one way, and dairymen are pretty generally agreed upon that it is to set the milk in deep cans in cold water, and the colder the water the quicker the separation of the butter. If you cannot afford to buy the patent deep setting cans like the Cooley, the Haucy, the Jersey, or the Wilhain, by all means use the common deep set-
+ting "shot-gun" can, with or without the glass gauges in the sides. The advantage of these cans is to cool the milk rapidly, and thus they are manu-
+facturers of this sort that can may claim that their can does the work more quickly than
+
+PERSEY CAN.
+
+THE CARE OF MILK.
+<page_number>25</page_number>
+
+the others, I am of opinion that they are all good, and one as good as the rest. If you have a spring, and can set the cans in the ground, where the water can flow all around and over the cans, you will be fortunate indeed. If you have no spring, and cannot afford a creamer, make a tank a little deeper
+
+<img>A metal milk churn with a spout on top.</img>
+"SHOT-GUN" CAN.
+
+COOLER CAN.
+
+than the cans, and keep the water flowing around the cans. The cooler the water the better. If the water from your well is not colder than 47 degrees you should use ice.
+
+<page_number>26</page_number>
+
+A B C BUTTEE MAKING.
+
+By using ice or very cold spring or well water you get all, or nearly all, the cream to rise in from twelve to twenty hours, and as I said before, and I want to firmly impress it upon your minds, the quicker you get the cream to rise the better butter you can make. Never allow the milk to set more than thirty hours, as it becomes too heavy and loses much in flavor. I would much prefer to skim sooner, if I lost some of the cream by so doing, as I would more than make up what I lost in quantity by the improved quality.
+
+<img>A cow with a calf standing next to it.</img>
+<watermark>1873</watermark>
+
+THE MILK-ROOM.
+
+I would be well to say a word about the milk-room before passing on to the management of cream. It is absolutely necessary that the room be good and clean, which to not only set the milk, but to ripen the cream, do the churning, and work the butter.
+Have the milk-room well ventilated, and build it so that you can control the temperature at the proper point all the year round.
+A very airy place is one placed where there is no room for too many small, "stuffy" crowd rooms, where there is scarcely a place for half the utensils. Now, see that the air in your room is always pure, and do not pollute it by going directly into it from the outside. Keep your hands clean when you put on your clothes and manage your boots. Also have the room situated as far from the barn-yard and hog-pen as possible.
+
+MANAGEMENT OF CREAM.
+Skim the milk before the cream becomes too thick and tough on top. I never allow
+
+<page_number>28</page_number>
+A B C BUTTER-MAKING.
+
+the cream to remain on the milk a moment after I think it is all up or separated from the milk. If you use the little setting case you will find the little conical churner with ten or twelve inch handle, the easiest to skim with.
+
+If you put the cream in a can, or other vessel containing cream that was skimmed some hours previous, and stir it well together, so that it may be of the same consistancy. Keep the cream at the temperature of 62 to 68 degrees until it becomes slightly sour, when it is ready for churning. I have churned very sweet cream and very sour cream, but I have never tasted a butter of good flavor from anything but slightly soured cream. I am also of the opinion that butter made from cream only slightly sour will keep much longer than when made from a very sweet or sour cream. I am often asked if I think it advisable to use the old vintage, and I will answer by saying that I do think it aids somewhat in helping the
+
+THE MILK-ROOM.
+<page_number>29</page_number>
+
+better to come more evenly. In the winter it may be found necessary to place the cream near the stove, where it can be gradually warmed up to 68 or even 70 degrees, in order to have it sufficiently sour.
+
+<img>A cartoon illustration of a cow with a white patch on its back.</img>
+
+BUTTER COLOR.
+
+We all prefer to have our butter of a rich orange color. White butter looks too much like hard. Then, too, butter of a pale white hue nearly always fails to sell at the market as the rich colored article. Years ago people colored butter with the juice of carrots; later on the seeds of the Annato plant were
+
+BRANCH OF ANNATO TREE, SHOWING BLOSSOMS AND SEED PODS.
+
+BUTTER COLOR.
+<page_number>31</page_number>
+
+crushed and the juice mixed with potash and water. We now have many specially pre-
+pared compounds in the market, put up in
+liquid form and ready for immediate use.
+Almost all of these commercial colors are
+good, but should be used sparingly. Nearly
+all the beginners use too much the first time.
+There is a general rule to follow when using
+colors and you will very be able to tell how
+much to use by practice, as the butter of some
+cows is naturally of a richer color than others;
+this is especially true of the Jersey cows, the
+butter from which needs but little artificial
+coloring. Always put the coloring into the
+cream before beginning to churn.
+
+CHURNING.
+
+Few persons know how to churn properly.
+No matter how rich or nice the cream, if
+the churning is not done at a proper tempera-
+ture and in a proper manner you cannot
+make good butter. Avoid the "lightning"
+patent churn, which the agent will claim to
+
+<img>A black-and-white photograph of a rectangular churn with a handle on top.</img>
+RECTANGULAR CHURN.
+
+bring butter in five minutes. Cream that
+is churned too quickly always makes butter
+of a cheesy flavor, and quick to get rancid.
+
+CHURNING.
+<page_number>33</page_number>
+
+Churning should never be done in less than twenty minutes, and, if possible, not longer than forty minutes. Generally the proper temperature at which to have the cream before beginning to churn is 60 degrees, but sometimes this must be varied a few degrees, according to the season. In the spring and fall 65 or 68 degrees will be necessary in order to have the butter come within forty minutes. When cows are fresh the butter comes much more quickly than it will after they have been fresh for a long period. Always start the
+
+PENDULUM CHURN.
+churn with a slow movement, gradually increasing until you have reached the proper speed, which is 40 to 50 strokes per minute.
+
+34
+A B C BUTTER-MAKING.
+
+I do not believe in the churn with a dash in-
+side, nor do I believe in keeping the churn in
+motion a moment after the cream breaks.
+All sensible barmen are trying to keep pace
+with the times, and have adopted the granular
+
+HOLE OF GRANULAR BUTTER.
+plan. This idea of scooping out great lumps
+of butter from a churn, and trying to squeeze
+and rub out the buttermilk with its caseous
+and albuminous matters is a thing of the
+past. Squeezing and rubbing will not please,
+and nothing but the water of the but-
+termilk will come out ; the very impurities
+which you desire to get out of the butter will
+be all the more firmly incorporated in it. Not
+one butter-maker in ten (so, nor fifty) knows
+enough to stop the churn at the proper time,
+
+<img>A close-up of a churn filled with granular butter.</img>
+
+CHURNING.
+<page_number>35</page_number>
+
+when the butter has formed into little pellets the size of a wheat kernel. When those little pellets have formed, pull out the plug or stopper in the bottom of your churn; if you have not got such a thing as a hole in your churn, don't waste a moment until you have bored one with a sharp pointed iron rod, and place a small piece of very fine wire sieve on the inside of the churn over the hole, and thereafter be careful not to have your plug so long that it will punch the sieve off every time you put it in. Let the buttermilk drain away, and then hot water pouring in a little cold water and cooling the contents of churn down to a point where the globules or kernels of butter will stick together when you agitate the churn. Now let the churn stand and rest a few minutes, then pour in more water, and when all is drain off through the hole again, and if the butter does not come clear as it went in, stop peaking, shake the churn a little, then make a good strong brine of well powdered salt that has been first sifted into your churn, and let it stand on the butler for fifteen or twenty minutes, after which draw off as you did the water. You now have your butter in the best possible condition for working. When you purchase your churn be sure
+
+<page_number>36</page_number>
+A B C BUTTER-MAKING.
+
+and get one large enough; it is much better to have it too large than not large enough.
+If you think you have not sufficient cream
+
+<img>A wooden churn with a metal lid and a handle on top.</img>
+BARREL CHURN.
+
+for a churning and the cream is ripe, do not wait for another skimming, but add sufficient milk to have the churn filled to about one-fourth its capacity. Do not use milk that is very sour, as it is likely to contain so much casein that your butter will not be of good flavor. Make sure that the milk is mixed with the cream, but as it only adds more work to the churning, I do not recommend
+
+CHURNING.
+<page_number>37</page_number>
+
+it except in cases where there is not cream enough to properly fill the churn. Illustrations are given of the best churns for the dairy, viz., the Barrel Churn, the Rectangular Churn, and the Pendulum Churn.
+
+<img>A black and white illustration of a barrel churn.</img>
+
+WORKING THE BUTTER.
+
+NEVER work the butter when it is too warm. I find that 56 degrees is about right. The main point in working butter is to get the buttermilk all out, and also to get it in good solid condition, which depends upon proper working than one would naturally suppose. You often see butter with great
+
+HOME-MADE DANISH BUTTER WORKER:
+drops of buttermilk standing all over it; such butter was only half worked, and will generally contain thirty to forty per cent. of water.
+
+WORKING THE BUTTER.
+<page_number>39</page_number>
+
+and will keep sweet but a very short time.
+The other extreme is overworking, and
+this produces a dry crumbly mass, with
+no flavor. If the churning is done as de-
+scribed in the foregoing chapter very little
+
+<img>
+A wooden churn with a metal hook at the top and a handle on the side. The hook is used to churn the butter.
+</img>
+
+EUREKA BUTTER WORKER.
+
+working is necessary, as the buttermilk is
+very nearly all out of the butter before it
+leaves the churn. Take the butter out of the
+churn with your butter spoon, and heap it up
+
+<page_number>40</page_number>
+A B & D BUTTER-MAKING.
+
+on the worker. If too warm for working at once, throw a cloth wet in cold water over it, and leave to drain and cool for thirty minutes.
+Before using the lever of your worker always dip it in cold water. Now take the lever and gently push the butter down on the face of the worker, and sprinkle on some salt; begin at the sides, and roll the butter back
+
+WATERS' PATENT BUTTER WORKER,
+into the centre, being careful not to do any rubbing or you will have greasy butter. Now press out the whole mass again, and give it another salting, and repeat the working two or three times until you have incorporated the salt into the butter thoroughly.
+The general rule for salting is to use one ounce of salt to a pound of butter, but as some people like "salty" butter and some "fresh" butter, you must salt according to the wants of your patrons. I always use a fine sieve, and sift the salt over the butter on
+
+WORKING'... BUTTER.
+<page_number>41</page_number>
+
+the worker, just as the baker sifts his flour over the dough when making it. Much de-
+pends upon the quality of the salt used in
+better-making, and if you desire to make good
+
+CURTIS FAVORITE BUTTER WORKER, FOR ONE OR
+batter use only good salt, which is put up in
+casks, and branded "Dairy Salt," by nearly
+all the large salt makers in the country. If
+
+BUTTER MEETING SCALE.
+you have a large dairy do not trust to gaug-
+work, but lay a scale and use it. An illus-
+tration of a scale which is made especially for
+salting butter is given above. These scales
+
+<page_number>42</page_number>
+A B C BUTTER-MAKING.
+
+weigh from one-half ounce up to 250 pounds,
+and as they can be used for ordinary weigh-
+ing without regard to the butter-salting at-
+achment, no one should have one.
+They cost about six dollars.
+
+An illustration of a home-made butter
+worker, which is used largely by the Danes, is
+herewith given. Any man that is handy
+with tools, can make one. Cuts of three
+other good workers are shown; they are well
+made, and cost but a small amount.
+
+<img>A black and white illustration of a butter worker, with a man operating it.</img>
+
+MARKETING BUTTER.
+
+"**Butter well made is half sold," says an old maxim; but one would naturally suppose that it was "quite sold," to observe the careless way in which the country farmers market the butter. Who has not observed the tactics of the country store-keeper in buying butter? Here comes Mrs. Smith, or Jones, who is known near and far as a good butter maker. She has an ox on the northward road, and she knows that her butter is in great demand and will be sold at a good price before night. He pays her the highest market price, and while weighing the neat prints of golden butter, carefully wrapped in spotless cloth or snow-white linseed meal paper, he tells her that she can have brought in more.
+It's a pleasure to see the trade of such a woman. But now comes Mrs. Easy. Observe the cloudy expression on the merchant's countenance, as he tells her that he's overlooked with butter; that the market is "way down."
+You will notice that he charges her a "bag"
+
+A B C BUTTER-MAKING.
+
+price® for whatever he sells her, and dumps her butter, which is generally in nasty rolls, into the nearest shoe box. And who can blame him? For that he can get his Easy's butter at home, but must ship it to the nearest market and sell it for "low grade dairy" at a price which seldom, if ever, nets him a profit.
+
+One reason bears of the markets being overstocked with "git edge" butter; on the other hand, the market is nearly always loaded down with "low grade" and grease.
+
+The best plan for marketing butter is to endeavor to find customers at home, and sell as soon as possible. The hope is that the butter will wait t f a time when it is sometimes dis- appointed, and no butter can be so good four or six months after it is made as when fresh.
+
+It is far better, as a rule, to sell as soon as possible, all the best price you can get, than to wait for a rise that sometimes fails to come. I remember one man who had a number of people asking me to find them city customers. Such customers, as a rule, are very exacting: they expect much, and paying a high price, have a perfect right to do so. These private customers (unless acquainted with the butter maker) seldom prove agreeable people to deal with. It is better to sell for a few cents less
+
+MARKETING BUTTER.
+<page_number>45</page_number>
+
+at house, and leave no chance for dissatisfac-
+tion, or if you cannot possibly sell all you
+make at home, become almost a some reliable
+commission merchant, and leave him to fight
+out the battle with the customers. A good
+plan is to make up a sample pail or tub, and
+ship to the commission merchant with a re-
+quest that he “judge” and report on it, with
+my suggestions he has to offer. Such a re-
+quest will be sure to bring you a prompt re-
+port from any good dealer.
+
+<img>A cartoon illustration of a cow.</img>
+
+PACKING AND SHIPPING.
+
+THE size, shape and style of package for butter makers to me, must depend largely upon the demands of the market to which the butter is shipped. A few years ago large quantities of roll batter were marketed in Chicago during the colder months; now you may travel from one end of the country to the other and not see a hundred rolls. It is but a short time ago that earthen dishes and pans were extensively used; now you scarcely ever see them. The cause for this, that earthen vessels are easily broken, but are also more difficult to handle in large quantities, and weigh much more than wooden packages. The great bulk of butter that comes to Chicago now, is packed
+
+<img>A white ash butter tub.</img>
+WHITE ASH BUTTER TUB
+
+P.ACKING AND SHIPPING.
+<page_number>47</page_number>
+
+in white ash tauls and bale boxes. Occasion-
+ally we see a tin package with wood veneer,
+but they have never come into general use for
+the reason that the acid gets under the tin
+and causes rust. Wooden packages are just
+now most popular, and as the manufacturers
+have reduced the cost of making them to a
+point where earthen-
+ware and tin cannot com-
+pete in price, we may
+look to see them in use
+for years to come. The
+bale box, which can be had of every dairy
+supply dealer and nearly
+all of the general stores;
+they may be had in 20
+lbs., 25 lbs., 30 lbs., 40 lbs.
+Illustration of the nine-
+pound bale boxes in crate is also given. Dur-
+ing the last two years
+these bale boxes have become very popular.
+They can be shipped in crates of six and are
+convenient to handle; they can be had for
+about twelve cents apiece.
+
+MINE POUND BALE
+
+48
+A B C BUTTER-MAKING.
+
+In packing butter in wooden vessels we must guard against "woody taste," and there is but one way to do this, that is, to seal the packages with parchment paper, which is torn or cut and then thoroughly sealed on both ends. Even this method sometimes fails to accomplish the work. A capital way to prevent woody taste, is to line the package with parchment paper, which not only prevents the butter from tak-
+ing on a woody taste, but also keeps the con-
+tage and excludes the air. This parchment
+paper may now be had of all dairy implement
+dealers, in sheets and circles of any size. It
+costs about thirty cents a pound, and a pound
+is sufficient to pack several hundred pounds
+of butter.
+
+There is still quite a trade in print butter,
+and when nicely packed in one or two-pound
+prints and of good quality it sells quickly, on
+account of its convenient shape for family
+use. For print butter there has been invented
+a machine for making blocks of butter, and
+these blocks very quick and quite artisti-
+cally. When butter is shipped in this form it
+should be first carefully wrapped in cloth
+or parchment paper and packet in boxes in
+crates. Each box should contain but one
+block of butter, as piling one block upon
+another would be likely to press out the deli-
+<page_number>48</page_number>
+
+PACKING AND SHIPPING
+
+49
+
+cate figures moulded or stamped on the block.
+The blocks for these patent printing machines are sometimes artistically curved, so that the blocks of butter show sheaves of wheat, acorns, etc., and other designs, which are very pretty and artistic or monogram. For home use the old fash-
+ioned round mould hobbling from a quarter of
+
+<img>A wooden butter printer with a round moulding tool.</img>
+I X L BUTTER PRINTER.
+
+a pound to two pounds is still extensively used, and when properly soaked in cold water before moulbling, makes a very nice print of better. These patent printers and moulds save much time and are a great convenience over the old way of forming the butter into rolls.
+
+<page_number>50</page_number>
+A B C BUTTER-MAKING.
+
+In packing it is always better to pack each churnling in a separate tub or box, as the tub that contains different churnlings will not be of uniform solidity or colour throughout, and
+
+<img>A diagram showing a butter mould with a lid on top.</img>
+ONE POUND BUTTER MOULD,
+will therefore not sell for as much as a tub perfectly uniform.
+Remember to soak the covers of the pack-
+ages, and before fastening them on sprinkle salt to a depth of a quarter of an inch over
+
+PACKING AND SHIPPING.
+<page_number>51</page_number>
+
+the top of the batter cloth or paper. Never leave the cover off the packages for any length of time, for the reason that it will not only cause the top of the batter to become damp, but also to become soiled, and at last spoil the top of the batter for several inches.
+
+The moment you have packed your batter get it into a cool place—the cooler the better—and thereafter keep it as cool as possible, until you have disposed of it.
+
+<img>A small illustration of an eagle with outstretched wings.</img>
+
+THERMOMETERS IN THE DAIRY.
+
+FREDERIC SUMNER says "There is no more use in trying to run a dairy without a good tested thermometer than there would be to attempt sailing a vessel without a rudder," and I heartily agree with him. A good thermome-
+ter can be purchased for from fifty cents to one dollar, and this instrument is certainly within the reach of every dairyman. Too much depends upon the temperature of the water in which we cool our milk, the room we ripen our cream in, do our churn-
+ing in, and the temperature of the milk itself, to attempt any guess work. Our grandmothers used thumb and finger to ascertain the temperature of milk and cream, but in these days of fifty cents, seventy-five cents, and a dol-
+lar a pound better we find "thumb-
+rule" will not work. An illustration
+
+<img>A thermometer with a red liquid inside.</img>
+
+THERMOMETERS IN THE DAIRY. <page_number>53</page_number>
+
+of a thermometer made expressly for dairy use, is given; they are made of glass and float upright in the milk or cream. The churning and cheese parts are used for the successive processes, being bought; they cost at about fifty cents, and can be purchased from any dealer in dairy goods.
+
+<img>A black and white illustration of a cow's head.</img>
+
+MAXIMS
+For A B C Butter Makers.
+
+Test your cows.
+Never fill the churn over half full.
+Never touch the butter with your hands.
+Cream rises best in a falling temperature.
+Never churn fresh unripened cream with ripened cream.
+After cream becomes sour, the more ripening the more it depreciates.
+The best time to churn is just before the acidity becomes apparent.
+Never let your butter get warm; when once warmed through it will lose its flavor.
+Excessive working makes crumbly butter, spoils the grain and injures the flavor.
+Never mix air with the butter and milk, as the warmth of the one and the coldness of the other hasten change and decomposition.
+All kinds of disagreeable odors are easily absorbed by salt. Keep it, therefore, in a clean, dry place, in linen sacks, if it is to be used for butter making.
+The best butter has the least competition to contend against, while the worst dairy pro-
+
+MAXIM. 55
+
+ducts have the most. The better anything is, the more rare it is and the greater its value.
+
+A butter maker that uses his fingers instead of a thermometer, to find out the temperature of milk or cream will never make a success.
+Cleanliness should be the Alpha and Omega of butter making. Absolute cleanliness as regards person, stable, utensils and packages.
+Fatality is the greatest enemy of the butter maker. He must find out the faulty points in your butter, is to send a sample of it to some reliable better buyer and ask him to score it.
+The difference between the dairyman who makes $30.00 per pound, and one who makes $30.00, is that the first works intelligently, the second mechanically.
+Details--The price of success in butter making, as in all other classes of business, is strict attention to the little details; it's the sum of all these little things that determines whether a man succeeds or fails. For ten cents a pound or a high priced luxury.
+The disadvantages of the system of setting milk in shallow pans or crocks, for raising cream, are that a long period elapses before the skimming is completed, too much space is required, and in Summer the milk becomes sour before the whole of the cream is raised.
+
+<page_number>56</page_number>
+
+A B C BUTTKE-MAKING.
+
+Labor saving appliances are intended, as the name implies, to save labor, but they do not render care, thought and diligence the less necessary. To understand the principles that underlie the business of butter making, is as imperative as to use the most improved utensils.
+
+By keeping a strict account only, can you find out the extent of your success or failure.
+If the balance is on the right side, you will know whether and how much it can be increased; if it is on the wrong side, you will be more strongly convinced of the necessity for improvement.
+
+If you have your cows in a healthy condition, milk regularly; set the milk in air tight cans with good cold water (either ice or spring); skim every twenty-four hours; ripen the cream properly; churn in a barrel churn or some other good churn on the same principle; wash the butter well while still; stir the churn in grass or straw; and you will never be troubled with white specks in your butter.
+
+HOW TO MAKE GOOD BUTTER.
+BY N. BIGALOW, STOWE, VERMONT.
+
+<watermark>CONFIDENTIAL</watermark>
+
+It is necessary to have good cows to start with, and if good butter is the object sought I prefer good Jerseys. The next thing is good feed. Grass that is fresh and tender is best of all. This does not last very long up here in Vermont. My cows have a feed of green grass for two hours in the morning, and a meal of grain, in the morning. I prefer to mix different kinds of grain together. It must be all sound and good. Make the cows comfortable and contented. Kind treatment is indispensable, and the more regularly in caring for them the better.
+
+We use the milk entirely clean. If it is necessary we wash the cow's lugs, before milking. The milk is strained into large, open pans, and as soon as the animal heat is out of it, the pans are covered over with thin cotton cloth. The covers are made by sewing the edges of the cloths to some strips of basswood, about three-fourths of an inch square
+
+58
+A B C BUTTER-MAKING.
+
+and a little longer than the pans. They cost,
+but a trifle, and after using them ten years
+we would hardly make butter without them.
+The butter is not quite so yellow, at first, for
+raising the cream under the covers, but will
+be after it has stood a few hours.
+When we first tried our large pans, we used
+to run water around them, but the coolers
+have got so good that we do not think it
+would pay to get new ones.
+Our rule is to skim the milk soon after
+it soars, as the cream will come off easily.
+We keep the cream in a cellar, when it is
+necessary, and prefer to keep it in the milk
+room, which is very warm. It is kept small,
+and we have churned only twice a week,
+this year. We use the Stoddard churn,
+and would not use a float churn. I have
+never seen the same churn yet, and hardly
+think it has been made. 80 degrees is the
+right temperature for which we heat the
+cream, in warm weather: 63 in cold, and 60
+in spring and fall. We put in from three to
+six quarts of water to thin the cream, and if
+the cream is too warm we use cold water (we
+have a cold spring), and in extreme warm
+weather we use hot water. If it is too cold
+we warm the water sometimes up to 190
+degrees. If that will not answer, the cream
+
+HOW TO MAKE GOOD BUTTER. <page_number>59</page_number>
+
+must be warmed beforehand. The butter-milk is drawn off as soon as it can be done, and leave behind the scum on the churn. Any butter that runs out is put back with a skimmer. We use cold water enough to keep the butter in the grain, and wash it until the water runs clear. I suppose brine would be better, but have not used it much. After the butter is drawn off, we put it into a bowl with a paddle; and then it is taken out with the paddle and pressed into the better bowl. We use about an ounce of salt to a pound, but some of it works out. After it has stood a few hours, it is worked with a lever in an old falkon, and then we shake it up to get the salt in evenly, and then it is ready to print.
+
+We always try to injure the grain as little as possible.
+
+Our printer holds four pounds, and makes eight half pound prints. The prints are put in by two round boxes, and cut apart with wooden blades. The boxes are made here in Stowe, and are washed and scalded with boiling water, sprinkled with salt.
+
+Our milk house is shaded on the eastern side by a willow tree, and on the southern by another building, so we can see it at its best extent with current air. But if we should admit currents of air without the covers over
+
+A B C BUTTEE-MAKING.
+
+the pans, there would be white specks in the butter.
+We use butter color when it is necessary to color the butter, but think it better to color it too little than too much.
+I am in the habit of mixing a small quan-
+tity of cotton seed meal with the grain for the cows, so that I get a little more milk
+from them than anything else. Lined soil
+is very high here, and I have never used it.
+Last, but not least, the cows must have
+pure air to breathe, and the milk, cream and
+butter must be kept in a good atmosphere.
+I am fully convinced that any farmer that
+makes any article of food of sufficient
+quality, has an excellent opportunity to use
+common sense and sound judgment.
+Consumers of such butter, as I have de-
+scribed, need not have any fear that they are
+eating anything that is, or ever was, filthy or
+unwholesome.
+
+THE DAIRYMAN'S LIBRARY.
+
+Creaming Milk by Centrifugal Force... $ 50
+Hazard's Butter and Butter Making.... 35
+Curtis' Hints on Dairying.............. 50
+Willard's Practical Dairy Husbandry.... 30
+Willard's Practical Butter Book....... 125
+A & B C Butter Making by Burd..... 30
+Burton's Practical Butter Makers' Hand Book.. 150
+The Jersey, Alderney and Guernsey Cow... 175
+Feeding Animals. Stewart............. 200
+Dadd's American Cattle Doctor....... 175
+Guernsey's Trouble in Milk Cows........ 135
+Guernsey's Diseases.................... 135
+Keeping One Cow....................... 135
+Jennings' Cattle and their Diseases.... 200
+Barn Plans and Out Buildings........... 175
+
+Any one of the above books will be sent post-paid on receipt of price.
+The DAIRY WORLD, Chicago, Ill.
+
+THE
+DAIRY WORLD
+A MONTHLY JOURNAL FOR THE
+Creamery, Cheese Factory
+AND
+PRIVATE DAIRY.
+Finely Printed, Elegantly Illustrated and Ably Edited
+by Practical American, Swedish and Danish
+Butter and Cheese Makers.
+$1.00 PER ANNUM,
+SAMPLE COPIES 10 CENTS.
+THE DAIRY WORLD,
+CHICAGO, ILL.
+
+WOOL GROWERS!
+READ THE
+AMERICAN
+SHEEP BREEDER.
+
+<img>A black-and-white illustration of a sheep.</img>
+
+An ably edited, elegantly illustrated monthly magazine, published in the interests of sheep-breeders and wool-growers everywhere.
+
+ONLY $1.00 PER ANNUM.
+
+Address,
+C. S. BURCH PUBLISHING CO.,
+CHICAGO, ILL.
+
+I

Books_for_Boys_and_Girls/capons_for_profit-how_to_make_and_how_to_manage_them_1894.md

@@ -0,0 +1,902 @@
+CAPONS FOR
+PROFIT.
+
+HOW TO MAKE
+AND
+HOW TO MANAGE THEM.
+
+Plain Instructions given by a Beginner for the Beginner.
+
+ILLUSTRATED.
+
+BY
+T. GREINER, LA SALLE, N. Y.
+
+SPRING, 1894.
+From The Library of
+Dr. Olney Brown Kent
+
+<img>A page with handwritten notes and a printed copyright notice.</img>
+E 7947
+COPYRIGHTED, 1893
+B-T. GREENER, LA BALLE, N. Y.
+
+HARD & GLASS, FORTUNE,
+LENGA STREET, DOMINAR TERRACE,
+BUFFALO, N. Y.
+
+I.
+THE TRUTH ABOUT POULTRY.
+
+A FRIENDLY TALK THAT MAY SERVE AS AN INTRODUCTION.
+
+I AM not a novice in the poultry business. As an apprentice I have served long and faithfully, but I am an apprentice, a learner, still, and expect to be one as long as I live. My interest in poultry is about as old as my memory goes back to my teens when I made my first practical experiment in chicken raising, by inducing a pair of fancy pigeons to adopt an ordinary hen's egg for hatching in place of their own two little eggs. Well do I remember the palpable excitement that thrilled me through the whole being when I found the little chick trying to get out of the shell, and how I had to run to tell my mother, all aglow with pride and joy. Then how I watched, fed and petted the little motherless thing for a few days, until an unlucky accident
+
+The Boy's First Chick.
+<img>A small chick hatching from an egg.</img>
+<watermark>THE BOY'S FIRST CHICK.</watermark>
+
+C A P O N S FOR PROFIT.
+
+put an end to its life and to my enjoyment. I could not have gone more had lost a fortune.
+
+A dozen years later, at the age when a person knows more than he really needs mankind, I could see golden opportunities in poultry raising as a business. Poultry papers and poultry writers had told me of the lot of money that might be made by raising chickens and egges for market. Estimating profits on paper, from imaginary figures, is always as good as gold. But when the profit was clear profit, 1,000 hens must give $1,000. That was clear as day light, and needed no proof. Anyhow, if I had no acquaintance with the real facts, I had unlimited faith in these figures, for figures can not lie; and if I was without practical experience, I could not understand how I could make my own superior smartness. If others had succeeded, I could, and possibly in a greater degree. So I made my plans, and racked my brains about the construction of an incubator and brooders, etc., things little thought of in those times. Next I began active operations with about 150 laying hens. The work was hard, but the eggs sold well and the eggs sold in the open market. It did not take me long to find out that 150 hens housed in one building, no matter how large, will not lay 10 times as many eggs as 15 hens kept by themselves, and given a large range. Grain was then much dearer than it is now, although I grew what corn and oats I needed, and bought what hay I wanted. I had never ever either paid or received for them. In short the outcome was so discouraging that, instead of increasing my stock of layers, as originally intended,
+
+<page_number>14</page_number>
+
+NEW JERSEY EXPERIENCE. <page_number>5</page_number>
+
+to 1,000 hens, I decreased my number to 35 or 40, a number more nearly in harmony with the conditions of the farm and the market. Experiments with incubators and brooders were entirely given up.
+
+In the summer of 1867 New Jersey was at higher prices which prevailed in the large cities and the summer resorts along the beach for spring chickens and eggs revived my interest in the poultry busi-
+ness. I made a new start with Black
+Poultry Experience
+in New Jersey.
+Langshanks, and soon had as fine a flock of from 100 to 300 fowls as any one could wish to see. Grain was now reasonably cheap. I used to buy a bushel of wheat at my feed-dealer's at 80 or 85 cents a bushel, and corn in the ear from some neighbor at 25 cents a bushel ears; bran and other ground feed in proportion. Fish, fish refuse and crabs were easily obtained, and largely used to furnish the desired animal food. The eggs were sold at about 25 cents each when 2 or 2½ pounds in weight paying $1.00 per pair alive. Eggs were mostly sold for hatching purposes, at $1.50 per setting when shipped, or 50 cents per setting to people who came after them. Hens laid well. Sometimes I had to sell the eggs to the gro-
+cers, and always succeeded for three years it is to
+36 cents each. I have two miles of modern size and a half-acre orchard fenced in. In gar-
+dening time my fowls were kept inside these fences, at other times they were allowed to roam at will over meadows and fields. There was some work and care connected with this enterprise, but on the whole it was profitable. My income by eggs and by birds showed a clear annual profit of from 75 cents
+
+<page_number>6</page_number>
+
+CAPONS FOR PROFIT.
+
+to $1.00 per hen. This result was obtained under an unusual combination of favorable conditions; but I had already reached the limit to which I could hope to extend the business safely and profitably.
+When the profits are so advantageous (that is, the usual case), either the number of hens kept must be decreased accordingly, or the profits will dwindle down rapidly.
+Poultry as ordinarily kept on the farm and other rural homes (in limited numbers mainly) does pay, and usually pays better than any other kind of farm stock. It is a good thing, a great good thing, about it.
+The anxious question "Does poultry keeping pay?" can only have reference to extensive operations. When I hear of any one, who is out of profitable employment, starting out to keep 1,000 hens for egg laying, or to raise milk chickens by means of incubators and brooders. I always feel sorry for such a man. He may make a little money while he will have a bigger stock of experience and a smaller amount of money. I say this advisedly.
+I well remember the delightful day I once spent with poultry editors Jacobs and Whitelaw Ferrier Buyer, visiting the chicken-rearing establishments.
+
+Whiteside Farm, N. J.
+What I saw there interested me greatly. The men did not fire up my enthusiasm to the point of making me take hold of the business. Right there, with climate and soil conditions about as favorable as one might imagine, with good counsel to be had at first hand from the old neighbors who diligently, persistently and successfully worked their way gradually into moderate success, with plenty of
+
+Extract
+
+POULTRY ON THE FARM. <page_number>7</page_number>
+
+local experience in selecting and running incubators and brooders, with near markets ready to receive the product, the chances seemed in every way to favor success. Yet even then I noticed the impulsiveness and impatience of the younger element that was taking hold of the business, and the rashness with which they rushed in where the older and more experienced ones had feared to tread. I could not overlook the fact that there were some who were moderate successes on a moderate scale, large-scale operations were yet in an experimental stage, and I foresaw that there would be a liberal sprinkling of failures among the successes.
+
+I have also watched with interest the start and development of poultry enterprise else- where, but found that final failure was the rule, and moderate success the exception. In short, I have seen so much of this, that I feel perfectly safe in prophesying failure, when I see one of the smart young fellows embark in poultry raising with a full equipment of incubators, brooders, etc; but without practical knowledge and experience. Theories in this field are terribly misleading.
+
+But as I said before, poultry in the usual num- bers on the farm are a paying stock. And yet they can be made to pay still better than they really do now. The ordinary management is abominable. The birds are crowded together, fed with- out until only a few years ago, is fortunately less common, and signs of mixture of blooded stock, especially of Plymouth Rock, Leg- horns, etc., may be seen everywhere. This is at least one great step in advance, but it is only one,
+
+<img>Poultry on the Farm</img>
+
+8
+CAPONS FOR PROFIT.
+
+and more improvements in management are needed.
+One of them is in the matter of feeding. Corn is
+yet fed by far too extensively and exclusively. It
+is not a fit grain to be used in this manner. Wheat
+is cheap, and considering its value as a flesh and
+egg producer, much cheaper than corn. It can and
+should be made use of for poultry feed much more
+exclusively than it is at present.
+There is also the matter of keeping useless males.
+They are allowed to consume a large share of
+the food that might be made to produce eggs, and meat
+worth five or ten cents a pound more than that of
+old roosters. I keep one male bird for 30 to 50 hens,
+and the chicks I raise are strong and healthy, ap-
+parently because they have been fed on the same
+sort of feeding three or four old roosters when one will
+do as well or better! They do more harm than good.
+Where hens are kept to lay eggs for table use, not
+for hatching, we can go much further, even, and
+dispense with males entirely.
+
+<img>A small illustration of a rooster.</img>
+
+II.
+
+CAPON PHILOSOPHY.
+
+WHAT IS A CAPON, AND WHAT IS IT GOOD FOR?
+
+I HAVE to say something more about keeping males. About one-half the number of chicks in any flock are males. If they are early, it is to be feared roosters. June and July, when they should always dispose of them at that time at the high prices then obtainable. You will make more money selling your two-and-a-half or three pound cockerels at 25 or 30 cents a pound than by selling five or six pound roosters. Five cents a pound in late fall or winter. Don't keep "spring chickens" because they are old roosters. The question often is what to do with the later young cockerels. When they are of "spring chicken" size, autumn is fast approaching; the demand for "spring chickens" is past and the call is for old hens. To keep the young cockerel over winter is a waste of time and little value. I cannot afford to raise much stock of this kind. They are a nuisance on the place, always mischievous, harassing laying hens and reducing
+
+Old Roosters Not Wanted
+
+<page_number>10</page_number>
+CAPONS FOR PROFIT.
+
+the profits, and at best they will bring only eight or ten cents a pound, that has cost you more than that amount to produce. My way now is to turn them into capons, and thus double the value of their flesh.
+There are a great many persons in America who have never heard of capons, and have not the least idea what they are.
+"Why a magnificent lot of fowls!"
+"Yes, Mister, that breed are your fowls!"
+"Will you call me a trio of your fowls, or a setting of eggs in the spring?"
+These are questions that I and some of my friends who keep a goodly number of capons, have been asked time and time again; and we had to explain the manner in which they differ from the similes.
+"There are capons," people would answer. "Why, they are just the breeder we want." I think myself that they will want them after they once find out how tender and sweet and juicy their flesh is.
+But what are capons, anyhow? Farmers make oxen of their surplus male calves, and wethers of their surplus male sheep. They do this because of their marketable. In short, they castrate or enucleate all male animals not wanted for breeding purposes. Occasionally male cats and dogs are treated in the same way; and the process of castration gives us better cats and dogs than they are in their unaltered state. We used to castrate male rabbits when we bred them; but now we do not. We improve them greatly in size and quality of flesh, and as in other animals, made them more peaceable and quiet.
+But while thus improving by castration the surplus males of all farm stock, farmers have neglected
+
+**WHY WE CAPONIZE.**
+
+<page_number>11</page_number>
+
+the male chickens, probably considering them be-
+neath their notice in this respect.
+
+This is a big mistake.
+It is easier to castrate a young cockerel than a pig
+or a lamb. It is more tractable in many ways than one.
+
+Once operated on, capons become the most tractable and peaceable animals imaginable. They do not run, nor chase,
+nor fight.
+All they seem to live for is to eat and grow and become fat. I will not say that capons while young grow faster or lay on more flesh from a given amount of food than the roosters of the same age do. As long as the cockerel is grown enough so that no energy goes into the reproductive organs, I think their development is about at an even rate. But there is a change after a time. The development of the organs of reproduction in the male, and his growing activity and restlessness con-
+sequently, which is saved in the capon for flesh production.
+
+Water only comes to a certain degree of heat.
+All the excess above this is utilized for the formation of steam. It is the same thing with the rooster.
+He grows to a certain size or weight, and all the surplus energy above this is used for purposes of reproduction.
+In other words, the capon will continue to grow and lay on flesh much longer than the unaltered male. It takes a year or more for the capon to come near his full size and weight, but at that age he is much larger than the rooster of the same age, and is just as valuable. A pound of old meat is worth from 6 to 10 cents; a pound of capon from 18 to 28 cents.
+
+**Way we Caponize**
+
+<page_number>12</page_number>
+**CAPONS FOR PROFIT.**
+
+Caponns stand crowding While there is a limit to the number of laying hens that one can keep with profit, there is practically no limit to the number of capons. You can keep as many as you have room for. They will thrive better when kept in a flock of a hundred, than when there are only a dozen. They are hardy, and remarkably exempt from disease. Their appearance and bearing is peculiar, but they are handsome and interesting nevertheless.
+
+I have always felt a great interest in the subject of capon making. But I can tell you that I have never been able to compare with any poultry, or feel prouder of them, than I am doing this year among my first good-sized flock of capons.
+
+Ill.
+
+SOMETHING ABOUT THE CAPON MAKER.
+
+PEOPLE WHO CAN CAPONIZE AND PEOPLE WHO SHOULD KEEP THEIR HANDS OFF.
+
+THERE are people whom I would not advise to undertake the operation of caponizing. The person to do it should have, above all things, faith in his undertaking and in himself. He must be convinced that his work is right, and then go ahead. This is no place to make a trial for fun, or in a half-hearted way. It is a little of the genuine enthusiasm that is needed, and that is bound to overcome difficulty. A man who has never had any experience should have an average amount of mechanical skill and the same amount of nerve. Clumsy fingers have no business in operating on a live fowl. If you are a little nervous at first, it will do no hurt. Your nervousness will wear off after you oper- ate on two or three fowls, and see how easy the job is, and then you will partly be sorry you came to the bird. You may have full
+
+<table>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Faith</td>
+    <td>and</td>
+    <td>Nerve</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>at</td>
+    <td>one</td>
+    <td>or</td>
+    <td>two</td>
+    <td>or</td>
+    <td>three</td>
+    <td>fowls,</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>and</td>
+    <td>see</td>
+    <td>how</td>
+    <td>easily</td>
+    <td>the</td>
+    <td>job</td>
+    <td>is,</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>and</td>
+    <td>then</td>
+    <td>you</td>
+    <td>will</td>
+    <td>partly</td>
+    <td>bemoan</td>
+    <td>it.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>as</td>
+    <td>it</td>
+    <td>came</td>
+    <td>to</td>
+    <td>the</td>
+    <td>bird.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<page_number>14</page_number>
+CAPONS FOR PROFIT.
+
+confidence in your ability to do it just right, and then go ahead without fear and trembling. And when you are at it once it is far better to operate on all the fowls ready for the operation in one day than four days, or even five days, as I have done. The beginner is apt to be a little nervous when he goes for the first bird; but after he gets his hand in once, everything moves off smoothly and nicely. His hand becomes steady, and the work passes off rap-
+idly. Of course, it is an advantage if you can see several one performing the operation, even before you touch a bird. No time is needed for you the whole operation. But the average person does not often have a chance to see it done.
+
+We ourselves had to learn it from books and printed instructions—not very plain ones either— and succeeded beyond expectations. After a few days' practice we were able to perform the operation of castrating 20 birds before dinner. The operation, indeed, after you have once undertaken it and suc-
+ceeded, is an easy enough thing, and causes but little pain and inconvenience to the bird, if you do it right and with proper tools. A good set of tools, of course, is entirely necessary, and the person who has them will pay $3 or $3 for them if they are in-
+cluded in the list of persons who can safely under-
+take the operation.
+
+Then there are some timid souls who tremblessly ask,
+"Does it hurt?" The farmer when castrating
+lambs or pigs, or calves, etc., does not
+Necessity Not
+Gratify.
+exhibit any expression of discomfort when
+he kills a sheep, or hog, or calf, but does
+not stop inquiringly, "Does it hurt?" Both know
+
+Plea for Humanity. 15
+
+well enough that they do inflict some pain to their victims. But they yield to the demands of necessity. We can not always avoid suffering pain, or giving pain.
+
+What is cruelty? The needless infliction of pain. This is cruelty and decidedly a wrong. Yet many persons, too tender-hearted to stick a pig, or to castrate a hog, or to have a boil on their own back lanced, will, when provoked, use the whip freely on their children, or kick and strike their horses and cows most unmercifully at slightest provocation.
+
+All this is a needless infliction of pain, an otherwise cruelly and unjustifiable act. We ought to be merciful and decent, all the more when we are compelled to make other creatures suffer. It is not necessary to insert a hook-bog into a hog's mouth and pull the animal into the scalding vat before it is dead. It is not necessary to kill a horse by the lance when yet alive. I think these things are horrible, and people of any heart and feeling would not stoop to do things so mean.
+
+Nor do I think that it is merely a necessary and legitimate infliction of pain, or even reasonable with regard to the animal, when the instincts of humanity to kill and dress fowls in the horrible manner practiced by many, and as I have seen it advised even by a renowned poultry editor. To strip a fowl of feathers while suffering from a death wound in the throat, and to have it dressed clean before it is dead, seems to me a crime for which the perpetrator himself ought to suffer. The French military knife is made for the purpose of being inserted into
+
+<page_number>16</page_number>
+
+CAPONS FOR PROFIT.
+
+the bird's brain, causing instant paralysis and in-
+sensibility before the stripping process begins.
+In short, the person whom I would like to induce
+to turn mischievous, worthless cockerels into peacea-
+ble and valuable capons, is the one who is impressed
+with the necessity and advantages of the operation;
+who has faith in his abilities, an ordinary amount
+of mechanical dexterity and nerve, a little energy
+and a little patience. In the selection of the tools
+needed for the operation. This man is neither a
+sensitive weakling nor a cruel brute.
+
+People too morbidly sensitive to use the knife on
+a live bird; people with clumsy fingers; people with-
+out proper tools, or people who are brutes, are the
+people whom I would wish to keep their hands off
+this business.
+
+<img>Image of a hand holding a knife over a bird.</img>
+
+I.V.
+
+THE VICTIMS AND THE TABLES.
+
+BEST BIRDS AND BEST BREEDS FOR BEGGINNERS—SIMPLE OPERATING TABLES.
+
+THERE is a great difference in broeds and birds.
+I was especially fortunate in the materials I had at hand. In the first place, I have for many years taken an especial fancy to the Langshan breed, and the cockerels with which I had to make my first trials were either the pure black Langshan or crossbred Langshan and Rock Cross hen. Of all breeds I have tried I find the Langshan the easiest subject to operate on, because the bird makes bone first and flesh afterward, in other words, is usually lean when young, showing the ribs quite prominently. It offers little difficulty to the practised removal of the tongue, and the country is suitable for less than half under the operation. Besides this, the Langshan has the advantage of large size and great hardiness. It is also less Hable to make what is known as "silips" than most other breeds.
+My next choice would be the Langshan and Plymouth Rock cross. The cockerels, in plumage and
+
+<page_number>18</page_number>
+
+CAPONS FOR PROFIT.
+
+outward appearance, resemble Plymouth Rocks quite closely, yet offer about as little difficulty to the novice as the pure Langshan. They make large, noble-looking capons. Most of the ordinary mixed fowls of our barn-yards are easily operated on. Coelhns I have never tried. Of course, they are large and will make good capons.
+Brahmas will grow to larger size, and may prove the most valuable breed for this purpose, yet the beginner will be apt to have trouble with them. The ribs do not show prominently on the outside. Although this makes little difference to a person after he has operated on a number of fowls it may puzzle the beginner. The most serious stumbling-block is the shape of the breast, which in young Brahmas is a sort of half-inch long, extending close and worm-like along the big artery. To slip a horse-hair loop around the Brahma testicle, so that it will catch on and cut its way between the testicle and the artery, is no small job for the beginner. I would have not succeeded quite so well had I been excused for the use of wire pipe in place of horse-hair. My own experience is, therefore, to make the first trial with easy caponizers, especially the Langshan or Langshan cross, or with ordinary smaller breeds, never with Brahmas.
+
+We are now trying the Indian games. These ex-
+cell in quality, and will probably make the choicest capons for home use. The markets, however, do not yet discriminate between capons of different breeds except so far as size is concerned. For profit we want the fowls that will give us the greatest
+
+OPERATING TABLES. <page_number>19</page_number>
+
+weight—Langshan, Cochin, Brahma, Plymouth Rock.
+
+I also find that it is less trouble to operate on comparatively young subjects than on older and larger ones. When I want an easy job I take a two pound Langshan. Langshan cross or Plymouth Rock. My Langshan-Plymouth Rock crosses seldom flinched even when the incisions were made or the teeth were pulled out. The Brabander, however, are usually taken at more advanced age and size (four pounds or more) offer more or less resistance, and must be held more firmly.
+
+It is also a good plan to use a dead subject for the first lesson. Shut the victim up without food or drink for 36 hours, then open the mouth and wash the intestines empty. Then chop his head off, put him on the operating table in good light, and otherwise in the same way as will be described for the operation on a live subject, and go ahead making your observations in cockered anatomy.
+
+An empty barrel, bottom side up, may be made to answer for a dead subject. It can be tied up by means of one stout twine twisted around the wings next the body and another tied around the legs, the operating table being free ends of both hanging down on the side of the barrel and weighted with a brick or piece of iron. I would put padding of some kind, a piece of cloth or a blanket under the head after the chick, thus giving him as comfortable a rest as possible under the circumstances. This kind of operating-table, however, is a poor make-shift at best.
+
+When you have a large number of cockerels to
+
+<page_number>20</page_number>
+
+CAPONS FOR PROFIT.
+
+operate on, or set out to caponize your surplus roosters for profit, year after year, as you should, you will want a more convenient table. Do not, and other people will not, use this table for the special purpose in as simple a style as you please, with cleats around the top at the right to prevent the tools from falling off, a two inch hole in the center at the left, with a weighted lever underneath and a morsele six to eight inches long from right to left, and a weight on the end of the lever with sliding lever, weighted underneath. A twine loop is fastened on each one of the levers, passed up through auger-hole or mortise, and slipped one over the wings, the other over the feet, thus securely holding the subject for the operation.
+
+You can also make a table such as is shown in Fig. 1. It consists of a round board larger than a barrel-head, resting on an empty, headless barrel. Weighted straps or bands are drawn through two holes bored at proper distance apart, and hold the chickens' wings and legs as may be seen in the picture. This table has the advantage that you can turn it toward the light to sail, without moving the barrel. But it affords no good clause - place the tools and other things - the table is illustrated in Fig. 2. It is a light, cheap kitchen table, such as we happened to have to spare, three and a half feet long and twenty-
+
+OPERATING TABLES.
+<page_number>21</page_number>
+
+two inches wide, more than large enough to accom-
+modate the coredor and leave plenty of room for
+the tools, and yet light enough to be easily shifted
+about for the sake of getting the light just right
+upon the work. I fastened some narrow cleats with
+screws all along the margin of the right-handed half
+
+<img>Fig. 5. GRIEVEN'S OPERATING TABLE.</img>
+of the table, thus rendering this part a safe place
+for the tools and accessories. At the middle of the
+opposite (short) side, screwed into the edge, is a
+screw-eye or hook, which holds the loop of twine
+after the latter is slipped around the wings of the
+victim next to its body. Its legs are held by a strip
+of board, which is nailed to the edge of the indi-
+vidual cleat, weighted on top with a piece of iron or
+a brick securely fastened with wire or twine. One
+end of this lever is cut in convenient shape for a
+handle, while the other has a cleat which simply
+hooks over a longer cleat screwed fast upon the
+table. The length of these levers may be varied,
+being moved sideways, according to the size of the fowl, or
+entirely taken off when the table is not in use. The
+cleats may also be removed by taking out the screws,
+and the table be put back where it belongs, in
+kitchen, buttery or cellar.
+
+<page_number>22</page_number>
+
+<page_number>22</page_number>
+
+CAPONS FOR PROFIT
+
+I always place a piece of old carpet, an old fertil-
+izer sack or something similar under the fowl,
+doubled or rolled up to extra thicknesses under the
+legs, thereby securing a close fit and a firm hold
+without unnecessary pressure upon the fowl's legs
+between hard objects.
+
+The only thing that does not yet suit me exactly
+about this table is the lever. Instead of moving it
+here and there by handights, I shall hereafter make it
+light and springy, fasten the rear end to a wire on which it
+can slide to the right or left, according to size of
+bird, and hold it down in front by allpinging a wire
+catch over the end. This will hold the bird more
+securely in its place, while the bending lever and
+springy wires will prevent undue pressure upon the
+bird's legs.
+
+<img>A diagram showing how the bird is held in place with a light and springy lever.</img>
+
+V.
+
+TOOLS AND OTHER REQUISITES.
+
+TOOLS BEST SUITED FOR THE BEGINNER.
+
+A S I have already said, let nobody imagine that the operation can be successfully performed without the proper tools. They need not necessarilily be expensive. Indeed, such tools as have found most serviceable can be bought for about $2.50 a set. I have tried the sets of several different makers, and most of them serve their purpose quite well, although none are perfect. At present I prefer a combination of several. A paring knife, a lancing knife, first, second, or lances. In an emergency, an ordinary pocket knife, sharpened to a razor edge, might answer, but it has not the best shape for the work, and is a make-shift at best. A lance as shown in Fig. 3, and made of a piece of steel one-sixteenth of an inch thick,
+
+<img>Fig. 3. The Knife or Lance.</img>
+seven sixteenths of an inch wide and about six inches long, rounded off to a point on one side and end, is just the thing. Have an oil-stone handy and
+
+<page_number>24</page_number>
+
+CAPONS FOR PROFIT.
+
+keep the lance well sharpened. The knife as made by some manufacturers has a straight edge. I pre-
+fer to have it well rounded, as then you can make the incision with one dip, and yet without having to go very deep with the point as you have to do with the straight-edged knife.
+
+Next you need a spreader. A whale-bone spreader was formerly much used. We now have wire spring
+The spreader.
+spreaders, which are much simpler, and
+much more convenient to use. In
+fact, I think the simpler the spreader is, the better.
+The one shown in Fig. 4 gives good satisfaction.
+
+<img>Fig. 4. Spring Spreader.</img>
+
+Still simpler and cheaper is the wire spreader shown
+in Fig. 5. There are various other styles of spreaders
+
+<img>Fig. 5. Wire Spreader.</img>
+
+that can be safely used, but those here illustrated
+are as serviceable as any, and have the advantage of simplicity.
+
+Next comes a pair of nippers, or forceps, some-
+thing like Fig. 6. It is used to hold a
+little piece of sponge with which to mop
+up blood inside the capon, or to pick up any stray
+
+CAPONIZING IMPLEMENTS.
+<page_number>25</page_number>
+
+object that may have fallen on or among the intes-
+times. Almost any ordinary small nippers will answer the purpose.
+
+The set should also contain a small, sharp steel hook (Fig. 7) and a probe (Fig. 8). The former is used to tear open the thin, film-like membrane which envelops the intestines; the latter to push the intestines back when crowding over the testicle, or in the search for any object fallen among the intestines.
+
+The most important of all culling implements, however, is the canula, with which to catch and remove the testicles. Spoon nippers or forceps are often used in place of a canula, but they are not safe in the hands of a beginner, and would not suit those who do not have experience. To those on small (two-pound) cockerels of breeds that have not the worm-like testicles of the Brahma, I prefer the canula with horse-hair (Fig. 9) as it find is in the set obtained from George G. Dow, North Epping, N. H. This is a brass tube about four inches long, a quarter of an inch wide at the
+
+<img>Fig. 6. Pair of Nippers.</img>
+<img>Fig. 7. Steel Hook.</img>
+<img>Fig. 8. Probe.</img>
+<img>Fig. 9. Canula.</img>
+
+<page_number>26</page_number>
+
+CAPONS FOR PROFIT.
+
+wide end, and tapering to less than one eighth of an inch. It is closed at the small end, with the ex-
+ception of two holes large enough to admit a horse-
+hair or a small steel wire. Horse hair works well in
+ordinary cases, and when one breaks another is
+soon inserted, so that it forms a loop of proper size
+at the small end of the canula. Occasionally the
+testicle is of such a shape or in such a position that
+all the beginner's efforts to slip the hair over the
+testicle are frustrated by its being too long or too thin.
+In that case I would try wire in place of the horse-
+hair. Wire, being stiff and unyielding, is easily
+pushed over and around the organ, and the latter
+taken away, especially if you use the wire canula
+illustrated in Fig. 10. This I got in the set from
+
+Geo. P Pilling & Son, Philadelphia, Pa. I think it is well enough to have a cannula of this kind on hand, especially if you operate on Brahamas, etc.
+Still, the other canula will do in an emergency.
+Otherwise, when you will need a sponge piece of sponge, and a few centigrams of nitrate acid.
+Also keep a few hairs out of a horse tail on hand.
+That is about all.
+
+Once more let me say, don't try to get along with clumsy imitations and substitutes. For good work,
+and satisfactory work, you need good tools. If you
+
+THE TOOLS NEEDED.
+<page_number>27</page_number>
+
+wish to caponize at all—may the number of cockersels to be operated on be half a dozen or a thousand—the first thing to do is to get a complete set of tools. They are cheap enough, and they will last you a life time.
+
+If you once learn the operation, easy as it is, you will have calls from neighbors and others, and possi-
+bly you may find a little work at better wages than is paid for your services. In order that I may not allow a worthless lot of roosters to infest your premises, bother your laying hens, and eat three times more than they will be worth in the end.
+
+If you do not feel able to invest the small amount for a few days, undertake the job of caponizing. For the sake of humanity and decency, don’t murder poor brutes with clumsy tools. Be merciful. When properly performed, and with the tools here de-
+scribed and illustrated, the operation involves no element of cruelty. The birds seem to suffer slightly when the incision is made, but for a moment only, and then when the article is twisted off, but at no other time, and they are ready to take their meal as soon as the job is done.
+
+I do not know that any set now offered for sale contains the exact combination of tools here de-
+scribed. Possibly manufacturers will make changes in their sets so that my "my sets" will fit this,
+my favorite set, on sale before another season comes around. In the mean time I am now having some of "my sets" made, and shall be pleased to furnish them to my friends at a reasonable price.
+
+VI.
+
+THE OPERATION.
+
+WHEN AND HOW BEST TO PERFORM IT.
+
+THE three months for capon making are July,
+August and September, but the operation may
+be performed at any time when you have the right
+material for it.
+
+The first and an absolutely necessary thing to
+do is to catch the cockerels to be operated on, and
+shut them up in a convenient coop, so that they can
+easily be gotten hold of when wanted. Do this in
+the evening, and then leave them for about 36 hours without food or water.
+Essential Preparation. The cockerels should be fairly empty
+in order to make the operation easy, and they should be killed
+without fear of cutting into them, and to give a good chance for work and for seeing what one is about.
+The long fast will not hurt the chicks, but
+only make them terribly anxious for the next meal.
+On the morning of the second day, when the sun
+
+ESSENTIAL PREPARATIONS. <page_number>29</page_number>
+
+is two or three hours high, and the sky nearly or entirely cloudless, the operation may begin. The expert can manage to get along without much direct sunlight, but the light cannot be too good for the beginner. A clear day is absolutely necessary for a first trial, and if the day should be dark, the cockerel may be given a very small quantity of soft food, to carry out his duties during the next good clear day. Artificial light, with reflectors, etc., as used by some experimenters, is not available for the ordinary farmer and beginner in caponizing, and not needed on an average fair day.
+
+Set the caponizing table in a convenient spot and in direct sunlight, or at least on a day of midsummer weather, under the rather open branches of some solitary tree, the foliage of which permits the passage of occasional rays of sun, giving a slightly subdued or modified but direct sunlight.
+
+In all these things, of course, the judgment of the operator alone should be relied upon.
+
+Sponge must touch out on the cleat-enclosed part of the table. On another table, stand, barrel or box, close by, have a dish with warm water seasoned with a few drops of carabolic acid, also a larger piece and half a dozen small pieces of sponge. The latter may be of about the size of robin's eggs or hickory nuts.
+
+Now pick out the first victim. Let it be a rather lean bird, weighing not more than two pounds, nor much less. Twist or wind the twine around the wings close to the body, and standing in front of the table, with the cleat-enclosed end to the right, fasten your vic-
+
+Securing the Most
+
+30
+CAPONS FOR PROFIT.
+
+tim on his left side upon the table, as shown in Fig.
+11. Next to the hip, and where, in a lean bird, the
+
+<img>Rib of a bird ready for operation.</img>
+Fig. 11. BIRD READY FOR OPERATION.
+
+ribs show quite plainly, you find a spot which, be-
+cause usually covered by the wings, is almost bare.
+There may be a dozen or two pin feathers. These
+should be pulled out. Take hold of them between
+thumb and index finger, not one by one, but as
+many as you can take, and deftly pull them out.
+Don't be nervous. Go at it as if you meant business.
+If you are quick and determined about it, the re-
+moval of these small feathers does not cause much
+inconvenience to the bird. The water which makes
+any fuss over it. The spot thus cleared need not be
+more than one and one half inches in diameter.
+
+At this stage of the proceedings I take the sponge
+out of the water, squeeze most of the water out of
+it, and then wipe it over the chicken's side. This is
+not absolutely necessary, but moistens the feathers
+around the bare spot, and keeps them better out of
+the way.
+
+Now comes the incision. The right place to cut is
+between the last two ribs; that is, the two ribs
+next to the hip. In a lean chicken they are easily
+recognized, and often they are very prominent.
+They extend from the back-bone for an inch and a
+
+THE OPERATION.
+<page_number>31</page_number>
+
+half or two inches in a slight curve, then take a sudden turn upward toward the breast. Usually the "joints" in the two ribs appear plainly and prominently. Just look for the two slightly raised, whitish, almost knob-like spots. Often the two ribs lie quite closely together, and perhaps they are united at the middle—a flat layer of flesh—extends over them.
+
+An examination of Fig 12 will give you a pretty clear idea where to look for the location of ribs is plainly shown. The dotted line between the last two ribs is the right place for making the incision.
+
+Now proceed by taking the knife in the right hand as shown in Fig. 13. Then with the left hand, reaching over the right, push the skin and muscle from the barred spot toward the hip and hold it there. Observe the two whitish little spots which form the joints of the last two ribs and make a space between them, making an incision by a quick dip, at the same time slightly drawing the knife between the two ribs toward the back bone. The length of the incision should be about one inch. With the intestines nearly empty there is no danger of injury to them, even if the
+
+<img>Holding the Knife</img>
+**Fig. 13. Holding the Knife**
+
+Making the Incision
+<img>Location of Ribs</img>
+**Fig. 12. Location of Ribs**
+
+32
+CAPONS FOR PROFIT.
+
+point of the knife should dip half an inch deep through the ribs. Minor blood-vessels usually ex-
+tend in the skin across where the incision is to be made. If they are cut, a few drops of blood will be
+spilled; that is all. But in pushing skin and muscle together, the knife must be used with care, at the same time aim to get the blood vessels somewhat out of the way of the knife. If this is done, the
+knife often does not draw a drop of blood. If the wound bleeds badly, the moistened sponge may be
+pressed upon it for an instant to absorb the blood.
+Making the incision, of course, will cause a momen-
+tary pain; but it is no more than any living thing has to endure a good many times in life,
+and will do so without complaining.
+
+After the incision is made, lay down the knife
+and take up the spreader, all the while holding the
+skin back toward the hip with the left hand. Press
+the spring of the spreader together
+Using
+the spreader
+with two fingers under each end and insert them in the opening and let go.
+
+Also release the skin yet held with the left hand.
+The spreader will push the ribs apart, leaving an
+opening to the fowl's inside from one-half to three-
+quarters an inch wide. If you find it too large
+enough you can remedy it by a slight touch of
+the knife to one or both ends of the incision.
+
+From now on in the proceedings you will need
+good light. Shift the table about, or turn it as re-
+quired, so that the best light will reach into the
+opening and upon your work. Looking down
+through the incision, you will notice a thin, translu-
+cent film or membrane, which covers the entire in-
+<page_number>14</page_number>
+
+OPENING THE FOWL. <page_number>33</page_number>
+
+ternal organs. The little blood which may have dropped in from the outside wound and clotted on this membrane, is most easily removed by picking up, with the tweezers or forceps, a little piece of moistened sponge, introducing it into the opening, and pulling it out again with all the blood adhering to it.
+Letting is the light. Then take up the membrane with the hook-brook and needle, and insert the membrane to pieces, allowing holding the sharp point of the hook upward, or in the direction of the back-bone, in order to avoid touching the organs that may be crowding against it from below. The tear through the membrane must be large enough to expose the whole of the testicle and its contents. When bowels are nearly empty, you will plainly see, well toward the back-bone, the upper testicle, a yellowish body of about pea size (of course, larger in older cockerels), perhaps somewhat elongated, or in the Brahma, etc., quite long, almost worm-like. Sometimes both testicles come in plain view, sometimes one only. Sometimes they are seen through the probe or with a similar tool. Sometimes, again, it happens that the intestines crowd upon the upper testicle and hide it from view. Then introduce the probe and push them aside, and the testicle will come in full view. Its light color (although often it is pale or dark-colored, almost black) makes it plainly visible.
+
+You are now coming to the object of all this proceeding; namely, the removal of the testicle. Take up the canula. The single horse hair should previously been have adjusted to form a loop of about
+
+34
+CAPSUS FOR PROSTITIT.
+or nearly three-eighths of an inch in diameter. Slip this loop over the testicle, and between it and the big artery which may be seen along-side of testicle. If at first you don't succeed, try again. It may require several trials, but don't lose patience. It will go all right at last. In especially bad cases you may take wire in place of the horse-hair; but the latter is usually to be preferred, and if the testicle is in normal condition, a little horse-hair will usually be sufficient. When you see that the loop has properly caught on, draw up on the loose ends of the horse-hair, at the upper end of canula, so that the loop is all pulled in, and the testicle tightly drawn up to the end of canula. Hold the canula with the left hand, twist it back and forth, and then let it fall down, at the same time pulling continuously and strongly on the ends of the horse-hair with the right hand, thus cutting and twisting the testicle off its fastenings. When you feel it give way, pull it up with the canula and horse-hair, and if some of the strings still adhere to it when you get it up through the opening, cut them with scissors or a knife a little bit short $\frac{1}{2}$ of an inch remains on the testicle. This is important. If you cut too close to the testicle, nature may try to thwart your purpose by letting a new growth of testicle take place, thus causing what is known as a "slip."
+
+The operation just described is injured to the big artery. If the blood vessel should form a kink, and the kink be drawn into the horse-hair loop, the artery will be torn, and the fowl will bleed to death in a few minutes. With reasonable care, however, this does not often happen.
+
+SECOND OPERATION.
+<page_number>35</page_number>
+
+Now one side is done. All that remains to be done is to see that no feathers or other foreign sub-
+stance are left inside the opening; then take out the
+spreader, let the skin and muscle slip back over the
+incision through the ribs, unfasten the chick, and—
+turn him around on the other side for another oper-
+ation.
+
+I have described the job in all its minutest de-
+tails. To perform the operation does not require
+outstanding time that it takes to tell. In the
+first attempt you may possibly spend a quarter of
+an hour or more. What does it matter? Take your
+time. The fowl, while not especially comfortable,
+is not actually suffering. He feels slight actual
+pain only during the moment when the incision is
+made, and whether he remains tense or not is the test
+clue. After you have operated on two or three chicks
+the task becomes an easy one, and the operation will
+not take many minutes. The difficulty is only in
+the first attempt. Expert operators usually re-
+move both testicles from the one opening, the lower
+one first and afterwards the upper one. This is all
+right, but I find it much easier, more convenient, much safer,
+and just as expedient as open the fowl on both sides.
+
+The turning of the bird is quickly done. Lift up
+the lever, taking hold of the chick's legs, and turn him
+over his right side, as shown in fig. 14, and re-
+adjust the lever to hold his feet. Again shift the
+table so the light will fall fully upon the front of
+the fowl, and into the opening to be made on the
+left side. The operator this time stands on the other
+
+<page_number>36</page_number>
+CAPONS FOR PROFIT.
+
+side of the table, next to the chick's back, as before. Then a few feathers are plucked out, the moist sponge wiped over the bared spot and the surround-
+
+<img>Fig. 14. Bird Ready for Second Operation.</img>
+
+Remember
+both sides.
+Bleeding
+the bird,
+which
+is
+not
+a
+matter
+of
+any
+concern,
+but
+if
+there
+be
+any
+bleeding,
+blood-poisoning and death. At any rate it is advisable to remove this blood by the means already mentioned; namely, mopping up with little bits of moistened sponge. Sometimes you will have to introduce one bit after another, half a dozen or over, until the bleeding stops. If it up, then withdrawing it with the fingers and squeezing it out in warm water. At other times there may not be a drop of blood spilled. If that is the case, or
+
+ing plumage, the incision made and the whole operation gone through with in exactly the same manner as was done on the other side placed in a rather more comfortable position, and then when lying down its left side. A good deal of bleeding is sometimes going on after the testicle is removed. While a little blood if left inside among the bowels would probably do no harm, there may be more than the system can absorb in a natural way, and the clotting of the blood causes suffocation, blood-poisoning and death. At any rate it is advisable to remove this blood by the means already mentioned; namely, mopping up with little bits of moistened sponge. Sometimes you will have to introduce one bit after another, half a dozen or over, until the bleeding stops. If it up, then withdrawing it with the fingers and squeezing it out in warm water. At other times there may not be a drop of blood spilled. If that is the case, or
+
+MARKING THE CAPON. <page_number>37</page_number>
+
+otherwise when the flow of blood ceases, see that no feather, bit of sponge or other foreign article is left inside; then withdraw the spreader and unloosen the bird. Next mark it in some way to show that it has undergone the operation. One of the easiest and quickest ways to do that is to clip off the end of one toe.
+All my capons have a stub inside one on the left foot. The style of making this matter of individual choice. You can use one of the 25-cent chicken markers with which to punch a hole or two through the web between two toes; or you might use wire rings, or any other of the various devices. A stub toe, however, suits my purpose as well as anything. Put your knife blade across the end of toe to be amputated, with knife point down upon the table, and then with a quick more press down the handle of the knife, like a lever, and thus clip off the end toe. It seems to make no particular difference to the fowl, either at the time that it is done or afterwards.
+
+Of course, you must never kill a bird. When in removing the testicle you rupture a big blood vessel, the bird will die under your hands, usually in less than ten minutes. In that case, chop his head off, if you so prefer, and have a fine spring-chicken dinner. Accidents of this kind, however, should not occur. I have seen many open-topped battery fowls, even with the breeder. But if they do occur there is no loss, as the bird has its full value for table use. A capon that comes out alive after the operation, is "out of the woods," and complete recovery is swift.
+
+VII.
+THE AFTER TREATMENT.
+
+HOW TO HASTEN THE HEALING PROCESS.
+
+M
+Y elaborate description of the whole operation is so explicit and logical that many of my readers imagine that the capon is in bad shape when he comes from the operating table. This a mistake. The testicles are not a vital part. Their removal is of little consequence so far as the bird's health and vitality are concerned; only difference it makes is in regard to the sexual development of the male. The testicles which envelope the Intestines is not a vital part. The holes which we have torn into it are an injury which amounts to almost nothing. The only real injuries inflicted, therefore, are the two incisions, and these are merely flesh wounds of the simplest character, and by no means serious. The skin having slipped back, the two incisions will be seen running between the ribs; the cut in the skin, and that in the flesh, on each side, cannot well be in more favorable shape for rapid healing. There is no need of sewing the edges of the wound together, or using any kind of salve, or plaster, or wash. Just trust in nature; boss physician, and you will not be disappointed.
+
+At the beginning of the coponizing season, I put up what I call my "capon hospital." This is simply a space on one side of the barn containing, say, three or four square feet of floor surface to each capon, and covered with a
+
+Capon Hospital
+
+**RELIEVING WIND-PUFF.**
+
+low roof as a protection from rain and sun, and tightly enclosed with wire netting. Inside is a coop in which the convalescent fowls spend the nights. A box in one corner is kept well supplied with soft food (brain and meal moistened with skim-milk), and a box in the other corner contains the water, which should be fresh at all times. The attendants to the in-
+structors tell us to feed lightly at first; others advise giving all the food that the birds will eat. I usually have tried to keep the box supplied with food all the time, but it is a hard task, for the birds have a keen appetite and eat a great deal. Just as soon as a capon is put into the "hospital," and once gets over his first shock, he begins to gorge all his food which he has just experienced, and at once proceeds to fill his crop. It is well to keep the birds confined in close quarters for at least eight days after the operation. Many of them "wind-puff" badly, a lot of air gathering under the outside wing-feather, making it appear puffed-up appearance and probably causing much incon-
+venience. I usually look the confined birds over once a day, and give speedy relief where needed by pricking the puffed-up skin with the point of a keen pen-knife. All of the birds do not heed this attention; either wind-puff right along for a short or so,
+and then free themselves to go about their per usual. Usually you can tell by the appearance, and always by the feeling, whether there is wind-puff and cause for treatment. In consequence of this confinement, of the treatment and of their voracious appetite, the capons become exceedingly tame and tractable.
+
+On some occasions I have given the capon his full
+
+40
+CAPONS FOR PROFIT.
+
+liberty right after the operation, letting him run, feed and roost with the rest of the fowls. Neither this liberty, nor the dry (grain) feed, nor want of prompt attention, when wind-puffed, seemed to re-
+tard his perfect convalescence. If I noted an es-
+pecially puffed-up specimen, I would perhaps cast a bit of linseed oil into his relief with the knife.
+Still, I believe it is a good plan to keep the birds confined for from eight to ten days, giving soft food and proper attention otherwise. The straw, leaves or soft earth on the floor of the "hospital" should, for the sake of cleanliness, be often renewed.
+
+When the period of convalescence (eight or ten days) is over, they are allowed out to roost. They will not wander off very far, but stay most of the time near where they are accustomed to get their regular rations. At night I drive them into the
+<watermark>capon house.</watermark>
+"capon house," a warm stall with low
+roosts, regularly cleaned and disinfected. Capons do not like to talk much about their roosting place. I try to keep my hen and capons apart at night, hen house and capon house being only separated by the width of the barn. But when a capon happens to be nearer the hen roost at the time he wants to retire for the night, he forgets where his place is, and unhesitatingly takes lodg-
+ing in her house. On one occasion I had one capon safety crowd two or three times as many capons into a building as hens. Crowded hens will not lay well. Crowded capons eat and grow just as fast as they would otherwise.
+
+VIII.
+
+FEEDING FOR MARKET.
+HOW TO OBTAIN BEST RESULTS AT LEAST COST.
+
+THE chief aim, from the time the bird is capen-
+ted to the time of sale or slaughter, should be to produce the heaviest possible weight, and for this reason a liberal supply of flesh-forming food should be given. During the summer and earlier fall months I feed mostly bran slightly mixed with corn meal and moistened with skim-milk or butter-milk, and whole wheat. Corn is not a proper food for birds, but some variation is provided for by giving an equal part of beans, peas, buckwheat and oats. My fowls have free range, and find good pasture on the lawn and in a piece of rye and rape sown for this very purpose close to the barn. Grasshoppers, bugs, worms, table-scrapes, etc., all help to make the crop and to produce carnation-like veal. The water is kept supplied with skim-milk almost all the time.
+
+All quick growing animals have good appetites, and young capons seem to be always hungry. Notwithstanding their tendency to laziness, they are good foragers.
+
+The problem of profitable feeding during the sum-
+
+<page_number>42</page_number>
+
+CAPONS FOR PROFIT.
+
+mer and early fall, indeed during all mild and open weather, is comparatively an easy one to solve.
+Fowls on free range find so much to pick up in nice warm weather that small additional rations of grain will suffice to keep them in good growing condition.
+The natural advantages seem to me all in favor of that climate which allows fowls to go out on pasture throughout the year, but I am afraid that if I were to make my chief business to raise "capons for profit," I think I would try to locate in a country with mild, dry, open winters, and on dry sandy soil.
+With us at the north the problem of feeding capons grows in degree of complication and difficulty with the severity of the winter. When we aim for largest size in capons, we must feed them until they are about one year old.
+
+Winter Feeding: old. Usually there is little demand in our markets for capons until February or March. Before that time they would not bring much higher prices than ordinary fowls. After that time their price ranges from 16 cents per pound up to 30 cents per pound. In short, there is no possible size of fowl, and largest possible price per pound, have to keep the capons all winter and perhaps far into the spring. Now anybody who has ever wintered fowls on purchased food, knows that they eat a great deal, and that the bills for grain, even when bought at the lowest price, cost corn 50 cents a bushel, soon run up to a large amount.
+
+The trouble is that many people think grain is the only, or even chief poultry food. This is an error. Exclusive grain diet is not only expensive, but also unnatural and unsatisfy. It may do well for a week,
+
+<img>A page from a book titled "CAPONS FOR PROFIT." The page number is 42.</img>
+
+CHEAP FEEDING. <page_number>43</page_number>
+
+when fowls are being fattened to slaughter, but if long continued, it will surely clog the system, make fowls over-fat, and in the end injure their general health and well-being. It should be understood that the tendency in capons, especially in cold and stormy weather when kept in enclosed idleness, is to grow and lay considerably without excessive feeding though they can get food freely.
+
+What is needed, in the first place, is a cheap, bulky material that will fill the fowls' crops, taking the place of the grass and leaves of bulky Food. summer. Then we want a little moderate amount of grain to add substance and warmth to the diet. This is best found scattered about in the open season, and finally, something in place of bugs and worms.
+
+The bulky material is best and most cheaply supplied in chopped vegetables and chopped clover hay. Every fall I store a lot of beets, carrots, turnips, kohlrabi, etc., in a cellar, and cabbage in the barn or outbuilding for the winterizing of these vegetables for winter poultry feed. Cabbage is for the most part simply thrown into the hen or capon houses as needed. Roots of all kinds, also small potatoes and apples, are chopped up in a plank box with a sharp spade, then (sometimes slightly mashed) spread on the floor of the hen or capon state. In cold weather a meal of beets, turnips, carrots, pumpkins, squashes, small potatoes and peelings of all kinds cooked in a big kettle, and stirred up with bran to a thick, crumbly mass are greatly relished by all fowls as a warm breakfast. Chopped clover hay, and the chopped leaves of
+
+<page_number>44</page_number>
+CAPONS FOR PROFIT.
+
+corn stalks, are scalded, sprinkled with bran, and then fed warm. In short, with materials of this kind we can keep the birds' crops well filled at a very small cost.
+But one can make this food even much richer at little additional expense. Green bones, with more or less meat on them, are a waste product of butcher shops. The proprietors usually throw away some- body's corpse to get it away. At any rate the rich- est (and when fed in reasonable limit) best of all poultry foods can be had at a very slight expense. It is a most excellent substitute for the bugs and worms of summer. It is a pity so much of it is wasted.
+The question only arises how we can get the hard bones, and the tough gristle, and other fleshly mat-
+ter fine enough for fowls to eat. The often-advertised $5.00 bone mills will not grind green bones. Two ways are open for us to utilize these waste products. They can be softened by steaming under high pres-
+
+<img>A hand-operated bone grinder.</img>
+
+CUTTING BONES 45
+
+Sure. It might pay us to get a steam cooker suited for the purpose. On the whole, Building Bones and Vegetables. However, I believe that it is pre-
+ferable to cut bones, gristle, flesh, etc., with one of the cutters now especially designed for that purpose. The accompanying illustration shows how these machines work. They do not grind, but will cut or shave any of the materials named in pieces fine enough for fowls to eat. It is manufactured by Webster & Hannan, Cazenovia, N. Y., and sells for $12. I think this is a good machine for people who keep a moderate number of fowls. Where many hundreds have to be fed, a machine of this kind would be very useful.
+
+Now and then a little grain—wheat, oats, brock-
+wheat, etc., should be given, and the evening meal should always consist of whole grain, chiefly of corn in very cold weather. If plenty of the cheaper and more bulky food is given, four quarts of whole grain will feed a dozen hens well during the winter.
+
+That fresh water should at all times be kept within reach of the birds need hardly be expressly stated. They should have no chance to drink out of stagnant pools in the barn-yard. Another thing needful is a free and continuous supply of sharp grit. I do not think that there is anything superior to ground oyster shells or ground corn for peas size or smaller, although ground oyster shells or sand con-
+taining coarser particles will answer.
+
+This grit is as necessary for satisfactory results as food. Without the required grit food cannot be properly digested, and a large part of it will be wasted.
+
+IX
+
+THE CAPONS IN MARKET.
+
+HOW TO KILL, DRESS AND PACK THEM.
+
+T
+HE first thing is to decide about the market.
+Have some understanding with a good com-
+mission house in the city, or with a large hotel or
+retail establishment, where your capons will be
+received from your buyer or middleman. Keep the
+birds in confinement at least twenty-four hours be-
+fore killing, entirely withholding food and water.
+You want their crops to be entirely empty.
+
+You need a thin-bladed, sharp-pointed knife, the
+regular French killing knife which retails for 50
+cents, but which is generally worth more than that. For
+killing and dressing purposes arrange a cool, well-
+shaded shed. Fasten two pieces of strong twine to
+a beam overhead, say a foot apart, and let the lower
+ends, each of which has a "slipping noose," hang down within three or four feet from the ground, or just at proper height,
+to be most convenient for the capon. Then place
+one of the capon's legs in each of the nooses, letting
+his legs hang downward. Then holding the knife in the right hand, take hold of the bird's head with
+the left, and open his bill widely. If the light shines
+
+DRESSING THE BIRD. <page_number>47</page_number>
+
+well into the throat, you may quite plainly see the big jugular vein on each side. Insert the point of the knife, and sever these blood vessels by a quick cut across. The blood will at once follow the knife, and flow freely in two big streams. Without further delay run the point of the knife through the roof of the mouth clear into the brain. The bird now becomes dead, but it still retains some sense of feeling. Just at this time, also, the feathers fall off quite easily, and no time should be lost. Suspend a two pound weight attached to a hook from the bird's lower bill. Of course you are clad in old clothes, and ready for the muss. Take good hold of the bird, and strip off the feathers as quickly as possible.
+
+Bowing the Birds.
+The head and neck (hackle-feathers) all the tail feathers, with a few feathers up towards the back, and the long feathers on the hips close to tail, also the feathers on the legs half way up the "drumsticks." Be careful not to tear the skin.
+
+This peculiar style of dressing is a kind of trade-mark, and serves to distinguish the capon at once from any other fowl in market. The head, with its shrunken or non-developed comb and wattles, should always be left on the bird. Remove all traces of dirt from the head and mouth by careful washing with cold water.
+
+A table should be on hand upon which to dress the bird, also a trough or box without ends and cover, just large enough to hold him in best position, back downward, for the removal of the intestines. Carefully cut around the vent, and pull out the
+
+<page_number>48</page_number>
+
+CAPONS FOR PROFITE
+
+inestines. You will find a heavy layer of fat around the opening, and the intestines covered with it. As you pull out the intestines, push the fat back into the bird, and when you come to the end of the in-
+testines push your finger up into the body, along the intestines, and separate them from the gizzard, leaving everything else inside the bird. The layer of fat on the bird should be turned slightly out-
+ward and thus allowed to cool and harden. The
+bird will look all the better for it. Then hang him
+up in a cool place. When thoroughly cold he will
+be ready for boxing and marketing.
+
+New, clean boxes should be used for shipping capons. Packing, however, must not be neglected to make the packages as well as the capons look neat and attractive. Line the boxes with clean white paper. Printed paper should never be used. Pack the birds down in layers, backs up, as solidly as can be, yet without bruising. You will have no diffi-
+culty in finding a market for nice, large, fat, well-
+dressed and well-packed capons at acceptable and
+profitable prices.
+
+<img>Signature</img>
+
+X.
+
+ODDS AND ENDS.
+TURKEYS AS INCUBATORS AND CAPONS AS BROODERS.
+
+THERE are a few people who make a success of hatching eggs and bringing up chicks by artificial methods. Most of these men will find it easier and safer to stick to Mother Nature's good old ways. It will not be a new thing to many of my readers when I tell them that a turkey hen can be utilized as an incubator. She can be made to sit at any time of the year, and for an almost indefinite length of time. We want early chicks, but cannot always succeed in getting them, simply by cause our hens do not get broody Turkey hen as brooders. The turkey hen then comes as a Deus ex machina. A writer in Country Gentleman gives the following directions how to manage her: Select a turkey hen as soon as she has laid her first nest, which put in a number of eggs, either china or ordinary eggs filled with plaster of Paris. Place the turkey upon the nest, and cover her with a barrel, preferably one made for sugar, as it is lined with blue paper. This excludes the light; darkness
+
+50
+CAPONS FOR PROFIT.
+
+is necessary. Leave the hen to her meditations for 94 or 30 hours, or longer, after which time she will sit contentedly for two months, leaving the nest only for food and drink. Take away the artificial eggs, and put those under you wish for chickens. When these are hatched, remove the young birds and replace with fresh eggs.*
+
+Now we will press the capon into service, making him serve as a model. The writer already quoted, says in the same journal: "Choose a large, fine capon, not too young. Envelop his head in your hand, and puff into his mouth and gills smoke from a tobacco pipe, the stronger the pipe the better. Shake the cock's head gently until he is asleep five or six times until the bird seems unconscious; then place him on the young chickens and set the box in a dark corner for some six or eight hours, or until the next morning, when this hypnotized capon will carry and care for these young birds like a hen. In my hands this has proved eminently successful, and I commend the process to all."
+
+<img>Image of a hand holding a small object.</img>
+
+Poultrymen!
+
+Green cut bones will make more eggs than any food known to man. Bone on CUT BONE will nearly double the egg yield in two weeks. We have the best, cheapest and most practical Bone Grinders ever pro-
+duced. Highest Award and Medal at World's Fair. Also first premium at New York State Fair, Western State Fair, Western State Fair and scores of local fairs. Get our circulars, prices, &c., &c.
+
+Pure, Raw Limestone Grit
+
+for fowls, is the best grit known. It contains lime and sharp corners to do the grinding. We fur-
+nish this grit $1.00 per 10 lbs. Get a sample from us, which only costs two-cent stamp.
+
+Webster & Hannum,
+Cazenovia, N. Y.
+
+A Perfect Caponizing Set,
+
+PRICE, - $2.50.
+
+Just such a combination of tools as I wanted, and as I think the beginner needs, was not in the market, so I have had a lot made to order for my special purposes. Every tool in the set is made of the very best material, and all, to avoid expense, are put up in a plain box. The set contains
+
+<table>
+  <tr>
+    <td>1-Knife.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>2-Spreader.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>3-Probe.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>4-Canula.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>5-Nippers.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>6-Wire.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+This set will be sent post-paid to any address on receipt of $2.50. Remit by Postal or Express Money Order, or in Registered Letter to
+
+T. GRIEINER,
+LA SALLE, N.Y.
+
+LEADING BOOKS
+
+BY T. GREINER.
+
+HOW TO MAKE THE GARDEN PAY.
+Printed in clear type. Handsomely bound in cloth, 272 pages, 6 x 9 inches. Price, $2.00.
+
+THE NEW ONION CULTURE.
+Third revised and enlarged edition. Copiously Illustrated. It gives all the details of the new method by which 2,000 bushels are easily grown on one acre, as soon bushels in the old way. This system makes onions growing both at the North and South a certain success. Price, $3.00.
+
+PRACTICAL FARM CHEMISTRY.
+Tells all about manure and manure application, how money can be saved in the purchase and mode in the application of fertilizers. Part I—The raw materials of plant food, Part II—the available sources of supply. Part III—Principles of economic application. 163 pages. Elegantly bound in cloth. Price, $1.00.
+
+LIBERAL DISCOUNT ALLOWED TO THE TRADE.
+Remit price in Registered Letter, Express Money Order, Postal Note, or Post-office Money Order to
+
+T. GREINER, La Salle, N. Y.
+
+The leading work on gardening. Finely Illustrated.
+
+<img>White background with a faint, horizontal line running across the middle.</img>

Books_for_Boys_and_Girls/ladies_fancy_work_1885.md

@@ -0,0 +1,361 @@
+INSTRUCTIONS
+
+FANCY WORK
+
+Copyright 1895 by A. F. Phelps.
+
+PRICE 35 CENTS.
+
+THE PHELPS PUBLISHING COMPANY,
+SPRINGFIELD, MASS.
+
+# INGALLS' MANUAL OF FANCY WORK
+
+## COLORS OF FLOWERS.
+
+A NEW EDITION of this Manual of Embroidery, designed especially for the use of Ladies, Housekeepers, Factory Workers, Teachers, Artists, Designers, Artists, Ladies, Housekeepers, Factory Workers, Teachers, Artists, Designers, Artists, Ladies, Housekeepers, Factory Workers, Teachers, Artists, Designers, Artists, Ladies, Housekeepers, Factory Workers, Teachers, Artists, Designers, Artists, Ladies, Housekeepers, Factory Workers, Teachers, Artists, Designers, Artists, Ladies, Housekeepers, Factory Workers, Teachers, Artists, Designers, Artists, Ladies, Housekeepers, Factory Workers, Teachers, Artists, Designers, Artists, Ladies, Housekeepers, Factory Workers, Teachers, Artists, Designers, Artists, Ladies, Housekeepers, Factory Workers, Teachers, Artists, Designers, Artists, Ladies, Housekeepers, Factory Workers, Teachers, Artists, Designers, Artists.
+
+This New Edition has 300 Pages of Patterns,
+and 150 Designs for KENSINGTON EMBROIDERY,
+ARTISTIC NEEDLE WORK; etc.
+It contains 100 Designs for Needlework
+Scott Kensington; Online; Satin; Feather;
+Corded; Chain; Purl; Chain; Purl; Chain;
+Home; Jemima; Woven; Knot; Chain; Dotted;
+Hole; Falling; Corded; Chain; Purl; Chain;
+Purl; Chain; Purl; Chain; Purl; Chain;
+Purl; Chain; Purl; Chain; Purl; Chain;
+Purl; Chain; Purl; Chain; Purl; Chain;
+Purl; Chain; Purl; Chain; Purl; Chain;
+Purl; Chain; Purl; Chain; Purl; Chain;
+Purl; Chain; Purl; Chain; Purl; Chain;
+Purl; Chain; Purl; Chain; Purl; Chain;
+Purl; Chain; Purl; Chain; Purl; Chain;
+Purl; Chain; Purl; Chain; Purl; Chain;
+Purl; Chain; Purl; Chain; Purl; Chain;
+Purl; Chain; Purl; Chain; Purl; Chain;
+Purl; Chain; Purl; Chain; Purl; Chain;
+Purl; Chain; Purl; Chain; Purl; Chain;
+Purl; Chain; Purl; Chain; Purl; Chain;
+Purl; Chain; Purl; Chain; Purl; Chain;
+Purl; Chain; Purl; Chain; Purl;
+
+Price $2.50 postpaid
+
+## KENSINGTON EMBROIDERY AND THE COLORS OF FLOWERS.
+
+This Book also contains ILLUSTRATIONS and A CIRCULAR DISCUSSION OF THE EFFECT
+OF COLOR ON THE EYE AND THE EFFECT OF COLOR ON THE MIND.
+
+The Book is illustrated with 150 Designs for KENSINGTON EMBROIDERY and the 150 Designs for FANCY NEEDLEWORK.
+
+Price $2.50 postpaid
+
+## INGALLS' HANDBOOK OF CROCHET AND KNITTED LACE.
+
+In this Book are made THINNES and LAMBERGERS with TWINE and RIBBON. Instructions are given for making THINNES and LAMBERGERS with Twine and Ribbon. Instructions are given for making THINNES and LAMBERGERS with Twine and Ribbon. Instructions are given for making THINNES and LAMBERGERS with Twine and Ribbon. Instructions are given for making THINNES and LAMBERGERS with Twine and Ribbon. Instructions are given for making THINNES and LAMBERGERS with Twine and Ribbon. Instructions are given for making THINNES and LAMBERGERS with Twine and Ribbon. Instructions are given for making THINNES and LAMBERGERS with Twine and Ribbon. Instructions are given for making THINNES and LAMBERGERS with Twine and Ribbon. Instructions are given for making THINNES and LAMBERGERS with Twine and Ribbon. Instructions are given for making THINNES and LAMBERGERS with Twine and Ribbon. Instructions are given for making THINNES and LAMBERGERS with Twine and Ribbon. Instructions are given for making THINNES and LAMBERGERS with Twine and Ribbon. Instructions are given for making THINNES and LAMBERGERS with Twine and Ribbon. Instructions are given for making THINNES and LAMBERGERS with Twine and Ribbon. Instructions are given for making THINNES and LAMBERGERS with Twine and Ribbon. Instructions are given for making THINNES and LAMBERGERS with Twine and Ribbon. Instructions are given for making THINNES and LAMBERGERS with Twine and Ribbon. Instructions are given for making THINNES and LAMBERGERS with Twine and Ribbon. Instructions are given for making THINNES and LAMBERGERS with Twine and Ribbon. Instructions are given for making THINNES and LAMBERGERS with Twine and Ribbon. Instructions are given for making THINNES and LAMBERGERS with Twine and Ribbon. Instructions are given for making THINNES and LAMBERGERS with Twine and Ribbon. Instructions are given for making THINNES and LAMBERGERS with Twine and Ribbon. Instructions are given for making THINNES and LAMBERGERS with Twine and Ribbon. Instructions are given for making THINNES and LAMBERGERS with Twine and Ribbon. Instructions are given for making THINNES and LAMBERGERS with Twine and Ribbon. Instructions are given for making THINNES and LAMBERGERS with Twine and Ribbon. Instructions are given for making THINNES and LAMBERGERS with Twine and Ribbon. Instructions are given for making THINNES and LAMBERGERS with Twine and Ribbon. Instructions are given for making THINNES and LAMBERGERS with Twine and Ribbon. Instructions are given for making THINNES and LAMBERGERS with Twine and Ribbon. Instructions are given for making THINNES and LAMBERGERS with Twine and Ribbon. Instructions are given for making THINNES and LAMBERGERS with Twine and Ribbon. Instructions are given for making THINNES AND LAMBERGER WITH TWINE AND RIBBON.
+
+Price $2.50 postpaid
+
+## WORSTED & CROSS STITCH PATTERNS.
+
+This Book contains 150 Designs of WORSTED & CROSS STITCH PATTERNS.
+
+Price $2.50 postpaid
+
+## DARNED LACE PATTERNS.
+
+One book of DARNED LACE PATTERNS includes 60 Designs of Darned Lace Patterns.
+They can be used to make Thimbles (Thimbles), Spatulas (Spoons), Shoes (Shoes) (Special Order). Shipping is extra.
+
+Price $2.50 postpaid
+
+## MACRAME LACE & RICK-RACK.
+
+A book of Patterns illustrating the Making of MACRAME LACE & RICK-RACK TRIM
+for use on Home Decorations such as Bedspreads (Bedspreads), Curtains (Curtains),
+and Needle Lace (Needle Lace) is included in this Book.
+The Trim Can Be Used on Fancy Work (Fancy Work), Cover of Center Plate (Center Plate)
+and other Items.
+Shipping is extra.
+Price $2.50 extra per item
+
+Address all Orders to J. F. INGALLS., - No. 29 Munroe Street, Lynn Mass.
+
+We send this Manual by mail at 18 Uncut stamps 4 for $1.00.
+
+<img>Kensington Embroidery cover page</img>
+
+LADIES' FANCY WORK.
+
+--- ANNOUNCEMENT ---
+
+BY a special arrangement with J. F. INGALLS, the leading publisher of Ladies' Fancy Work Books, we are able to present to our subscribers this beautiful Book of Fancy Work. We hope it will give you much pleasure and useful information. By reading the advertisements on the cover pages, you will see that J. F. INGALLS has a large variety of Fancy Work Books, Stamping Patterns, stamping Outfits, Stamped Felt and Linen Goods, and Fancy Work Materials that he furnishes at popular prices. When ordering any goods advertised in this book be sure and send your orders direct to J. F. INGALLS, Publisher, Lynn, Mass.
+
+PRICE, -- THIRTY-FIVE CENTS.
+
+Copyright, 1885, by J. F. INGALLS.
+Published for the PHELPS PUBLISHING COMPANY,
+SPRINGFIELD, MASS.
+
+COPYRIGHTED, 1885.
+
+LADIES' FANCY WORK.
+
+In presenting this book to our subscribers our object has been to cover as much ground as we could, and to give a larger variety of Fancy Work Patterns and Instructions than is given in any Fancy Work Book that has been published. This book contains Patterns and Instructions for Kensington Embroidery, Artistic Needle Work, Out- e Embroidery, Knitting Patterns, Crochet Patterns, Darned Lace Patterns, Macrame Lace Patterns, Rick-Rack Trimming, Worsted Cross-Stitch Patterns, etc. We give below a partial list of the contents: Terms used in Knitting, Terms used in Crocheting, Descriptive List of the Foundation Fabrics used in Fancy Work, including Cloth Fabrics, Rug Materials, Silk, Java, Panama, Railroad, Worsted Net, Mummy, Ida and Congress Canvas; also Descriptive List of the Working Materials, including Germantown, Berlin and Fancy Woolen, Crewel, Zephyr, Silk Materials, Chenille, Aracine, Gold and Silver Thread, Osskdale Twin, etc.; Illustrated Description of Stitches, including South Kensington, Out- e Satin, Feather, Cross Point, Persian Text Tapestry, Star Renaissance Stitches from Paris, including Diamond, Perled Diamond, Millet Point, Spanish Point, Feather, Twisted Wheels Rosette and Wicker Stitches; also Point Ease and Snow Flake Stitches for Crazy Patchwork; Instructions for Kensington Painting; also for Hand Painting; all Instructions for Stamping; including Directions for Making the Powder and Paint used for Stamping. A large variety of Fancy Work Patterns, including Antique and Grecian Crochet Edging, Patchwork Patterns, Decorated Band for Fancy Work, Fan Pin Cushion. Design for Piano Cover; some fine Darned Lace Patterns. Design for Tidy or Mat. Outline embroidery Patterns. Ladies' Work Bag. Quilt of Silk Patchwork. Macrame Lace Patterns. Table Scarf. Whisk Broom Holder. Banner Lamp Shade, etc.
+We hope each of our subscribers will find much in this book to benefit them.
+
+<img>Diagram showing a crochet stitch with a chain stitch around it.</img>
+TERMS USED IN CROCHET.
+Chain Stitch—Chain stitch begins all work, and continues to draw the thread through until the chain is long enough.
+Short Stitch—Keep one loop on the needle, put the thread into the stitch and draw the thread through it and the hoop at the same time. Now take another loop on the needle, and draw the thread through it and then put the thread over and draw through both loops together.
+Long Crochet—Put the thread over needle before you put it into the work, draw the thread through work, then thread over and through two loops, and again thread over and through two loops.
+Open Crochet—Make one long crochet, then one short stitch, and omit one loop, and make another long crochet into next stitch.
+
+TERMS USED IN KNITTING.
+To Cast On.—The first interlacement of the cotton on the needle.
+To Cast Off.—To knit 2 stitches, and to pass over the second, and so on to the last stitch, which is to be secured by drawing the thread through.
+To Cast Over.—To bring the cotton forward round the needle.
+To Narrow.—To lessen by bringing two stitches together.
+To Seam.—To knit a stitch with the cotton below the needle.
+To Knit.—To knit a stitch by passing round the needle the cotton round the needle, and knitting the same when it occurs.
+A Plain Row.—That composed of simple knitting.
+To Purl.—To knit with the cotton beneath the needle.
+To Break a Row.—To break off a plain row of knitting.
+A Loop Stitch—Made by bringing the cotton before the needle, which in knitting the succeeding stitch will again take its own place.
+To Work a Sitch.—To change from one needle to the other without knitting it.
+When it is requisite to cast off, and continue a row on separate needles, run a coarse thread through the cast off stitches, as they are easily taken up when required. —Household.
+
+CRAZY PILLOW.
+A crazy or autograph pillow is a piece of common cotton canvas, the size you want your pillow, which you pass around among your friends, asking them to sign their names upon it. The owner can use her name anywhere and anywhere she chooses, and when all have worked, the owner fills it in, and finishes it the same as any other sofa pillow. Some nice patterns for crazy pillows will be found in our book of 100 Windowed Cross-Stitch Patterns: price 25 cents by mail.
+
+DESIGN FOR A PIANO COVER OR TABLE CLOTH.
+
+This engraving represents a very handsome design for a table spread, piano cover or stand cloth. The model shown here is made entirely of canvas, but copies can be made on gauze or wood canvas, with a rich, gold-colored border, which is probabily as effective a combination as can be suggested. However, individuals may find the prevailing tint in a room where such a cloth is to be used, will require other combinations. It is not necessary to use canvas, as cloth, felt or Canton flannel may be preferred; but the meshes of the canvas are so fine that they give a more pleasing effect than the pattern with regularity of stitch. The work is all done in a long back-stitch, or sort of Kensington stitch, and is extremely effective.
+
+Stitches and Foundation Fabrics.
+
+A list and explanation of the fabrics and working ma- terials used in embroidering fancy articles, hangings, coverlets, etc., with illustrations of various stitches. With the exception of two or three, the stitches are all variations of the cross-stitch, and are generally familiar, although there are some which have been considered a matter of mystery. The Alpha of all stitches is probably the "Gobelin," or "tapestry" stitch, but it is one which should be avoided at first by the beginner, for various reasons. We will proceed to describe the ordinary stitches.
+
+<img>A black-and-white illustration of a design for a piano cover or table cloth.</img>
+DESIGN FOR A PIANO COVER OR TABLE CLOTH.
+
+**FOUNDATION FABRICS.**
+
+In commerce, the word "canvas" embraces certain varieties of fabric, each with the same predominant characteristics of permitting regular cross or single stitches to be made upon it in every direction. Of late years, however, the term has been applied to fabrics decidedly desirable, on account of its texture and width, which renders it suitable for piano and table covers. We refer to
+
+**PLAIN WORSTED CANVAS.**
+
+This canvas is woven of thick wood threads in the ordinary manner, two threads being used for each stitch, and the warp being drawn through a co-estitch. It is generally worked in silk, crepe, or jersey, and is not suited for use as a piano cover, but is well adapted for table-covers, selected for furniture or piano spreads. It comes in all shades of red, blue, buff, etc., as well as in black, and occasionally in white. Its width varies from 50 inches to 60 inches, and is half a yard, three-quarters, one yard, and a yard and a half.
+
+**DILK CANVAS.**
+
+This canvas is always used for fine work, which is inspection rather than for service, although now and then the sweetmeat selects it for their own use. It is very durable and strong, and in this capacity it does very good service, probably from the unfrequency with which it is used. It is used for table-covers, for curtains, for draperies and beds, or in either alone, and is used for glove and kerchief boxes, cases for spectacles and other articles of a similar nature, especially for bracket humpbrows. It comes in black, white and various tints, and requires no "filling" after the design is worked, being a sufficiently handsome fabric in itself.
+
+**JAVA CANVAS.**
+
+This variety comes in cotton and linen, and includes the worsted canvas before mentioned. The warp consists of two finer, two are woven together so that four of the warp and four of the wool make the square stitch. This gives great strength to the material by its interlacing shades, colors and widths, and is used for tables, mats, soft-pouffes, slippers, covers for shoes, bags for brushes, shoes, etc.
+
+**PANAMA CANVAS.**
+
+This fabric is straw-colored and straw-like in texture, and forms beautiful fancy articles for the table, such as baskets, mats, card-cases, etc. It is generally used with silk or crepe or silk.
+
+**HONEYCOMB CANVAS.**
+
+This is a cotton canvas familiar to almost every one from the resemblance it bears to canvas to honeycomb, except that the mesh is square instead of round. The warp threads are single worsted run under the threads forming the square or meshes. The worsted run in fur under the border is cut off or looped up at some distance from the edge of the cloth. It is used principally for table-covers for buns and washstands.
+
+**RAILROAD OR RAY CANVAS.**
+
+This is a stiff linen and cotton fabric; in black or white; and woven in a broad pattern of squares or diamonds; suitable to work with; and may be filled in for a background or lined. Cross and star stitches are principally used for it; but it can be worked in the same way as honey-comb canvas. It is used for tables and soft pillows.
+
+**MUMNY CANVAS.**
+
+This is a new variety presenting the same surface as regular mumny cloth; except that it is worked in close irregular-meshed meshes of worsted thread; which makes it more durable than any other canvas on this canvas; and therefore it is not advisable for beginners. It is worked with single worsted threads only; but if desired to give a different color it is the natural linen tint; and the fabric may be worked with silk or crepe or silk.
+
+**14 CANVAS.**
+
+This is a new unbleached linen canvas, which is woven in loose meshes that look as if they had once been embroidered and then had been washed out again; but they are still strong enough to be used as well as also preferred to the Jaws for all purposes. It is worked with single worsted threads only; but if desired to give a different color it is given for this canvas; which like the wool and mumny canvas; is also largely used for table and stand spreads.
+
+CONGRESS CANVAS.
+For delicate tides, covers, etc., to be done in fine crewel, floss or
+fillette, this canvas is at the present time the favorite. Although it is
+very easily wrought, being made of a material which is very easy to
+handle, yet it is not without the stiffness of and with the
+transparency natural to the latter fabric. It is ornamented in stripes,
+12, is hoisted through the middle, and one of another color at each side,
+and at the center is bordered, with fancy stitches in gay colors.
+The following are some of the varieties of this canvas:
+SILK, or with both combined. There are several varieties, such as
+brocaded, mammy cloth, felt and French flannel, which latter is only
+an artificial rendering of the chintz-like Canton or cotton flannel.
+Several other varieties are also used. The most popular of these
+fings are all made from these materials, which are soft in texture, rich
+in color and light in weight. They are all made in various sizes and
+are chosen. All the oldies, old gold, asthetic reds and antique blues
+and plums are used. The colors are all bright and gay. Some of these fabrics, and the latter are principally of an oldie, silk gold or red color.
+
+RUG MATERIALS
+
+Sackcloth—better known as cloth-camping — has a thick,
+course, unembroidered canvas generally selected for rugs. Berlin or
+German towels and double zephyrs are the embroidering materials.
+The latter are used for borders and edges. The former are used for
+ing and sewed on, or may be crocheted along the edge. Cross and
+side stitches are used for rugs.
+
+FANCY CANAVES.
+
+Although the two varieties we have to describe are really varieties of the same style, they differ so much that it would be well worth our
+particular attention to them by a separate paragraph. One is the Itha-
+canavé, which is a square of canvas 30 inches by 30 inches, cut into
+square by a Greek pattern that is woven in. The squares are deco-
+rated in any fancy design in cross-and back-stitch, or with appliquéd
+motifs of flowers or leaves, or with embroidery in any manner desired,
+as the taste directs. This canvas is suitable for tables, toilette sets,
+white.
+
+The other is a woven canvas, of which our example is bright can-
+vas. Its squares are one inch and half in size, and are separated or
+joined together by a narrow border of white thread. The squares are worked in either cross-stitch or back-stitch, and in any col-
+ors harmonious with the color of the canvas. For cushions and spreads it is very handsome.
+
+COTTON FABRICS.
+
+Upon regular fabrics all embossed designs have to be stamped, and
+are generally worked in over-underlap or back-stitch, with crewel or
+
+MICELLAIRE'S FABRICS.
+
+In linen there are serins, a stripey like flaxy; for curtains: crack,
+which is made into back cushions, curtains, rugs, spreads and towels;
+for tablecloths: white lace; for bedspreads: white lace; for all other
+any other linen not having a glued finish, which are worked with
+cross-stitch; for blankets: white lace; for all other linens: white lace;
+and all sorts of fancy coverings. Then there are silviettes and fur-
+niture covers worked in cross-stitch. In cotton fabrics all of which find
+a place on the list of fabrics for artistic needle-work and are used for
+any purpose seeming appropriate.
+
+FINE FABRICS.
+
+The silk and velvet fabrics used for elegant rides, and for fans, slip-
+pers, etc., are costly, and require an experienced workwoman to make a success of them. Silk brocades; damask; damask velvets; silk
+fillette; chenille; beads; and gold and silver threads are all neces-
+sary to artistic work, as they are emulated to the closest words and
+canvas.
+
+WORKING MATERIALS.
+The proper kind of needle is one of the first considerations upon the list of
+
+IMPLEMENTS:
+Whether intended for silk or worsted, it should have an eye sufficiently large to allow the strand to pass through easily and without frayng, and yet not so large as to crowd the threads of the fabric. For all purposes of embroidery, the best material is a double, single, and split, containing respectively eight, four and two threads. The double and single are twisted together, while the split is made by dividing each thread into two parts, which are then twisted together. This kind of wool is divided for embroidery. The two strands of split sphyer are twisted as closely as possible, and this wool is used principally for crocheting.
+
+GERMANTOWN AND BERLIN WOOL.
+There is very little difference between these two varieties, each consisting of three strands of very fine wool twined together. A little more firmly bound than the Berlin wool, it is used principally for embroidering berths and canvas-rags, and for knitting stockings.
+
+Shetland wool, which resembles these wool, but is softer than either. A Shetland wool, with which every one is familiar, may also be included under this head, as both are used in knitting shawls.
+
+SAAX WOOL.
+There are two kinds of this wool--the "two-strand" and the "three-strand," each twisted very closely. It comes in all shades, and while it is sometimes used for cross-stitch on canvas tides, etc., it is principally used for crocheting lace, shawls, socks, etc.
+
+Crewel
+Away back in our childhood, crewel was simply penny skeins, or what we now call single needles. Although it worked badly and shrank beautifully, it was not well adapted to artistic work as English crewel, which has been improved by the introduction of a new kind of wool and two closely-twisted strands of a soft and glossy, yet slightly wiry wool. This lustre acts as an agent in shading, so that a leaf or petal drawn gently will show a gradation of light and shade according to the refection of the light. This quality is considered one of its chief characteristics. The crewel is made in various colors for use with silk or satin stitch or a long back-stitch. It comes in all tints of every shade, and is sold by the skein in small quantities and by weight in the larger ones.
+
+Pompon wool comes in shades of green and blue, and in like sphyer, very loosely-woven with a slight twist; a very soft silk or flax.
+The newest thing is "floss" wool, which is extremely handsome, and can be used for all kinds of embroidery work. It is made from metal effect. The latter, of which we have a sample before us, consists of three very fine strands of black wool, each wound with a minute wire around it. The effect is that of a string of very fine rainbow beads. The pale tints are made up of white wool with gold; the darker shades are made up with gilt. Care must be exercised in working it as it will not pass through any but large-meshed canvas. It can be laid on the same cloth with the same effect as satin stitch, and feathered shawls with silk stitches,
+
+ZEPHYR.
+There are three kinds of this familiar wool--double, single and split,
+containing respectively eight, four and two threads. The double and single are twisted together, while the split is made by dividing each thread into two parts, which are then twisted together. This kind of wool is divided for embroidery. The two strands of split sphyer are twisted as closely as possible, and this wool is used principally for crocheting.
+
+GERMANTOWN AND BERLIN WOOL.
+There is very little difference between these two varieties, each consisting of three strands of very fine wool twined together. A little more firmly bound than the Berlin wool, it is used principally for embroidering berths and canvas-rags, and for knitting stockings.
+
+Shetland wool, which resembles these wool, but is softer than either. A Shetland wool, with which every one is familiar, may also be included under this head, as both are used in knitting shawls.
+
+SAAX WOOL.
+There are two kinds of this wool--the "two-strand" and the "three-strand," each twisted very closely. It comes in all shades, and while it is sometimes used for cross-stitch on canvas tides, etc., it is principally used for crocheting lace, shawls, socks, etc.
+
+Crewel
+Away back in our childhood, crewel was simply penny skeins, or what we now call single needles. Although it worked badly and shrank beautifully, it was not well adapted to artistic work as English crewel, which has been improved by the introduction of a new kind of wool and two closely-twisted strands of a soft and glossy, yet slightly wiry wool. This lustre acts as an agent in shading, so that a leaf or petal drawn gently will show a gradation of light and shade according to the refection of the light. This quality is considered one of its chief characteristics. The crewel is made in various colors for use with silk or satin stitch or a long back-stitch. It comes in all tints of every shade, and is sold by the skein in small quantities and by weight in the larger ones.
+
+Pompon wool comes in shades of green and blue, and in like sphyer, very loosely-woven with a slight twist; a very soft silk or flax.
+The newest thing is "floss" wool, which is extremely handsome,
+and can be used for all kinds of embroidery work. It is made from metal effect. The latter, of which we have a sample before us,
+consists of three very fine strands of black wool,
+each wound with a minute wire around it.
+The effect is that of a string of very fine rainbow beads.
+The pale tints are made up of white wool with gold;
+the darker shades are made up with gilt.
+Care must be exercised in working it as it will not pass through any but large-meshed canvas.
+It can be laid on the same cloth with the same effect as satin stitch,
+and feathered shawls with silk stitches,
+<watermark>FANCY WOOL</watermark>
+
+SILK MATERIALS.
+
+Saddler's silk, embroidered silk, floss and bleuette are the four varieties in use. The first is used for the main portion of any design, and may be used for the whole of a design, or for the main part only. Bleuette is a fine, unswirled silk, composed of several strands of very slightly twisted thread. It is sometimes used in place of floss, but is generally used to give a more delicate effect than floss.
+It shades freely, and makes a satiny surface that is very hand-
+some. It tends to dally, like the other varieties.
+
+CHENILLE.
+
+For embroidery, chenille is very fine, and must be cut in short lengths, as it soon pulls out or drawing it repeatedly through any fabric. It is effective for portions of a design, but is not durable for anything that is to receive wear.
+
+ARACINE.
+
+A new material used for working large coarse leaves and flowers, also used in combination with Rococo or Ribbon Work.
+
+GOLD AND SILVER THREADS.
+
+Gold and silver threads come in several varieties, and judiciously used, add a very charming effect to embroidery.
+
+COLORED BEADS.
+
+Colored beads are very effective in embroidery, and may be pur-
+chased as to shade as handily as wood. Aside from these, sev-
+eral varieties of pearl beads together with gold steel and the rainbow
+kind greatly enhance the effect of many patterns.
+
+FLOSS AND CREWELS
+
+Floss and Crewels are used for Kensington Embroidery.
+
+CHENILLES ARE ARACINE.
+
+Chenilles and Aracine are used for Fancies, Sumach, Golden R-J,
+etc., with the same stitch as the Kensington Embroidery.
+
+EMBROIDERY SILK.
+
+Embroidery Silk is used for Flannel Skirts and all kinds of lace work.
+
+ETCHING SILK, EMBROIDERY COTTON AND FINE ART CREWELS
+
+Etching Silk, Embroidery Cotton and Fine Art Crewels are used for Outline Work.
+
+" OAKDALE" TWINE.
+
+Oakdale Twine is used in conjunction with Ribbon for Tidies and Lambroquets. For full information about Twine Tidies see our large Price List of Lace & Ribbon Work.
+
+LINEN AND EMBROIDERY CRASH.
+
+Linen and Embroidery Crash are used for Splashers, Tidies, Tray Cloths, etc.
+
+FELTING.
+
+Felting is used for Table Scarfs, Covers, Tidies, Lambroquets,
+Portieres, etc., great variety of colors.
+
+We furnish all of these goods. See PRICE LIST OF MATERIALS on the Cover of this Book; also on our Large Price List.
+
+<watermark>
+DOOR 6030
+LIBRARY & ARCHIVES
+APR 01
+ST. AUGUSTINE
+FLA
+32084
+</watermark>
+
+<img>A light yellow background with a subtle pattern of circular shapes.</img>

Books_for_Boys_and_Girls/life_questions_of_high_school_boys_1908.md

@@ -0,0 +1,1528 @@
+LIFE QUESTIONS OF HIGH SCHOOL BOYS
+
+BY JEREMIAH W. JENKS, Ph.D., LL.D.
+Professor of Political Economy and Politics, Cornell University
+
+NEW YORK
+YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION PRESS
+1908
+
+Copyright 1968 by
+The International Committee
+Young Men's Christian Associations
+
+CONTENTS
+
+Introduction 7
+
+I. Relation of the High School to Life 13
+
+II. Custom: Habit 23
+
+III. Societies: Cliques: Fraternities 83
+
+IV. Intoxicating Liquors and Tobacco 41
+
+V. Profanity and Slang 51
+
+VI. Lying 59
+
+VII. Cheating and Graft. 67
+
+VIII. Gambling and Betting 75
+
+IX. The Sex Problem 83
+
+X. Attitude Toward Work 91
+
+XI. The Self-Centered Man 99
+
+XII. Social Service in the Community 109
+
+XIII. Politics 119
+
+XIV. Success 127
+
+XV. Religion 135
+
+BOOKS OF REFERENCE
+
+Emerson, Ralph Waldo: Essays.
+Bacon, Lord of Verulam: Essays.
+Bible.
+Matthews, William: Getting On in the World.
+Smiles, Samuel: Self-Help.
+Smiles, Samuel: Character.
+Smiles, Samuel: Duty.
+Lowell, James Russell: Essays.
+
+<page_number>5</page_number>
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+1. These brief outlines of discussions have been prepared at the request of Mr. David R. Porter, secretary of the International Committee of the Young Men's Christian Associations, and to Mr. Porter for some valuable suggestions. The method of treatment has been suggested by thought which have been the outcome of experiences as a boy, as a teacher, and as a father. At this age when most boys are in the period of adolescence, many fundamental moral questions must come before them. They will be thought of; they will be answered. It is of vital importance that they be answered well.
+
+2. Sometimes parents and teachers have thought it best to impose upon young men their opinions, and to attempt to compel them to form right habits under the pressure of fear and punishment. This is foolish, has, relatively speaking, little educative force. At times these questions are ignored, it being thought that so long as the boy is not influenced by pub- lic opinion the right answers will eventually be found. In very many cases this is doubtless true, but we may say that a great waste of energy and often then many sad results follow from ignoring experiences. The only safe way, and even that will not always be effective, is for the boys to think thus those questions for themselves. When, as the result of deliberate consideration, possibly given under suggestive guidance, a boy is once convinced as to what is right and wise and determines
+
+<page_number>7</page_number>
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+that he will follow wisdom and righteousness, there need be little fear for him hereafter. In this course, as far as possible, the attempt has been made to follow out this last plan, and to guide the boys in the way of independent, wise thinking.
+
+3. Not all boys are equally engaged. In addition to their school work not much reading can be expected of boys. A little from the Bible, a little from the classics, and a little from the writers, especially Emerson and Bacon, who are likely to stimulate independent thinking instead of attempting to make them think what they do not understand or are deficient in. On special topics where technical knowledge is required, the selection of reading has been left to the discretion of the leader of the group of boys, who knows best what is most suitable for the development and who can best judge just what should be done.
+
+4. These questions are not primarily religious. In none of these subjects is religion taught in schools formally recognized. It is sometimes forbidden, and no effort should be made to bring in controversial questions which may be considered forbidden. On the other hand it must be recognized, as we do recognize in most of our state constitutions, that religion, and especially the Christian religion, is the foundation of our civil institutions, our morals and in our social life to-day, and that the life of Jesus has affected profoundly the views of western civilization. The boys should learn something about natural law in the lessons. It is well to have the boys find an application of the principles which they obtain from such a study of not merely great religious teachers, but also of the great men in the fields of business and politics.
+
+<page_number>8</page_number>
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+3. Unless some care is taken by the teacher, the boys will discuss these questions of considerable length and will not express their most stimulating ideas without taking the trouble to formulate definiteity their own views. Moreover, unless some thought is given to the fact that the discussion may be discussed thereby perhaps for an hour, but then will be dropped from the minds of the boys. It will probabily be best, therefore, for the leader near the close of the meeting to ask each boy what he thinks that will follow at the next meeting, outline it briefly, ask suggestive questions, and assign more or less formally different parts of the discussion to different boys in the discussion of which they will be expected to take the lead at the next meeting. In this way some phase of the subject will lie in the boy's mind for a week, or even longer, and he will have time to reflect, to talk it over with his friends and relatives, to read about it, and somewhat definitely to formulate his own opinion.
+
+6. In order to secure precision in thinking and to preserve a record of the suggestive thoughts of others, blank sheets of paper should be handed out down their thoughts systematically while preparing for or at the time of the discussions. Such books, laid away perhaps for a period of years, will often prove suggestive when brought up again.
+
+7. It is of prime importance that the leader of the group stand well in the confidence of the boys with whom he works. He must be able to understand all situations. They all touch boys closely. They will talk them over among themselves at any rate. It is much better if the teacher can get them to talk them over freely with him. He should not attempt to
+
+<page_number>9</page_number>
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+force his own opinions upon the boys. He should even, as far as possible, concede to the boys the strength of their arguments when they differ from him. On few of the questions under discussion is there an absolute right or an absolute wrong; and of great importance is the man who seems to him right, is the acquirement by himself as well as by the boys of a tolerant spirit. The man who can secure this tolerance in the minds of the boys and their belief in his fair-mindedness as well as in his goodness of heart, has secured a hold that in the long run will be worth far more than the incen-
+tive of any opinion.
+
+<page_number>10</page_number>
+
+<img>A blank page with a vertical line on the left side.</img>
+
+I
+RELATION OF THE HIGH SCHOOL TO LIFE
+
+"**A boy is better unborn than untaught.**" **Exem-**
+son.
+
+"Provided always the boy is teachable (for we are not proposing to make a statue out of punk), foot-ball, cricket, archery, swimming, skating, climbing, fencing, riding, are lessons in the art of power, which it is his main business to learn." Extracts.
+
+"He that recheth instruction despiseth his own soul; he that hath much reproof getheth understand-ing." Proverbs, 15:3
+
+"Apply thine heart unto instruction, and thine ears to the words of knowledge." Proverbs, 28:12.
+
+**REFERENCES**
+
+Emerson: Culture.
+Mathews: Chap. 5.
+Bacon: Of Youth and Age.
+Matthews: <page_number>14</page_number>
+
+I
+
+RELATION OF THE HIGH SCHOOL TO LIFE
+
+1. The opportunities for securing a good position in business, whether as merchant, lawyer, doctor, farmer, increase with the training of the applicant. Most business men require letters of recommendation from teachers, former employers, or others, who know regarding training and character.
+
+In the Baldwin Locomotive Works at Philadelphia, for example, apprentices are classified in three groups: those who have had a college training; those who have had high school training; those who have had neither; and the wages and the opportunities for advancement depend upon this training.
+
+The chances of success in business increase with the training, either, of course, in lines of business in which much book-learning is not required, the training and discipline is rather that of experience. Mr. Carnegie and Mr. Schwab, for example, are both men of extraordinary ability, either as merchants, either neither had a college training. Both, however, are men of extraordinary ability who have since acquired much literary skill from wide reading. It is interesting to note statistically that the proportion of college men who have made a great success in business is far beyond their proportion in the community at large.
+
+<page_number>13</page_number>
+
+LIFE QUESTIONS
+
+Business men without school training find them-
+selves greatly hampered. I have known skilled civil engineers to go to high school boys to correct their English in preparing bids for contracts, and a successful merchant to ask a college professor to write him out a speech to be delivered before a
+growing crowd.
+
+3. The ease and success of work in college is largely a matter of good preparation. A stu-
+dent's first term in college usually fixes his status through his course, either the absent men, if han-
+dled by the professor, or the present men in the course of time overcome the disadvantages.
+
+4. Note the men in your home community who have the greatest influence and the most respected positions. They are almost all graduates of education. Is not the proportion of educated men of influence far above that of the uneducated, compared with their relative numbers in the com-
+munity?
+
+Be careful, however, not to over-estimate the value of school education. What is the source of influence in the community of the strong men of little school education? Is it wealth? Is it high character? Is it dignity? Is it health?
+
+5. Our enjoyment of life comes largely from the gratification of our tastes. A man who has a taste for literature, or music, or art, or science, has a source of enjoyment that others lack. His life is so much richer.
+
+Why does not a taste for strong drink,
+
+<page_number>16</page_number>
+
+RELATION OF THE HIGH SCHOOL TO LIFE
+
+source of enjoyment unknown to those who lack it, have the same good effect? If a pleasure short-
+ens life it brings after it troubles and sorrows that at the time of the moment of indulgence the enjoyment, is it wise to take that pleasure?
+
+Is it wise to make one's life richer and better by cultivating tastes of a higher type that give enjoyment, or is evil result? What tastes?
+
+6. The period of youth is often regarded as the time of happiness. But is this right? As one grows older, if his life has been right, he usually acquires more, more influence, more power. Does he not also gain experience?
+
+Ought not the last ten years of life to be the richest and best in experience, and in enjoyment?
+
+7. The experiences of life, however, de-
+pend, of necessity, upon great health, and char-
+acter, and position all of which are dependent largely, if not primarily, upon the habits and training of youth, and upon the associations made then. It is said that some boys have that they will be good later, but their aim is too small, and will be reckless in youth, comes from mis-
+taken views as to the real nature of the enjoy-
+ments of good life and of the likelihood of changes of habit being rare. "As the twig is bent the tree is inclined."
+
+Is not, therefore, the high school age perhaps the period of greatest importance in life, tho not
+the one that marks the culmination of either in-
+fluence or enjoyment?
+
+<page_number>17</page_number>
+
+NOTES
+
+<page_number>18</page_number>
+
+NOTES
+
+<page_number>19</page_number>
+
+Notes
+
+<page_number>20</page_number>
+
+NOTES
+
+<page_number>21</page_number>
+
+<page_number>3</page_number>
+
+II
+CUSTOM: HABIT
+
+"We pray to be conventional. But the wary Hen-
+ven takes care that we shall not be, if there is any-
+thing good in you." Emerson.
+
+"Since custom is the principal magistrate of man's life, let men by all means endeavor to obtain good customs." Bacon.
+
+"Custom is most perfect when it beginneth in young years." Bacon.
+
+"If a man on the Sabbath day receive circumcision, that the Lord may be pleased with his breast; ye are amazed at me, because I have made a man every whit whole on the Sabath day?"
+
+"Judge ye not according to appearance, but judge righteous judgment." John, 7:38, 34.
+
+"And he said unto them, Fall well ye reject the commandment of God, that ye may keep your own traditions." Mark, 7:7
+
+REFERENCES
+Smile: Character. Chap. 8.
+Emerson: Manners.
+Bacon: Of Custom and Education.
+Ecclesiastes, i:2f.
+
+<page_number>24</page_number>
+
+II
+
+CUSTOM: HABIT
+
+1. Far more than we realize we are creatures of custom. The style of our clothing, the type of our houses, our food, our amusements, our kind of education, and religion, are taken by most of us from the customs of our country.
+
+Many customs and styles had a use and meaning originally which now have been lost.
+
+Why does a Prince Albert coat have buttons on the back?
+
+Why do tailors usually put a notch in the collar of the coat?
+
+Why are most people in Italian Roman Catho-
+lics, or Protestants? Is the difference one of character?
+
+2. There are certain advantages usually found in following the customs of our fellows:
+
+(a) Probably the customs are, or at any rate have been, well adapted to our needs. For example, our houses and clothing are adapted to our climate and to the season of the year. The food which we customarily use is, probably, under most circumstances, the best.
+
+(b) If one does not follow the usual style he is looked upon as odd. He will be ridiculed. The city boy is likely to laugh at the country boy as boorish and uncultivated. The fact is, the customs of the country boy are just as good and just as sensible, but they are different. If the city boy
+
+<page_number>25</page_number>
+
+LIFE QUESTIONS
+
+goes to the country and attempts to play the part of a country boy, he is equally ridiculous.
+I may laugh at a Chinaman because he is awkward in using his fork and knife at table; the Chinaman would probably be too courteous to laugh at me on account of my ignorance.
+
+(c) Our social customs, of whatever kind, are likely to prevent misunderstandings, and hence avoid difficulties. The position of the young man and woman when waltzing is proper, only because customary. Otherwise, would it be misunderstood?
+
+8. Owing to our lack of personal independence we often follow customs to an unwisive extent.
+
+(a) In many countries, especially in old times, wear heavy black coats and stiff shirts; likewise they retain the food and habits of a colder climate. Many people, from pride, follow wedding customs, funeral customs, and other ceremonies at great cost to themselves and their families, because they are too cowardly not to follow custom.
+
+(b) In many instances custom prevents beneficial action and even progress. Because a man has not a customary evening suit, he refuses a desirable invitation. Because a low mark in school has become fashionable, thru the influence of some careless, the pernicious strong boys, poor work is deliberately avoided. The reason why the Sabbath of the ancient Jews was so rigidly fixed that it took the wonderful originality and
+
+<page_number>26</page_number>
+
+**CUSTOM:** HABIT
+
+independence of spirit of Jesus Christ even "to do good on the Sabbath day."
+
+(c) Much of our business and politics is car-
+ried on according to custom, but not the best.
+Only the original man in business, if he is
+also sensible, is the man who makes a great suc-
+cess; the common man makes a bare living or fails.
+
+The large majority of voters follow their party
+without any regard to principle, and indirectly
+the source of much political corruption.
+
+(d) Many people are too cowardly even to do
+right, if that involves a break with custom. Do
+not say that one should not eat meat, or smoke,
+or swear, or drink, because those things are nat-
+ural, or because the boys have not the independ-
+ence of character to defy custom?
+
+4. We are so constituted that by repetition an action becomes habitual; habit is an important matter for either good or evil.
+
+(a) Habit has the very great advantage of
+increasing skill and saving energy. It is only
+thus habitually that we can play ball. To put it
+words, that a ball player gets his wonderful skill
+so that he gains the position of a ball to a frac-
+tion of an inch or a hundredth of a second. Thru
+habit we learn to use figures in counting, and
+the use of figures or in reasoning. Success in every
+line, physical, or mental, or even moral, is largely
+dependent upon habit.
+
+(b) The disadvantage lies in the difficulty of
+breaking a bad habit. This can usually best be
+
+<page_number>27</page_number>
+
+LIFE QUESTIONS
+
+done by substituting a good one. A great stride forward is made toward success in any line when we deliberately make ourself create good habits and break bad ones. There could be no better exercise for a club than for each member to try to break some habit, even tho it be so slight a thing as the habit of smoking a cigar, or to create some good habit, even tho it be so slight a thing as to get to breakfast on time. The experiences along both lines would serve to emphasize both the difficulty of breaking a habit, and the importance of and perhaps even the ease of acquiring a habit.
+
+(c) There is perhaps no greater fault in students than the lack of concentration of attention and mental energy. This fault can often be diverted by little things from the work in hand. In order to get the control desirable to make a habit at will, one should practice concentration or attention upon the thing in hand, whether work or play. It is well to assign to each number of minutes to be assigned to preparing each lesson, in order that during these few minutes, under pressure of necessity, the habit of concentration may become established. It is useful to practice studying in the midst of a hubbub in order to force on oneself the power of concentration. Concentration of attention and will is the key to the control of habit.
+
+<page_number>28</page_number>
+
+Notes
+
+<page_number>29</page_number>
+
+NOTES
+
+<page_number>30</page_number>
+
+Notes
+
+<page_number>81</page_number>
+
+<page_number>3</page_number>
+
+III
+SOCIETIES: CLIQUES: FRATERNITIES
+
+"It is always a practical difficulty with Clubs to regulate the laws of selection so as to exclude per-
+petually every social inmate." Emerson.
+
+"It is possible that the best conversation is be-
+tween two persons who can talk only to each other." Emerson.
+
+"Jesus spent his life in discoursing with humble people on life and duty, in giving wise answers, showing how much we need large vision, and at least silencing those who were not generous enough to accept his thought."
+
+"I find out in an instant if my companion does not want me, and ropes cannot hold me when my welcome is gone." Emerson.
+
+"Socials we must have, but let it be society, and not exchanging news, or eating from the same dish." Emerson.
+
+"Every man brings into society some partial thought and local culture. We need range and al-
+teration of topics."
+
+"It is a great and miserable solitude to want true friends, without which the world is but a wilderness." Bacon.
+
+REFERENCES
+Emerson : Clubs.
+Bacon: Of Counsel.
+Proverbs, 4. <page_number>24</page_number>
+
+III
+
+SOCIETIES: CLIQUES: FRATERNITIES
+
+1. The desire to be with congenial people leads naturally to the formation of either formal or informal groups, or classes, or cliques, or socie-
+ties. This is found everywhere, in clubs, churches,
+business organizations, and even in high
+school life, however, such grouping needs to be
+carefully studied, for it has in it much that is
+evil as well as much that is good.
+
+2. There are two advantages in this group-
+ing of people, whether it arises about without
+effort, or whether a society is formally created.
+(a) The close association of congenial people
+who become friends. Fraternities are people of
+the right type, is the friendliest. Friendliness is often
+made that last thru life, and nothing is to be
+prized more highly than friendships of the right
+type.
+
+(b) Many associations have as their aim some-
+thing uplifting and ennobling, like charity or-
+ganizations, educational clubs, churches; and if
+these aims are followed, members of the associa-
+tion will find themselves on an uplift toward
+the better things of life that will make them prove
+extremely helpful.
+
+(c) For the carrying out of work among num-
+bers of people, organization is often helpful. In
+the planning and work of organization and then
+the organization, the habit of leadership and dis-
+
+<page_number>85</page_number>
+
+**LIFE QUESTIONS**
+
+Civility is sometimes formed, a benefit not to be overlooked. The well-organized group is the one that wins in a contest of interests.
+
+3. Many associations, both in the high school and elsewhere, have serious disadvantages.
+
+(a) Frequently, owing to the rivalry for membership, the children who are most active in these are brought into the association who are not congenial and sympathetic and who, because of the formal organization, cannot be dropped as easily as when the grouping is purely informal or in- sensitive. The children who are most active, whose influence is even distinctly bad and demoralizing, but the difficulties of getting free from their as- sociation are no less. The difficulty of choosing right associates is often too great for persons not of mature years.
+
+(b) In high schools and colleges, as well as in social life, the expense of societies is often con- siderable, and this expense is increased when one enters them. This expense often lays seri- ous burden upon the shoulders of persons who ought not to carry it, merely because they are un- willing that their children should not be brought up in the society. In the case of mutual fea- terities or clubs, the children might easily be friends and associates. When some join these or- ganizations, the parents of others must either see their children separated in part from former re- lationships, or they bear the burden of the ex- pense of the society.
+
+<page_number>36</page_number>
+
+**SOCIETIES : CLIQUES : FRATERNITIES**
+
+(3) Where formal organization is encouraged, the tendency is toward exclusiveness, with the se-
+lection of men not always at the highest grounds, and a large amount of selfishness toward outsiders is frequently the result.
+
+(4) If our associations are largely confined to a few persons, we become so familiar with their habits of thinking that, though they may be pleasant, it teaches us very little and gives us little intellec-
+tual stimulus. We learn more by meeting many people than by confining ourselves to a few asso-
+ciations, than from confining our interests to a few.
+We can get many of the advantages of travel by
+extending our acquaintance widely. When we go
+abroad we meet with new customs and unculivated
+customs in order to benefit by learning strange
+customs. We could often learn about as much by making friends among those at home who
+have habits of living and working and thinking
+are different from our own.
+
+4. A good exercise would be to investigate the clubs and fraternal orders in the home town, and the high school and college fraternities, in order to see what advantages they offer and what disad-
+vantages which come to the members thryn these as-
+sociations.
+
+<page_number>87</page_number>
+
+NOTES
+
+<page_number>38</page_number>
+
+Notes
+
+<page_number>30</page_number>
+
+<page_number>1</page_number>
+
+IV
+INTOXICATING LIQUORS AND TOBACCO
+
+"But it is a safer conclusion to say, 'This agreeeth not well with me, therefore I will not continue it,' than this, 'I find no offense of this, therefore I may use it.' Bacon.
+
+"Hear thou, my son, and be wise, and guide thine heart in the way.
+"Be not among wine-bibbers; among riotous eaters of flesh:
+"For the drunkard and glutton shall come to pov- ery and want shall clothe a man with rags."
+Proverbs, 23: 10-15.
+
+REFERENCES
+Mathews : Chap. 4.
+Bacon: Of Regiment of Health.
+Luke, 7: 51-50.
+
+<page_number>42</page_number>
+
+IV
+
+INTOXICATING LIQUORS AND TOBACCO
+
+1. Possibly the chief objection to the use of in-
+toxicating liquors and tobacco is that the use
+becomes a habit which is very difficult to break,
+and thus owing to the effect of one's physical
+constitution, the habit is strong, and leads to
+the use of an increasing quantity in order to get the
+desired satisfaction. The younger and less mature
+the person is, the stronger are these tendencies
+and the more dangerous they become.
+
+According to the best medical authorities there
+is no advantage whatever, from the physical point
+of view, to be gained by the use of any of those
+articles. The young man who does not reali-
+ze the benefit to be gained at times in illness.
+2. It is sometimes asserted that the use of in-
+toxicating liquors stimulates the imagination and
+the intellect so that one can do his best work when
+under its influence. This is denied by many writers of
+Poe, Daniel Webster, and others are cited in
+proof. The same argument might be used, with
+probably even greater emphasis, regarding the use of
+tobacco. A man may have been born addicted to the use of these drugs and
+his constitution has become warped by them, he
+sometimes cannot do his best work without them because he has already become abnormal. This is
+no proof that if he had remained normal he could
+not have done as good or even better work. For
+
+<page_number>43</page_number>
+
+LIFE QUESTIONS
+
+one illustration like those given above, dozens could easily be cited of as great an interest to work by people in normal conditions. Probably no ex-
+ample can be found of a person doing a piece of
+sustained, difficult work under the influence of
+liquor. Such work must be done under normal
+conditions. Our ancestors, notwithstanding ables
+political views of the early and later days,
+with very rare exceptions, have all been temperate
+men, often practically teetotallers. Often, like
+Reesevelt, they do not even smoke. It is a mis-
+taken notion that only the very rich and the rich
+ones must join in such practices. David H. Hill,
+the greatest democratic leader of New York State
+in the present generation, uses neither tobacco nor
+strong liquor. And there are great religious or
+social leaders who do not permit any particu-
+lar?
+
+3. The evil influence of drinking intoxicating
+liquors is intensified by the fact that in drinking
+places, saloons, one usually meets persons who are
+degrading rather than elevating. Altho, of course,
+every one knows that some people who drink to excess,
+or many sabao keepers, have ex-
+cellent moral characters, their influence, on the
+whole, is likely to be bad.
+
+4. The custom of treating, which comes from a
+good inclination toward socialability and generosi-
+ty, has an evil influence in leafling toward exces-
+ive use.
+
+Is there an element of heroism in refusing to
+
+<page_number>44</page_number>
+
+INTOXICATING LIQUORS AND TOBACCO
+
+accept a treat in a company where treating is customary, or is it insolubles?
+
+May a man be so generous in his treating as to be unjust to his family or creditors? Is this common?
+
+5. For most young men the expense of either habit, even tho it does not lead to moderate use, is nevertheless a heavy burden. Figure out the cost to the average smoker or the moderate drinker for a period of ten years, computing interest on the investment at the market rate. Is saving this ex-
+pense to be looked upon as stinginess or as praiseworthy thrift?
+
+6. A very serious disadvantage of the use, es-
+pecially of intoxicating liquors, to boys is the
+effect which it has upon their capacity for work.
+Many of our best railroads and business houses
+employ only temperate men, some of them only teetotallers. Some saloon keepers insist that their
+parties are more popular with boys than with men.
+The tendency is rapidly increasing to put in reserve positions only men who are practically teetotalers.
+
+7. Worst of all, perhaps, is the fact that the use of intoxicating liquor perverts the moral sense, as for
+that matter does any other vice. It leads a man to a
+man who has taken a few drinks of liquor, tho he is not really drunk, many acts will sometimes appear right, even praiseworthy, that at other times he knows to be wrong. The effect of opium is even more direct and powerful.
+
+<page_number>45</page_number>
+
+LIFE QUESTIONS
+
+8. Every one would concede the pleasure given from the gratification of one's taste in the case of both these habits. When one considers the added pain that comes from a physical breakdown, and the shortening of life that frequently comes, one sees that the pleasures derived from these habits are likely to be more than offset by the lessened pleasure from the gratification of other tastes that are not themselves detrimental.
+
+9. Make out a list of a dozen habits, good and bad, found in high school life, with a brief statement of their immediate and permanent gratifica-
+tion and cost both in money and in other effects of each.
+
+<page_number>46</page_number>
+
+Notes
+
+<page_number>47</page_number>
+
+Notas
+
+<page_number>48</page_number>
+
+Noras
+
+<page_number>40</page_number>
+
+<page_number>1</page_number>
+
+V
+PROFANITY AND SLANG
+
+"A man's power to connect his thought with its proper symbol, and so to utter it, depends upon the simplicity of his character, that is, upon his love of truth, and his desire to communicate it without loss." EMERSON.
+
+"The corruption of man is followed by the corruption of language." EMERSON.
+
+"Picturesque language is at once a commanding certificate that he who employs it is a man in alliance with truth and God." EMERSON.
+
+"Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain; for the Lord will not hold him guiltless that taketh His name in vain. Exodus, 20:7."
+
+"But let your communication be, Yes, yea; Nay, nay; for whatsoever is more than these cometh of evil." Matthew, 5:23.
+
+REFERENCES
+Emerson: Language.
+Bacon: Of Discourse.
+James, 3.
+
+<page_number>58</page_number>
+
+V
+
+PROFANITY AND SLANG
+
+1. Speaking generally, there is no better test of refinement and cultivation, perhaps even of character, than the use of language. This test covers both the tone of voice and the selection of words.
+
+Does a good disposition show in tone? How does a bully's voice betray character?
+
+2. It is not given to every person to make literature in the best sense of the word. Many people have not been trained in the use of language in life, but with some care and training every person who thinks clearly can make himself clearly understood.
+
+For most purposes a simple, clear, direct manner is best. The best words speaking and writing. Careful, minute discrimination in thought demand a very careful use of words in order that the different shades of meaning be easily distinguished.
+
+3. Probably the chief disadvantage in the use of slang comes from the fact that the one slang word, which every one grants may be very picturesque and expressive in a particular case, is often so used that its meaning is obscured. The habit of using slang breeds carelessness about enlarging the vocabularly or noting carefully the exact meaning of words. It is said that Wendell Phillips thrust his early years never permitted himself the use of
+
+<page_number>55</page_number>
+
+LIFE QUESTIONS
+
+along, in order that the habit of accurate, careful expression might be fixed. His marvelous success as an orator in later years depended largely upon the ease and grace with which he expressed his thoughts without previous preparation.
+
+4. Uncouth speech and bad manners make a few oaths take the place of hundreds of words which would express nice discriminations of thought.
+Most swearers do not show wickedness by their oaths, for their words are thoughtlessly uttered; they show a gross ignorance of good policy. Deliberate cursing or blaspheeming is, of course, irreverent and sinful, and in some countries and states it is unlawful and punishable as a misde-
+moneur. The injurious use of oaths is not so com-
+munalistic as "Yes, you, Nay, nay," is primarily good sense rather than religion.
+
+5. Swearing is sometimes defended on the ground that certain great men have had that habit.
+Can you give an example of one such man for ten of those of equal greatness who have not had that habit?
+If great men swear at times it is a hindrance, not a help. The men whose commands are obeyed most promptly and willingly are not the loud users of profanity, but the quiet, self-contained men whose control of self gives them control of others.
+
+<page_number>54</page_number>
+
+NOTES
+
+<page_number>55</page_number>
+
+Notas
+
+<page_number>56</page_number>
+
+Notes
+
+<page_number>57</page_number>
+
+<img>Blank page with a vertical line on the right side.</img>
+
+VI
+LYING
+
+"But it is not the lie that passeth thru the mind, but the lie that sinketh in and settith in it, that doth the harm." Bacon.
+
+"False things are thus in men's de-
+praved judgments and affections, yet truth, which only doth judge itself, teacheth that the inquiry of truth, which is the knowledge of truth, is the presence of it, and the belief of truth, which is the enjoying of it, is the sovereign of human nature." Bacon.
+
+"Certainly, it is heaven upon earth, to have a man's mind so well set in preidence, and turn upon the poles of truth." Bacon.
+
+"It seems a very simple thing to tell the truth, but, beyond all doubt, there is nothing half so easy as lying." Holland.
+
+"It is impossible for bigots, for men of one idea, for fanatics, for those who set boundaries to them-
+selves, in religious, social, and political creeds, for such who think they can make others believe more than they do of truth, and for vicious men, to speak the truth." Holland.
+
+"The getting of treasure by a lying tongue is a vanity for men and vex of thron that seek death." Proverbs, 21:0.
+
+**REFERENCES**
+
+Bacon: Of Truth.
+Smiles: Character, Chap. 7.
+Genesis: 31.
+Acau: 5:1-11.
+John: 8:12-50.
+
+<page_number>60</page_number>
+
+VI
+
+LYING
+
+1. Perhaps no other moral quality affects so profoundly the stability of social institutions as that of truthfulness, including under that term both accuracy of statement and fidelity in carrying out agreements. Among business men on the stock exchange and boards of trade, transactions involving hundreds of thousands of dollars are frequently made without a sign or not a word, and the broker making such transactions would never think of violating it or of pretending to misunderstand. The interests of business compel absolute fidelity to the agreement.
+
+2. And yet people are often found ready to advocate the most extravagant lies in statements. Until late years it was popularly supposed that a good part of the business of a diplomat was to deceive the ruler of the state where he was resident; and this is still believed by many. We hear many exaggerated statements on minor matters, made for the sake of increasing the pleasantness of social intercourse, that are lightly ex- cused by the fact that they are "only lies." It is desirable that every person define clearly to him- self just what he understands by telling the truth or telling a lie, and that he follow unswearingly the principle which he adopts.
+
+Is a general justified in deceiving the enemy?
+
+<page_number>61</page_number>
+
+LIFE QUESTIONS
+
+Is one of the great evils of war the encouragement of deceit?
+Is an exaggerated statement of a society lady as to her pleasure in seeing a guest, which deception cannot be lie?
+
+Ought a ball player to let the umpire make a mistake in his favor?
+Is it wrong for a catcher to draw the ball so as to deceive the umpire as to whether it crossed the plate? Why?
+
+Is a physician justified in misleading a nervous patient regarding his condition?
+
+3. Proportionate contribution contributes more to the success of a merchant or of a business man of any kind than that of never misrepresenting his goods and never failing to perform his engagements. Probably no reputation contributes more to the success of a man along many lines of practice than that of absolute trustworthiness, and yet many lawyers seek to acquire the reputation of winning cases even by means of trickery and deceit.
+
+Do we fully trust any person whom we have ever caught deceiving us?
+Do such methods pay?
+
+Are we always right when we look at from the point of view of the good of society?
+
+Is there any greater blemish on the reputation of Napoleon Bonaparte than that of being an habitual liar?
+
+Bismarck is reported to have said that he told
+
+<page_number>92</page_number>
+
+Lying
+
+the truth regarding his intentions in diplomatic matters and that thereby he deceived his rivals at foreign courts most effectually.
+
+Is the purpose or the method the criterion by which one should judge the quality of such an act?
+
+Can one imagine a great moral or religious teacher, like Socrates, or Buddha, or Confucius, or Jesus, telling a lie?
+
+Is this merely religious or is this a good principle from a practical business and political point of view?
+
+Can the political boss afford to deceive?
+
+What is the loss and gain to the pupil in presenting to the teacher a forged excuse for ab-<br>
+sence?
+
+<page_number>65</page_number>
+
+NOTES
+
+<page_number>64</page_number>
+<page_number>38</page_number>
+
+Notes
+
+<page_number>05</page_number>
+
+<page_number>70</page_number>
+
+VII
+CHEATING AND GRAFT
+
+"There is no vice that doth so cover a man with shame as to be found false and pernicious." Bacon.
+
+"He behemoth poor that dealeth with a slack hand ; he is the hand of the diligent maketh rich." Proverbs, 10:4.
+
+"Seest thou a man diligent in his business? He shall stand before kings : he shall not stand before mean men." Proverbs, 22:9.
+
+"Therefore take heed to your spirit, that ye deal not treacherously." Malachi, 2:10.
+
+REFERENCES
+Smiles : Self-Help, Chaps. 9, 10.
+Genesis, 30 : 25-45.
+
+<page_number>68</page_number>
+
+VII
+CHEATING AND GRAFT
+
+1. Allied to truth-telling and to the keeping of contracts is the quality of trustworthiness and faithfulness in one's word to self or for others. A great employer of labor mentioned as one of the chief advantages in the employment of Chinese, that when they had once learned the way of doing a task and what was expected of them, their work was as good as that of other em- ployer was absent as when he was present; where- as, he said, many Europeans and Americans worked much better under their employer's eye than did the Chinese. In this instance wages were placed correspondingly high. In engaging new men a reputation for faithfulness is the best recommendation.
+
+2. In colleges and schools it is, in many cases, a common practice for students to cheat in their examinations, either by taking secretly into the class some aids or by securing assistance from other students. In these ways students frequently have been found to be more successful in their discovery by the teacher when otherwise they probably would have failed. Under what circum- stances, if any, are such practices justifiable from the standpoint (a) of the student who considers (1) the effect upon his character; (2) the effect upon his character; (3) the effect upon his reputa- tion among the students? (b) From the stand- <page_number>89</page_number>
+
+LIFE QUESTIONS
+
+point of the teacher. In what way is he affected?
+(c) From the standpoint of the school and so-
+ciety. In what ways are they affected?
+
+3. The cheating in examinations is confined pri-
+marily to the school itself. Similar practices in
+connection with athletic contests are much
+wider spread. Can a school afford to declare either
+schools by practically hiring professional athletes,
+either directly contrary, technically and practi-
+cally, to agreement, or, if technically correct,
+practically contrary to the spirit of the agree-
+ment?
+
+Does it require bravery to take a stand for clean athletics under all circumstances? ought such courage to be required? Is it not true that those who are afraid of failure? Which is of more conse-
+quence to the nation?
+
+Is it of more consequence for the school to have
+the reputation of being successful in athletics,
+even by unfair means, than of being both broad and
+fair in all things as well as in scholarship?
+
+What penalty should be provided for a runner
+who will deliberately beat the pistol in starting?
+Should his school be punished?
+
+Are there any schools who are attracted mainly by
+success, even tho unfair athletics, desirable stu-
+dents for the school?
+
+Are the parents who select a school with refer-
+ence to success by whatever means, instead of with
+reference to careful scholarship and upright deal-
+ings, desirable patrons for a school?
+
+<page_number>70</page_number>
+
+CREATING AND GRAFT
+
+4. How do such school practices affect one's reputation or his business habits in later life?
+
+Let the student look up the practices of the most respected men in your community when they were in school. Be careful not to confuse love of fun and mischief with dishonesty or meanness.
+
+<page_number>71</page_number>
+
+Notas
+
+<page_number>78</page_number>
+
+Notas
+
+<page_number>75</page_number>
+
+<page_number>8</page_number>
+
+VIII
+GAMBLING AND BETTING
+
+"But chiefly the mould of a man's fortune is in his own hands." Bacon.
+
+"Fortune is to be honored and respected, and it be but for her daughters, Confidence and Reputation." Bacon.
+
+"Shallow men believe in luck, believe in circumstances." "Strong men believe in cause and effect."
+
+EMERSON.
+
+REFERENCES
+
+Bacon: Of Fortune.
+Smiles: 1780-1781, Chaps. 4, 10.
+Matthews: Chap. 9.
+Genesis, 37.
+Matthew, 47 : 55.
+
+<page_number>76</page_number>
+
+VIII
+GAMBLING AND BETTING
+
+1. The settlement of questions by chance is often convenient and is a means frequently employed in government. In cases of a tie election, the decision is, in some states, by chance. In games of chance, it decides which person shall have the selection of the prize.
+
+In what way does the settlement of a question of the kind mentioned differ from gambling?
+
+2. In business life it is considered both right and just to tender one's money for something which one receives. In making purchases or sales one expects to give or to receive one's money's worth. Owing to the different circumstances of buyers and sellers, gain is by the exchange. In gambling, one party seeks to obtain gains, and, except in the rare cases where the sum at stake is trivial and where the pleasure of playing is equal to the amount lost, there is no equivalent to that which is obtained. The effect of gambling is exactly the same as that of robbery, except in the fact that the loser has voluntarily submitted himself to the loss and the winner has, in reality, received nothing in return.
+Experience shows, however, that when the habit of gambling becomes fixed, the consequences to the loser are not considered by the winner, and the effect is often as bad as that of robbery. In fact, the effect is often worse, because the loser, when
+
+<page_number>77</page_number>
+
+LIFE QUESTIONS
+
+he acquires the gambling habit. Instead of making up his loss, as in the case of coboldry, and keeping it, it is sure to make earnings over and over again, by the practical certainty of con-
+tinued loss. The gambling habit is opposed to thrift, and no community can prosper whose mem-
+bers are not thrifty.
+
+Ought a man to gamble or bet on a small scale merely for fun to consider the possible ef-
+fect of his example upon others, especially boys?
+
+3. Gambling establishments always pay with chances so heavily odds against the house being
+rich that they lose and their customers lose.
+The moral effect of gambling, however, is such
+that, excepting in the rarest instances, the gam-
+bling is not conducted fairly, even when the chances
+are in favor of the house or gambler. Cheating
+is common among gamblers.
+
+What is the difference between gambling at
+faro or poker without cheating and dealing in fu-
+tures on the boards of a company? In the operation of
+actual putumary sale; as when one buys 10,000
+bushels of wheat to be delivered at 80 cents a
+bushel three months hence, not intending to take
+the wheat, but to pay the seller two dollars per bushel
+for this price should be at that time
+78 cents, and to receive the same amount from him
+if the price becomes 82 cents?
+Has a director of a company with previous
+knowledge of the conditions of his business any
+moral right to buy or sell the stock of his own
+
+<page_number>78</page_number>
+
+GAMBLING AND BETTING
+
+company with the practical certainty of gaining at the expense of the stockholders from whom he buys or to whom he sells, and for whom, it should be remembered, he is a trustee?
+
+5. In countries where lotteries are common a very large number of people spend much of their earnings in buying lottery tickets. How does this custom injure society?
+
+6. Betting.
+(a) Is there any essential difference in principle between gambling and betting? If so, what?
+(b) What classes of people in society are in the habit of betting? Cheating at cards and playing with loaded dice are considered dishonorable. Is it honorable to bet without giving your opponent a fair chance? Should one have to wager regarding the chances? Is such information usually given?
+
+Enumerate the dangers to the individual of gambling and betting. Enumerate the dangers to society of gambling and betting. Is the habit a difficult one to break?
+
+<page_number>79</page_number>
+
+NOTES
+
+<page_number>80</page_number>
+
+Notes
+
+<page_number>81</page_number>
+
+<img>Vertical black line on a white background.</img>
+
+IX
+THE SEX PROBLEM
+
+"There is no truth which personal vice will not distort."
+HOLLAND.
+
+"Any noblencest begins at once to refine a man's features; any baseness or sensuality to embitter them." THOMAS.
+
+"He that loveth pursuance of heart, for the grace of his lips the king shall be his friend." PAUERNAE, 29: 11.
+
+"The mouth of strange women is a deep pit: he that is abhorred of the Lord shall fall therein." PAUERNAE, 29: 14.
+
+**REFERENCES**
+Bacon: Of Beauty.
+Genesis, 50: 1-23.
+1 Cor., 3: 16-17.
+1 Cor., 3: 9-17; 6.
+Proverbs, 1:
+
+<page_number>84</page_number>
+
+IX
+
+THE SEX PROBLEM
+
+1. During their school days the attitude of boys toward girls is likely to change very materially. It is extremely important that we teach boys and for the community that the naturally increasing interest in the other sex be a source of benefit instead of a detriment.
+
+2. Most boys have been and have a chivalrous feeling of chamberlainship for the honor and happiness of their mothers and sisters. They will fight for them gladly.
+
+It is well for them to hear continually in mind the fact that most girls are the sisters and daughters of persons whose lives would be made wretched by serious misconduct on their part!
+
+3. Most boys during their school years become aware of the fact that there are girls who make their living by pandering to the passions of men. Some of these girls have been led into this life by the deceit and trickery and meanness and villainy of men who have deliberately misled them for their own gain. These girls are brought to them a life of misfortune and dishonor. Others have been practically trained as children for this life and have been kept purposely or by unfortunate circumstances in such surroundings that they are not conscious of guilt till they actually discover it. Unless, they find themselves under the condemnation
+
+<page_number>85</page_number>
+
+LIFE QUESTIONS
+
+of society and subjected to a life which is prac-
+tically certain to bring them unhappiness and dis-
+ease, and to make them outcasts. A very large
+proportion of these girls are practically slaves
+who are allowed to retain no part of their earn-
+ings, all of which goes into the pockets of their
+criminal masters.
+
+Associated with such girls is very likely, if
+common it is practically certain, to bring disease,
+often incurable; and it is certain to bring a boy
+into immoral and contaminating surroundings
+which, if he does not escape, will break his
+opportunities for usefulness and success.
+
+Does it pay to yield to inclinations which result
+so certainly in evil?
+
+Does it ever pay to yield one's power of self-
+control?
+
+Nearly every young man looks forward, and
+properly, to a married life and to happiness with
+a family.
+
+Can a man with a clear conscience associate
+himself with a pure woman as intimately as in
+marriage if he has been tempted into the con-
+taminating associations connected with an impure
+life?
+
+Is it not worth while, for the sake of the future
+permanent happy family relationships, for young
+men to keep control of their lives when boys?
+They should not confound passion with love.
+
+Passion needs to be kept well in hand or the
+habit of self-alse may lead to results almost or
+
+THE SEX PROBLEM
+
+quite as harmful to the individual as illicit relations.
+Excess in any of these directions leads to physical weakness as well as to mental and moral degeneracy. An athlete must be continent and abstinent.
+
+6. A large part of the temptations to illicit relationships and a large part of the evil associations connected therewith are brought about by base talk, vile stories, and impure thinking regarding the sex of the human body.
+
+Is it not better worth while to keep the physical condition sound and the mental and spiritual attitude clean and sane by active association with people of like character? What kind of influence will be toward clean and moral enjoyment?
+
+<page_number>87</page_number>
+
+NOTES
+
+<page_number>88</page_number>
+
+Notes
+
+<page_number>89</page_number>
+
+<img>Vertical line on the right side of the page.</img>
+
+X
+
+ATTITUDE TOWARD WORK
+
+"Kites rise against, not with, the wind. No man ever worked his passage anywhere in a dead calm."
+Neal, by Mathews.
+
+"A faithful man shall abound with blessings: but he that maketh haste to be rich shall not be innocent." Proverbs, 38: 30.
+
+**Bacon:** Of Infection; Of Dispatch.
+Mathews: Chaps. 14, 15.
+Smiles: Character, Chaps. 4, 12.
+Proverbs, 24.
+Lakie, 07: 11-28.
+
+<page_number>92</page_number>
+
+X
+
+ATTITUDE TOWARD WORK
+
+1. Workingmen generally are anxious to get their wages increased, and they properly take measures to get as much as possible. With this desire, however, is sometimes combined that to obtain the possible service without losing their place. Workingmen frequently are very prompt at the quitting hour, less eager at beginning.
+
+Is this fair?
+
+Is this wise?
+
+The employer, on the other hand, attempts to get more than a fair day's work without paying more.
+
+Is this fair or wise?
+
+1. Where the work is interesting, or where the workingman has a peculiar professional pride, his endeavor is often to render the best service possible under the conditions without much regard to the wages or money returns.
+
+In this case may the enjoyment of the work itself be looked upon as part of the compensation?
+
+3. If a person desires promotion or an increase in pay, will it not be practically impossible for the employer to promote him or to increase the pay until he gets what he now needs for his wages? As a practical matter, then, such not-very-scribbling worker lay his emphasis upon the quality
+
+<page_number>95</page_number>
+
+LIFE QUESTIONS
+
+and amount of service rendered, rather than upon the pay received?
+Ought not the employer to be ready to increase wages promptly when unusually good service is rendered?
+
+A. Aside from the question of the work done, owing to our human nature we all like the spirit of cheerfulness and willingness on the part of those associated with us. In consequence, in seeking men for particular employments, we are apt to select those who are willing to do their best, and not merely because they are equal, to take the willing worker, even though the quality of the work done is not superior.
+
+Is he to be blamed for so doing?
+
+5. Some men are disposed to do faithfully just what they are told, but to make no effort to go beyond instructions and think out new plans for themselves which will render their work more efficient and more valuable. Others tend toward reliance upon self and originality in thinking out methods of work.
+
+How far can individual originality be permitted in the case of men working together interdependently?
+
+Is the employer ordinarily glad to see individual initiative on the part of his workers? Why?
+
+How far does a good living and prosperity come offener from high wages or from a habit of saving? Distinguish carefully between stinginess and thrift.
+
+What is the difference between a generous man
+
+<page_number>94</page_number>
+
+ATTITUDE TOWARD WORK
+
+and a spendthrift? Which does most harm to the community, a stingy man or a spendthrift?
+
+6. The principles laid down above and the questions with reference to workingmen and their employers apply in part to work in school, but with some very important differences. Point out the differences.
+
+How far is the teacher the gainer, how far the loser, by the faithful or unfaithful work of pupils?
+
+Is the pupil the gainer or the loser by faithful or unfaithful work?
+
+Have the successful men in all lines kept their work or their pay first in mind?
+
+<page_number>95</page_number>
+
+NOTES
+
+<page_number>96</page_number>
+
+NOTES
+
+<page_number>97</page_number>
+
+<page_number>1</page_number>
+
+XI
+THE SELF-CENTERED MAN
+
+"Whosoever in the frame of his nature and affec-
+tions, is unfit for friendship, he taketh it of the
+beast, and not from humanity." BACON.
+
+"Speech of man's self ought to be seldom, and
+well chosen." BACON.
+
+"Sweet mercy is nobility's true badge." SHAKES-
+PEARE.
+
+"Speak thou a man wise in his own conceit? there
+is more hope of a fool than of him." PROVERBS
+36: 12.
+
+REFERENCES
+Bacon: Of Discourse.
+Mathews: Chaps. 11, 13.
+Smiles: Character, Chaps. 8, 9.
+Luke, 14.
+
+<page_number>100</page_number>
+
+XI
+
+THE SELF-CENTERED MAN
+
+1. Most persons are inclined to think much of themselves and of their own interests. Many peo-
+ple possess a narrow-mindedness which is nothing short of amazing clearly what is, in the long run, for their own best interests.
+
+With the exception of dishonesty and untruthfulness, that is perhaps the personal charac-
+teristic which stands more in the way of ultimate success than self-conceit, undue pride in one's own possessions and powers. Usually the conceited person is narrow-minded and mentally short-
+sighted. He does not see things as they really are, especially in his relations with others ordinarily knows that,
+however able and wise he may be, there are many others still abler, more experienced, and wiser.
+Even great men have a narrow head of his progres-
+sion if he thinks carefully, knowing how great as his knowledge may be, the extent of his ignorance even in his chosen field is probably much greater.
+The range of the problems of nature and society is so immense that the man who accomplishes by any means any direction at all will be compared with that still left to be accomplish. Sir Isaac Newton, near the close of his life, spoke of him-
+self in relation to his scientific attainments as a
+little pebble thrown into the ocean and up a
+shell here, a pretty pebble there, with the great
+ocean of truth still unexplored before him.
+
+<page_number>101</page_number>
+
+LIFE QUESTIONS
+
+2. Too many people hesitate to give credit to others for the good work they do, apparently being jealous lest the good work of others should detract from their own credit. Even presidents of colleges, heads of corporations, managers of a great business, often neglect to give credit of work done by their subordinates. Such action is unwise, because, first, the head of any enterprise is always given credit for its success, whoever does the work; and, second, such action lessens the enthusiasm and confidence in the efficiency of the subordinates, and checks success.
+
+3. A person who does good work ordinarily needs to make little effort to secure credit for himself. People generally like to give credit where it is due; and people are always eager to get work done by those who are most efficient. Excellent work in any line makes an immediate demand for more of the same kind from individuals. The same kind of credit for work is certain or so satisfactory as the requests and demands for more work of the same kind from the same person. Moreover, a continual demand for recognition is likely to arouse prejudice and hostility, so that it often defeats its own purpose.
+
+4. Without reference to the question of individu- al claim for credit or service, it is often very desira- ble to give one's time and energy to the service of some worthy cause or to the public. Much of
+
+<page_number>102</page_number>
+
+THE SELF-CENTERED MAN
+
+The best work in the world is done to further some social or religious reform with no thought of per-
+sonal reward on the part of the worker; and yet a reward is ordinarily obtained in, first, the con-
+sciousness of an honest attempt at good service,
+and, secondly, the gratification of the consciousness of having attained the end sought for.
+What pay did Socrates get for his efforts to reform Greece?
+What are the dangers in high school life are there in the direction of self-concept?
+Do any boys dress beyond their means to grati-
+fy their vanity?
+
+Is there much noblesse in your school?
+Are there boys who think more highly of them-
+selves than they ought to think? Why?
+Are you one of them?
+
+If you are superior to some of your fellows in some regards, is this credit due to you personally or to surrounding circumstances?
+
+Is the conceited or self-centered man more likely to be stingy or to be a spendthrift? Is he likely to be a generous man?
+
+If you were born in a hovel and reared among petty thieves, what reason have you for thinking that you would not be a pickpocket?
+
+If you were, ought you not to be arrested and punished? Why?
+
+How are all of us selfish deeds paid; for ex-
+ample, the man who rescues a drowning person at the risk, possibly the cost, of his own life?
+
+<page_number>103</page_number>
+
+Norma
+
+<page_number>104</page_number>
+
+Notes
+
+<page_number>105</page_number>
+
+Notes
+
+<page_number>106</page_number>
+
+NOTES
+
+<page_number>107</page_number>
+
+<page_number>1</page_number>
+
+XII
+SOCIAL SERVICE IN THE COMMUNITY
+
+" "Tis the fine souls that serve us, and not what is called fine society." Emerson.
+
+"Mankind divides itself into two classes,—beau-
+tactors and misactors. The second class is vast,
+the first a handful." Emerson.
+
+"Righteousness exelleth a nation; but sin is a reproach to any people." Proverbs, 14: 34.
+
+REFERENCES:
+Emerson: Experience.
+Matthew, 5: 7.
+Smiles: Self-Help, Chap. 1.
+
+<page_number>110</page_number>
+
+XII
+
+SOCIAL SERVICE IN THE COMMUNITY
+
+1. People frequently assume that in their relations with the public and the state they may expect to receive a standard of honesty from that which they have in their relations with private individuals. Persons who would not steal from individuals or cheat in private business will often guard against stealing from the public or state property to which it has a legal right. The state must have a certain amount of income. If one individual pays to the government less than his fair share of the taxes, other people must pay more than their fair share. In short, the act of tax-dodging is practically the same as taking money from the pockets of one's neighbors.
+
+2. Properties belonging to the public, like schoolshouses, parks, streets, etc., are, in effect, belong to all the citizens, and therefore each takes as a unit. If a student destroys school property, he is practically destroying the property of his parents and neighbors!
+
+3. If a man says that he is a member of the community which owns the streets and parks, and that they are under the charge of officers chosen either directly or indirectly by his parents or himself to care for them, will he not naturally take a pride in keeping them in order? Will he not take a pride in keeping the parks beautiful, enjoying their flowers and trees?
+
+<page_number>111</page_number>
+
+**LIFE QUESTIONS**
+
+If a park belongs to the people of a community, why has not each individual in the community a right to pick flowers from the park at will? Un-
+der what conditions could this properly be done?
+
+3. Inasmuch as we do not like to see suffering and as it is our duty to help those who belong to the community to make contributions fairly thru the government, there has gradually grown up in civ-
+ilized communities the recognition of the duty of the public to support the helpless poor and un-
+fortunates. For this purpose, almhouses are built, and the public thru properly chosen officers cares for many un-
+fortunates. The receipt of aid under most cir-
+cumstances from others who are not in the same ob-
+jects, or who are members of the family, has been found, in most cases, to have an injuri-
+ous effect upon people who are able to earn their own living. It is a way of getting something for nothing, and it tends to destroy something that character as is gambling. It is, therefore, often better for the individuals, as well as for the pub-
+lic, for assistance to be given in the way of fur-
+nishing work or gifts of friendship, rather than by means of public charity.
+
+Is there danger of being too generous? Under
+what circumstances?
+
+It is not desirable that these facts and those principles be understood by the students in the high school, and that they begin some of their duties as citizens by investigating, as best they
+
+<page_number>112</page_number>
+
+SOCIAL SERVICE IN THE COMMUNITY
+
+can, the cases of suffering in the community and taking a personal part in the relief of such suffer-
+ing? In many cases, perhaps in most cases, the personal touch with those who are unfortunate is most helpful to all persons concerned.
+
+Of course, there are in the community than the unfortunate paupers, are those who are crimi-
+nals or who are criminally inclined. We are all of us likely to blame the criminal and the de-
+praved, but we must not be very quick to blame the
+tendency toward crime which comes from the sur-
+roundings in youth of the individual who, under
+different circumstances, would never have become
+criminal. A very large number of those who lead
+lives now considered criminal, and who might have been criminals, or perhaps would even now become criminals, were the circumstances changed so that they were brought under severe temptation, and particularly by the influence of public opinion, instead of holding them from time to time against them toward crime, as is often the case with the real criminal. Under these circumstances, ought not young people in the public schools to consider with some care how they can prevent becoming criminals, or surrounding those whose lives, while not contrary to law, are, nevertheless, contrary to public opinion regarding good morals and good habits?
+
+Is not a special social duty laid upon those who are receiving from the public the blessings of edu-
+cation?
+<page_number>113</page_number>
+
+LIFE QUESTIONS
+
+May not high school pupils do much toward uplifting the moral tone of the community if they see the nature of the influences which drag people down, and endeavor both for themselves and for their fellows to change the unfortunate circumstances under which they live? Such work can often be done best in connection with the churches, but at times much can be done independently.
+
+It would be well to have the boys make some brief study of institutions dealing with the unfortunate, such as criminal, as well as of special schools, such as the George Junior Republic. A visit to an almshouse, a boys' reformatory, a juvenile court, would be helpful, especially if it shows such instances, and gives them an idea of the personal history of individual cases, so as to note the influences leading to misfortune or degradation.
+
+How much of a part have saloons, pool rooms, brothels played in producing pauperism, immorality, crime?
+
+How far do the high school boys put themselves under like influences?
+
+<page_number>114</page_number>
+
+NOTES
+
+<page_number>115</page_number>
+
+NOTES
+
+<page_number>116</page_number>
+
+NOTES
+
+<page_number>117</page_number>
+
+<page_number>1</page_number>
+
+XIII
+POLITICS
+
+"Everything feels the new breath (courage), ex-
+cept the old doting, nigh-dead politicians, whose
+heart the trumpet of resurrection could not wake."
+EMERSON.
+
+"We see insurmountable multitudes obeying, in
+opposition to their strongest passions, the restraints
+of a power which they scarcely perceive, and the
+times of their individual marvels and punished
+at the distance of half the earth." ECKSNOE.
+
+"We shall one day learn to supercede politics by
+education."
+
+"A politician weakly and naively in the right is
+no match for a politician tenaciously and pugna-
+ciously in the wrong." WHIPPLE.
+
+"Happy is that people that is in such a case: yes,
+happy is that people, whose God is the Lord."
+PSALMS, 144: 15.
+
+REFERENCES
+Emerson: Courage, Politics.
+Lowell: Politics.
+Lowell: Democracy.
+Luke, 20.
+
+<page_number>180</page_number>
+
+XIII
+POLITICS
+
+1. As soon as an individual attempts to take part in the civil life of the community by bringing influence to bear upon the government, either di-
+rectly or through taking part in the choice of public officials, he becomes a citizen, to some degree, a politician. The welfare of the com-
+munity is bound up so closely in the nature of the government which controls our schools, our prisons, our highways, our churches, our social institutions of all kinds, that every good citizen ought to know something about the nature of problems which must be dealt with by government and regarding the way in which govern-
+mental affairs are carried on.
+
+Can a person be a good citizen without taking an active part in politics? Is so, under what cir-
+cumstances? Did Jesus take part in the political movements of his day? Why did he follow that
+plan?
+
+Can a person be a good citizen without being a
+good man? Why?
+
+2. In most communities persons are chosen to
+once thru the active work of political parties; and
+beyond question in our country persons can do
+their political work under most circumstances,
+more efficiently thru the medium of a party than by acting independently.
+
+<page_number>121</page_number>
+
+**LIFE QUESTIONS**
+
+How many political parties are there in the community, and what are they?
+What part does the political party play in electing men to office?
+Does an officer chosen largely thru the influence of a political party owe any special allegiance to that party or is his allegiance to the public as a whole? Is the party supposed to exist for the sake of the public or for the sake of its own members?
+
+3. A political party exists for the purpose of carrying out certain principles of governmental work. Usually on every question over which political parties divide their opinions, there can be said with truthfulness, If a person keeps the welfare of the state in mind, he is often greatly puzzled to know with which party he should work in order to obtain the best result. Even the person who changes his attitude on a public question under the influence of a change of leadership. In consequence, it is desirable, if a person is to do his full duty as a citizen and maintain his respect as a man, that he should carefully study fully the issues of the day that separate political parties.
+
+4. But, owing to the tendency of men to follow examples, and to little original thinking, a person who once joins a political party usually remains with it, even the time managers have changed the principles which they will follow. Every thoroly self-respecting person should endeavor to
+
+<page_number>122</page_number>
+
+**POLITICS**
+
+think out the issues of each election as carefully as possible and to act accordingly.
+
+5. Is it a desirable thing for a young man, be-
+fore he becomes a voter, to identify himself with
+any political party by marching in party proces-
+sions, by giving speeches, by bringing voters to the polls, or
+otherwise? Why?
+
+Is there any danger that a person, by holding his judgment on party questions in abeyance un-
+til he becomes a voter, will fall into the habit of
+considering that his judgment is always correct?
+
+6. What are the advantages and disadvantages of discussing political questions in high school de-
+bating clubs or classes?
+
+How often do you and your person receive favors from
+party managers? For example, his expenses in go-
+ing home to vote; pay for working at the polls,
+etc.? Why?
+
+7. Let your young men report on the different
+political organizations in the neighborhood, their
+leaders, modes of work, etc.
+Let them report on the issues of any election
+and see whether, in their judgment, the voters are
+swayed by their cool study of these issues or by
+prejudice.
+
+<page_number>123</page_number>
+
+NOTES
+
+<page_number>184</page_number>
+
+NOTES
+
+<page_number>185</page_number>
+
+<page_number>1</page_number>
+
+XIV
+SUCCESS
+
+"I cannot call riches better than the baggage of virtue." * * * * "Of great riches there is no real use, except it be in the distribution; the rest is but conceit." Bacon.
+
+"I confess that increasing years bring with them an increasing respect for men who do not succeed in life as those words are commonly used." HILLARD, by Mathews.
+
+"O Keep me innocent! Make others great."
+* * * * "It's known That which before us lies in daily life Is the prime wisdom." Milton.
+
+**REFERENCES**
+
+Emerson: Success.
+Bacon: Of Riches.
+Mathews: Nothing on in the World, Chap. 81.
+Psalmus, 128.
+Matthew, 4: 1-11.
+
+<page_number>128</page_number>
+
+XIV
+
+SUCCESS
+
+1. Most young men, very properly, look for success in life. The whole course of their train-
+ing and activity will be determined by the thing
+they have of what constitutes success. Inasmuch
+as it is essential in a civilized community for a
+person, in order to live, to secure an income suf-
+ficient to provide food and clothing and shelter
+and the other necessities of life, it is natural
+to think of success first as the acquisition of a
+fortune, larger or smaller.
+
+One ordinary man of reasonable health and
+ability be either a good citizen or a
+good man unless he fits himself for acquiring a
+good livelihood?
+
+Is there any principle by which a person can
+determine with the income that will be suffi-
+cise for him in middle age?
+
+It is desirable to attempt to fix a limit to the
+fortune which a man should strive to acquire?
+What are the prizes influences over others or
+influence in the community? What are prizes,
+wealth, or they value wealth on account of the
+influence which it gives. Consider the men in the
+community whose opinions are
+prized and who are men of chief influence. What
+are the sources of their influence? Wealth? Good
+fellowship? Sound judgment? Good character?
+Unselfishness?
+
+<page_number>129</page_number>
+
+LIFE QUESTIONS
+
+How far should one consciously make influence the test of success in life?
+
+3. Some philosophers, and a good many persons not philosophers, judging by their teachings and acts, have looked upon happiness or content as the chief aim in life; in consequence as the best criteria of success.
+
+Is content or happiness a matter primarily of the things which one possesses, of the work that one does, of one's personal disposition, of one's health?
+
+How far is content with one's lot compatible with progress?
+
+4. The idea of success in life that seems to be set up in the Bible thru the life and teaching of Jesus Christ is this: "Heaven." How far is this consistent with wealth getting? With extending one's influence in the community? With securing happiness or content?
+
+<page_number>130</page_number>
+
+Notes
+
+<page_number>181</page_number>
+
+NOTES
+
+<page_number>198</page_number>
+
+Notes
+
+<page_number>153</page_number>
+
+<page_number>1</page_number>
+
+XV
+RELIGION
+
+" It is true, that a little philosophy inclineth man's mind to atheism; but depth in philosophy bringeth men's minds about to religion." Bacon.
+
+"The broad ethics of Jesus were quickly narrowed to village theologies, which preach on election or favoritism."
+
+"The way to judge of religion is by doing our duty. Religion is rather a divine life than a divine knowledge. In heaven, indeed, we must first see, and then love; but here, on earth, we must first love, and then will open our eyes as well as our hearts, and we shall then see, and perceive, and understand."
+
+SMILES.
+
+REFERENCES
+Bacon: Of Atheism.
+Of Supercilition.
+James, 1.
+
+<page_number>126</page_number>
+
+XV
+
+RELIGION
+
+1. By a man's religion is meant his relationship with God; or his view of his relationship to any power or powers which he may consider as common. The nature of his religion, therefore, is likely to depend very largely upon what has been taught him in his youth, upon the degree of his intelligence, upon the extent of his knowledge of life, and upon the amount of experience. Religion is thus likely to be a growth changing and developing with increasing years and experience.
+
+2. To a good many people religion seems to be primarily a matter of thinking, of believing, and not a matter of feeling. It is true that those who had the greatest influence in history along religious lines are those whose views of their relation to God have affected profoundly their lives, and have determined their conduct. A person's view of God is, of course, determined largely by his idea of what is highest and best in life. Would it be possible for an untutored savage to take the same view of God as a highly trained civilised man?
+
+In what respects would the views of God ef, let us say, a cannibal differ from those of a cultivated American, even tho both might be Christians?
+
+3. If a person's religious views affect his daily life, is it likely to force upon him many sacrifices? If so, what will be the nature of such
+
+<page_number>187</page_number>
+
+LIFE QUESTIONS
+
+sacrifices? Must he give up pleasures? If so, what kinds?
+Must he give up certain plans of making a livehood? If so, what kinds of plans?
+Must he change his ambition for success in life?
+If so, how?
+
+What comfort or active enjoyments come or ought to come from one's religious belief?
+How far is this belief a matter of this life?
+How far is it intimately connected with the life to come, regardless of this life?
+Are religious practices primarily acts of church worship or deeds of active service for others?
+Upon what does Jesus' character depend?
+What acts of your daily life have a religious character? Studying? Giving to the poor?
+Playing ball? Helping your parents?
+
+A. It was seen that the character of a man to his God ought to be a source of enjoyment, of satisfaction; and yet this would depend very largely upon his view of the nature of his God.
+In many cases savages think that their gods are rogues, villains who need to be propitiated or bought, and their chief sentiment toward their gods has been that of fear; so that little or no enjoyment came from such relationship, unless they thought their gods were good enough to satisfy.
+
+In most civilized Christian communities the thought of the nature of God is different. Since Jesus Christ came into the world his acts and character have largely made the ideals of good-<page_number>138</page_number>
+
+**RELIGION**
+
+ness, and in consequence have created the concep-
+tions of God that are found in the minds of
+Christian peoples. In that way at least he is the
+reveler of God, the incarnation of Godhood.
+Unless men can get a higher conception of good-
+ness than that which they now hold, the Christian
+religion must stand. It will stand.
+
+With the life of Jesus Christ embodying all that
+is best and noblest in our ideals, and with the
+teachings which are forming the foundation of the
+best in our civilization, what else can we do?
+Do better than to make this life and these teachings
+the subject of regular thoughtful study?
+
+<page_number>139</page_number>
+
+Notas
+
+<page_number>140</page_number>