diff --git "a/Botany/botany-an_elementary_text_for_schools_1900.md" "b/Botany/botany-an_elementary_text_for_schools_1900.md" new file mode 100644--- /dev/null +++ "b/Botany/botany-an_elementary_text_for_schools_1900.md" @@ -0,0 +1,12169 @@ +barcode 3 161 01533421 2 +UNIV.OF +TORONTO +LIBRARY + +A close-up of a light-colored wall with a dark vertical line running along its right edge. + +LIBRARY +FACULTY OF FORESTRY +UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO + +[API_EMPTY_RESPONSE] + +Digitized by the Internet Archive +in 2007 with funding from +Microsoft Corporation + +http://www.archive.org/details/botanyelementary00bailuoft + +[API_EMPTY_RESPONSE] + +BOTANY + +A stylized signature or monogram, possibly in Arabic script. + +[API_EMPTY_RESPONSE] + +I. "From fragile marshweeds, delicate water-words and pond-sprays, to floating leaves, +soft grasses, reseer weeds, tall larches, slender elms, gigantic trees, and +hanging moss." See Chapter I. + +B +# BOTANY + +## AN ELEMENTARY TEXT FOR SCHOOLS + +BY +L. H. BAILEY + +035H1 21/9/68 + +New York + +THE MACMILLAN COMPANY +LONDON : MACMILLAN & CO. LTD. +1900 + +All rights reserved. + +QK +47 +B3 + +COPYRIGHT, 1900 +BY L. B. BAILEY + +A small, stylized bird or insect flying over the text. + + +Pompei Picciani Domino +J. Horne McPhail Company +Hoboken, N.J. + + +PARAGRAPHS FOR THE TEACHER + +This book is made for the pupil; "Lessons with Plants" was made to supplement the work of the teacher. + +There are four general subjects in this book: the nature of the plant itself; the relation of the plant to its surroundings; histological studies; determination of the kinds of plants. From the pedagogical point of view, the third is the least important. Each of the subjects is practically distinct, so that the teacher may begin where he will. + +The schools and the teachers are not ready for the text-book which presents the subject from the viewpoint of botanical science. Perhaps it is better that the secondary schools attempt only to teach plants. + +A book may be ideal from the specialist's point of view, and yet be of little use to the pupil and the school. + +The pupil should come to the study of plants and animals with little more than his natural and native powers. Study with the compound microscope is a specialization to be made when the pupil has had experience, and when his judgment and sense of relationships are trained. + +(v) + +vi +PARAGRAPHS FOR THE TEACHER + +One of the first things that a child should learn when he comes to the study of natural history is the fact that no two things are alike. This leads to an apprehension of the correlated fact that every animal and plant contends for an opportunity to live, and this is the central fact in the study of living things. The world has a new meaning when this fact is understood. + +The ninety and nine cannot and should not be botanists, but everyone can love plants and nature. Every person is interested in the evident things, few in the abstruse and recondite. Education should train persons to live, rather than to be scientists. + +Now and then a pupil develops a love of science for science's sake. He would be an investigator. He would add to the sum of human knowledge. He should be encouraged. There are colleges and universities in which he may continue his studies. + +In the secondary schools botany should be taught for the purpose of bringing the pupil closer to the things with which he lives, of widening his horizon, of intensifying his hold on life. It should begin with familiar plant forms and phenomena. It should be related to the experiences of the daily life. It should not be taught for the purpose of making the pupil a specialist: that effort should be retained for the few who develop a taste for special knowledge. It is often said that the high-school pupil should begin the study of botany with the lowest and simplest forms of + +vi + +PARAGRAPHs FOR THE TEACHER vii + +life. This is wrong. The microscope is not an introduction to nature. It is said that the physiology of plants can best be understood by beginning with the lower forms. This may be true; but technical plant physiology is not a subject for the beginner. Other subjects are more important. + +The youth is by nature a generalist. He should not be forced to be a specialist. +* * * * * + +A great difficulty in the teaching of botany is to determine what are the most profitable topics for consideration. The trouble with much of the teaching is that it attempts to go too far, and the subjects have no vital connection with the pupil's life. + +Good botanical teaching for the young is replete with human interest. It is connected with the common associations. + +The teacher often hesitates to teach botany because of lack of technical knowledge of the subject. This is well; but technical knowledge of the subject does not make a good teacher. Expert specialists are so likely to go into mere details and to pursue particular subjects so far, when teaching beginners, as to miss the leading and emphatic points. They are so cognizant of exceptions to every rule that they qualify their statements until the statements have no force. There are other ideals than those of mere accuracy. In other words, it is more important that the teacher be + +viii PARAGRAPHS FOR THE TEACHER + +a good teacher than a good botanist. One may be so exact that his words mean nothing; But being a good botanist does not spoil a good teacher. + +An imperfect method that is adapted to one's use is better than a perfect one that cannot be used. Some school laboratories are so perfect that they discourage the pupil in taking up investigations when thrown on his own resources. Imperfect equipment often encourages ingenuity and originality. A good teacher is better than all the laboratories and apparatus. + +Good teaching devolves on the personality and enthusiasm of the teacher; but subject-matter is a prime requisite. The teacher should know more than he attempts to teach. Every teacher should have access to the current botanical books. The school library should contain these books. By consulting the new books the teacher keeps abreast of the latest opinion. +* * * * * * + +When beginning to teach plants, think more of the pupil than of botany. The pupil's mind and sympathies are to be expanded; the science of botany is not to be extended. The teacher who thinks first of his subject teaches science; he who thinks first of his pupil teaches nature-study. + +Teach first the things nearest to hand. When the pupil has seen the common, he may be introduced to the rare and distant. We live in the midst of common things. + +PARAGRAPHS FOR THE TEACHER ix + +The old way of teaching botany was to teach the forms and the names of plants. It is now proposed that only function be taught. But one cannot study function intelligently without some knowledge of plant forms and names. He must know the language of the subject. The study of form and function should go together. Correlate what a plant is with what it does. +What is this part? What is its office, or how did it come to be? It were a pity to teach phylloxy with-out teaching light-relation; it were an equal pity to teach light-relation without teaching phylloxy. + +Four epochs can be traced in the teaching of elementary botany: (1) The effort to know the names of plants and to classify. This was the outgrowth of the earlier aspect of plant knowledge, when it was necessary to make an inventory of the things in the world. (2) The desire to know the formal names of the parts of plants. This was an outgrowth of the study of gross morphology. Botanists came to be dictionaries of technical terms. (3) The effort to develop the powers of independent investigation. This was largely a result of the German laboratory system, which developed the trained specialist investigator. It emphasized the value of the compound microscope and other apparatus. This method is of the greatest service to botanical science, but its introduction into the secondary schools is usually unfortunate. (4) The effort to know the plant as a complete organism living its own life in a natural way. In the beginning of this epoch we are now living. + +X + +PARAGRAPHs FOR THE TEACHER + +There is a general protest against the teaching of "big names" to pupils; but the pupil does not object to technical terms if he acquires them when he learns the thing to which they belong, as he acquires other language. When a part is discovered the name becomes a necessity, and is not easily forgotten. He should be taught not to memorize the names. The "hard" words of to-day are the familiar words of to-morrow. There are no words in this book harder than ephrastinum, thermometer, and hippospondium. + +The book should be a guide to the plant: the plant should not be a guide to the book. + +Plants should not be personified or endowed outright with motives; but figures of speech and para- ples may often be employed to teach a lesson or to drive home a point. + +Excite the pupil's interest rather than his wonder. + +The better the teacher, the less will he confine himself to the questions at the end of the lesson. + +Botany always should be taught by the "laboratory method;" that is, the pupil should work out the subjects directly from the specimens themselves. + +Specimens mean more to the pupil when he collects them. + +No matter how commonplace the subject, a specimen will vivify it and fix it in the pupil's mind. + +A living, growing plant is worth a score of herba- rium specimens. + +PARAGRAPHS FOR THE TEACHER xi + +Acknowledgments.—To hundreds of young people in many places the author is under the profoundest obligations, for they have instructed him in the point of view. Specific aid has been given by many persons. From the teacher's point of view, proofs have been read by Miss Julia E. Rogers, Minburn, Iowa; Miss L. B. Sage, Norwich, N. Y.; Mrs. Mary Rogers Miller, lecturer of the Bureau of Nature-Study in Cornell University. From the botanist's point of view, all the proofs have been read by Dr. Erwin F. Smith, of the Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, United States Department of Agriculture, and his suggestions have been invaluable. Chapters XI and XII are adapted from two papers which were contributed to a Farmer's Reading-Course under the author's charge, by Dr. E. M. Dougar, of Cornell University. Two specialists, with whom it has been the author's privilege to associate as teacher and collaborator, have contributed particular parts: Dr. K. C. Davis, the greater portion of Part III, and H. Hasselbring, the most of Chapter XXV. On special problems the author has had the advice of Dr. K. M. Wiegnad, of Cornell University. + +Horticultural Department, +Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. +October 1, 1936. + +L. H. BAILEY + +The common pitcher plant, Sarracenia purpurea. +The pitchers, or leaves, hold water, in which organic matter collects. +This decaying matter probably aids somewhat in nourishing the plant. + +**CONTENTS** + +**PART I** + +THE PLANT ITSELF + +CHAPTER PAGE +I. The Plant as a Whole 1 +II. The Root 7 +III. The Stem 14 +IV. Propagation by Means of Roots and Stems 19 +V. How the Horticulturist Propagates Plants by Means of his Knowledge of Roots and Stems 24 +VI. Food Reservoirs 31 +VII. Winter Buds 36 +VIII. Plants and Sunlight 42 +IX. Struggle for Existence amongst the Branches 52 +X. The Forms of Plants 59 +XI. How the Plant Takes in the Soil Water 64 +XII. How the Plant Lives 74 +XIII. Dependent Plants 83 +XIV. Leaves and Foliage 90 +XV. Morphology, or the Study of the Forms of Plant Members 101 +XVI. How Plants Climb 108 +XVII. Flower-Branches 114 +XVIII. The Parts of the Flower 122 +XIX. The Process of Pollination 128 +XX. Particular Forms of Flowers 136 +XXI. Fruits 147 +XXII. Dispersal of Seeds 158 + +(SIII) + +XIV CONTENTS + +CHAPTER PAGE +XXHL. Germination 164 +XXIV. Phenograms and Cryptogams 172 +XXXV. Studies in Cryptogams 178 + +PART II +THE PLANT IN ITS ENVIRONMENT + +XXVI. Where Plants Grow 107 +XXVII. Contention with Physical Environment 203 +XXVIII. Competition with Fellows 209 +XXIX. Plant Societies 219 +XXX. Variation and Its Results 228 + +PART III +HISTOLOGY, OR THE MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANTS + +XXXI. The Cell 233 +XXXII. Contents and Products of Cells 245 +XXXIII. Tissues 252 +XXXIV. Structure of Stems and Roots 259 +XXXV. Structure of Leaves 269 + +PART IV +THE KINGS OF PLANTS (p. 275) + +BOTANY + +PART I—THE PLANT ITSELF + +CHAPTER I + +THE PLANT AS A WHOLE + +1. A plant is a living, growing thing. It partakes of the soil and air and sunshine. It propagates its kind and covers the face of the earth. It has much with which to contend. It makes the most of every opportunity. We shall study its parts, how it lives, and how it behaves. + +2. THE PARTS OF A PLANT.—Our familiar plants are made up of several distinct parts. The most prominent of these parts are root, stem, leaf, flower, and seed. Fig. 2. Familiar plants differ wonderfully in size and shape,—from ragged mud-houses, to the winter-wax, to the poinsettia, to floating leaves, soft grasses, coarse weeds, tall bushes, slender climbers, gigantic trees, and hanging moss. See frontispiece. + +3. THE STEM PART.—In most plants there is a main central part or shaft on which the other or secondary parts are + +A botany illustration showing various parts of a plant. +2 A botany plant, showing the various parts. + +A +(1) + +2 + +THE PLANT AS A WHOLE + +borne. This main part is the plant axis. Above ground, in familiar plants, the axis bears the branches, leaves and flowers; below ground, it bears the roots. + +4. The rigid part of the plant, which persists ever-winter through the winter's favorable season, is fallen, is the framework of the plant. The framework is composed of both root and stem. When the plant is dead, the framework remains for a time, but it slowly decays. The dry winter stems of weeds are the framework or skeleton of the plant. Figs. 3 and 4. The framework of trees is the most conspicuous part of the plant. + +5. THE ROOT PART.—The root tends to bear the stem at its apex, but otherwise it normally bears on root-branches. Those living surfaces of the plant which are most exposed to light are green or highly colored. The root tends to grow downward, but the stem tends to grow upward toward light and air. The fruit is anchored or fixed in the soil by the roots. Plants have been called "earth parasites." + +6. THE FOLIAGE PART.—The leaves precede the flowers in point of time, and they are the plant's food. Flowers always precede the fruits and seeds. Some plants die when the seeds have matured. The whole mass of leaves of any plant or any branch is known as its foliage. + +7. THE PLANT GENERATION.—The course of a plant's life, with all the events through which the plant naturally passes, is known as the plant's life-history. The life-history embraces various stages or epochs, its dormant seed, germination, growth, flowering, fruiting. Some plants run their course in a few weeks or months, and some live for centuries. + +8. The entire life-period of a plant is called a generation. It is the whole period from birth to normal death, without reference to the various stages or events through which it passes. + +THE PLANT GENERATION 3 + +9. A generation begins with the young seed, not with germination. It ends with death -- that is, when no life is left in any part of the plant, and only the seed or spore remains to perpetuate the kind. In a bulbous plant, as a lily or an onion, the generation does not end until the bulbs die, even though the top is dead. + +When the duration of a generation is of only one season's duration, the plant is said to be annual. +When it is of two seasons, it is biennial. Biennials normally bloom the second year. When of three or more seasons, the plant is perennial. Examples: annuals (sunflower, pea), perennials (sunflower; of biennials, fox-glove, mullein, teasel, parsnip, carrot); of perennials, dock, meadow grass, cat-tail, and all shrubs and trees. + +11. DURATION OF THE PLANT LIFE. Plants have struc- +tures which are more or less soft and which die at the close of the season are said to be herbaceous, in contradistinction to being ligneous or woody. A plant which is herbaceous to the ground is called an herb; but an herb may have a woody or perennial root, in which case it is called an herbaceous perennial. Annual plants are classed as herbaceous because their herbaceous perennials are buttercup (Fig. 2), bleeding heart (Fig. 3), many grasses, dock, dandelion, golden red, asparagus, rhubarb, many wild sunflowers (Figs. 3, 4). + +12. Many herbaceous perennials have short generations. + + +A plant of a wild sunflower. + +1. Framework of Sa. 3. + +4 +THE PLANT AS A WHOLE + +They become weak with one or two seasons of flowering and gradually die out. Thus red clover begins to fail after the second year. Gardeners know that the best bloom of hollyhock, larkspur, pink, and many other plants, is secured by planting them in the spring. + +13. Herbaceous perennials which die away each season to bulbs or tubers, are sometimes called pseud-annuals (that is, false annuals). Of such are lily, crocus, onion, potato. + +A sketch or brush. Dogwood order. + +14. Plants which are normally perennial may become annual in a shorter-season climate by being killed by frost, rather than by dying naturally at the end of the season of growth. The poinsettia is a plant-annual in the short-season region. Many tropical perennials are plur-annuals when grown in the north, but they are treated as true annuals because they ripen sufficient of their crop the same season in which the seeds are sown to make them worth cultivating, as tomato, red pepper, castor bean. + +HOW PLANTS ARE MODIFIED 5 + +15. Woody or ligneous plants are usually longer lived than herbs. Those which remain low and produce several or many similar shoots from the base are called *shrubs*, as +bush, rose, elder, oser. Fig. 5. Low and thick shrubs are +called *trees*. The trunk is thick and a +more or less elevated head are trees. Fig. 6. + +16. PLANTS ARE MODIFIED BY THE CONDITIONS IN +WHICH THEY GROW.—In most plants, the size, form and +general appearance vary or change with the conditions in +which the plant grows. That is, +there is no uniform or necessary +form into which plants shall grow. +No two plants are exactly alike. +We must look at them by their kind +and age, and see how they differ +or vary. The farmer and gar- +dener can cause plants to be large +or small of their kind, by chang- +ing the conditions or circumstan- +ces under which they grow. +17. No two parts of the same +plant are exactly alike. No two +parts grow in the same conditions, +for one is nearer the main stem, +one nearer the light, and another +has more room. Try to find two +leaves or two branches on the same plant which are exactly +alike. Fig. 7. + +18. Every plant makes an effort to propagate or to per- +petuate its kind; and as far as we can see, this is the end +for which the plant itself lives. The seed or spore is +the final product of the plant. + +19. Every plant,—and every part of a plant,—under- +goes vicissitudes. It has to adapt itself to the condi- +tions in which it lives. It contends for place in which to + +A tree. The weeping birch. +6 + +6 +THE PLANT AS A WHOLE + +grow, and for air and light. Its life is eventful. Every plant, therefore, has a history and a story to tell. + +A diagram showing the parts of a plant. +**7. There are no two branches alike.** + +**Review.** Of what part is each plant com- +posed? What is the axis? What parts are borne on the stem? On the second page of this part are the most highly col- +ored parts found! What direction do they take? The stem? How +are plants anchored in the soil? In what order do the leaves grow up? +pear! What is meant by +the life-history? What are some of the stages or events in the life- +history? At what point does a generation begin? When end? By what means is reproduction effected? Perennial? Annual? Biennial? Perennial! +Herbaceous perennial? Fecund-ananum? Shrub? Bush? +Tree? Give three examples of each of these classes, not mentioning any given in the book. What is a phan-ananum? Why are no two parts or plants alike? What is the final effect of every plant? Why is the life of a plant eventful? + +**Norz.—The teacher may assign each pupil to one plant in the +school yard, field, or in a pot, and ask him to bring out the points in the lesson.** + +Winter-time brings out the framework of the plants. + +CHAPTER II + +THE ROOT + +20. THE ROOT SYSTEM.—The offices of the root are to hold the plant in place, and to gather food. Not all the food materials, however, are gathered by the roots. + +21. The entire mass of roots of any plant is called its root system. The root system may be annual, biennial or perennial, herbaceous or woody, deep or shallow, large or small. + +22. KINDS OF ROOTS.—A strong leading central root, which extends downwards, is a tap-root. +The side or spreading roots are usually smaller. Plants which have such a root system are said to be tap-rooted. +Examples are red clover, beet, turnip, radish, barberry, dandelion. Fig. 8. + +23. A fibrous root system is one in which the main stem has nearly equal slender branches. The greater number of plants have fibrous roots. +Examples are many common grasses, wheat, oats, corn, and most trees. +The buttress in Fig. 2 has a fibrous root system. + +8 Tap root +of D. dandelion. + +24. SIZE AND EXTENT OF THE ROOT SYSTEM.—The depth to which roots extend depends on the kind of plant, and the nature of the soil. Of most plants the roots + +(7) + +8 +THE ROOT + +9. The cracked roots exposed where the soil has been washed away. + +extend far in all directions and lie comparatively near the surface. The roots usually radiate from a common point just beneath the surface of the ground. + +25. The roots go here and there in search of food, often extending much farther in all directions than the spread of the top of the plant. Roots tend to spread further in poor soil than in rich soil. The root has no such definite form as the stem has. Roots are constantly turned aside by obstacles. Fig. 26. Examine roots in stony or gravelly soil. + +26. The extent of root surface is usually very large, for the feeding roots are fine and very numerous. An ordinary plant of 1 inch core may have a total length of root (measured as if the roots were placed end to end) of several hundred feet. + +27. The fine feeding roots are most abundant in the richest soil. They are attracted by the food which they find, and they surround a bone or other morsel. When roots of trees are exposed, observe that most of + +10. Root-hairs of the radish. + +A close-up view of a plant's root system, showing fine, hair-like structures called root hairs. +11 + +THE ROOT-HAIRS + +9 + +them are horizontal and lie near the top of the ground. +Some roots, as of willows, go far in search of water. They often run into walls and drains, and into the margins of creeks and ponds. Grow in the soil which is kept very dry and in the other moist; observe where the roots grow. + +28. The feeding surface of the roots is near their ends. As the roots become old and hard, they serve only as channels through which food passes and as hold-fasts or supports for the plant. The root-hair is a short, slender, hair-like projection downwards on some plant, and now how firmly it is anchored in the soil. With the increase in diameter, the upper roots often protrude above the ground and become breathing bittresses. These bittresses are usually largest in trees which always have been exposed to strong winds. Fig. 10. + +The root-hairs are by far the largest part of the nourishment gathered by the root is taken in through root-hairs. Fig. 11. +These are very delicate tubes prolonged from the surface cells of the roots. They are borne for a short distance just back of the tip of the root. + +30. The root-hairs are very small, often invisible to the naked eye. The young roots, are usually broken off when the plant is pulled up. They are best seen when seeds are germinated between layers of dark blotting paper or flannel. On the young roots, they will be seen as a membranlike or gossamer-like covering. Root-17 aerial roots of 18 coniferous trees. + +A close-up view of root hairs on a plant. + +10 +THE BOOT + +hairs soon die: they do not grow into roots. New ones form as the root grows. + +31. AERIAL ROOTS.—Although most roots bury themselves in the soil, there are some which grow above ground. These usually occur on climbing plants, the roots becoming + +A drawing of aerial roots of an orchid. +13. Aerial roots of an orchid. + +A drawing of aerial roots at one point on a plant. +14. Indian corn, showing the aerial roots at one point. + +supports or fulfilling the office of tendrils. These aerial roots usually turn away from the light, and therefore enter the crevices and dark places of the wall or tree over which the plant climbs. The trumpet creeper (Fig. 12), true or English ivy, and poison ivy, climb by means of roots. + +32. In some plants, all the roots are aerial; that is, the plant grows above ground, and the roots gather food from the air. Such plants usually grow on trees. They are + +1. A banyan tree in India. The old trunk is seen (at the left), together with many cranks formed from the aerial roots. + +2. Banyan tree covering several acres, India. + +12 +THE ROOT + +known as epiphytes or air-plants (Chapter XIII). The most familiar examples are some of the tropical orchids, which are grown in glasshouses. +Fig. 13. + +53. Some plants throw on aerial roots, which propagate the plant or act as braces. The roots of Indian corn are familiar, Fig. 14. Many fles trees, as the banyan of India (Figs. 15, 16), send out roots from their branches into the air. These roots take hold and become great trunks, thus spreading the top of the parent tree over great areas. The mangrove (Fig. 17) of the tropics grows along sea-shores and sends down roots from the overhanging branches into the shallow water, and thereby gradually marches into the sea. The tangled mass behind catches the drift, and soil is formed. + +REVIEW.--What is the root for? What is a root system? Define tap-root. Fibrous root. What determines how deep the root may go? +How far does the root spread? Explain what form the root sys- tem must have to support a large tree. How many times the num- ber of fine roots found ? Where is the feeding surface of roots? Of what use to the plant are the old woody roots? What are root-hairs? What do they do and what becomes of them? What are aerial roots? What are they for? How do they help roots grow? What are brace roots? How do the banyan and man- grove spread (slide from side)? Note.--The pupil should see the root-hairs. A week before this + +A diagram showing aerial roots of a plant. +13. Mangroves marching into the sea. + +A diagram showing aerial roots of a plant. +14. Mangroves marching into the sea. + +A diagram showing aerial roots of a plant. +15. Mangroves marching into the sea. + +A diagram showing aerial roots of a plant. +16. Mangroves marching into the sea. + +A diagram showing aerial roots of a plant. +17. Mangroves marching into the sea. + +A diagram showing aerial roots of a plant. +18. Mangroves marching into the sea. + +A diagram showing aerial roots of a plant. +19. Mangroves marching into the sea. + +A diagram showing aerial roots of a plant. +20. Mangroves marching into the sea. + +A diagram showing aerial roots of a plant. +21. Mangroves marching into the sea. + +A diagram showing aerial roots of a plant. +22. Mangroves marching into the sea. + +A diagram showing aerial roots of a plant. +23. Mangroves marching into the sea. + +A diagram showing aerial roots of a plant. +24. Mangroves marching into the sea. + +A diagram showing aerial roots of a plant. +25. Mangroves marching into the sea. + +A diagram showing aerial roots of a plant. +26. Mangroves marching into the sea. + +A diagram showing aerial roots of a plant. +27. Mangroves marching into the sea. + +A diagram showing aerial roots of a plant. +28. Mangroves marching into the sea. + +A diagram showing aerial roots of a plant. +29. Mangroves marching into the sea. + +A diagram showing aerial roots of a plant. +30. Mangroves marching into the sea. + +A diagram showing aerial roots of a plant. +31. Mangroves marching into the sea. + +A diagram showing aerial roots of a plant. +32. Mangroves marching into the sea. + +A diagram showing aerial roots of a plant. +33. Mangroves marching into the sea. + +A diagram showing aerial roots of a plant. +34. Mangroves marching into the sea. + +A diagram showing aerial roots of a plant. +35. Mangroves marching into the sea. + +A diagram showing aerial roots of a plant. +36. Mangroves marching into the sea. + +A diagram showing aerial roots of a plant. +37. Mangroves marching into the sea. + +A diagram showing aerial roots of a plant. +38. Mangroves marching into the sea. + +A diagram showing aerial roots of a plant. +39. Mangroves marching into the sea. + +A diagram showing aerial roots of a plant. +40. Mangroves marching into the sea. + +A diagram showing aerial roots of a plant. +41. Mangroves marching into the sea. + +A diagram showing aerial roots of a plant. +42. Mangroves marching into the sea. + +A diagram showing aerial roots of a plant. +43. Mangroves marching into the sea. + +A diagram showing aerial roots of a plant. +44. Mangroves marching into the sea. + +A diagram showing aerial roots of a plant. +45. Mangroves marching into the sea. + +A diagram showing aerial roots of a plant. +46. Mangroves marching into the sea. + +A diagram showing aerial roots of a plant. +47. Mangroves marching into the sea. + +A diagram showing aerial roots of a plant. +48. Mangroves marching into the sea. + +A diagram showing aerial roots of a plant. +49. Mangroves marching into the sea. + +A diagram showing aerial roots of a plant. +50. Mangroves marching into the sea. + +A diagram showing aerial roots of a plant. +51. Mangroves marching into the sea. + +A diagram showing aerial roots of a plant. +52. Mangroves marching into the sea. + +A diagram showing aerial roots of a plant. +53. Mangroves marching into the sea. + +An illustration depicting an aerial view with various stages in mangrove growth and spread across coastal areas, highlighting how these plants can effectively colonize new land by sending out new shoots and branches that eventually anchor themselves in place, forming extensive networks across coastal regions, including mangrove swamps and other coastal ecosystems where they play crucial roles in protecting shorelines and supporting diverse marine life through their unique adaptations and ecological functions, such as providing habitat for numerous species, filtering pollutants from seawater, stabilizing sediments, and contributing to carbon sequestration efforts globally, making them vital components in maintaining healthy coastal environments worldwide, while also serving as important sources for timber, fuel, food, and other resources for local communities living near these dynamic ecosystems, emphasizing their importance in sustaining both natural habitats and human livelihoods in coastal regions around the world, including Southeast Asia, South America, Africa, Australia, and other parts where similar conditions exist, underscoring their significance in global environmental management strategies aimed at preserving biodiversity and mitigating climate change impacts through sustainable practices and conservation efforts that ensure long-term viability and resilience for these vital coastal ecosystems that provide multiple benefits to society and nature alike, while also highlighting ongoing research and management initiatives focused on enhancing our understanding and appreciation for these remarkable plants' contributions to global ecological health and sustainability goals." + +REVIEW + +lesson is studied, have the pupils place seeds of radish, turnip or oats- +leaves between folds of thick cloth or blotting paper. Keep the cloth +or paper moist and warm. The hairs show best against a dark back- +ground. In some of the blotting papers, sprinkle sand ; observe how +the root-hairs cling to the grains (compare Chapter XI). +The following experiment may be made with each plant. Let him +carefully pull up a plant. If a plant grow alongside a fence or other +rigid object, he may test the root-hold by securing a string to the +plant, letting the string hang over the fence and then adding weights +to the string. Will a plant of similar size to the plant pull extending +so deeper in the ground, have such firm hold on the soil ? + +Garden along the school-yard fence, where pupils may +grow the plants for study + +CHAPTER III + +THE STEM + +31 THE STEM SYSTEM.—The stem of a plant is the part which bears the buds, leaves, flowers and fruits. Its office is to hold these parts up to the light and air; and through its tissues the various food-materials and the life-giving fluids are distributed to the growing and working parts. + +32. The entire mass or fabric of stems of any plant is called its stem system. Figs. 4, 18. + +The stems may be herbaceous or woody, annual, biennial, or perennial; and it may assume many different sizes and shapes. + +36. Stems are of many forms. The general way in which a plant's growth is connected with its habits. +The habit may be open or loose, dense, straight, crooked, compact, straggling, climbing, erect, weak, strong, and the like. The roots and leaves are the important functional or working parts: the stem merely connects them, and its form is exceedingly variable. + +37. KINDS OF STEMS.—The stem may be so short as to be scarcely distinguishable. In such cases the crown of the plant—that part just below ground—hears the leaves and flowers; but this crown is really a very short stem. The dandelion, Fig. 8, is an example. Such plants + +A tree with a large trunk and branches. +(14) + +KINDS OF STEMS + +15 + +are often said to be *stemless*, however, in order to distinguish them from plants which have long or conspicuous stems. These so-called stemless plants die to the ground every year. + +38. Stems are erect when they grow straight up. Figs. 1, 2, 3. They are trailing or creeping when they run along the ground. Fig. 19. They are decumbent when they lie upon or in part on the ground but stand more or less upright at their heads. They are climbing when they cling to other objects for support. Figs. 12, 20. + +39. When the main trunk or the "leader" continues to grow from the base, the plant is excurrent in growth. The branches are borne along the sides of the trunk, as in common pines (Fig. 21) and spruces. Excurrent means running out or running up. + +40. Trees in which the main trunk does not continue are said to be *deliquescent*. The branches arise from one common point or from each other. The silver birch and the birch-broom. The white fir tree (Fig. 18), maple, elm, oak, are familiar examples. Deliquescent means dissolving or melting away. + +41. Each kind of plant has its own peculiar habit or direction of growth. Spruces always grow with single stem or trunk, pear trees are always deliquescent, morning-gloves are always climbing, strawberries are always creeping. We do not know why each plant has its own habit; but the habit is in some way associated with its growth. + +A trailing plant (Akebia). + +16 +THE STEM + +ciated with the plant's genealogy or with the way in which it has been obliged to live. + +42. The stem may be simple or branched. A simple stem usually grows from the terminal bud, and side branches either do not start, or, if they start, they soon perish. Mulleins (Fig. 22) are usually simple. So are palms. + +43. Branched stems may be of very different shapes and shapes. Some stem systems are narrow and erect; these are said to be strict. Others are diffuse, open, branching, twiggy. + +**STEMS vs. ROOTS.** — Roots sometimes grow above ground (31–32); so also, stems sometimes grow subterranean, stems, rhizomes, or rootstocks (Fig. 23). + +45. Stems normally bear leaves and buds, and thereby are distinguished from roots. The leaves, however, may be reduced to mere scales, and the buds beneath them are scarcely visible. Thus the "eyes" on an Irish potato are cavities with a bud or buds at the bottom (Fig. 24). Sweet potatoes have no evident "eyes" when first dug (but they may develop buds before the next growing-) + +A diagram illustrating the difference between stems and roots. + +25. Grape vine climbing on a tree, illustrating two kinds of stems: a climbing stem and a supporting stem. +25 + +HOW STEMS ELONGATE + +season). The Irish potato is a stem : the sweet potato is probably a root. + +46. HOW STEMS ELONGATE.-Roots elongate by growing near the tip. Stems elongate by growing more or less throughout the young or soft part or "between joints." But any part of the stem soon reaches a limit beyond which it cannot grow, or becomes "fixed;" and the new parts beyond elongate until they, too, become rigid. When a part of a stem is fixed or hard, it never increases in length; that is, the trunk or woody parts never grow longer or higher; branches do not become farther apart or higher from the ground. This different regions of growth in stems and roots may be observed in seedling plants. Place seeds of radish or cabbage between layers of blotting-paper or thick cloth. Keep them damp and warm. When stem and root have grown an inch and a half long each, with waterproof ink mark a quarter-inch apart on one-quarter inch apart, keep the plantlets for a day or two, and it will be found that on the stem some or all of the marks are more than one-quarter inch apart ; on the root the marks have not separated. +The root has grown beyond the last mark. + +Page 25 and 26. + +Rhizome. + +B + +18 + +THE STEM + +REVIEW. What is in the stem system? What does the stem do? +How long may the stem persist? +What is meant by the habit of a plant? Name some kinds of habit. +What is the function of a plant? +What is the crown? What becomes of the top of stemless plants? +What is the trunk, swelling, deca- +ment, ascending, elongated stem? +What are excurrent trunks? Delli- +quescent? What is a simple stem? +What are compound stems? What +are subterranian stems? How are +stems distinguished from roots? +What is the differ- +ence in number of leaves between +Nort. The pupil should make marks with water- +proof ink (as Higgins' ink or indebile marking ink) +on the ground to show elements, such as, fuchsias, +grasses, the twigs of trees. Note that on the second day +the marks are most evident on the younger shoots. + +The pupil should observe the fact that a stem of +a plant varies in size and strength. Compare the pro- +portional height, diameter and weight of a grass stem +with those of the elm, +dewet tower or steple. +What is the relation between +strength? Which the greater height? Which +is without and which with +wind? Note that the grass stem will regain its +position even if its top be broken off. +Split a corn stalk and observe how the joints +are put together and bent with force. Note +how plants are weigh- +ed down after a heavy rain. + +24. A thickened stem, bearing bolls. +or "eyes." - Potato. + +25. The marking of the stem and root. +26. The result. + +A close-up image of a thickened stem with bolls or "eyes" on a potato plant. + +CHAPTER IV + +PROPAGATION BY MEANS OF ROOTS AND STEMS + +48. The primary office of roots and stems is to support and maintain the plant; but these parts may also serve to propagate the plant, or to produce new individuals. + +49. PROPAGATION BY MEANS OF RHIZOMES—the office of subterranean stems or rhizomes is to propagate the plant. +Each stem has a bud at its end, and from this bud a shoot arises. By the dying away of the older part of the rhizome, this shoot becomes a separate plant, although the rhizome maintains its connection for years in some plants. +Shoots may also arise from the intermediate or lateral buds, but the strongest shoots usually arise near the root, and near or near the end of the rhizome. Fig. 23. + +50. Each successive plant is farther re- +moved from the original plant or the start- +ing-point of the colony. Thus the colony +or "patch" grows larger. Familiar examples +are the spreading patches of mulberries or +Morus alba, and the grass-roots of the wild +lily-of-the-valley, fern. Cannabium propagat- +ed by means of rhizomes; so does ginger, and +the "roots" can be purchased at the drug +store. Fig. 27 illustrates the spread of a +colony of wild sunflower. On the right the +rhizomes have died away; +on the left, the strong up-turned +bulbs show where the shoots + +27. Creeping rhizomes of wild sunflower. +(19) + +20 + +PROPAGATION OF ROOTS AND STEMS + +will arise next spring. The old stems in the middle show where the buds grow at the close of the last season. +Fig. 28 shows one of the terminal buds. + +51. When rhizomes are cut in pieces, each piece having at least one bud or eye, the pieces may grow when planted. +A familiar example is the practice of dividing tubers of potato. A severed piece of plant designed to be used to propagate the plant is a cutting. See Fig. 28. + +A diagram showing a cutting of an exoma rhizome. +28. Cutting of exoma rhizome. + +52. Cuttings of rhizomes are often made undernigly or accidentally when land is cultivated. The cultivator or harrow breaks up the rhizomes of quick-grass, Canada thistle, toad flax, and other weeds, and scatters them over the field. + +53. PROPAGATION BY MEANS OF ROOTS.—Roots sometimes make buds and throw up shoots or new plants. Several roots, or root cuttings, often grow. Blackberries, raspberries, and many plums and cherries, throw up shoots or "suckers" from the roots, and this propensity is usu- + +CUTTINGS AND LAYERS 21 + +ally increased when the roots are broken, as by a plow. +Broken roots of apples often sprout. Plants may propagate by means of root cuttings. + +54. The buds which appear on roots are unusual or abnormal, and occur singly or occasionally and in no definite order. Buds appearing in unusual places on any part of the plant are called adventitious buds. Such are the buds which arise when a large limb is cut off, and from which suckers or waterroots arise. + +55. LAYERS.—Roots sometimes arise from aerial stems that are partially buried. If a branch touches the ground and takes root, it is called a layer. +Gardeners often bend a limb to the ground, and allow it to take root for a short distance, and when roots have formed on the covered part, the branch is severed from its parent and an independent plant is obtained. See Fig. 29. + +56. There are several kinds of layers: a creeper, when a trailing shoot takes root throughout its entire length; a runner, when the shoot trails on the ground and takes root at the joints, as the strawberry; a stolon, when a more or less strong shoot bends over and takes root, as the black raspberry or the dewberry (Fig. 29); an offshoot, when a few very strong plants form a new colony by the parent plant; and bulbous or bulbous plants, as house-leek (old-hen-and-chickens) and some lilies. The rooting branches of the mangrove and banyan (Figs. 15, 17) may be likened to layers. + +57. NATURAL CUTTINGS.—Sometimes cuttings occur without the aid of man. Some kinds of willows shed + +A layer of dewberry. The plant has taken at the left. +28 + +22 + +PROPAGATION OF ROOTS AND STEMS + +their twigs, or the storms break them off; many of these twigs take root in the moist earth where willows grow, and they are often carried down the streams and are washed along the shores of lakes. Observe the willows along a brook, and determine whether any of them may have come down the stream. + +38. PROPAGATION BY MEANS OF LEAVES.—Even leaves may take root and give rise to new plants. There are many such in warm countries. The lake-cress of northern streams also propagates in this way; the leaves with little plants attached may often be seen floating down stream. Gardeners propagate some kinds of begonias by means of leaf cuttings; also gladiolus and bryophyllums. + +39. PROPAGATION BY MEANS OF BUDS.—Buds often become detached and propagate the plant. Familiar examples are the buds of tiger lilies, borne amongst the flowers, for all kinds of bulbs and bulbs are only special kinds of buds. Fig. 30. Some water plants make heavy winter buds, which become detached on the approach of cold weather and sink to the bottom. In spring, they give rise to new plants. + +40. GRAFTS.—Sometimes a branch may grow out of another branch, or a branch may be cut away from another plant, or a trunk may be cut away from another plant of the same kind, or of a very closely related kind, and grow fast to it; and if its original trunk die away, the part will be growing on an alien root. A branch which grows fast to a branch of another plant, the wood of the two being together, is called a graft. Fig. 31. It is necessary to distinguish between a graft and a parasite; a parasite grows upon another plant, but its roots do not grow into that plant's roots; but a graft becomes an integral part of the stock on which it grows, and does its full work in elaborating food for itself and for the stock. + +A diagram showing a grafting process. +31 Diagram of grafting. + +REVIEW + +Review. What are primary and sec- +ondary offshoots of roots and stems? What +are the offshoots of rhizomes? How does +propagation by rhizomes proceed? Why +does the colony spread? Name some +plants which propagate by means of +rhizomes. What is a cutting? May cuttings +be made of rhizomes? How are rhizome- +cuttings usually propagated? What are +some peculiarities of the plant? Name in- +stances. What are adventitious buds? +What is a hyber? Define some of the +kinds of hybers. What is a leaf bud? +Explain how cuttings may occur without +the aid of man. How may leaves serve to propagate the plant? Explain how +hybers may be used as a means of detachable buds. What is a graft? How may grafting take place +without the aid of man? + +Very often a "patch" is an accessible +"patch" of tendril, Canada thistle, +May apple, or other perennial plant, the pupil should determine by what means it enlarges from year to year. "Patchers" are always +inspective when considered with reference to propagation and dis- +semination. + +A patch or colony of May apples. + +31. A native graft. + +CHAPTER V + +HOW THE HORTICULTURIST PROPAGATES PLANTS BY MEANS OF ROOTS AND STEMS + +61. CUTTINGS IN GENERAL.—A bit of a plant stuck into the ground stulls a chance of growing; and this bit is a cutting. (Compare 51.) Plants have preferences, however, as to the kind of a bit which shall be used, but there is no way of telling what that preference is except by trying. The reason why this preference has not been discovered, and we say that the plant cannot be propagated by cuttings. + +62. Most plants prefer that the cutting be made of the soft or growing parts (called "wood" by gardeners), of which the "shins" of geraniums and coleums are examples. Others grow equally well from cuttings of the hard or mature parts or wood, as currant and gooseberry will soon grow from cuttings taken from their roots, as in the blackberry. Pupils should make cuttings now and then. If they can do nothing more, they can make cuttings of potato, as the farmer does; and they can plant them in a box in the window. + +63. THE SOFTWOOD CUTTING.—The softwood cutting is made from tissue which is still growing, or at least from young shoots, which are not yet encircled one or two joints, with a leaf attached. Figs. 32, 33, 34. It must not be allowed to wilt. Therefore, it must be protected from direct sunlight and dry air until it is well established; and if it has many leaves, some of them should be removed, or at least cut in two, in order to reduce the evaporating surface. The soil should be unlit. + +(24) + +THE SOFTWOOD CUTTING 25 + +formly moist. The pictures show the depth to which the cuttings are planted. + +64. For most plants, the proper age or maturity of wood for the making of cuttings may be determined by giving them a few days' rest before cutting: + +beds; if it snaps and hangs by the bark, it is in proper condition; if it bends without breaking, it is too young and soft or too old; if it splinters, it is too old and decayed. The tips of strong upright shoots usually make the best cuttings. Preferably, each cutting should have a joint or node near its base : and if the internodes (or spaces between joints) are very short, it may comprise two or three joints. + +65. The stem of the cutting is inserted one-third or more its length in clean sand or gravel, and the earth is pressed firmly about it. A newspaper may be laid over the bed to exclude the light—if the sun strikes it—and to prevent too rapid evaporation. The soil should be moist clear through, not on top only. + +66. Loose sandy or gravelly soil is good. Mason's sand is good earth in which to start most cuttings; or fine gravel— sifted of most of its earthy matter—may be used. Soils are avoided which contain much decaying organic matter, for these soils are breeding places of fungi, which attack the soft cutting and cause it to "damp off," or to die at or near the + +Carnation cutting. +Tomato cutting. + +Bare-rooting. +Fine rooting. + +26 ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION + +surface of the ground. If the cuttings are to be grown in a window, put three or four inches of the earth in a shallow box or a pan. A soup box cut in two lengthwise, so that it has a flat top and bottom, is very deep—like a gardener's flat—is excellent. Cuttings of common plants, as geranium, coleus, fuchsia, carnation, are kept at a living-room temperature. As long as the cuttings look bright and green they are in good condition. It may be a month before roots form. When roots have formed, the plants begin to make new leaves at the tip. Then they may be transplanted into other boxes or into pots. The verbenia in Fig. 35 is just ready for transplanting. + +67. It is not always easy to find growing shoots from which to make the cuttings. The best practice, in that case, is to cut back an old plant, and keep it somewhat well watered, and thereby force it to throw out new shoots. The old geranium plant from the window-garden, or the one taken up from the lawn bed, may be treated this way (see Fig. 36). The best plants of geranium and coleus and most window-plants are those which are not more than one year old. The geranium and fuchsia cuttings which are made in January, February, + +A drawing of a geranium plant with its roots showing. +35. Verbenia cutting ready for transplanting. + +36. Old geranium plant cut back to make it throw out cuttings from which cuttings can be made. + +36 + +THE GRAFT 27 + +any, or March will give compact blooming plants for the next winter; and thereafter new ones take their places. +Fig. 37. + +**03. THE HARDWOOD CUTTING.—Best results are secured when the cuttings are made in the fall and then buried until spring to send in the cellar. These cuttings are usually 6 to 10 inches long. They are not idle while they rest. The lower end calluses or heals, and the roots form more readily when the cutting is planted in the spring. But if the proper season has passed, and the cuttings at any time in winter, plant them in a deep box in the window and watch. They will need no shading or special care. Grape, currant, strawberry, and popular varieties take root from the hardwood. Fig. 38 shows a current cutting. It has only one bud above the ground. + +**04. THE GRAFT.—When the cutting is inserted in a plant other than in the soil, we have a graft; and the graft may grow. In this case the cutting grows fast to the other plant, and the two become one. When the cutting is inserted in a plant, it is no longer called a cutting, but a cion; and the plant in which it is inserted is called the stock. Fruit trees are grafted in order that a certain variety or kind may be perpetuated. + +A photograph of early winter geraniums, from a spring cutting. +27. Early winter geraniums, from a spring cutting. + +28 + +ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION + +70. Plants have preferences as to the stocks on which they will grow; but we can find out what their choice is only by making the experiment. The pear grows well on the quince, but the pear does not much like the pear tree. The pear grows on some of the hawthorns, but it is an unwilling subject on the apple. Tomato plants will grow on potato plants and potato plants on tomato plants. When the potato is the root, both tomatoes and potatoes may be produced; when the potato is the stem, no potatoes nor tomatoes will be produced. Chestnut will grow on some kinds of oak. + +71. The forming, growing tissue of the stem (on the plants we have been discussing) is the cambium, lying on the outside of the woody cylinder, beneath the bark. In order that union may take place between the cambium of the stock and that of the stock must come together. Therefore the cion is set in the side of the stock. There are many ways of shaping the cion and of preparing the stock to receive it. These ways are dictated largely by the relative sizes of cion and stock, although many of them are matters of mere personal preference. +The underlying principles are two: securing close contact between the sides of cion and stock; covering the wounded surfaces to prevent exspection and to protect the parts from disease. + +72. On large stocks the commonest form of grafting is the cleft-graft. The cleft is cut off and split; and in one or both sides a wedge-shaped cion is firmly inserted. Fig. 39 shows the cion; Fig. 40, the cions set in the stock; Fig. 41, the stock waxed. It will be seen that the lower + +THE GRAFT 29 + +bad—that lying in the wedge—is covered by the wax; but being nearest the food supply and least exposed to weather, it is the most likely to grow: it will push through the wax. + +73. Cleft-grafting is done in spring, as growth begins. +The cions are cut previously, when perfectly dormant, and + + +A diagram showing three stages of grafting: 3b. Cion of apple, 3d. The cion inverted, 3e. The parts waxed. + + +from the tree which it is desired to propagate. The cions are kept in sand or moss in the cellar. Limbs of various sizes may be cleft-grafted—from one-half inch up to four inches in diameter; but a diameter of one inch is the most convenient size. All the leading or main branches of a tree-top may be grafted. If the remaining parts of the top are gradually cut away and the cions grow well, the entire top will be changed over to the new variety. + +Review.—How do we determine how a plant may be propagated? Mention any plants that grow from cuttings. What are softened cuttings? What is meant by "softwood cutting"? Is this the proper condition of wood for making a softened cutting? How is it planted? Where? In what kind of soil? Give directions for watering. How may cutting-wood be secured? Describe a hardwood cut- + + +Three diagrams illustrating different stages of grafting: +1. A cion of apple. +2. The cion inverted. +3. The parts waxed. + + +30 ARTIFICIAL PROPAGATION + +ting. When is it made? None plants which can be propagated easily by means of hardwood cuttings. What is a clone? Stock! How do we find out what stocks are congenial to the clone? Describe a leaf-graft. +When is leaf-grafting performed? Why do we graft? + +Note.—The cutting-box may be set in the window. If the box does not have a bottom, place a piece of glass on the bottom of the box to prevent evaporation. Take care that the air is kept too close, else the damping-off fungi may attack the cuttings, and they will not grow well. The sides of the box should be raised a little at one end to afford ventilation; and if water collects in drops on the under side of the glass, remove the pane for a time. + +Grafting wax is made of beeswax, resin, and failow. The hands are greased with this mixture, so that the cuttings may be more easily to spread. For the little grafting which my pupil would do, it is better to buy the wax of a seedman. However, grafting is hardly to be recommended as a general school diversion, as the making of cuttings is not very interesting. I have seen many pupils who had no feeling for the general curiosity on the subject. But now and then a pupil may make the effort for himself, for nothing is more exciting than to make a graft grow all by one's self. + +The pictures of the cuttings (Figs. 32-35, 38) and the grafts (Figs. 36-41) are one-third natural size. + +Cutting-bud, showing carnations and roses. + +CHAPTER VI + +FOOD RESERVOIRS + +74. STOREHOUSES.—All greatly thickened or congested parts are reservoirs for the storage of plant-food. This food is mostly starch. Potatoes, beets, turnips, thick rhizomes, seeds, are examples. Recall how potatoes sprout. + +Potato sprouts growing out of the tuber. +12. Potato-sprouts. The sprouts have rooted and the food stored in the tuber, +which has been eaten away by the miner who disturbed it. + +in the cellar (Fig. 42); the sprouts are produced from the +stored food. + +75. The presence of starch can be determined by applying +diluted solution of iodine to the part: if a blue or +(31) + +32 +FOOD RESERVOIERS + +purplish brown color appears, starch is present. Cut the part open and moisten the fresh surface with iodine (to be had at the drug store). The test will usually give + +A winter branch bearing leaves inside a window, while still attached to the tree outside. + +the best reaction when the part is perfectly dormant. +Starch may be found in nearly all twigs in fall and winter. Test them. + +76. This stored plant-food enables the plant to start quickly in the spring, without waiting for full root-action to begin; and it enables the plantlet in the seed to grow until it establishes itself in the soil. The flowers of early-blooming trees are pollinated by insects which have been stowed in the twigs, not from the materials taken in at that time by the roots. This can be demonstrated by bringing branches of peach, apple, and other early-blooming plants into the house in the winter and keeping them in water; they will bloom and sometimes even make leaves. Study Fig. 40. + +Crown-tuber Turnip. + +41 + +KINDS OF STOREHOUSES 33 + +77. KINDS OF STOREHOUSES.—Short and much thickened or swollen parts of roots or stems are known as **tubers**. These may be stem tubers, as the potato, or root tubers, as the sweet potato. + +78. Most tubers are subterranean. + +Many tubers are stem at the top and root in the remaining part; these are called **crown tubers**, because the upper part comes to the surface of the ground, or is a crown. Leaves and stems grow through them. Potatoes, beet, radish, parsley, turnip, salsify, carrot, dahlia roots, are examples. These tubers are usually much longer than broad, and generally taper downwards. Fig. 44. + +79. A much thickened part which is composed of scales or plates is a **bulb**. The bulb may be **scale-like**, as in the onion; or it may be **tunicated**, made up of plates or layers within layers, as the onion. + +80. Small bulbs which are borne amongst the foliage or flowers are known as **bulblets**. Such are the **tiger lily**, and the little bulbs which the tiger lily (Fig. 30) bears on its stem. Bulbs which grow around the main bulb or which are formed by the breaking apart of the main bulb, are known as **bulbels**. Many bulbous plants propagate by means of bulbels. The + +A multiple valve. +51 + +10. Section of a multivalve onion. +Natural size. + +C + +34 FOOD RESERVOIRES + +Beginning to separate into its parts, and a part will be a bulb. +81. Solid bulb-like parts are known as *corms*. These usually have a loose covering, but the interior is not made up of scales or plates. Of such are gladiolus and crocus corms (Figs. 48, 49). Corms multiply by *cormels* + +Corm of crocus. Nat. size. +Section of a crocus corm. + +or small corms, as bulbs do by bulbels. Fig. 50 shows an old gladiolus corn on which three new corms have grown. + +82. We have seen that thickened parts may serve one + +multiplier or potato onion (Fig. 45) is an example. If the bulb is cut across, it is found to have two or more cores, each with a core (Fig. 46). When it has been planted a week, each core or part begins to separate (Fig. 47), and there are soon as many onions as there are cores. +Potato onions can be bought at some stores. They are used for the raising of early onions. + +34 + +USE OF THE STORED FOOD + +or both of two purposes : they may be storehouses for food; they may be means of propagating the plant. +The storage of food carries the plant over a dry or cold season. By making bulbs or tubers, the plant persists until spring, when it can grow and produce seeds for a future day. Most bulbous plants are natives of dry countries. + +REVIEW.-What do you understand by food reservoirs? How is the presence of starch determined? Where may starch be found in the plant? What is stored in this stored food ? How are the flowers and leaves enabled to start so early in spring? Define tuber. Root tuber. Store seed. Store bulb. Tunicate bulb. Define bulb. Sary bulb. Tunicated bulb. Bulblet. Bulblet. Give examples. Define corn. Cornel. What two purposes do encoaged parts serve? + +Note.-The pupil should examine various kinds of bulbs and tubers. If possible, have them bring in some bulbs of sedum or forstis. Secure onion, narcissus, hyacinth, gladiolus, cocus, potato. Cut them in two. Study the make-up. Test them for starch. Plant some of them in pots or boxes. Observe how they grow. In the onion and some other plants most of the stored food is sugar. + +Potato tuber set in a glass of water and kept in a window + +CHAPTER VII + +WINTER BUDS + +83. WHAT BUDS ARE — Because of cold or dry weather, the plant is forced into a period of inactivity. We have seen that it stores food, and is ready to make a quick start in the spring. It also makes embryo branches and packs them away underneath close-fitting scales; these branchlets and their coverings are winter buds. The growing points of the plant are at rest for a time. In the warm season, the growing point is active, and the covering of the bud is not removed. The winter bud may be defoliated as a resting covered growing point. + +84. A dormant bud, therefore, is a shortened axis or branch, bearing miniature leaves or flowers, or both, and protected by a covering. Cut in two, lengthwise, a bud of the horse-chestnut or other plant which has large buds. + +With a pin, separate the tiny leaves. Count them. Examine the bud under a lens. The bud is protected by scales as it lies under the ground in winter or early spring. Dissect large buds of the apple and pear. Figs. 51, 52. + +85. The bud is protected by firm and dry scales; but these scales are only modified leaves. The scales fit closely. Often the bud is protected by hairs (see horse-chestnut and the balsam-poplar). Sometimes the buds are more or less woolly. Examine them under a lens. As we might expect, dry coverings are most prominent in cold and dry climates. + +A small illustration showing a bud with a protective covering. +52 + +A small illustration showing a bud with a protective covering. +52 + +A small illustration showing a bud with a protective covering. +52 + +A small illustration showing a bud with a protective covering. +52 + +A small illustration showing a bud with a protective covering. +52 + +A small illustration showing a bud with a protective covering. +52 + +A small illustration showing a bud with a protective covering. +52 + +A small illustration showing a bud with a protective covering. +52 + +A small illustration showing a bud with a protective covering. +52 + +A small illustration showing a bud with a protective covering. +52 + +A small illustration showing a bud with a protective covering. +52 + +A small illustration showing a bud with a protective covering. +52 + +A small illustration showing a bud with a protective covering. +52 + +A small illustration showing a bud with a protective covering. +52 + +A small illustration showing a bud with a protective covering. +52 + +A small illustration showing a bud with a protective covering. +52 + +A small illustration showing a bud with a protective covering. +52 + +A small illustration showing a bud with a protective covering. +52 + +A small illustration showing a bud with a protective covering. +52 + +A small illustration showing a bud with a protective covering. +52 + +A small illustration showing a bud with a protective covering. +52 + +A small illustration showing a bud with a protective covering. +52 + +A small illustration showing a bud with a protective covering. +52 + +A small illustration showing a bud with a protective covering. +52 + +A small illustration showing a bud with a protective covering. +52 + +A small illustration showing a bud with a protective covering. +52 + +A small illustration showing a bud with a protective covering. +52 + +A small illustration showing a bud with a protective covering. +52 + +A small illustration showing a bud with a protective covering. +52 + +A small illustration showing a bud with a protective covering. +52 + +A small illustration showing a bud with a protective covering. +52 + +A small illustration showing a bud with a protective covering. +52 + +A small illustration showing a bud with a protective covering. +52 + +A small illustration showing a bud with a protective covering. +52 + +A small illustration showing a bud with a protective covering. +52 + +A small illustration showing a bud with a protective covering. +52 + +A small illustration showing a bud with a protective covering. +52 + +A small illustration showing a bud with a protective covering. +52 + +A small illustration showing a bud with a protective covering. +52Termini +nat head +of flower +with +four +curvate. + +53. Leaf-buds. +Althamia. + +55. A gaseous bud—Cabbage. + +densely overlapping and forming a rounded body. Fig. 55. They differ from true buds, however, in the fact + +38 + +WINTER BUDS + +that they are condensations of main stems but embryo stems borne in the axis of leaves. But budlets may be scarcely distinguishable from buds on the one hand, and from buds on the other. Cut a cabbage head in two lengthwise, and see what it is like. + +90. WHAT BUDS DO.—A bud is a growing point. In the growing season it is small, and perceives no warmth. In winter it is dormant and wrapped up and is plainly seen ; it is waiting. All branches spring from buds. + +91. All winter buds give rise to branches, not to leaves alone : that is, the leaves are borne on the lengthening axis. Sometimes the axis, or branch, remains very short,—so short that it may not be noticed. Sometimes it grows several feet long. + +56. Wilbur. +The "pos- +sible" bud +on the +cotyledon +is a black bud, +not a leaf ready to grow at the base of each seed. +— position of the bud, rainfall, and many other things. +The new shoot is the unfolding and enlarging of the tiny axis and leaves which we saw in the bud. Figs. 51, 52. If the conditions are congenial, the shoot may form more leaves than were tucked away in the bud, but commonly + +A diagram showing a bud with a small shoot emerging from it. +57. Fruit bud. + +92. Whether the branch grows long or not depends on the chance it has, +— position of the bud, rainfall, and many other things. +The new shoot is the unfolding and enlarging of the tiny axis and leaves which we saw in the bud. Figs. 51, 52. If the conditions are congenial, the shoot may form more leaves than were tucked away in the bud, but commonly + +A diagram showing a bud with a small shoot emerging from it. +58. Fruit bud. + +93. Growth is progressing. + +30 + +HOW BUDS OF EX + +it does not. The length of the shoot usually depends more on the lengths between joints than on the number of leaves. + +53. HOW BUDS OPEN.—When the bud swells, the scales are pushed apart, the little leaves appear, and the bud opens. In most plants, the outside scales fall very soon, leaving a little ring of sears. Notice peach, apple, plum, willow, and other plants. Fig. 56. In others, all the scales grow for a time, as in the pear, Figs. 57, 58. In other plants, the inner scales become green and flowers appear like those of the apple and hickory. Fig. 59 shows a hickory bud. Two weeks later, at opening of the new bud. + +A single bud may produce several flowers (Fig. 60). In some cases, as in the apple, one flower may be produced by each bud (Fig. 61). In others, two or three flowers may be produced by each bud (Fig. 62). + +94. Sometimes flowers come out of the buds. +Leaves may or may not accompany the flowers. We saw the embryo flowers in Fig. 32. The buds shown in Figs. 57, 58 are opening. In Fig. 61 it is more advanced, and the woody unfurmed flowers are appearing. In Fig. 62 the growth is more advanced. +In Fig. 63 the flowers are full blown; and the bees have found them. + +55. Buds which contain or pre-dispose to contain leaf-buds. Those which contain only flowers are flower-buds or fruit-buds. The latter occur on peach, almond, apricot, and many very early spring-flowering plants. +Fig. 64. The single flower is emerging from the apricot bud in Fig. 63. Those which contain both leaves and + +39 + +40 +WINTER BUDS + +flowers are mixed buds, as in pear, apple, and most late spring-flowering plants. + +96. Fruit-buds are usually thicker or stouter than leaf-buds. They are borne in different positions on different plants. In some plants (apple, pear) they are on the ends of short branches or spurs; in others (peach, red maple) they are above the sinkers of last year's growths. In Fig. 66 are shown three fruit-buds and one leaf-bud on E, and leaf-buds on A. In Fig. 67 a fruit-bud is at the left, and a leaf-bud at the right. + +97. The "Burst of Spring" means chiefly the opening of the buds, but budding was made ready the fall before. The embryo shoots and flowers were tucked away, and the food was stored. The warm rain falls, and the slinters open and the sleepers wake: the frogs jump and the birds come. + +REVIEW. What are dormant buds? +What are they for? What is their cover- +ing? When do they form? When are they formed? What is a leaf-bud? What are necessary buds? What other name is applied to them? Define terminal bud. +What does a bud have that a leaf has? +Cabbage? How do they differ from buds? What do buds do? From what do branches arise? To what do winter buds give rise? What determines whether the + +A diagram showing a branch with leaves and buds. + +98. Fruit-buds and leaf-buds of pear. + +WINTER TWIGS IN THE HOUSE + +bench shall be long or short? Describe the opening of a bud. +What are flower buds? Leaf-buds? Mixed buds? How may fruit- +buds be distinguished? What is the "burst of spring?" + +Note.—It is easy to see the swelling of the buds in a room in winter. Secure branches of trees and shrubs, two to three feet long, and stand them in vases or jars, as you would flow- +ers. Renew the water frequently and cut off the tips of the twigs every week or two the buds will begin to swell. Of +red maple, peach, apricot, and other very early- +flowering plants, buds may be obtained in +ten to twenty days. + +The shape, size, and color of the winter +buds are different in every kind of plant. By +the aid of a hand lens one can often distinguish +the kinds of plants. Even such similar +plants as the different kinds of willows have good bud characters. +The study of the kinds of buds affords excellent training of the +powers of observation. + +41 + +The burst of spring on the Elm. + +A hand lens showing a close-up view of a bud. +A hand lens showing a close-up view of a bud. +A hand lens showing a close-up view of a bud. +A hand lens showing a close-up view of a bud. +A hand lens showing a close-up view of a bud. +A hand lens showing a close-up view of a bud. +A hand lens showing a close-up view of a bud. +A hand lens showing a close-up view of a bud. +A hand lens showing a close-up view of a bud. +A hand lens showing a close-up view of a bud. +A hand lens showing a close-up view of a bud. +A hand lens showing a close-up view of a bud. +A hand lens showing a close-up view of a bud. +A hand lens showing a close-up view of a bud. +A hand lens showing a close-up view of a bud. +A hand lens showing a close-up view of a bud. +A hand lens showing a close-up view of a bud. +A hand lens showing a close-up view of a bud. +A hand lens showing a close-up view of a bud. +A hand lens showing a close-up view of a bud. +A hand lens showing a close-up view of a bud. +A hand lens showing a close-up view of a bud. +A hand lens showing a close-up view of a bud. +A hand lens showing a close-up view of a bud. +A hand lens showing a close-up view of a bud. +A hand lens showing a close-up view of a bud. +A hand lens showing a close-up view of a bud. +A hand lens showing a close-up view of a bud. +A hand lens showing a close-up view of a bud. +A hand lens showing a close-up view of a bud. +A hand lens showing a close-up view of a bud. +A hand lens showing a close-up view of a bud. +A hand lens showing a close-up view of a bud. +A hand lens showing a close-up view of a bud. +A hand lens showing a close-up view of a bud. +A hand lens showing a close-up view of a bud. +A hand lens showing a close-up view of a bud. +A hand lens showing a close-up view of a bud. +A hand lens showing a close-up view of a bud. +A hand lens showing a close-up view of a bud. +A hand lens showing a close-up view of a bud. +A hand lens showing a close-up view of a bud. +A hand lens showing a close-up view of a bud. +A hand lens showing a close-up view of a bud. +A hand lens showing a close-up view of a bud. +A hand lens showing a close-up view of a bud. + +CHAPTER VIII + +PLANTS AND SUNLIGHT + +98. EACH PLANT LOOKS FOR LIGHT. -- Green plants live and grow only in sunlight. The gradual withdrawal of light tends to weaken the plant; but the plant makes an effort to reach the light and therefore grows towards it. The usual habit of a plant may be changed by its position with reference to sunlight. Select two similar plants. Place one near the window and the other far from it. Watch the behavior from day to day. Fig. 68 shows a fern which grew near the glass in a conservatory; Fig. 69 shows one which grew on the floor of a conservatory. Fig. 69 also teaches another lesson, which is to be explained in another chapter (Chapter XXVI). + +99. Plants turn towards the light. -- The most vigorous branches, as a rule, are those which receive most light. Climb a tree and observe where the thinnest shoots are; or observe any bush. + +100. When plants or their parts are not stiff or rigid, they turn towards the light if the light comes nearly from one direction. In greenhouses, the twigs in the window are inclined occasionally so that they will grow symmetrical. Plant radish in a + +A diagram showing a radish plant with its roots spread outwards. +(42) + +(60) In need of light. +Same kind of firm as No. 48. + +EACH BRANCH LOOKS FOR LIGHT 43 + +pot or pan. When the plants are three or four inches high, place the pan in a tight box which has a hole on one side. The next day it will look like this in Fig. 70. This turning towards the light is called **heliotropism** (Latin: "turning to the sun"). + +101. Even under normal conditions, plants become misshapen or unsymmetrical if the light comes mostly from one direction. On the edge of a forest, the branches reach out for light (Fig. 71). Trees tend to grow away from a building. Branches become fixed in positions that even in winter they tell of the search for light (Fig. 72). + +76. Searching for light. + +102. Some plants climb other plants in order to reach the sunlight; or they climb rocks and buildings. Notice that the vine on the house luxuriates where it is lightest. Climbing plants sometimes choke and smother the plant on which they climb. They may do so by throwing their many leaves over it, shading it, or by secreting acids into its trunk and robbing it of food. Sometimes they do both, as in Fig. 74. Every plant has a story to tell of the value of sunlight. + +103. EACH BRANCH LOOKS FOR LIGHT.—The plant is made up of branches. There is a struggle amongst the branches for sunlight. We have seen (Fig. 7) that no two branches are alike—we now know one reason why. Notice how the leaves are arranged on the tree. Look on the inside of a pine, spruce or other dense tree. Every branch has a story to tell of the value of sunlight. + +104. EACH LEAF LOOKS FOR LIGHT.—Leaves are borne towards the ends of the branches. This is particu- + +PLANTS AND SUNLIGHT + +44 + +larly marked when the struggle is severe. If the out- +side of a plant is densely thatched with leaves, the +inside will be found to be comparatively bare. Con- + +A black and white photograph of a tree with dense foliage. +71. Branches of the cedar reaching for light. + +trust Figs. 75 and 76, both being views of one tree. +We know the tree as seen in Fig. 75: the squirrel +knows it as seen in Fig. 76. + +103. Leaves are usually largest where the light is best. Note the sizes of leaves from the base towards + +EACH LEAF LOOKS FOR LIGHT 45 + +the tip of a branch. +Leaves which grow in full sunlight tend to persist later in the season than those which grow in poor light (Fig. 77). This fact is sometimes observed because the outermost leaves are most exposed to autumn winds. + +106. Plants which start in cellars, from seeds, bulbs, or tubers, when they are brought indoors and then die, the leaves do not develop to full size in darkness. Figs. 78 and 79 show this. Fig. 78 is rhubarb forced in a cellar for the winter market; Fig. 79 is a plant grown out-of-doors. Compare Fig. 42. + +107. The position or direction of leaves is determined largely by exposure to sunlight. In temperate climates, the branches hang in such a way that they receive the greatest amount of light. Observe the arrangement of leaves in Fig. 80. One leaf shades the other to the least possible degree, so that the plants were placed in a proper position with reference to light, the leaves would make an effort to turn their blades. Observe the shingle-like arrangement + +72 The branches have grown towards the light. + +108. Shrub of elms. The leaves, and under the flowers, spread themselves to the light. + +A diagram showing the arrangement of leaves on a plant. + +46 + +PLANTS AND SUNLIGHT + +in Fig. 75. If the empil were to examine the leaves on the Norway maple, which is photographed in Fig. 75, he would find that leaves which are not on the outside lengthen their leaf-stalks in order to get the light (Fig. 144). Norway maple is common on lawns and roadsides. + +108. We have seen (54) that a large part of the leaves of any one year are packed away in the buds of the previous winter. It is almost impossible that these leaves should be packed so long before they are ready to be used. They are usually arranged in a mathematical order. We can see this order when the shoot has grown. We can see it by studying the buds on the shoots, since there was a leaf for each bud. The leaves (or buds) may be opposite each other on the stem, or alternate. Fig. 81. + +That is, if one pair stands north and south, the next pair stands cast and west. See the box-elder shoot, on the left in Fig. 81. One pair does not shade the pair beneath. The leaves are in four vertical ranks. + +110. There are several kinds of alternate arrangement. In the elm shoot in Fig. 81, the third bud is verti- + +A climbing fig choking a palm. +31 + +That is, if one pair stands north and south, the next pair stands cast and west. See the box-elder shoot, on the left in Fig. 81. One pair does not shade the pair beneath. The leaves are in four vertical ranks. + +110. There are several kinds of alternate arrangement. In the elm shoot in Fig. 81, the third bud is verti- + +75. Looking at the top of a Norway maple.—As the bird sees it. + +76. Looking up into the same tree.—As the squirrel sees it + +48 + +PLANTS AND SUNLIGHT + +77. A middle tree on the north side of the street. On this tree the buds are longer than on the south side, because they receive more light and perhaps more food. + +cally above the first. This is true, no matter which bud is selected as the starting point. Draw a thread around the stem until the two buds are joined. Set a pin at each bud. Observe that two buds are passed (not counting the last) and that the thread makes one circuit of the stem. Representing the number of buds by a denominator and the number of circuits by a numerator, we have the fraction $\frac{1}{2}$, which expresses the part of the circle which lies between any two buds. That is, the buds are one-half of 360 degrees apart, or 180 degrees. Looking en masse at the buds, the apple shoot is 2-ranked. Note that in the apple shoot (Fig. 81, right), the thread makes two circuits and five buds are passed; two-fifths represents the divergence between the buds. The leaves are 5-ranked. + +81. Rhubarb grown in the dark. The leaf blades do not develop. + +A diagram showing a plant with buds on its stem, labeled "A" and "B". A line is drawn from "A" to "B", representing one circuit around the stem. The text explains that this represents one-fifth of a circle, indicating that the buds are spaced one-fifth of a circle apart. + +PHYLLOTAXY + +111. Every plant has its own arrangement of leaves. +For opposite leaves, see maple, box-elder, ash, lilac, +honeysuckle, mint, fuchsia. For 2-ranked arrangement, +see all grasses, Indian corn, basswood, elm. For 3-ranked +arrangement, see all sedges. For 5-ranked (which is +one of the commonest), see apple, cherry, pear, peach, +plum, and willow. +For 8-ranked, see holly, osage +orange. More com- +plicated arrange- +ments occur in +bills, house leeks, +and other plants. +Part I. The arrange- +ment of leaves on the +stem is known as +phyllotaxy (literally +"leaf-arrange- +ment"). Make out +the phyllotaxy on +any plant. +I. In some +plants, several leaves +occur at one level, +being arranged in a +circle around the stem. Such leaves are said to be ver- +ticillate or whorled. +Leaves arranged in this way are +usually narrow. + +II. Although a definite arrangement of leaves is the +rule in most plants, it is subject to modification. On +shoots which receive the light only from one side or which +grow in difficult positions, the arrangement may not be +definite. Examine shoots which grow on the under side +of dense tree-tops or in other partially lighted positions. + +49 + +A close-up photograph of a plant with compound leaves arranged in a whorl. +Thelbastra grown in the light. + +50 PLANTS AND SUNLIGHT + +114. The direction or "hang" of the leaf is usually fixed, but there are some leaves which change their position with the daylight and darkness. Thus, leaves of clover (Fig. 82), bean, locust, and many related plants, "sleep" at night; also oxalis. It is not a sleep in the sense in which animals sleep, however ; but its function is not well understood. + +81. Leaves usually expose one particular surface to the light. +This is because their internal structure is such that light is most efficient when it strikes this surface, as we shall learn later on. Some plants, however, expose both surfaces to the light, and they are said to be "opposite." Others endeavor to avoid the intense light of mid-day and to turn in the direction of least light. +Leaves standing edgewise are said to exhibit polarity. They are "compass plants" if the point north and south is indicated. The common compass plant or silphium of the prairies and the wild lettuce are examples of plants having polar leaves. (Wild lettuce [Lactuca serriola] is a common plant on roadsides; p. 356.) + +Every leaf has a story to tell of the value of sunlight. + +A diagram showing the direction of light exposure on different parts of a leaf. +81. All the leaves are exposed to light. + +A diagram showing how leaves can change their position with the day and night. +81. Leaves usually expose one particular surface to the light. + +A diagram showing how some plants have opposite leaves. +Some plants, however, expose both surfaces to the light, and they are said to be "opposite." + +A diagram showing how some plants can avoid direct sunlight by turning away from it. +Others endeavor to avoid the intense light of mid-day and to turn in the direction of least light. + +A diagram showing how some plants can change their position with the day and night. +Leaves standing edgewise are said to exhibit polarity. They are "compass plants" if the point north and south is indicated. + +A diagram showing how some plants can change their position with the day and night. +The common compass plant or silphium of the prairies and the wild lettuce are examples of plants having polar leaves. + +A diagram showing how some plants can change their position with the day and night. +Every leaf has a story to tell of the value of sunlight. + +THE WINTER BUDS SHOW EFFECT OF SUNLIGHT 51 + +116. WINTER BUDS SHOW WHAT HAS BEEN THE EFFECT OF SUNLIGHT.—Buds are borne in the axils of the leaves (86), and the size or vigor of the leaf determines to a large extent the size of the bud. + +Notice that, in most instances, the largest buds are nearest the tip (Fig. 83). If the largest ones are not near the tip, there is some special reason for it. Examining the shoots on trees and bushes: + +A diagram showing a branch with buds at different positions along its length. +82. Day and night positions of the winter buds. + +117. The largest buds usually start first in spring, and the branches which arise from them have the advantage in the struggle for existence. Plants tend to grow most vigorously from their ends. Observe that only the terminal bud grows in the hickory twig in Fig. 60. Every bud has a story to tell of the value of sunlight. + +REVIEW.—What is the relation of the plant to sunlight? Does its form ever depend on its relation to light? In what direction do the tops of plants grow? Where are the most vigorous branches found? What is meant by "shade"? Are trees sometimes unsymmetrical? Do you know any instances yourself? What is one way in which plants profit by the changing habit? Is there any difference between a leaf and a bud? + +Where are leaves borne in reference to light? Where are leaves usually lowest? Do they develop in darkness or daylight? How are they arranged? Explain what photoblasty is. Are leaves always arranged definitely? Explain this arrangement. + +In this lesson we have been concerned with the effect of sunlight upon plants. What is the "sleep" of leaves? Which surface of the leaf is exposed? What are compound plants? How do buds show what the effect of sunlight has been? What buds start first in spring? + +cl. The big seasonal change is due to sun. + +CHAPTER IX + +STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE AMONGST THE BRANCHES + +118. NO TWO BRANCHES ARE ALIKE. —Every twig has a history. It has to contend for air and sunlight, and a place in which to grow. Its size and shape, therefore, depend on the conditions under which it lives. Observe the long, straight, big-leaved shoots on the top of the plant, and the short, weak ones at the bottom, on the inside or under side. + +119. What is Struggle for existence? For every leaf, those finding the best conditions live and thrive; those finding the poorest die. The weak are overpowered and finally perish; this prunes the tree, and tends to make the strong the stronger. Observe the competition in the branch photographed in Fig. 84. Pick out the dead twigs, the weak ones, the strong ones. + +120. THE BUDS MAY NOT GROW. —There is not room in a tree-top for all the buds to grow into branches. Some buds + +A black-and-white photograph of a tree branch with leaves and buds. +84. The struggle for life.—Mulberry shoot. + +(62) + +THE BUDS MAY NOT GROW + +53 + +are suppressed. Branches die. So it comes that branches are not arranged regularly, although the buds are. The "tree" Tatarian or "tree" honey-suckle the buds are opposite; Fig. 85 shows how the branches are. + +121. The results of the struggle for existence in the tree can be seen in the figures. Consider that every bud is the germ or starting point of a branch. Observe at what distances apart the buds are usually borne on any plant, and estimate the number of buds which the plant has borne; count the number of branches which they eventually become; you will find that the number of buds is far in excess of the number of branches; the difference between the numbers shows how many buds or branches have failed. Or, count the buds on any branch, and figure up the possibilities. A branch 12 inches long, for instance, has 10 buds. If each bud grows, at the end of the next season there + +A close-up view of a tree branch with buds. +a) The branching is crooked and irregular. + +16. Seeds of the dormant buds - Willow. + +53 + +54 STRUGGLE AMONGST BUDS + +will be 10 branches, each of which may have 10 buds. +At the end of the second year there will be 100 branches ; +at the end of the third, 1,000. Can 1,000 branches be borne on a 4-year-old branch 12 inches long? Or, count the old bud-sours on the branches – for the places of the buds persist as wrinkles in the bark, often for many years (Fig. 87). One can often beseech these bud-sours on old branches with his eyes closed by running his fingers over the bark. + +122. Buds which fail to grow are called dormant buds. They are usually the weakest ones – those which grew in the most unfavorable conditions. They are to-wa- rds the base of the shoot. We have seen (117) that it is the buds at the base of the shoot which begin to grow. The dormant buds gradually die. They may live four or five years on some plants. If the other buds or branches fail or are injured, they may grow, but usu- ally they die. + +123. Dormant buds must not be confounded with ad- ventitious buds. We have learned (54) that adventitious buds are those which are formed at unusual times or places, because of some disturbance in the plant. A bud which is cut off, suckers or watersprouts are thrown out through the wound ; these arise from buds which are made for the occa- sion. These buds did not exist there. In many countries it is a custom to "pollard" or cut off the tops of trees every few years for the firewood; and strong adven- tious shoots arise along the trunk. Fig. 87. + +124. WHERE THE BRANCHES GROW – Because new shoots tend to appear at the base of old ones, the branches of most trees are in tiers or layers. These tiers often can be traced in trees 50 and 100 years old. Try it in any oak, maple, ash, or other tree. For practice, begin with young, vigorous trees (Figs. 88 and 89). + +125. When part of a top is removed, the remaining + +A leafless tree with two figures perched on its branches. +27 A pollard willow. +In this case, man has added to the struggle for existence. Italy + +56 +STUGGLE AMONGST BRANCHES + +branches fill the space. The branches are attracted by the light and air, and grow in that direction. A pruned or injured top always tends to return back to equilibriuim. + +126. A mangled or broken plant tends to regain its former position. From fallen trees, upright shoots arise. In fig. 90 observe the new trunk arising from the center of the arch; see that the main trunk is smaller beyond that point. + +8. Types of branches on trees. +Even in old trees some branches are present. +What does the shape and size of a branch depend? Explain what you mean by the struggle for existence. Why do not all buds grow? +If buds are arranged in mathematical order, why are not branches? How do plants tend to grow in tiers? Define dormant bud. Adventitious buds. Why are branches in tiers, or borne at intervals? + +How do plants tend to grow in tiers? When a branch is injured, it grows in one posi- +tion, when injured -- Nort.--Let the papil +work out a branch which has some branches. It is better to select a branch which is vigorous. He should +not choose a weak shoot. Is dormant, how +much grew the previous season. The last year's +growth bears fruit on this + +90. The creet hole on the fallice trunk. + +Review.--What is meant by the statement that every plant tends to grow in tiers? (See fig. 90.) + +What does the shape and size of a branch depend? Explain what you mean by the struggle for existence. Why do not all buds grow? +If buds are arranged in mathematical order, why are not branches? How do plants tend to grow in tiers? Define dormant bud. Adventitious buds. Why are branches in tiers, or borne at intervals? + +How do plants tend to grow in tiers? When a branch is injured, it grows in one posi- +tion, when injured -- Nort.--Let the papil +work out a branch which has some branches. It is better to select a branch which is vigorous. He should +not choose a weak shoot. Is dormant, how +much grew the previous season. The last year's +growth bears fruit on this + +A series of illustrations showing the stages of a plant's growth over time. +
+1st. An elm shoot, April 2nd. +
+2nd. April 26th. +
+3rd. May 20th. +
+4th. September 28th. +
+5th. October 10th. + +58 +STREUGGLE AMONGST BRANCHES + +main axis, not on side branches ; and the "ring" (seen of bud-scapes) marks the junction between the different years' growth. Notice this ring in Fig. 83. The teacher will find many twigs worked out in "Lessons with Plants," Figs. 91-95 show an actual case. These drawings were all made with the greatest care from one such twig. The twig in Fig. 91 was cut off at the base. This twig was only one year old, for it did not arise until the twig which bears it was one year old. Note that only one of the buds made a branch. There were two others, but they were killed by the twig in bloom. Fig. 93 shows it in fruit and leaf. Fig. 95 shows the same twig in bloom. + +The side branch grew from a to $s$ and made two blossom buds. The tip of the main shoot (Fig. 91) was broken in a storm. The two buds next to it soonened gave. Each made flower buds. Observe how many buds on this thin shoot have failed. + +Crushed by storm, the tree still shoots upwards. +A drawing showing a tree with a broken main shoot and two side branches growing from it. + +CHAPTER X + +THE FORMS OF PLANTS + +127. Although the form of the branch, and to some extent the entire plant, is determined by a struggle with the conditions in which it grows, nevertheless each kind of plant has its own peculiar habit of growth. The lum- + +Different forms of trees. +berman distinguishes the kinds of trees by their "looks," rather than by their leaves or flowers, as the botanist does. The farmer usually does the same with his culti- +vated plants. + +128. The habit of a plant is determined by its size, general style or direction of growth, form of head, and method of branching. The general style or stature of plants has been mentioned in Chapter III—they may be erect, strict, creeping, decumbent, and the like. The shape of the top or head will illustrate these terms. The general effect of the mass, as seen at a distance. The elm is vase-form or round-headed (Fig. 96, which is cited again to teach another lesson, p. 223). So: + +Round-headed and fastigate trees. + +(59) + +60 +THE FORMS OF PLANTS + +are maple, beech, and apple trees. The Lombardy poplar (Fig. 97) is columnar or fastigiate. Young spruces and firs are conical. Heads may be narrow, wide, flat, or irregular or broken. + +129. The general leaf-age or flourishing of the top is different for each kind. The top may be dense or thin. The foliage may be heavy, light, sparse, or intermediate. Compare maples and elms, apples and peaches, and other trees. + +130. The trunk or bole of the tree is one of its most conspicuous features. Observe that no two trees have trunks which are quite alike. The bark is different for each kind of plant. + +131. Plants awaken certain thoughts or feelings; they are said to have expression. This expression is the source of much of our pleasure in them. Trees are particularly expressive, because of its deep shapely top; another quality, from its moving, + +A drawing of a tree with a broad trunk and a tall, slender top. + +132. The plant born in winter—Russia's cable. + +One suggests **resilience**, because + +EXPRESSIONS OF PLANTS +61 + +small, light-colored leaves; another *beauty*, from its very large, dull foliage; another *strength*, from the massive branches; another *grace*, from the flowing outline or flexible growth. We think of the oak as strong, the willow as light, the Aspen as weak, and the birch irregular or + +A black and white illustration of a large tree with many branches and leaves. +186. The many trunks of an old olive tree, Italy. + +gnarly trees suggest struggle. If all plants, or even all trees, were alike, we should have little pleasure in them. +132. The expression of a plant depends to some extent on the character of the shadows in the top. These shadows (or lights and shades) are best seen by looking at the plant when the sun is low and behind the observer. + +62 +THE POEMS OF PLANTS + +Stand at some distance. Look at the dark places in the old pasture maple; they are lumpy and irregular. In the pasture beech they are in layers or strata. The shadows depend mostly on the method of branching. These who the plant grows, how the "high lights" and shadows develop on the plate. + +133. The habit of a plant is usually most apparent + +A year tree of the Safflower variety. +A year tree of the Hardy variety. + +105. A year tree of the Safflower variety. +105. A year tree of the Hardy variety. + +when it is leafless. The framework is then revealed. +Wooly plants are as interesting in winter as in summer. +Observe their forms as outlined against the sky—every one different from every other. Notice the plant forms as they stand in the snow. Fig. 99. How do stems of the pigweed differ from those of burdock and grasses? Observe how the different plants hold snow and ice. + +134. The more unusual the shape of any tree or other + +INTEREST IN PLANT FORMS + +plant, the greater is our interest in it, because our curiosity is awakened. Some unusual circumstance or condition has produced the abnormal form. Such plants should be preserved whenever possible. Fig. 100. + +REVIEW.--What do you mean by the statement that each kind of plant has its own form? What is the form of a tree-top? Name some of the forms of tree-tops. How many plants differ in the furnish- ing of the top? Is the trunk characteristic? Bark? Bring in and describe the bark of three kinds of trees. What is the expression of a tree when it is in full leaf? When it is in full flower? Can you under- stand by the shadows in the top. On what do the shadows chiefly depend? What is there to see in plants in winter? Why are we interested in plants of unusual form? Tell how may two trees differ in their form? + +Note.--One of the first things the pupil should learn about plants is to see them as a whole. He should get the feeling of seeing them. Then he should be able to determine why this tree is so and so, and why it begins to bloom at one time and not at another. How do they differ? The pupil can observe as he comes and goes from school. An orchard of different kinds of fruits shows strong con- trasts. Even different varieties of the same fruit may be unlike in habit. This is especially true in pears (Figs. 101, 102). + +A honey locust tree. +A honey locust tree. + +CHAPTER XI + +HOW THE PLANT TAKES IN THE SOIL WATER + +135. PLANT-FOOD.--Having learned what a plant is and having seen it as a whole, we may now inquire how it secures food with which to live. We can discuss only the outlines of the subject here: the pupil may consider the question again after he has turned up Part II. "The plant obtains food materials from the soil." He knows this to be true, because the plant dies if removed from the soil. + +In this discussion, we use the word food to designate any material which the plant takes in to incorporate with its tissues or to aid in promoting its vital activities. The word is sometimes used to denote only some of the products (as starch) which the plant manufactures from the raw materials, but it is unfortunate to press a common-language word into such technical use. + +136. ROOT STRUCTURE.--Roots divide into the thinnest and finest fibrils; there are roots and there are rootlets. + +The large, fleshy root of the radish (Fig. 107) terminates in a common-sized root to which little rootlets are attached. These rootlets are little rootlets attached to the fleshy part of the root at various places near the base. But the rootlets which we see are only intermediary, and there are numerous yet smaller structures. + +(64) + +137. The rootlets, or fine divisions, are clothed with root-hairs (29), which are very delicate structures. Carefully + +A diagram showing a cross-section of a plant root with root-hairs. + +ROOT STRUCTURE + +65 + +germinate radish or other seed, so that no delicate parts of the root will be injured. For this purpose, place a few seeds in packing-moss or in the folds of cloth or blotting paper, being careful to keep them moist. In a few days the seed has germinated, and the root has grown an inch or two below the surface, and is growing at a distance of about a quarter of an inch behind the tip, the root is covered with minute hairs (Figs. 11, 104). They are actually hairs, that is, root-hairs. Touch them and they collapse, they are so delicate. Tip of the hairs in plants in which the roots are not to be seen. When water meets them together along the root and they are no longer evident. Root-hairs usually are destroyed when a plant is pulled out of the soil, he it done ever so carefully. They cling to the minute particles of soil. + +Under a microscope, observe how well these root-hairs cling to the grains of sand (Chapter II). These root-hairs clothe the young roots, and a great amount of soil is thus brought into actual contact with the plant. Root-hairs are not young roots: they soon die. + +138. The rootlet and the root-hair differ. The rootlet is a solid, compact structure. The root-hair, within the cell of which it is contained, is a very delicate hair-like structure. The outermost part of this cell permits water and substances in solution to pass in. Being long and tube-like, these root-hairs are especially adapted for taking in the largest quantity of solu- + +A diagram showing the structure of a root with fine hairs. +11, Fig. 104, showing the structure of a root with fine hairs. +104, Fig. 104, showing the structure of a root with fine hairs. +138, Fig. 138, showing the structure of a root with fine hairs. +138, Fig. 138, showing the structure of a root with fine hairs. +138, Fig. 138, showing the structure of a root with fine hairs. +138, Fig. 138, showing the structure of a root with fine hairs. +138, Fig. 138, showing the structure of a root with fine hairs. +138, Fig. 138, showing the structure of a root with fine hairs. +138, Fig. 138, showing the structure of a root with fine hairs. +138, Fig. 138, showing the structure of a root with fine hairs. +138, Fig. 138, showing the structure of a root with fine hairs. +138, Fig. 138, showing the structure of a root with fine hairs. +138, Fig. 138, showing the structure of a root with fine hairs. +138, Fig. 138, showing the structure of a root with fine hairs. +138, Fig. 138, showing the structure of a root with fine hairs. +138, Fig. 138, showing the structure of a root with fine hairs. +138, Fig. 138, showing the structure of a root with fine hairs. +138, Fig. 138, showing the structure of a root with fine hairs. +138, Fig. 138, showing the structure of a root with fine hairs. +138, Fig. 138, showing the structure of a root with fine hairs. +138, Fig. 138, showing the structure of a root with fine hairs. +138, Fig. 138, showing the structure of a root with fine hairs. +138, Fig. 138, showing the structure of a root with fine hairs. +138, Fig. 138, showing the structure of a root with fine hairs. +138, Fig. 138, showing the structure of a root with fine hairs. +138, Fig. 138, showing the structure of a root with fine hairs. +138, Fig. 138, showing the structure of a root with fine hairs. +138, Fig. 138, showing the structure of a root with fine hairs. +138, Fig. 138, showing the structure of a root with fine hairs. +138, Fig. 138, showing the structure of a root with fine hairs. +138, Fig. 138, showing the structure of a root with fine hairs. +138, Fig. 138, showing the structure of a root with fine hairs. +138, Fig. 138, showing the structure of a root with fine hairs. +138, Fig. 138, showing the structure of a root with fine hairs. +138, Fig. 138, showing the structure of a root with fine hairs. +138, Fig. 138, showing the structure of a root with fine hairs. +138, Fig. 138, showing the structure of a root with fine hairs. +138, Fig. 138, showing the structure of a root with fine hairs. +138, Fig. 138, showing the structure of a root with fine hairs. +138, Fig. 138, showing the structure of a root with fine hairs. +E + +66 FOOD FROM THE SOIL + +tions; and they are the principal means by which plant- +food is absorbed from the soil, although the surfaces of +the rootlets themselves do their part. Water-plants do +not need an abundant system of root-hairs, and such +plants depend largely on their rootlets. + +159 OSMOSIS.—In order to understand how the water +enters the root-hair, it is necessary that we study the +physical process known as os- +mosis. A solution of some spe- +cified by a membrane from +water absorbs some of the water +and increases its own volume. +First dissolve one ounce of +salt-peter, which we may use as +a fertilizer solutioin, in one +pint of water, calling this so- +lution No. I. Now fill experi- +ments later on, also dis- +solve a piece of salt-peter not +larger than a pencil pit (about +one-seventh ounce) in about +this solution No. II. Now fill +the tube, C in Fig. 106, almost full of the strong solution +I and pour in a small amount of the weak solution II by a +funnel for this purpose. The balance is excellent for this purpose over the large month. A small +funnel, with a long stem, may be used if one cannot obtain +a tube like C. Then sink the tube, bladder-part down- +wards, into a large bottle, Λ, of water until the level of +liquid in the tube stands at the same height as that in the +bottle. The tube may be readily secured in this position by passing it through a hole in the cork of the bottle. +In a short time, we notice that the liquid in N begins to rise and that in C falls to nearly zero. This is an important result. The facts are that the liquids tend to diffuse, but the strong solution in N cannot pass + +Cross-section of root, enlarged showing root-hairs. +160. Cross section of root, enlarged showing root-hairs. + +OSMOSIS + +67 + +through the bladder as rapidly as the water outside can pass in. Then there is evidently absorption of water and pressure in X which forces the liquid higher than in the bottle. The liquid in N continues to stand higher than that in P. + +140. The cell-slip of the root-hair absorbs water from the soil by osmotic action. The above experiment enables us to understand how the countless little root-hair cells, - each one like the tube N, if only the whole surface of the tube were a bladder membrane, or something acting similarly. The soil water does not contain much of the salt solution, but it is a very weak solution. The active little root-hair, on the other hand, is always filled with cell-sap, a more concentrated solution; hence soil water must come in, and along with it come also small quantities of dissolved food materials. Some of these materials may be formed which have been applied to the land. + +141. The plant absorbs these solutions as long as they are used for the growth of the plant. The salts which are dissolved in the soil water also diffuse themselves through the membrane of the root-hair; each ingredient diffuses independently, being absorbed almost entirely by the root-hair cells in the soil water. Once inside the root-hair, these absorbed solutions pass on to root stem and leaf, to be utilized in growth. As long as they are used, however, most must come into the root-hairs, in order to restore the equilibrium. Thus those substances which are + +A diagram showing a glass apparatus with two bulbs connected by a tube. One bulb (P) is filled with a clear liquid, while the other bulb (C) is empty. A small amount of a dark substance is visible at the bottom of bulb C. +186. To illustrate osmosis. +also diffuse themselves through the membrane of the root-hair; each ingredient diffuses independently, being absorbed almost entirely by the root-hair cells in the soil water. Once inside the root-hair, these absorbed solutions pass on to root stem and leaf, to be utilized in growth. As long as they are used, however, most must come into the root-hairs, in order to restore the equilibrium. Thus those substances which are + +68 FOOD FROM THE SOIL + +needed must come in as long as the land can furnish them in soluble form. Absorption was illustrated before by an artificial arrangement because the root-hairs are so small that they cannot be seen readily. But all parts of the root absorb some water. + +132. Flecks pieces of root or stem will absorb water from weak solutions and become rigid; in strong solutions such flaps parts will give up their water and become flexible. To experiment further with this principle of absorption, cut several slices of potato tuber about one-eighth of an inch in thickness, and let them lie in the air half an hour. Place a few of these slices in some of the strong fertilizer solution 1. Place similar pieces in the weak solution which will act as a homeopathic placebo. The weak solution will not cause these slices to become rigid or stiff (turgid). They will bend readily when held lengthwise between the fingers. Compare these slices with those in the strong solution, where they are very flexible (flaccid). This bending is evidently due to the fact that those in the strong brine have actually lost some of their water. So the potato tuber could take in soil water containing a small amount of food; but if the soil contained much food, instead the potato would actually lose some of the water which it held. + +143. These experiments not only demonstrate how the roots absorb water containing plant-food, but they emphasize the fact that the outside solution must be very dilute in order to be absorbed at all. The root-hairs absorb water which is more concentrated than the surrounding solution, food from the richness of the soil, and not such rich solutions as the sap of the plant itself. + +144. The plant may be stifled, and even killed by attempting to feed it food solutions which are too strong. + +**ROOT-PRESSURE** + +69 + +To test this matter, secure a young radish plant (or almost any seedling with several leaves) and insert the roots into a small bottle containing some of the saltpeter solution I. In another little place a similar plant with some of the weak solution will stand. Supply the young plant in the mouth of the bottle with cotton batting. After standing for a few hours or less it will be noticed that the leaves of the plant in the weak solution begin to wilt, as in Fig. 107. The plant in the weak solution, Fig. 108, is rigid and normal. This furnishes evidence that the young plant is so constituted as to require the minute use of very dilute solutions only. If we attempted to feed it strong fertilizer solutions, these strong solutions, instead of being absorbed by the plant, take water from the latter, causing the plant to wilt. + +145. The farmer or gardener knows that he can injure or destroy his plants by adding too much plant-food. Everyone recognizes the value of wood ashes as a fertilizér; but no one would dare water his valuable plants with lye, or sow his choice vegetable seeds on an ash bank, however well it might be watered. If there is a potted plant at hand which is of no value, remove some of the soil, add considerable wood ashes, water well, and await the result; or give it a large lump of nitrate of soda. + +146. **ROOT-PRESSURE—**The activity of the root in absorbing water gives rise to considerable force. This force is known as root-pressure. The cause of this pressure is not well understood. The pressure varies in different plants and in the same plant at different times. To illustrate root-pressure, cut off a growing-small plant near the ground. By means of a bit of rubber tube, + +A small glass bottle with a cork stopper containing a young radish plant with its roots submerged in a solution of saltpeter. +108. The plant thrives in the weak solution. + +108 + +70 +FOOD FROM THE SOIL + +attach a glass tube with a bore of approximately the diameter of the stem. Pour in a little water. Observe the rise of the water due to the pressure from below (Fig. 109). + +Some plants will force the column of water several feet. The water ascends chiefly in the young seed, not between the bark and wood, as commonly supposed, but infiltrate through the water-threads, insert a green shoot in water which is colored with eosin; note the path which the color takes. (Eosin dye may be had of dealers in microscope supplies. Commoniline may answer very well.) + +**138. HOW THE SOIL HOLDS MOISTURE.** The water which is valuable to the plant is not the free water, but the thin film of moisture which adheres to each little particle of soil. The finer the soil, the greater the number of particles, and therefore the greater is the quantity of film moisture which it can hold. This moisture surrounding the grains may not be perceptible, yet the plant can grow in a soil which is dry enough to be a soil which seems to be dead dry. + +**148. THE ROOTS NEED AIR.** — Corn on land which has been flooded by heavy rains loses its green color and turns yellow. Besides diluting plant-food, the water drives the air from the soil, and this suffocation of the roots is very soon felt by the growth of the plant. Stirring or tilling the soil aerates it. +Water-plants and bog-plants have adapted themselves to their particular conditions. They either get their air by special surface roots, or from the water. + +To show root-pressure. + +PROPER TEMPERATURE—ROOTS EXCRETE + +149. PROPER TEMPERATURE.—The root must be warm in order to perform its functions. Should the soil of fields or greenhouses be much colder than the air, the plant suffers. When in a warm atmosphere, or in a dry atmosphere, plants need to absorb much water from the soil, and the roots must be warm if the root-hairs are to supply water as rapidly as they need it. If the roots are chilled, their activity will be slow. Try with two pots of plants, as radish, celerus, tomato, etc., put one pot in a dish of ice water, and the other in a dish of warm water, and keep them in a warm room. + +In a short time notice how stiff and vigorous is the one whose roots are warm, whereas the other may show signs of chilling. + +150. ROOT EXCRETE.—The plant not only absorbs what is already soluble, but it is capable of rendering soluble small quantities of the insoluble substances present in the soil, and which may be needed for plant-food. The plant accomplishes this result by means of certain minute structures called root-hairs. The root-hairs may make even chet marble. On a polished marble plate, place a half-inch of sawdust or soil, in which plant seeds. After the plants have attained a few leaves, turn the mass of sawdust over and observe the prints of the roots on the marble. These prints will be very faint. An illustration showing this is given on page 73. Carefully pull up a young seedling which is growing in soft soil, and notice how tenaciously the soil particles are held to the root (Fig. 110). + +10 The rootlets and root-hairscling to the particles + +72 + +FOOD FROM THE SOIL + +**151. THE FOOD MATERIALS.—We have seen that all food materials must be in solution in water in order to be taken in by the roots. Different kinds of plants require different kinds and proportions of the food materials, but ordinary green plants are supposed to require at least eleven of the elementary substances in order to live. These are: + +Carbon, C. +Oxygen, O. +Nitrogen, N. +Hydrogen, H. + +Potassium, K. +Calcium, Ca. +Magnesium, Mg. +Phosphorus, P. +Sulfur, S. +Iron, Fe. +Chlorine, Cl. [In some plants.] + +All these elements must be in combinations, not in their elemental form, in order to be absorbed by roots. + +152. Usually all of these except carbon and oxygen are taken in only through the roots. Some of the oxygen is taken in by the roots in the form of water (which is H₂O), and in other compounds. Some carbon is probably taken in by the roots in the form of carbofuran, but it is doubtful whether this source of carbon is important for a plant. + +Water is only a carrier for plant-feeding; it is itself a plant-food, for sometimes it is used in the building up of organic materials. The seven elements in the right-hand column are called the **mineral elements**: they remain in the ash, when the plant is burned. The mineral elements come from the soil. + +153. The ash is a small part of the total weight of the plant. In a corn plant of the roasting-stage, the ash content by ordinary burning is about 1 per cent of the total substance. + +154. Water is the most abundant single constituent or substance of plants. In the corn plant of the roasting- + +WATER IN THE PLANT + +73 + +ear stage, about 80 per cent of the substance is water. +A fresh turnip is over 90 per cent water. Fresh wood of the apple contains about 45 per cent of water. The plant secures its water from the soil. + +REVIEW.—What is plant-food? Where does some of it come from? Describe the food-hair on the leaves. What is their function? How does the root-hair differ from the leaf-hair? What is caused? Describe the experiment. How does the soil water get into the root-hair? For how long does this absorption continue? +Under what conditions will the soil water be too strong to condition must the soil water be in order to be absorbed? What may result if the food solutions are too strong? Has this fact any interest to the plant-grower? What is root-pressure? How is the water held in the soil solution? Why do plants need roots? How can a plant be able to live in dry soil? Why do roots need air? How do they get it? Describe what effect a cold soil has on roots. How do roots secure the plant-food in the soil particles? What elements are necessary to plants? In what way do these elements enter into the composition of the roots? About what percentage of the whole substance is ash? What is the most abundant constituent in plants? Where does it come? + +Note.—The following exercises may serve the aid and interestedness of pupils which it is composed. +Not all kinds of plants exhibit strong root-pressure. The grape vine is a good subject to show it. If pot plants are used, choose a well-rooted one with a large stem. The leaves should be large and lustrous. Sullani is good subject. These can be had at greenhouses. + +Best exercises may click on marble surface. + +CHAPTER XII + +THE MAKING OF THE LIVING MATTER + +155. SOURCES OF FOOD.—The ordinary green plant has but two sources from which to obtain food,—the air and the soil. When a plant is thoroughly dried in an oven, the water passes off: this water came from the soil (154). The remaining part is called the dry substance or dry matter. If the dry matter is burned in an ordinary fire, only carbon dioxide and water are produced (153). The part which passed off as gas in the burning contained the elements which came from the air; it also contained some of those which came from the soil—all these (as nitrogen, hydrogen, chlorine) which are transformed into gases by the heat of a common fire. + +156. CARBON.—Carbon enters abundantly into the composition of all plants. Note what happens when a plant is burned without its ashes being removed, or preserved, as in a distillation. The ash of charcoal remains, almost as large as the body of the plant. Charcoal is almost pure carbon, the ash present being so small in proportion to the large amount of carbon that we look on the ash as an impurity. Half or more of the dry substance of a tree is carbon. When the tree is charred (or incompletely burned), the carbon remains in the form of charcoal. The natural product of this gas when it is burned in air. It does not go off as coal, but in combination with oxygen, and in the form called carbon diacrid gas, CO$_2$. + +157. The green plant secures its carbon from the air. In other words, much of the solid matter of the plant comes from one of the gases. By volume carbon diacrid gas + +(74) + +CHLOEOPHYLL 75 + +forms only about three-hundredths of 1 per cent of the air. +It would be very disastrous to animal life, however, if this percentage were much increased, for it excludes the life-giving oxygen. Carbon dioxid is often called "toil-gas." It may be said that the carbon dioxide in the air will not descend into such wells until they have been tested with a torch. If the air in the well will not support combustion, that is, if the torch is extinguished, it usually means that carbon dioxid has drained into the place. The air of a closed school-room often contains far too much of this gas along with little solid particles of waste matters. +Carbon dioxid is often known as carbonic acid gas. + +158. APPROPRIATION OF THE CARBON.—The carbon di- oxide of the atmosphere is absorbed by the leaves and other green parts of the plant. The leaf is delicate in texture, and often the air can enter directly into the leaf tissues. There are, however, special inlets provided for the admission of gases into the leaves and other green parts. These inlets consist of numerous pores (stomata or stomata), which are especially abundant on the under surface of the leaf. The apple leaf contains about one hundred thousand of these pores in each square inch of the under surface. The air enters through these pores, and at once enters the air-spaces of the plant, and finally into the little cells containing the living matter. In Part II these breathing pores will be studied. + +159. CHLOEOPHYLL.—The green color of leaves is due to a substance called chlorophyll. Purchase at the drug store about a gill of wood alcohol. Purchase a leaf of geranium, clover, or other plant which has been exposed to sunlight for several hours. Place it in alcohol for a minute in boiling water, put it in a white cup with sufficient alcohol to cover the leaf. Place the cup on the stove where it is not hot enough for the alcohol to take fire. After a time the chlorophyll is dissolved by the alcohol, + +A diagram showing the structure of a leaf with stomata. + +76 THE MAKING OF THE LIVING MATTER + +which has become an intense green. Save this leaf for a future experiment. Without chlorophyll, the plant can not appropriate the carbon dioxid of the air. + +160. In most plants this chlorophyll or leaf-green is scattered over the leaves in little oval bodies, and these bodies are most abundant near the upper surface of the leaf, where they can secure the greatest amount of light. Without this green coloring matter, there would be no reason for the large flat surfaces which the leaves possess, and no reason for the fact that the leaves are borne most abundantly at the ends of branches, where the light is most available. Plants with colored leaves, as coleus, have been observed to change their color under different conditions. The other coloring matter is usually soluble in hot water; but a coleus leaf and notice that it becomes green and the water becomes colored. + +161. Plants grown in darkness are yellow and slender, and do not reach maturity. Compare the potato sprouts which have grown from a tuber lying in the dark cellar with those which have grown normally in the bright light (Fig. 32). The shoots have no chlorophyll, and when they are exposed to light, while the food which is stored in the tuber is exhausted, these shoots will have lived useless lives. + +A plant which has been grown in darkness from the seed will soon die, although for a time the little seedling will grow very tall and slender. Light makes possible the production of chlorophyll. Sometimes chlorophyll is found in buds and seeds, but it is probable that these places are not perfectly dark. Some buds, however, never develop chlorophyll and become green when exposed to light. + +162. PHOTOSYNTHESIS.—Carbon dioxid is absorbed by the leaf during sunlight and oxygen is given off. We have seen (157) that carbon dioxid will not support animal life. Experiments have shown that carbon dioxid is absorbed and that oxygen is given off by all green surfaciers + +STARCH + +77 + +of plants during the hours of sunlight. How the car- +bon dioxal which is thus absorbed may be used as food +is a complex question, and need not be studied here. + +161. Chlorophyll absorbs the best of the sun's rays, and +the energy thus obtained is used to split water, produc- +ing the carbon dioxal absorbed from the air with some of +the water brought up by the roots. The process by which these +compounds are united is a complex one, but the ultimate result +usually is starch. No one knows all the details of this +process; and our first definite +knowledge of the product be- +gins when starch is deposited +in the root of a plant. The act +of using the carbon dioxal of +the air has been known as +carbon-assimilation, but the +term now most used is photo- +synthesis (from Greek words, +meaning light and to put to- +gether). + +162. STARCH.—All starch +is composed of carbon, hydr- +gen, and oxygen (C\(_{12}\)H\(_{22}\)O\(_{11}\)). +The sugars and the woody +substances are very similar to +it in composition. All these +substances are called carbo- +hydrates. In making this +food we use carbon from the +oxygen of carbon dioxal and +from the hydrogen and oxygen +of the water, there is a sur- +plus of oxygen. It is this oxygen which is given off into +the air. To test the giving off of oxygen by day, make the +experiment illustrated in Fig. 111. Under a funnel in a + +A glass apparatus with a tube leading into a flask containing a solution. +111. To show the escape of oxygen. + +111 + +78 THE MAKING OF THE LIVING MATTER + +deep glass jar containing fresh spring or stream water, place fresh pieces of the common water plant (or muschare). Invert a test tube over the stem of the funnel. In sunlight bubbles of oxygen will arise and collect in the test tube. When a sufficient quantity of oxygen has collected, a lighted taper inserted in the tube will glow with a brighter flame, showing the presence of oxygen. A simpler experiment is to immerse an active leaf of lettuce or other plant in water, and to observe the bubbles which arise. From a leaf in sunlight the bubbles often arise in great numbers; but from one in shadow, the bubbles usually are comparatively few. + +Fig. 112. The water catches or holds the oxygen in bubbles and thereby makes the process of respiration visible in the tabbles on pond semum and water weeds on a bright day. + +163. Starch is present in the green leaves of plants which have been exposed to sunlight; but in the dark no starch can be formed from carbon dixoid. Apply iodine to the leaf from which the chlorophyll was dissolved in a previous experiment (159). Note that the leaf is colored purplish brown throughout. The leaf contains starch (75). Secure a young plant, which has been in the darkness for about two days. Dissolve the chlorophyll as before, and attempt to stain this leaf with iodine. No purplish brown color is produced. + +166. The starch manufactured in the leaf may be entirely removed during darkness. Secure a plant which has been kept in darkness for twenty-four hours or more. Split a small cork and pin the two halves on opposite sides of one of the leaves, as shown in Fig. 113. Place the plant + +A diagram showing a cork split open and placed on opposite sides of a leaf. + +DIGESTION + +79 + +in the sunlight again. After a morning of bright sun- +shine dissolve the chlorophyll in this leaf with alcohol; then stain the leaf with the iodine. Notice that the leaf is stained deeply in all parts except those over which the cork was placed, as in Fig. 114. + +There is no starch in the covered area. + +167. Plants or parts of plants which have developed a chlorophyll can form starch. Starch is a variegated leaf of 13. Excluding right from part of a leaf. +114. The result. + +a green leaf, ribbon grass, gera- +nium, or of any plant showing both white and green areas. +On a day of bright sunshine test one of these leaves by the alcohol and iodine method for the presence of starch. Observe that the parts devoid of green color have formed no starch. However, after starch has once become available it may be changed into soluble substances and removed to be again converted into starch in other parts of the living tissues. + +168. DIGESTION.—Starch is in the form of insoluble granu- +les. Whenever the material is carried from one part of the plant to another for purposes of growth or storage, it is made soluble before it can be transported. When this starchy material is transferred from place to place, it is usually acted upon by an enzyme called a ferment. This is a process of digestion. It is much like the change of starchy foods to sugary foods by the saliva. + +169. DISTRIBUTION OF THE DIGESTED FOOD.—After being changed to the soluble form, this material is ready to be used in growth, either in the leaf, in the stem, or in the roots. With other more complex products it is then dis- + +S0 THE MAKING OF THE LIVING MATTER + +tributed throughout all of the growing parts of the plant; +and when passing down to the root it seems to pass more readily through the inner bark, in plants which have a defi- +nite bark. This gradual downward diffusion of materials suitable for growth through the inner bark is the process referred to when the "descent of sap" is mentioned. Starch and other products are often stored in one growing season to be used in the next season (Chapter VI). If a tree is constricted or strangled by a wire around its trunk, the digested food cannot readily pass down and it is stored above the wire, causing an enlargement. + +170. ASSIMILATION.-The water which comes from the air and that from the soil unite in the living tissues. The sap which is constantly passing upwards from the roots during the growing season is made up largely of the soil-water and the salts which have been absorbed in diluted solu- +tions. This upward-moving water is conducted largely through certain tubular cells of the young wood. These cells are never continuous tubes from root to leaf, but the water passes really from one cell to another in its upward course. + +171. The upward-moving water gradually passes to the growing parts, and everywhere in the living tissues it meets the liquid product returning from the leafy parts. +Under the influence of the living matter of the plant, this product from the leaves first selects the nitrogen. A sub- +stance known as protoplasm is formed, then starch, and finally compounds are formed which contain sulfur, phospho- +rus, potassium, and other elements, until finally protoplasm is manufactured. Protoplasm is the living matter in plants. +It is in the cells, and is usually semi-fluid. Starch is not +living matter. The complex process of building up the protoplasm is called assimilation. + +172. RESPIRATION--Plants needs oxygen for respira- +tion just as animals do. We have seen that plants need the + +**EESPIRATION** + +S1 + +carbon dioxid of the air. To most plants the nitrogen of the air is inert, and serves only to dilate the other ele- +ments; but the **argyus** is necessary for all life. We know that all animals need this oxygen in order to breathe or +possess life. The proportion of this gas in the air is just the proportions found in the air; and this is now best for them. When animals breathe the air once they make it foul, because they use some of the oxygen and give off carbon dioxid. Likewise, all living parts of the plant +need here a constant supply of oxygen. Roots also need it (148). + +(172). The oxygen passes into the air-space and into the +living protoplasm, performing a function of perfection as +in animals. The air-spaces in the leaf are equal in bulk to +the tissues themselves (Fig. 115). As a result of the use +of this oxygen alone at night, plants give off carbon dioxid as animals do. **Plants respire; but since they are stationary, and more or less inactive, they do not need as much argyus as they do when they do not give off so much carbon dioxid. Dur- +ing the day plants use so much more carbon dioxid than it is +oxygen that they are able to purify the air. +The following table shows which plants give off at night very slight in comparison with that given off by animals; so that a few plants +in a sleeping room need not disturb one more than a family +of mice. Plants usually grow most rapidly in darkness. + +174. **TRANSPARATION**.—We have found that the plant +takes its food from the soil in very dilute solutions. + +P + +82 +THE MAKING OF THE LIVING MATTER + +Much more water is absorbed by the roots than is used in growth, and this surplus water is given off from the leaves into the atmosphere by an evaporation process known as transpiration. The transpiration takes place more abundantly on the upper surface of the leaves than on the lower, through the pores or stomates. It has been found that a sunflower plant of the height of a man, during an active period of + +A glass bottle with a cork stopper, containing a small plant. +16. To illustrate transpiration. + +growth, gives off more than a quart of water per day. A large oak tree may transpire 150 gallons per day during the summer. For every ounce of dry matter produced, it is estimated that from fifteen to twenty-five pounds of water must pass through the plant. Cut off a succulent shoot of any plant, stick the end of it through a hole in a cork and stand it in a small bottle of water. Invert over this bottle a large-mouthed bottle (as a fruit-jar), and notice that a + +TRANSPERSION + +83 + +mist soon accumulates on the inside of the glass. In time drops of water form. The experiment may be varied as shown in Fig. 116. Or invert the fruit-jar over an entire plant, as shown in Fig. 117, taking care to cover the opening with a sheet of paper or rubber cloth to prevent evaporation from the soil. Even in winter moisture is given off by leafless twigs. Cut a twig, seal the severed end with wax, and allow the twig to be several days; it shrivels. There must be some oppor- +tunity for moisture to reach the stem in winter, else plants would shrivel and die. + +175. When the roots fail to supply the plant sufficient water to equalize that transpired by the leaves, the plant wilts. Transpiration from the leaves and delibed shoots is increased by all of the conditions which would increase transpiration, such as temperature, dry air or wind. The breathing pores are so constructed that they open and close with varying conditions of the atmosphere, and thereby regulate transpiration. However, during periods of drought or of very hot weather, and especially during a hot wind, the closing of these stomates cannot sufficiently prevent evaporation. The roots may be very active yet fail to absorb sufficient moisture to equalize that given off by the leaves. This is called "xerophily." Any injury to the roots or even chilling them (149) may cause the plant to wilt. On a hot, dry day note how the leaves of corn "roll" towards afternoon. Early the fol- +lowing morning note how fresh and vigorous the same leaves appear. Water is also forced up by root-pressure (146). Some of the dew on the grass in the morning + +84 THE MAKING OF THE LIVING MATTER + +may be the water forced up by the roots; some of it is the condensed vapor of the air. + +176. The wilting of a plant is due to the loss of water from the cells. The cell walls are soft and collapse. A man may have a cold, but it will be found when filled with wheat. In the woody parts of the plant the cell walls may be stiff enough to support themselves, even though the cell is empty. Measure the contraction due to wilting and drying by tracing a fresh leaf, and then tracing the same leaf after it has been dried between papers. The softer the leaf, the greater will be the contraction. + +REVIEW. Whence comes the food of plants? What is meant by the dry substance? What is charcoal? How is it obtained? How much of charcoal is produced by burning 100 pounds of wood? When does the plant burn in air? Whence comes the carbon? What is carbon dioxide? How abundant is it in the air? How does the CO₂ get into the leaves? Where does it go after it gets into them? + +Where do the chlorophyll bodies locate? What relation has light to chlorophyll? When is CO₂ absorbed? What is formed after CO₂ is taken in? Define photosynthesis. What is starch? What is stored in starch? Why does starch accumulate in storage organs? What part of the plant is starch first made? When? What are carbohydrates? + +What is digestion of starch? How is the digested food distributed? +Explain assimilation. What is the product of assimilation? Explain respiratory exchange. How much CO₂ given off during respiration? +Why do plants wilt? + +An egg-shell form for the pupil's desk. + +CHAPTER XIII + +DEPENDENT PLANTS + +177. DEPENDENT AND INDEPENDENT PLANTS.—Plants with roots and foliage usually depend on themselves. They collect the raw materials and make them over into assimilable food. They are independent. Plants without green foliage cannot make food; they must have it made for them or they die. They are dependent. + +The potato is a typical example. It collects and elaborates carbon dioxide. It lives on the food stored in the tuber. + +178. All plants with naturally white or blanched parts are dependent. Their leaves do not develop. They live on organic matter—that which has been made by other living things—animal, The Indian pipe, aphyllon (Fig. 118), beech drop, coral root (Fig. 119) among flower-producing plants, also non-brooms and other fungi (Figs. 120, 121) are examples. + +179. PARASITES AND SAFOPHYTES— + +A plant which is dependent on a living plant or animal is a parasite, and the plant or animal on which it lives is the host. The dodder is a true parasite. So are the rusts and mildews which attack leaves and shoots and injure them. + +(85) + +(86). A parasite, growing on +the Apple-Bush. It is +by Thomas Addisbee. It is + +86 +DEPENDENT PLANTS + +180. The threads of the parasitic fungus usually creep through the intercellular spaces in the leaf or stem and send suckers (or haustoria) into the cells (Fig. 122). These threads (or hyphae) grow out of the leaf and often plug the stomata, and they also appropriate and disorganize the cell fluids: thus they injure or kill their host. The mass of hyphae of a fungus is called mycelium. Some of the hyphae finally grow into spores which produce spores or reproductive cells which answer the purpose of seeds in distributing the plant (b, Fig. 122). + +181. A plant which lives on dead or decaying matter is a saprophyte. Mushrooms are examples: they live on the decaying matter in the soil. Bread and bread cheese is an example. Let us take some bread in a plate and invert a tumbling over it for a few days it will be mouldy. The spores were in the air, or perhaps they had already fallen on the bread but had not had opportunity to grow. Most plants are able to make use of the humus or vegetable mould in the soil, and to that extent might be called saprophytic. + +182. Some parasites growing from the ground (Figs. 118, 119), as other plants do, but they are parasitic on the roots of their hosts. + +Some parasites may be partially parasitic and partially saprophytic. Many (perhaps most) of these root-A mushroom, exam- ple of a saprophytic + +19. Corallorhiza or coral-leaf showing the mycorrhiza. + +PARASITES AND SAPOPHYTES + +87 + +parasites are aided in securing their food by soil fungi, which spread their delicate threads over the root-like branches of the parasite and act as intermediaries be- +tween the food and the parasite. The roots of the +coral-root (Fig. 119) are covered with this fungus, and +the roots have practically lost the power of absorbing +food direct. These fungi-covered roots are known as +mycorrhizas (meaning "fungus root"). Mycorrhizas are +not peculiar to parasites. They are found on many +wholly independent plants as, for example, the heaths, +oaks, apple-trees and pines. It is probable that the fungi- +ments harbouring these mycorrhizas are beneficial to the +host. On the other hand, the fungus obtains some nouri- +ishment from the host. The association seems to be +mutual. + +183. Saprophytes break down or decompose organic substances. Chief of these saprophytes are the microscopic organisms known as +bacteria (Fig. 125). +These organisms have no definite bodies but are immersed in water or in animal and plant juices, and absorb food over their entire surface. By breaking down organic combinations, they produce decay. +Thus bacteria play a very important agency, and that of +many true but microscopic fungi, all things pass into soil and gas. Thus are +the bodies of plants and animals removed and the con- +tinuing round of life is maintained. + +184. Some parasites are green-leaved. Such is the mistletoe. They anchor themselves on the host and + +A small illustration showing a plant with green leaves growing on a dead tree trunk. +Saprophytic fungus. One of the soil-fungal (Pterosperma) growing on dead trunks and logs. + +88 + +DEPENDENT PLANTS + +absorb its juices, but they also appropriate and use the carbon dioxid of the air. In some groups of colored bacteria the process of photosynthesis, or something equivalent to it, takes place. + +185. Parasitism and saprophytism are usually regarded as degeneration, that is, as a loss of independence. +The ancestors of these plants might have been independent. Thus, the whole class of fungi is looked upon as a degenerate evolution. The more a plant becomes parasitic, therefore, the more it tends still farther to lose its independence. + +186. EPiphyTES. — To be distinguished from the dependent plants are those which grow on other plants without taking food from them. These are green-leaved plants whose roots burrow under the bark of the host plant or perpendicularly down into the soil, or on materials which they secure from air-dust, rain-water and the air. These plants are epiphytes (meaning "upon plants") or air-plants. + +187. Epiphytes abound in the tropics. Orchids are amongst the best known examples (Fig. 13). The Spanish moss or tilandsia of the South is another. Mosses and lichens which grow on trees and generally are called epiphytes. In the struggle for exis- +tence, the plants probably have been driven to these special places in which to find opportunity to grow. Plants grow where they must, not where they will. + +A diagram showing a plant with roots growing on another plant. +122 A parasitic fungus magnified. The aer- +culum is shown at A, B being +suffusing in the host plant. +Thus, the fungus grows into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium +into the cells of mycelium + +123 Bacteria, much magnified. + +REVIEW ON DEPENDENT PLANTS S0 + +REVIEW.—What is an independent plant? Dependent? Give examples. How are dependent plants distinguished from others in books? Define parasite. Saprophyte. Give examples. What is a host? How does a parasitic fungus live on its host? What are hyphae? What is mycelium? What are root-parasites? Give examples. What is a saprophyte? Give examples. What are all fungi to its host? What is the role or office of saprophytes in nature? Are parasites ever green? Explain. What has probably been the evolution of most parasites and saprophytes? What is an epiphyte? Give examples. Why do some epiphytes die when they have become epiphytes? + +Note.—Cataclysm, the most suitable parasite is the chalara. It is common in England from July until autumn, winding its conical yellow stems about herbs and soft-growing bushes. It is a degraded member of the morning-glory family. It produces true flowers and seeds. These seeds germinate the following spring. The slender yellow stem grows from the ground for a time, but if it fails to find a host, it perishes. + +The cultivated mushroom, a saprophytic plant. + +A collection of mushrooms. + +CHAPTER XIV + +LEAVES AND FOLIAGE + +188. Leaves may be studied from two points of view - with reference to their function, or what they do ; and with reference to their form, or their shapes and kinds. + +189. FUNCTION.-Leaves, as we have seen, make organic matters from carbon dioxid and water; they respire, throwing off carbon dioxide as waste; they digest the starch, thus it may be transported and used for performing various needs of the plant. Functions which require both lungs and stomach in animals (respiration and digestion) are performed by leaves; and in addition to these functions, they appropriate the carbon of the air (process of photosynthesis), a work which is peculiar to plants. Any part of the plant, however, may bear chlorophyll and perform the functions of leaves. Every aerial root of the orchid is a leaf. See figs. 190. + +190. The general form and structure of leaves is intimately associated with their function; they are thin and much expanded bodies, thereby exposing the greatest possible surface to light and air. The position of the leaves usually has relation to light, as we have seen (Chapter VII). In some cases, such as in many ferns, such a way that one casts the least shade on the other; those die and fall which have the least favorable positions. + +(90) + +123. Simple leaf. One of the epipetraeum of houseets. + +FORM OF LEAVES + +191. FORM.—Leaves are simple or unbranched (Fig. 124), and compound or branched (Fig. 125). The method of compounding or branching follows the style of veining. The veining, or veneration, is of two general kinds: in one plants the main veins diverge, and there is a conspicuous network of smaller veins; such leaves are netted-veined. In other plants the main veins are parallel, nearly so, and there is no conspicuous network; these are parallel-veined leaves (Fig. 136). The veination of netted-veined leaves is pinnate or feather-like, when the veins arise from the side of a continuous midrib (Fig. 124); palmate or discal-veined when the veins arise from the apex of the midrib (Fig. 125). If the leaf were divided between the main veins, it would be pinnate or digitately compound. + +192. It is customary to speak of a leaf as compound only when the parts or branches are com- +pound, but in blades such as those the division extends to the midrib (Figs. 125, 127, 128). The parts or branches are known as leaf- +lets. Sometimes the leaves themselves are compound, and the whole leaf is then said to be bi-compound or twice-compound (Fig. 125). Some leaves are three-compound, four-compound, or five-compound. Decompound is a + +Compound or branched leaf of brake (which is a fern). +13 Digitally-veined pinnate leaf of *Nasturtium* + +92 + +LEAVES AND FOLIAGE + +general term to express any degree of compounding be- +yond twice-compound. + +193. Leaves which are not divided to the midrib are said to be : +lobed, openings or sinuses +not more than half the depth of the blade +(Fig. 129). +cleft, sinuses deeper than +the middle. +parted, sinuses two-thirds +or more to the midrib +(FIG. 130). + +128. Phasically compound leaf of oak. + +divided, nearly or quite to the midrib. +The parts are called lobes, divisions, or segments, rather than leaflets. The leaf may be pinnately or digitately lobed, parted, cleft, or divided. A pin- +ately parted or cleft leaf is sometimes said to be **pinnatifid**. + +194. Leaves may have one or all of three parts—blade or expanded part, peti- +ole or stalk, stipules or appendages at the base of the blade. All these parts are shown in Fig. 131. A leaf which has all three parts is said to be **complete**. The stipules are often green and leaf-like +and perform the function of foliage, +as in the pea and Japanese quince +(the latter common in yards). + +195. Leaves and leaflets which +have no stalks are said to be **sessile** (Fig. 137), i. e., sitting. The + +Lobed leaf of sugar maple. +129. Digitately com- +pound leaf of map- +le. + +FORM OF LEAVES 95 + +same is said of flowers and fruits. The blade of a sessile leaf may partly or wholly surround the stem, when it is said to be *clasping* (Fig. 132). In some cases the leaves are deeply divided, forming a wing; such leaves are said to be *current* (Fig. 133). When opposite sessile leaves are joined by their bases, they are said to be *connate* (Fig. 134). + +130. Leaflets may have one, all of these three parts, but the stalks of leaflets are called *petiolules* and the stipules of leaflets are called *stipules*. The leaf of the garden bean has leaflets, petiolules, and stipules. + +197. The blade is usually attached to the petiole by its lower edge. In pinnate-veined leaves, the petiole seems to continue through the leaf at a midrib (Fig. 124). In some other leaves, however, the petiole joins the blade inside or beyond the margin (Figs. 126, 135). Such leaves are said to be *petiolate* or shield-shaped. This mode of attachment is particularly common in the willow family (e.g., the water willow). Petiolate leaves are usually digitate-veined. + +198. SHAPE.—Leaves and leaflets are infinitely variable in shape. Names have been given to some of the more definite or regular shapes. These names are a part of the language of botany. These names represent ideal or typi- + +A diagram showing a compound leaf with several leaflets. +131. Compound leaves. +A diagram showing a simple leaf. +132. Simple leaves. +A diagram showing a leaflet with a petiolule and stipule. +133. Leaflet with petiolule and stipule. +A diagram showing a leaflet with a petiolule and stipule. +134. Leaflet with petiolule and stipule. +A diagram showing a leaflet with a petiolule and stipule. +135. Leaflet with petiolule and stipule. + +9/22 + +94 + +LEAVES AND FOLIAGE + +cal shapes, but there are no two leaves alike and very few which perfectly conform to the definitions. The shapes are likened to those of familiar objects or of geometrical figures. Some of the commoner shapes are as follows: + +Linear, several times longer than broad, with the sides nearly or quite parallel. Spruces and most grasses are examples. Fig. 136. In linear leaves, the main vein is usually parallel to the midrib. + +Oblong, twice as long as broad, with the sides parallel for most of their length. Fig. 137 shows the short-oblong leaves of the box, a plant which is much used in edgings in gardens. + +Elliptic differs from the oblong in having the sides gradually narrowed towards the middle. The European beech, Fig. 138, has elliptic leaves. (This tree is often planted.) + +Lanceolate, four to six times longer than broad, widest below the middle and tapering to each end. Some of the narrow-leaved willows are examples. Most of the willows and the pence have oblong-lanceolate leaves. + +Spatulate, a narrow leaf which is broadest towards the apex. The top is usually rounded. It is much like an oblong leaf. + +Ovate, shaped somewhat like the longitudinal section of an egg: twice as long as broad, tapering from near the base to the apex. This is one of the commonest leaf forms. Fig. 135. + +Obovate, ovate inverted--the wide part towards the apex. Leaflets of horse-chestnut are obovate. This form is common in leaflets of digitate leaves. + +Reniform, kidney-shaped. This form is sometimes seen in willow-leafed plants and in some fern-leaves. Leaves of wild ginger are nearly reniform. + +Orbicular, circular in general outline. Very few leaves are perfectly circular, but there are many which are nearer circular than any other shape. Fig. 140. + +SHAPE OF LEAVES 95 + +The shape of many leaves is described in combinations of these terms, as ovate-lanceolate, lanceolate-oblong. + +199. The shape of the base and apex of the leaf or leaflet is often characteristic. The base may be rounded (Fig. 124), tapering (Fig. 127), cordate or heart-shaped (Fig. 130), truncate or square as if cut off. The apex may be blunt or obtuse, acute or sharp, acuminate or long-pointed, truncate (Fig. 141). + +130. Decurrent +leaves of some +lilies + +200. The shape of the margin is also characteristic of each kind of leaf. The margin is entire when it is not indented or cut in any way (Fig. 157). When not entire, it may be undulate or wavy (Fig. 126), serrate or saw-toothed (Fig. 129), dentate or more coarsely notched (Fig. 124), crenate or round-toothed, lobed, etc. + +201. Leaves often differ greatly in shape on the same plant. Observe the different shapes of leaves on the young growths of mulberries and wild grapes ; also on vigorous squash and pumpkin vines. In some cases there may be simple and compound leaves on the same plant. + +A close-up view of a leaf with serrated edges. +Two pairs of compound leaves of honeysuckle. + +This is marked in the so-called Boston ivy or ampelopsis (Fig. 142), a vine which is used to cover brick and stone buildings. Different degrees of compounding, even in the same leaf, may often be found in honey locust and + +96 + +LEAVES AND FOLIAGE + +Kentucky coffee tree. Remarkable differences in forms are seen by comparing seed-leaves with mature leaves of any plant (Fig. 143). + +202. THE LEAF AND ITS ENVIRONMENT. + +The form and shape of the leaf often have direct relation to the place in which the leaf grows. Floating leaves are usually expanded and flat, and the petiole varies in length with the depth of water. Submerged leaves are thread-like, or are cut into very narrow divisions. Thereby is more surface exposed, and possibly the leaves are less injured by moving water. + +203. The largest leaves on a sun-loving plant are usually those which are fully exposed to light. Compare the sizes of the leaves on the ends of branches with those at the base of the branches or in the interior of the tree-top. In dense foliage masses, the petioles of the lowermost or undermost leaves tend to elongate—to push the leaf to the light (Fig. 144). + +204. On account of win-ter the leaf ceases to work, and often dies. It may drop, when it is said to be deciduous; or it may remain on the plant, when it is said to be persistent. If persistent leaves re- main green during the winter, the plant is said to be + +E15. Pointed leaves of so-called Egyptian lotus. +E15. Pointed leaves of so-called Egyptian lotus. + +FR. Libera +Liriodendron +Tulipifera. +Leaf of +tree. +FR. Libera Liriodendron Tulipifera. Leaf of tree. + +E27. Short-stemmed leaves of box. +E27. Short-stemmed leaves of box. + +Leaf of box. +Leaf of box. + +Leaf of box. +Leaf of box. + +Leaf of box. +Leaf of box. + +Leaf of box. +Leaf of box. + +Leaf of box. +Leaf of box. + +Leaf of box. +Leaf of box. + +Leaf of box. +Leaf of box. + +Leaf of box. +Leaf of box. + +Leaf of box. +Leaf of box. + +Leaf of box. +Leaf of box. + +Leaf of box. +Leaf of box. + +Leaf of box. +Leaf of box. + +Leaf of box. +Leaf of box. + +Leaf of box. +Leaf of box. + +Leaf of box. +Leaf of box. + +Leaf of box. +Leaf of box. + +Leaf of box. +Leaf of box. + +Leaf of box. +Leaf of box. + +Leaf of box. +Leaf of box. + +Leaf of box. +Leaf of box. + +Leaf of box. +Leaf of box. + +Leaf of box. +Leaf of box. + +Leaf of box. +Leaf of box. + +Leaf of box. +Leaf of box. + +Leaf of box. +Leaf of box. + +Leaf of box. +Leaf of box. + +Leaf of box. +Leaf of box. + +Leaf of box. +Leaf of box. + +Leaf of box. +Leaf of box. + +Leaf of box. +Leaf of box. + +Leaf of box. +Leaf of box. + +Leaf of box. +Leaf of box. + +Leaf of box. +Leaf of box. + +Leaf of box. +Leaf of box. + +Leaf of box. +Leaf of box. + +Leaf of box. +Leaf of box. + +Short-stemmed leaves + +leafs + +of + +box + +FALLING OF THE LEAF +97 + +evergreen. Most leaves fall by breaking off at the lower end of the petiole with a distinct joint or articulation. +There are many leaves, however, which wither and hang on the plant until torn off by the wind: of such are the leaves of grasses, sedges, lilies, orchids, and other plants known as monocotyledons (Chap. XXIII). Most leaves of this character are parallel-veined. Cousin 439. + +205. Leaves also die and fall from lack of light. Observe the yellowing of leaves in a dense tree-top or in any other place. Why do the leaves lose their color on house-plants? Note the carpet of needles under the pines. All evergreens shed their leaves after a time. Counting back from the tip of a pine or spruce shoot, determine how many years the leaves persist (Fig. 145). +In some cases, needles may be found on branches ten or more years old. Leaves usually persist longest in the lightest positions (Fig. 77). + +206. Although the forms and positions of leaves often have direct relation to the places and conditions in which + + +A leaf with a broad, elliptical shape. + +139. Elliptic leaf of purple-leaf. + + +A leaf with a narrow, lanceolate shape. + +138. Ovate serrate leaf of willow. + + +A leaf with a broad, ovate shape. + +130. Oblong oblong lobed leaves. + + +A leaf with a long, linear shape. + +141. Truncate leaf of tulip-tree. + + +A leaf with a broad, ovate shape. + +132. Ovate serrate leaf of willow. + + +A leaf with a broad, ovate shape. + +130. Oblong oblong lobed leaves. + + +A leaf with a long, linear shape. + +141. Truncate leaf of tulip-tree. + + +A leaf with a broad, ovate shape. + +132. Ovate serrate leaf of willow. + + +A leaf with a broad, ovate shape. + +130. Oblong oblong lobed leaves. + + +A leaf with a long, linear shape. + +141. Truncate leaf of tulip-tree. + + +A leaf with a broad, ovate shape. + +132. Ovate serrate leaf of willow. + + +A leaf with a broad, ovate shape. + +130. Oblong oblong lobed leaves. + + +A leaf with a long, linear shape. + +141. Truncate leaf of tulip-tree. + + +A leaf with a broad, ovate shape. + +132. Ovate serrate leaf of willow. + + +A leaf with a broad, ovate shape. + +130. Oblong oblong lobed leaves. + + +A leaf with a long, linear shape. + +141. Truncate leaf of tulip-tree. + + +A leaf with a broad, ovate shape. + +132. Ovate serrate leaf of willow. + + +A leaf with a broad, ovate shape. + +130. Oblong oblong lobed leaves. + + +A leaf with a long, linear shape. + +141. Truncate leaf of tulip-tree. + + +A leaf with a broad, ovate shape. + +132. Ovate serrate leaf of willow. + + +A leaf with a broad, ovate shape. + +130. Oblong oblong lobed leaves. + + +A leaf with a long, linear shape. + +141. Truncate leaf of tulip-tree. + + +A leaf with a broad, ovate shape. + +132. Ovate serrate leaf of willow. + + +A leaf with a broad, ovate shape. + +130. Oblong oblong lobed leaves. + + +A leaf with a long, linear shape. + +141. Truncate leaf of tulip-tree. + + +A leaf with a broad, ovate shape. + +132. Ovate serrate leaf of willow. + + +A leaf with a broad, ovate shape. + +130. Oblong oblong lobed leaves. + + +A leaf with a long, linear shape. + +141. Truncate leaf of tulip-tree. + + +A leaf with a broad, ovate shape. + +132. Ovate serrate leaf of willow. + + +A leaf with a broad, ovate shape. + +130. Oblong oblong lobed leaves. + + +A leaf with a long, linear shape. + +141. Truncate leaf of tulip-tree. + + +A leaf with a broad, ovate shape. + +132. Ovate serrate leaf of willow. + + +A leaf with a broad, ovate shape. + +130. Oblong oblong lobed leaves. + + +A leaf with a long, linear shape. + +141. Truncate leaf of tulip-tree. + + +A leaf with a broad, ovate shape. + +132. Ovate serrate leaf of willow. + + +A leaf with a broad, ovate shape. + +130. Oblong oblong lobed leaves. + + +A leaf with a long, linear shape. + +141. Truncate leaf of tulip-tree. + + +A leaf with a broad, ovate shape. + +132. Ovate serrate leaf of willow. + + +A leaf with a broad, ovate shape. + +130. Oblong oblong lobed leaves. + + +A leaf with a long, linear shape. + +141. Truncate leaf of tulip-tree. + + +A leaf with a broad, ovate shape. + +132. Ovate serrate leaf of willow. + + +A leaf with a broad, ovate shape. + +130. Oblong oblong lobed leaves. + + +A leaf with a long, linear shape. + + +98 + +LEAVES AND FOLIAGE + +the leaves grow, it is not known that all forms and shapes have been developed to adapt the plant to its environment. + +It is probable that the toothing or lobing of the leaf margins is due to the same causes which produce compounding or branching of leaves, but what these causes are is not known. It has been suggested that leaves have become compound in order to increase their surface area thereby to offer a greater exposure to light in shady places, but very many sun-loving species have compound leaves, and many shade-loving species have simple and even small leaves. Again, it has been suggested that compound leaves shade underlying leaves less than simple leaves. + +207. HOW TO TELL A LEAF.—It is often difficult to distinguish compound leaves from leafy branches and leaflets from leaves. As a rule, leaves can be told by the following tests: (1) Leaves are or later falling. (2) Usually buds are borne in their axils, or on short shoots usually borne at joints or nodes. (4) They arise on wood of the current year's growth. (5) They have a more or less definite arrangement. When leaves fall, the twig which bore them remains; when leaflets fall, the main petiole which bore them falls also. + +A diagram showing different forms of leaves from one plant of amplexicaulis. +103. Different forms of leaves from one plant of amplexicaulis. + +A diagram showing temporary structures, sooner or later falling off, and the bud arising from a joint or node. The bud arises on wood of the current year's growth. +104. Temporary structures, with the un- like seed-leaves and true leaves. + +A diagram showing different forms of leaves from one plant of amplexicaulis. +105. Musk-melon seedlings, with the unlike seed-leaves and true leaves. + +144. A leaf morula of Norway maple. Note the varying lengths of petioles. + +145. Shoot of the common white pine, one-third natural size. +The picture shows the falling off of the leaves from the different years' growths. The uppermost shoot (A) represents the first year's growth; B, the last season's growth; between A and B it is two years old, and between B and C it is three years old. The part that grew four seasons ago (between C and D) has no leaves. + +A leaf morula of Norway maple. +A shoot of the common white pine, one-third natural size. + +100 + +LEAVES AND FOLIAGE + +REVIEW.--How may leaves be studied? What is meant by function? What do leaves do? What other parts may perform the function of leaves? How is form of leaves associated with their function? What are simple leaves? Compound? What is venation? What are the types or forms of veins in leaves? What is a leaf of compound leaves? What is a leaf? Define bi-compound; decompound. What are lobed, cleft, parted, and divided leaves? Pinnaled leaf? Compound leaf? Simple leaf? How many the petiole join the blade? How are the shapes of leaves named or classified? Describe the shapes described in Fig. 136. How are the margins of the leaf, of the apex, Of the margin. Here are the forms and sizes of leaves ever related to the place in which they grow! Why do leaves fall in winter deciduous. Perennial. Evergreen. Where do pine leaves fall ? How can you distinguish leaves? Describe the leaf in Fig. 146. + +The same ideas touches in January and July--Framework and foliage. + +CHAPTER XV + +MORPHOLOGY, OR THE STUDY OF THE FORMS OF PLANT MEMBERS + +208. Botanists interpret all parts of the plant in terms of root, stem, and leaf. That is, the various parts, as thorns, flowers, fruits, bud-seeds, tendrils, and abnormal or unusual forms, are regarded as growing up or to stand in the place of roots, stems (branches), or leaves. + +209. The forms of the parts of plants are interesting, therefore, in three ways: (1) merely as forms, which may be named and described; (2) their relation to function, or how they enable the part better to live and work; (3) their origin, as to how they came to be and whether they have been produced by the transformation of other parts. The whole study of plants is known as morphology (literally, "the science of forms"). We may consider examples in the study of morphology. + +210. It is customary to say that the various parts of plants are transformed or modified root, stem, or leaf, but the words transformation and modification are not used in the literal sense. It is meant that the given part, as a tendril, may occupy the place of or represent a leaf. It was not first a leaf but a stem which developed into a tendril from below. A leaf part develops into a tendril instead of into a leaf; it stands where a leaf normally might have stood. + +211. It is better to say that parts which have similar origins, which arise from the same fundamental type, or which are of close genealogical relationship, are homologous. Thus the tendril, in the instance assumed above, is homologous with a leaf. Parts which have similar func- (101) + +102 MOEPROLOGY + +tions or perform similar labor, without respect to origins, are analogous. Thus a leaf-tendril is analogous to a branch-tendril, but the two are not homologous. + +212. There are five tests by means of which we may hope to determine what a given part is: (1) by the appearance or looks of the part (the least reliable test); (2) by the position of the part with reference to other parts of the plant; (3) by comparison with similar parts on other plants (comparative morphology); (4) by study of intermediate or connecting parts; (5) by study of the development of the part in the bud or as it originates, by means of the microscope (embryology). The last test can be applied only by the trained investigator, but it often gives the most conclusive evidence. Even with + +Leaf-and-branch-like structure of a plant. +187. Leaf-and-branch-like structure of a plant. + +Leaves of asparagus. +188. Leaves of asparagus. + +the application of all these tests, it is sometimes impossible to arrive at a definite conclusion as to the origin or morphology of a part. For example, it is not yet agreed whether most cactus spines represent leaves or + +Fern-like leaf-structure of a plant. +189. Fern-like leaf-structure of a plant. + +Greenhouse asparagus. +190. Greenhouse asparagus. + +CLADOPHYLLA +103 + +branches, or are mere outgrowths of the epidermis (as hairs are). + +213. The foliage of asparagus is composed of modified branches. The true leaves of asparagus are minute scale-like scales (a, b, Fig. 147). The green foliage is produced in the axils of these scales. On the strong spring shoots of asparagus, which are eaten, the true leaves appear as large scales (a, b, Fig. 148). These large scales persist on the base of the asparagus plant, even in the fall. In the species of greenhouse or ornamental asparagus, the delicate foliage is also made up of green leaf-like branches which die off in the winter and are lost after a time, and there is little evidence left. + +The strong new shoots usually show the true leaves plainly (as in Fig. 150). Branches which simulate leaves are known as cladophylla (singular, cladophylium). The broad flat leaves of *Ornithopus* similax (common in glasshouses) are cladophylla. + +214. In the study of morphology, it is often convenient, merely to determine whether a part represents root, stem, or leaf: one must determine what part or kind of root, stem, or leaf + +Fig. 147. Phyllolema of asparagus. These American plants are sometimes grown in glasshouses. +Fig. 148. Large scale-like leaves of asparagus. +Fig. 150. New shoot of Asparagus officinalis. +Fig. 151. Asparagus officinalis: true leaves and cladophylls springing from their axils. + +104 +MORPHOLOGY + +it stands for. For example, the foliage in Fig. 151 represents green expanded *petioles*. These leaf-like members bear buds (which produce branches) in their axis, and they have a leaf-like phylloxy of leaves; therefore they are considered to be true leaf parts. But they stand edgewise as if they might be petioles; sometimes they bear leaf-blades; other nea- +cis have compound expanded leaves; there are intermediate forms or gradations between different types. Some seedlings sometimes show intermediate forms. From all the evidence, it is now understood that the foliage of the simple-leaf acacias represents leaf-like petioles. Such petioles are known as *phyllodia* (singular, *phyllodium*). + +**215. Thorns and strong spines are usually branches.** The spines of hawthorns or thorn-apples are examples: they are borne in the axis of leaves as branches are (Fig. 152); hawthorns usually bear two or more buds in each axil (Fig. 153), and one or two of these buds often grow into normal leafy branches (Fig. 154); sometimes the thorn itself bears leaves (Fig. 155). The thorns of willing pear, apples, and plums are short, hardened branches. In well-cultivated trees there is sufficient vigor to push the main branch into longer and stronger leaf-buds. + +A tree with a thorn on its branch. +102. The thorn is in the axils of leaves. + +A tree with a thorn on its branch. +103. Two or more buds are borne in the axils. + +A tree with a thorn on its branch. +104. Some of the thorns pro- +duce leafy branches. + +A tree with a thorn on its branch. +105. The thorn +may leave-buds. + +A tree with a thorn on its branch. +105. The thorn may leave-buds. + +**FEICKLES AND BRISTLES** + +105 + +softer growth, so that the side buds do not have a chance to start. The thorns of osage orange and honey locust are also branches. Those of the honey locust usually arise from supernumerary buds which are borne somewhat above the axis. + +216. **Feickles, bristles, and weak spines,** which bear a definite arrangement on the stem, are usually called leaves or parts of leaves. + +156. Leaf-spines of barberry. + +Thistles are hardened points of leaf-holes. The spines of the barberry are reduced leaves; in their axils are borne short branched or leaf-tufts (Fig. 156); in spring on young shoots they be found almost complete; but soon from the lower to upper part of the prickly ash the prickles are stipules and stipels. The reasons for interpreting them so are apparent in Fig. 157. Singular prickles may also be seen in the common or aca- ria locust (robinia). + +217. **Feickles, bristles, and hairs,** which are not leaves. + +153. Squarre prickles of pukiya rub. + +Such are no definite ar- rangement, are usu- ally mere out-growths of the epidermis. They usually re- moved with the bark. Of such are the prickles of squashas, brans (Fig. 158), and roses. + +218. The reason for the exis- tence of these is very difficult to de- termine. In many or most cases they seem to have no distinct use or function. In some way they are associated with the evolution of the plant, + +154. Feickles of dawberry. + +106 +MOEPOLOGY + +and one cannot determine why they came without know- +ing much of the genealogy of the plant. In some cases they seem to be the result of the contraction of the plant-body at the time of flowering, and in other plants; and they may then serve a purpose in lessening transpiration. +It is a common notion that spines and prickles exist for the purpose of keeping enemies away, and that hairs keep the plant warm, but these ideas usually lack scientific accuracy. Even if spines and prickles involve no harm to the in- +imals in any plant, it is quite another question why the spines came to be. The diminishing leaves of bostant. + +To answer the question what spines +and hairs are for demands close scientific study of each particular case, as any other problem does. + +219. Leaves are usually smaller when they approach the flowers (Fig. 150). They often become so much reduced as to be mere scales, losing their office as foliage. In their axils, however, the flower-branches may be borne (Fig. 160). Much-reduced leaves, which are no longer green and working members, are called bracts. In some cases, large colored bracts are borne just beneath the flowers and look like petals; the flowering dogwood is an example; also the bongarvillaea, which is common in glasshouses. + +A diagram showing a plant with reduced leaves near its flowers. + +150. The uppermost flowers are borne in the axils of bracts.--Foster. + +SCALES OF BUDS AND BULBS 107 + +(Fig. 161); also the scarlet sage of gardens and the flaming poinsettia of greenhouses. + +220. The scales of buds are special kinds of bracts. In some cases each scale represents an entire leaf; in others, it represents only a blade or stipule. In the expanding pear, maple, lilac, hickory, horse-chestnut bums, note the gradation from dry scales to green leaf-like bodies. When the winter scales fall by the pushing out of the young shoot, scars are left which these scurs form "rings" which mark the growth of the plant. See Chap. VII. The scales of bulbs are also special kinds of leaves or bracts. + +In some cases they are merely protective bodies; in others they are storage-bodies. We have found (45) that the presence of such a scale is one means of distinguishing underground stems from roots. + +REVIEW.—What are considered to be the fundamental or type forms from which the parts of plants are derived? How do the forms of plants interest us? What is morphology? What is meant by trans-formation and modification as used by the morphologist ? What is meant by homologous parts? What is meant by analogous parts? What is meant by any part? What is a cladode? Phylloclade? Show a specimen of one or the other, or both (named asparagus can always be had in the market). What is meant by a stem? A leaf? A flower? A fruit? What is meant by a bud? What are bristles, prickles, and hairs? Why do spines and bristles exist? Explain what a bract is. A bud-scale. A bulb-scale. + +CHAPTER XVI + +HOW PLANTS CLIMB + +221. We have seen that plants struggle or contend for a place in which to live. Some of them become adapted to grow in the forest shade, others to grow on other plants as epiphytes, others to climb to the light. Observe how woods, grapes, and other forest climbers, spread their foliage on the very top of the forest tree, while their long roots reach down into the soil. + +222. There are several ways in which plants climb, but most climbers may be classified into four groups: (1) scramblers, (2) root-climbers, (3) tendril-climbers, (4) twiners. + +223. SCRAMBLERS—Some plants rise to light and air by resting their long and weak stems on the tops of bushes and quick-growing herbs. Their stems are elevated by the growing twigs and branches with which they recline. Such plants are scramblers. Usually they are provided with prickles or bristles. In most weedy swamp thickets, scrambling plants may be found. Braces, some leaves, leaf-strives, gall-worms, bitter-sweet (Solanum Dulcamara), not the celosirus), the tear-thumb polygonums, and other plants are familiar examples of scramblers. + +224. ROOT-CLIMBERS—Some plants climb by means of true roots, as explained in paragraph 31. These roots + +A small illustration showing a plant climbing up another plant. +A net-climber.—The English ivy. + +(108) + +TENDRIL-Climbers 100 + +seek the dark places and therefore enter the chinks in walls and bark. Fig. 12, the trumpet creeper, is a fa- +miliar example. The true or English ivy, which is often grown to cover buildings, is another instance (Fig. 162). Both these plants are distinguished from stem tendrils by their irregular or indefinite posi- +tion as well as by their mode of growth. + +225. TENDRIL-ClimBERS.—A slender coiling part which serves to hold a climbing plant to a support is known as a + +Tendril of Virginia creeper. The direction of the coil changes near the middle. +tendril. The free end swings or curves until it strikes some object, when it attaches itself and then coiled draws the plant close to the support. The springing of the coil also allows the plant to swing in the air, thereby enabling plants to reach out for its food. Study a growing un- +tured tendril from its support, and note how strongly it holds on. Watch the tendrils in a storm. To test the +movement of a free tendril, draw an ink line lengthwise +and now on the convex side. Of course this movement is +slow, but it is often evident in an hour or so. Usually +the movement is from left to right, as shown at A, but +the Virginia creeper and Boston ivy attach to walls by means of disks on the ends of the tendrils. + +226. Since both ends of the tendril are fixed, when it + +110 +HOW PLANTS CLIMB + +finds a support, the coiling would tend to twist it in two. It will be found, however, that the tendril coils in different directions in different parts of its length. In Fig. 163 the change of direction in the coil occurs at the stolon-like place near the middle. In long tendrils of cucumbers and melons there may be several changes of direction. + +227. Tendrils may be either branches or leaves. In + +A diagram showing a tendril with a leaf attached to it. + +164. The fruit-cluster and tendril of grape are homologous. + +the Virginia creeper and grape they are branches; they stand opposite the leaves in the position of fruit-clusters (Fig. 164), and sometimes one branch of a fruit-cluster is a tendril. These tendrils are therefore homologous with fruit-clusters, and fruit-clusters are branches. + +228. In some plants tendrils are leaflets. Examples are the sweet pea (Fig. 165) and common garden pea. In Fig. 165, observe the leaf with its two stipules, petiole, + +164 + +TENDIL-Climbers 111 + +two normal leaflets, and two or three pairs of leaflet-tendrils and a terminal leaflet-tendril. The cobea, a common garden climber, has a similar arrangement. In some cases tendrils are stipules, as probably in the green-bush. + +229. The petiole or midrib may act as a tendril, as in various kinds of elematis. In Fig. 166, two opposite leaves + +A diagram showing two opposite leaves with tendrils extending from their bases. + +are attached at $a$. Each leaf is pinnately compound and has two pairs of leaflets and a terminal leaflet. At $b$ and $c$ the midrib or rachis has wound about a support. The petiole and the petiolules may behave similarly. Examine the tall-growing nasturtiums in the garden. + +230. TWINERS.—The entire plant or shoot may wind about a support. Such a plant is a twiner. Examples are bean, hop, morning-glory, moon-flower, false bater- + +111 + +112 +HOW PLANTS CLIMB + +sweet or wax-work (celastrus), some honeysuckles, wis- +taria, Dutchman's pipe, dodder. The free tip of the +twining branch secreps about in curves, much as the tendril +does, until it finds support or becomes old and rigid. +231. Each kind of plant usually coils in only one + +A diagram showing the coiling of a plant stem. The stem is shown in three positions: a) at rest, b) after being touched by the observer's left hand, c) after being touched by the observer's right hand. The leaves are also shown in three positions. +106. Cenotic clime by means of its leaf-stalks. + +direction. Most plants coil against the sun, or from the +observer's left across his front to his right as he faces the +plant. Such plants are said to be dextrorse (right-handed) +or antitropic (against the sun). Examples are bean, morn- +ing-glory. The hop twines from the observer's right +to his left. Such plants are sinistrorse (left-handed) or + +REVIEW ON CLIMBING PLANTS + +113 + +**Eutropic (with the sun).** Fig. 167 shows the two directions. + +**Extrin.--Why do plants climb? How do they climb? Explain what is meant by the term "climbers." By root-climbers. What is a tendril? How does it find a support? What is a leaf-climb? How does it curl? How does it group its supports? What is the morphology of the ten- +drilled Vine? Why? Of the pole? Of the element? What is a clematis? How does it find a support? What is a dew- +tress twiner? Staghorn twiner? + +Note.--The +papil may not +flower-clamber! + +understand why a branch (its tendril) and stem oppose each other in the grape and Vitis vinifera. +Note that a grape-shoot ends in a tendril (a, Fig. 168). +The tendrils represent the true axis of the shoot. On the +branch grows out from the shoot, b, another branch grows to connect with the shoot. This branch +ends in a tendril, b. Another leaf has a branch in its axis, and this branch ends in a tendril. The +shoots grow out from these tendrils until it appears to be lateral. That is, the morpho- +logically terminal points of the successive shoots are +the tendrils, and the edge of their appearing is a, +A. The shoot grows out from this point, and represents a leaf at the base of each branch. This +type of branching--the axial growth being continued by successive lateral branches--is said to be +lateral. Continuous growth from the terminal bud is **anapocaul**, and the branch is **anapocaul**. + + +A diagram showing the structure of a grape vine's tendrils and shoots. + + +H + +108 + +CHAPTER XVII + +FLOWER-BRANCHES + +232. We have (86) seen that branches arise from the axis of leaves. Sometimes the leaves may be reduced to bracts and yet branches are borne in their axis. Some of the branches grew into long limbs; others become short spurs; others bear flowers. + +235. Flowers are usually borne near the top of the plant, since the plant must grow before it blooms, and flowers are produced in great numbers. It results, therefore, that flower-branches usually stand close together, forming a cluster. The shape and arrangement of the flower-cluster differ with the kind of plant, since each plant has its own mode of branching. + +234. Certain definite or well-marked types of flower-clusters have received names. Some of these names we shall discuss, but the flower-clusters which perfectly match the definitions are the exception rather than the rule. The determining of the kinds of flower-clusters is one of the most perplexing problems in botany. + +114 + +100. Terminal flowers of the white-wood (in some places called ox-eye daisy). + +SOLITARY FLOWERS—CORYMOBSE CLUSTERS 115 + +plexing subjects in descriptive botany. We may classify the subject around three ideas: solitary flowers, corymbose clusters, cymose clusters. + +235. SOLITARY FLOWERS — +In many cases flowers are borne singly. They are then said to be solitary. The solitary flower may be either at the end of the main shoot or axis (Fig. 169), when it is said to be terminal, or from the side of the shoot (Fig. 170), then it is said to be lateral. The lateral flower is also said to be axillary. + +236. CORYMOBSE CLUSTERS. +If the flower-bearing axes were rather close together, an open or leafy flower-cluster might result, as in Fig. 171. The fascicle continues to grow from the tip, and the older flowers are left farther and farther behind. If the cluster were so closed that only one flower was at the top, the outermost flowers would be the older. A flower-cluster in which the lower or outer flow- ers open first is said to be a corymbose cluster. It is sometimes called a simple corymb, but this term is not used for all types of growth which may go on more or less contin- +ously from the apex. + +237. The simplest form of a definite corymbose cluster is a raceme, which is an unbranched open cluster in which + +Lateral flower of abutilon. +171 Lateral flower-cluster of abutilon + +116 +FLOWER - BRANCHES + +the flowers are borne on short stems and open from below (that is, from the older part of the shoot) upwards. The raceme may be terminal to the main branch, as in Fig. 172, or it may be lateral to it, as in Fig. 173. Racemes often bear the flowers on one side of the stem, or in a single row. + +172. Terminal raceme of dillenia. + +173. Lateral raceme (fruit) of hibiscus. + +When a very long and dense cluster is long and dense and the flowers are sessile or nearly so, it is called a spike (Figs. 174, 175). Common examples of spikes are plantain, magnonette, mallion. + +230. A very short and dense spike is a head. Clover (Fig. 176) is a good example. The sunflower and related plants bear many small flowers in a very dense head. This special kind of head of the sunflower, thistle, and aster tribes has been called an **anthodium**, but this term is not used. Note that in the sunflower (Fig. 177) the outer side or exterior flowers open first. + +Another special form of spike is the catkin, which usually has scale bracts and the whole cluster is deciduous after flowering or fruit- + +CORYMOSE CLUSTERS +117 + +ing, and the flowers (in typical cases) have only one sex. Examples are the "pussies" of willows (Fig. 213) and flower-clusters of oaks (Fig. 212), hickories, poplars, etc. + +240. When a flower, elongate into a stalked flower-cluster-branches, or is compound, it is called a panicle. Because of the earlier growth of the lower branches, the panicle is usually broadest at its base or conical in outline. Such panicles are not common. + +241. When an indeterminate flower-cluster is short, so that the top is convex or flat, it is a corymb (Fig. 178). The outermost flowers open first. Fig. 170 shows many corymbs of the bridal wreath, one of the spicariae. + +242. When the branches of an indeterminate cluster arise from a common point, like the frame of an umbrella, the cluster is an umbel (Fig. 180). Typical umbels occur in carrot, parsnip, parsley and other members of the parsley family - the family is known as the + +A close-up of a flower's head or phyllode. +23. Close-up of false dragon's head or phyllode. + +A spike of hyacinth. +24. Spike of hyacinth. + +25. The flowers and sepals produced by a closed flower are shown folded back to show their inner parts being given off. + +A head of common clover. +26. Head of common clover. + +A head of sunflower. +27. Head of sunflower. + +118 + +FLOWER-BRANCHES + +Unbelliferous, or unbell-bearing family. In the carrot and many other Unbelliferous, there are small accessory branches called umbellets, at the end of each of the main branches. (In the center of the wild carrot umbel one often finds a single, blackish, often aborted flower, comprising a 1-flowered umbellet.) + +243. CYMose CLUSTERS. + +—When the terminal or central flower opens first, the cluster is said to be *cymose*. + +The growth of the shoot or cluster is *determinate*, since the length is definitely determined or stopped by the terminal flower. Fig. 181 shows a determinate or cymose mode of flower-bearing: + +Cymose clusters are usually flatish on top because of the cessation of growth in the main or central axis. These compact flower-clusters are known as *cymes*. Apples, pears (Fig. 182) and cherries bear flowers in cymes. Some cymes are very flat much as in Fig. 183). A head-like cyme cluster is a *glomerule*: it blooms from the top downwards rather than from the base upwards. + +179. Corymb of the bridle-rush (Spira). + +Corymb of the bridle- rush (Spira). + +179. Corymb of Eriogonum. + +Corymb of Eriogonum. + +MIXED CLUSTERS — INFLORESCENCE 119 + +**245. MIXED CLUSTERS.**— Often the cluster is mixed, being determinate in one part and indeterminate in another part of its length, as in the case in Fig. 184. The main cluster is indeterminate, but the branches are determinate. The cluster has the appearance of a panicle, and is usually so called, but it is really a *thyrsus*. Liriope is a familiar example of this type. In some cases the main cluster is determinate and the branches are indeterminate, as in hydrangeas and elder. Such clusters are corymbose cymes. + +**246. INFLORESCENCE.**—The mode or method of flower arrangement is known as the inflorescence. That is, the inflorescence is a cyme, corymbose, paniculate, spicate, solitary. By custom, however, the word inflorescence has come to be used for the flower-cluster itself in works on descriptive botany. Thus a cyme or a panicle may be an inflorescence. It will be seen that even solitary flowers follow either indeterminate or determinate methods of branching. + +**247. THE FLOWER-STEM.**—The stem of a solitary flower is known as + +A drawing of a flower cluster with branches. +18. Compound cluster of +wild carrot. + +**248. Determinate or cymose arrangement.—With grasses.** + +A drawing of a flower cluster with branches. +19. Cyme of pear +Compare Fig. 61. + +A drawing of a flower cluster with branches. +20. Inflorescence of grass. +Compare Fig. 63. + +120 +FLOWER-BRANCHES + +a peduncle; also the general stem of a flower-cluster. The stem of the individual flower in a cluster is a pedicel. + +248. In the so-called stemless plants (37) the peduncle may arise directly from the ground, or crown of the plant, as in dandelion, lye-cloth (Fig. 171), garden daisy (Fig. 185). This kind of peduncle is called a scape. A scape may bear one or many flowers. It has no foliage leaves, but it may have bracts. + +A diagram showing a flower-cluster with a central stem and multiple branches. + +Note.—An uniallal cyme—Gomphrena. + +REVIEW.—What is the botany of flower-branches? How is it that flowers are often borne in clusters? Explain what may be meant by a solitary flower. What is the difference between a raceme and a cyme? Define cyme. What are cymose clusters? Define raceme, Spike, Head and anthodium, Catkin, Fruit, and capsule. Define Cornu. What are synose clusters? What is a synse? Gomphrena? Contract indeterminate and determinate growth. What is a cyme? Explain mixed clusters. What is a thryse? What is meant by the term "peduncle," "pedicel," "scape," and scape? + +Note.—In the study of flower-clusters, it is well to select first + +184. Thryse of horse-chestnut. + +184. Thryse of horse-chestnut. +184 + +REVIEW ON FLOWER-BRANCHES 121 + +those which are fairly typical of the +the various classes discussed in the +preceding paragraphs. As soon as +the main types are well fixed in +the mind, random clusters should +be examined, and the pupil must +never receive the impression that +all flower-clusters follow the defini- +tions in books. Clusters of some +of the plants before us are very +puzzling, but the pupil should at +least be able to discover whether +the inflorescence is determinate or +indeterminate. + +In the tomato (Fig. 186) the +flower-cluster is opposite the leaf. +Examine blooming tomato plants, +and determine the method of this inflorescence. Compare the grape. + +In some cases the flower-cluster ends in a leaf, suggesting that +the cluster is morphologically a +leaf. In other cases there is not +a joint between the cluster and +the leaf, showing that the +branch is a true flower-branch. +The flower-cluster of the tomato +has been greatly modified by +cultivation. It was originally +distinctly racemose. + +Tomato plant with flowers. +Germains in the school-room window. + +Tomato shoot. + +CHAPTER XVIII + +THE PARTS OF THE FLOWER + +249. The flower exists for the purpose of producing seed. It is probable that all its varied forms and colors contribute to this supreme end. These forms and colors please the human fancy and make living the happier, but the flower exists for the good of the plant, not for the good of man. The parts of the flower are of two general kinds—those which are concerned with the production of seeds, and those which act as covering and protecting organs. The former parts are known as the essential organs; the latter as the floral envelopes. + +250. ENVELOPES.—The floral envelopes usually bear a close resemblance to leaves. These envelopes are very commonly of two series or kinds—the outer and the inner. + +The outer series, known as the calyx, is normally smaller and greenish than the inner series, the outer cover of the flower-bud. The calyx is the lowest whorl in Fig. 187. The inner series, known as the corolla, is usually colored and more special or irregular in shape than the calyx. + +107. Flower of a buttercup, in section. +Flower of a buttercup in section. +108. Flower of buttercup. +Flower of a buttercup. + +251. The calyx may be composed of several leaves. Each leaf is a sepal. If it is of one piece, it may be + +(122) + +LOBED OR DIVIDED, IN WHICH CASE THE DIVISIONS ARE CALYX-LOBES. IN LIKE MANNER, THE COROLLA MAY BE COMPOSED OF PETALES, OR IT MAY BE OF ONE PIECE AND VARIOUSLY LOBED. A CALYX OF ONE PIECE, NO MATTER HOW DEEPLY LOBED, IS GAMOPETALOUS. A COROLLA OF ONE PIECE IS GAMOPETALOUS. WHEN THE SERIES OF PEAIRS OF SEPARATE PIECES IS THREE OR FIVE, THE FLOWER IS SAID TO BE POLYPETALOUS AND POLYPETALOUS. SOMETIMES BOTH SERIES ARE OF SEPARATE PARTS, AND SOMETIMES ONLY ONE OF THEM IS SO FORMED. + +232. The floral envelopes are homologous with leaves. Scapus and petals, at least when more than three or five, are each in more than one whorl, and one whorl stands below another so that the parts overlap. +They are borne on the expanded or thickened end of the flower-stalk ; this is called the TORSION. In some cases the parts are seen to subulate to the torus. +This part is sometimes called revolute, but this word is a common-language term of several meanings, whereas torsion has no other meaning. Sometimes one part is attached to another part, as in the fuchsia (Fig. 180) in which the petals are borne on the calyx-tube. +233. THE FLOWERS ORGANs—The essential organs are of two series. They are also homologous with leaves. The outer series is composed of the **stamens**. The inner series is composed of the **pistils**. + +A diagram showing a flower with stamens and pistils. +A diagram showing a flower with petals and sepals. + +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +A diagram showing a flower with sepals and petals. +An illustration of the floral envelope sectioning into two parts, one above the other, forming what appears to be two separate flowers. This is likely meant to represent the concept of "homologous" in botanical terms, where different parts of the same structure can be considered similar due to their evolutionary history rather than their current function."/> + +124 +THE PARTS OF THE FLOWER + +254. Stamens bear the pollen, which is made up of grains or spores, each spore usually being a single plant cell. The stamen is of two parts, as readily seen in Figs. 187, 188, 189,—the enlarged figure showing the anther or filament. The filament is often so short as to seem to be absent, and the anther is then said to be sessile. The anther bears the pollen-spores. It is made up of two or four parts (known as sporangia or spore-ones), which burst and discharge the pollen when the pollen is shed, the stamen dies. + +293. Knotweed, a very common but inconspicuous plant whose flowers are white and yellowish-purple at first, these flowers are very small and are situated in the axils of the leaves, or among the leaves. + +ment, or many parts. The different part of which it is composed are carpels. Each carpel is homologous with a leaf. Each carpel bears one or more seeds. A pistil of one carpel is simple; of two or more carpels, compound. Usually structure of a flower may be determined by cutting across the lower or seed-bearing part. Figs. 190, 191, 192 explain. A flower may contain one carpel (simple pistil) as the pea (Fig. 190); several separate carpels or + +A diagram showing the structure of a flower blossom. + +The structure of a plant blossom consists of a corolla, a calyx, a style, and stigmas. The petals are called the corolla and stigmas. It contains the seed-bearing organs, which are called carpels, in which the pollen is received and germinates into the fruit. + +A diagram showing the structure of a flower blossom. + +CONFORMATION OF THE FLOWER 125 + +simple pistil, as the buttercup; or a compound pistil, as the St John's-wort (Fig. 192). + +256. The pistil, whether simple or compound, has three parts: the lowest or seed-bearing part, which is the ovary; the stigma at the upper extremity, which is either flat or expanded, and usually rounded or sticky; the stalk-like part or style connecting the ovary and stigma. Sometimes the style is apparently wanting, and the stigma is said to be sessile on the ovary. These parts are shown in the fleshy, Fig. 189. The ovary or seed case is often large and fleshy, bearing a large stigma, projects from the flower. See, also, Figs. 191 and 194. + +257. CONFORMATION OF THE FLOWER.—A flower which has calyx, corolla, stamens, and pistil is said to be complete; all others are incomplete. In some flowers both the floral envelopes are wanting: such are naked. When one of the floral envelopes is wanting, the remaining series is said to be calyx, and the flower is therefore apetalous (without petals). The knottedweed (Fig. 193), smartweed, backhawthorn, elm, etc., are ex- amples. Some flow- ers lack the pistils; n. t. Flowered calyx. + +196 +The five petals of the panicle, detailed to show the form. +whether the envelopes are missing or not. Others lack the stamens; these are pistillate. Others have neither + +A diagram showing a flower with a calyx, corolla, stamens, and pistil. + +n. t. Flowered calyx. + +126 +THE PARTS OF THE FLOWER + +stamens nor pistils; these are *sterile* (snowball and hy- +drangea). Those which have both stamens and pistils are +*perfect*, whether or not the envelopes are +missing. Those which have only one of these +organs or pistils are *imperfect* or *diclinous*. Staminate and pistillate flowers are im- +perfect or diclinous. + +238. Flowers in which the parts of +each series are alike are said to be *regular* +(as in figs. 187, 188, 189). Those +in which some parts are unlike +others are said to be *irregular*. +The irregularity may be +in calyx, as in nasturtium (Fig. 190); in corolla +(Fig. 196, 197); in the stamens (com- +pure nasturtium, catnip Fig. 197, sage); +in the pistils. Irregularity is most fre- +quent in the corolla. + +REVIEW.—What is the flower for? What +are the two general kinds of organs in the +flower? What is the function of each part? +Why is the flower so arranged ? What are floral envelopes ? +What are the parts of a corolla ? Calyx ? Petals ? Stamens ? Pistil ? +What are the parts of a calyx ? Corolla ? Petals ? Stamen ? +Caroli-lobes ? Gamopetalous flowers ? Gamopetalous ? Poly- +sepalous ? Polypetalous ? Dorse-tenn. +White-flowered plants : White-flowered plants : Sin- +men ? Filament ? Anther ? Pollen ? +Pistil ? Stylo ? Stygm ? Ovary ? Car- +pel ? Petal ? Petiole ? Leaf-stem. In what ways may flowers be incomplete? +(Or diclinous) flowers. Define regular +flowers. In what ways may flowers be irregular? + +Note.—The following is a view for the examination of the flower. It is worth having the base mounted on a frame, so that the pupil has both hands free for pulling the flower in pieces. An ordinary pocket + +A diagram showing a dissecting glass and a dissected flower. + +190. +Dissected nasturtium. +size. + +191. +Dissected white-flowered plant. +size. + +280. Dissecting glass. + +Explain perfect and imperfect flowers. + +**REVIEW ON FLOWERS** + +Lens may be mounted on a wire in a block, as in Fig. 198. A cork is slipped on the top of the wire to avoid injury to the face. The pupil should be provided with two or more stout needles (Fig. 197), made by securing an ordinary needle in a penknife-like stick. Another con- +venient stand is shown in Fig. 200. A small dish is used for the base. Into this a stiff wire standard is soldered. The dish is filled with water and placed over the standard. Into a cork slipped on the standard, a cross-wire is in- +serted, holding on the end a +jointed stick, which can be moved up and down and sideways. +This outfit can be made for about seventy-five cents. Fig. 201 shows a convenient hand-rest or dissecting stand to be used under this lens. +It can be made of wood, 5 in. high, and 4 or 5 in. broad. Various kinds of dissecting microscopes are on the market, and these are to be recommended when they can be afforded. + +A close-up view of a flower, possibly a passionflower, showing its intricate structure and details. +Oak blossom of one of the passion-flowers. + +Calyx-leaves, petals, stamens, and pistils are easily separated from the petals. The club-shaped stigma project. The stamens, 5 in number, stand inside the crown. + +127 + +CHAPTER NIX + +FERTILIZATION AND POLLINATION + +250. FERTILIZATION.—Seeds result from the union of two elements or parts. One of these elements, a nucleus of a plant cell, is borne in the pollen-grain. The other element, an egg-cell, is borne in the ovary. The pollen-grain falls on the stigma (Fig. 302). It absorbs the juices exuded by the stigma and grows by sending out a tube (Fig. 203). This tube grows downward through the style, absorbing juice at each side, and finally reaches the nucleus in the interior of an ovule (Fig. 303), and by the union of the two nuclei, takes place fertilization. The ovule then ripens into a seed. The growth of the pollen-tube is often spoken of as germination of the pollen, but it is not germination in the sense in which the word is used when speaking of seeds. + +260. Better seeds—that is, those which produce stronger and more rapidly growing plants—result when the pollen comes from another flower. Fertilization effected between different flowers is cross-fertilization; that resulting from the application of pollen to pistils in the same flower is close-fertilization or self-fertilization. + +Cross-fertilization may be of many degrees—between two flowers in the same cluster, between those in different clusters on the same branch, between those on different plants. + + +A diagram showing the process of fertilization. + + +302. B. pollen of plum growing from a bud A, and C. pollen growing on the stigma. + + +**POLLINATION** + +129 + +Usually fertilization takes place only between plants of the same species or kind. + +261. In many cases the pistil has the power of select- +ing pollen when pollen from two or more sources is applied to the stigma. Usually the foreign pollen, if, +from the same kind of plant, grows and per- +forms the office of fertilization, and pollen from +the same flower perishes. If, however, no- +foreign pollen arrives, the pollen from the +same flower may finally grow and fertilize +the germ. + +262. In order that the pollen may grow, the +stigma must be ripe. At this stage the stigma is usually moist and sometimes sticky. A ripe +stigma is said to be receptive. The stigma +may remain receptive for several hours even days, +depending on the kind of plant, the weather, and how soon +pollen is received. When fertilization takes place, the +stigma dies. Observe, also, how soon the petals wither +after the stigma has received pollen. + +263. **POLLINATION.** —The transfer of the pollen from an- +ther to stigma is known as pollination. The pollen may fall off its own weight on the adjacent stigma, or it may be carried from flowers by wind, by insects, or other agencies, and hence self-pollination or cross-pollination. + +264. Usually the pollen is discharged by the bursting +of the anthers. The commonest method of discharge is through a slit on either side of the anther (Fig. 202). +Sometimes it discharges through a pore at the apex, as in azalea (Fig. 204), rhododendron, huckleberry, winter- +green. In some plants a part of the anther wall raises or falls away from the anther (Fig. 205). The apple. +The opening of an anther (as also of a seed-pod) +is known as dehiscece. When an anther or seed-pod opens it is said to dehisce. + +A stylized illustration of a hand holding a small object resembling a stamen. +20 Pollen grain + +20 Anther + +20 Stigma + +130 +FERTILIZATION AND POLLINATION + +265. Most flowers are so constructed as to increase the chances of cross-pollination. We have seen (261) that the stigma may have the power of selecting foreign pollen. The commonest means of insuring crosspollination is by the presence of stamens and pistils in the same flower. + +In most cases the stamens mature first; the flower is then protandrous. When the pistil mature first the flower is protogynous. (Aure., andy,) is a Greek root often used, in combinations, for stamen, and (ype) for pistil.) The difference in time of ripening may be one hour or two, or it may be a day. The ripening of the stamens and pistils at different times is known as dichogamy, and flowers of such character are said to be dichogamous. There is little chance for diochogamous flowers to pollinate themselves. Many flowers are imperfectly dichogamous—some of the authors mature simultaneously with the stamens, and others where there is chance for self-pollination in case foreign pollen does not arrive. Even when the stigma receives pollen from its own flower, cross-fertilization may result (261). The hollyhock is protandrous. + +Fig. 206 shows a flower recently expanded. The center is occupied by the column of stamens. In Fig. 207, showing an older flower, the long styles are conspicuous. + +Flower of hollyhock; protandrous. + +266. Flower of hollyhock; protandrous. +207 +Stamens with long styles. +208 +Barberry (Berberis) with short styles. +209 +Ligustrum with long styles. +210 +Ligustrum with short styles. + +**POLLINATION** + +266. Some flowers have so developed as to prohibit self-pollination. Very irregular flowers are usually of this category. Regular flowers usually depend on diachory and the selective power of the insect pollinator to insure crossing. Flowers which are very irregular and provided with nectar and strong perfume are usually pollinated by insects. The irregular flowers probably attract insects in many cases, but perfume appears to be a greater attraction. The insect visits the flower for the nectar (for the making of honey) and may unknowingly carry the pollen. Spurs and spurs in the flower are *archaea*, but in spurless flowers the nectar is usually secreted in the bottom of the flower-cup. Flowers which are pollinated by insects are said to be *entomophilous* ("insect-loving"). + +Fig. 208 shows a lark-spar. The en- +velopes are sep- +arated by a spur. +The long spur at once suggests in- +sect pollination. The spur is a sepal. Two hollow petals project into this spur, apparently serving to guide the + +207. Flower of hollyhock. +207. Flower of hollyhock. + +208. Envelopes of a lark-spar. There are five wide sepals, the upper one being a spur. +208. Envelopes of a lark-spar. There are four small petals. + +209. Flower of larkspur. +209. Flower of larkspur. + +132 +FERTILIZATION AND POLLINATION + +bee's tongue. The two smaller petals, in front, are differ- +ently colored and perhaps serve the bee in locating the +nectar. The stamens encircle the pistil (Fig. 210). As the insect stands on the +petals and thrusts his head into its center, +the envelopes are pushed downward and outward and the pistil and stamens come in contact with his abdomen. Since the +flower is pro- +terandrous, +the pollen which the +pistil receives +from the bee's +abdomen must +come from an- +other flower. +Note a somewhat similar arrange- +ment in the toad-flax or butter-cup-egg (Fig. 211). +258. Many flowers are polli- +noted by the wind. They are said to be anemophilous ("wind- +loving"). Such flowers produce great quantities of pollen, for much of it is wasted. They usu- +ally have broad stigmae, which expose large surfaces, so that +the wind can easily harbour in gauzy clouds and in perfume. +Grasses and pine trees are typi- +cal examples of anemophilous +plants. + +259. In many cases cross-pollination is insured because the stamens and pistils are in different flowers (dioecious, 257). When the staminate and pistillate + +A diagram showing a flower with two smaller petals in front, one of which is colored differently from the other. The stamens are encircling the pistil. + +260. Toad-flax is an anemophilous flower. + +A plant with long, thin leaves and small, white flowers. The flowers are clustered at the ends of the branches. + +**POLLINATION** + +135 + +flowers are on the same plant, e. g., oak (Fig. 212), beech, +chestnut, hazel, walnut, hickory, the plant is *monocious* ("in one house"). When they are on different plants (poplar and willow, Fig. +213), the plant is *dioecious* ("in two houses"). Mon- +ocious and dioecious plants may be pollinated by wind +or insects or by other agents. + +They are usually wind-polli- +nated, although willows are often, +if not mostly, insect- +pollinated. The Indian corn +(Fig. 214) is a monocious plant. +The staminate flowers are in a terminal panicle (tassel). The pistillate flow- +ers are in a dense spike (ear), inclusive of the tassel or +husk. The "stalk" is a stem. Each pistillate flower pro- +duces a kernel of corn. Sometimes a few pistillate flowers +are borne in the tassel and a few staminate flowers on the +tip of the ear. + +20. Monocious orchis of oak. The plant is +stamine flowers are in the leaf axils, +and not shown in this picture. + +21. Cattail of a willow. A staminate +flower is shown at c, and pistil- +ate flower at d. Both staminate and +pistillate are on different plants. + +Although most flowers +are of such character as to +indicate that they are the flowers +of cross-pollination, there are +some which absolutely forbid +crossing. These flowers are usually borne beneath or on +the ground, and they lack showy colors and perfumes. +They are known as *sterile* +*together* flowers (meaning +"hidden flowers"). The plant has normal showy flowers +which may be insect-pollinated, and in addition is provided + +A diagram showing the structure of a flower with stamens (male parts) and pistils (female parts). +Caption: Cattail of a willow. A staminate flower is shown at c, and pistillate flower at d. Both staminate and pistillate are on different plants. + +134 + +FERTILIZATION AND POLLINATION + +with these degenerate flowers. Only a few plants bear cleistogamous flowers. Hog- +peanut, common blue violet, fringed win- +tergreen, and dalibarda are the best +subjects in the northern states. In 215 +sketches I have shown the flower of the hog- +peanut at a. Above the true flowers, slen- +der rhizomes bear these flowers, which are +provided with a calyx and a curving corolla +which does not open. Inside are +the stamens and pistil. The pupal must +not confound the nodules on the roots of +hog-peanut with the cleistogamous flow- +ers, but only with the rudiments of them. +The appropriation of food. Late in summer +the cleistogamous flowers may be found +just underneath the mould. They never +rise above ground. The following sum- +mer one may find a seedling plant with +the remains of the old cleistogamous +flowers still adhering to its root. The +hog-peanut is thus able to live to winter in +plastic flowers. It also bears racemes of small +pea-like flowers. Cleistogamous flowers usually appear after the showy flowers have passed. They seem to insure a crop of seed by a method which expends little of the plant's energy. See Fig. 216. + +Brewer—What is ferti- +lization? Pollination? +Define cross- and self-pol- +lination. Which gives better results? What is meant by the selective power of the +pistil? Describe a receptive pistil. Exhibit one. By what agents is cross-pollination secured? How is pollen diseased? What is meant + +A sketch showing a flower bud of a cleistogamous plant, possibly a legume. +214. Indian corn, a monoeccious plant. +The cleistogamous flowers begin in late June, +and plastic flowers follow in July. The +cleistogamous flowers are small and pea-like. +They are produced in clusters on the ends of +the stems. They are greenish-yellow and have +two petals, one of which is much larger than +the other. The two stamens are united into a +single tube, and the stigma is sessile and con- +spicuous. The pistil is represented by a single +petal, which is somewhat larger than the other. +The flower opens when it is about half grown, +and then closes again before it has fully opened. +The seeds ripen in August, and are shed in +September. + +A sketch showing a flower bud of a cleistogamous plant, possibly a legume. +215. Hog-peanut, showing a leaf, and a flower bud. +The flower buds are small and greenish-yellow, +and have two petals, one of which is much larger +than the other. The two stamens are united into a +single tube, and the stigma is sessile and conspicuous. +The pistil is represented by a single petal, which is somewhat larger than the other. +The flower opens when it is about half grown, and then closes again before it has fully opened. +The seeds ripen in August, and are shed in September. + +Brewer—What is fertilization? Pollination? +Define cross- and self-pollination. Which gives better results? What is meant by the selective power of the pistil? Describe a receptive pistil. Exhibit one. By what agents is cross-pollination secured? How is pollen diseased? What is meant + +REVIEW ON POLLINATION 135 + +by the word dichogamy? What do you understand by dichogamy? +What is its office? How frequent is it? What are autotrophophyllous flowers? +Anemophilous? Exhibit one or explain one of each. What is the use of significance in the +vegetation in this? Where is the nectar borne? What are monocious and dioecious plants? +Chirologous? + +Note.—The means by which cross-pollination is insured are absorbing subjects of study. +It is well to take time and emphasis to the subject, however, that an inexperienced observer comes to feel that per- +fectly natural means of end is universal in +plants, whereas it is not. One is likely to make an error on account of +form wrong judgments. + +In studying cross-pollina- +tion, one may find first for devices which prohibit the stigma from receiving pollen from its own flower, but the question arises whether there is any means to insure the application of foreign poli- +len; for the stigma may receive both but utilize only the foreign pollen. Here in mind that irregular and odd forms of flowers among plants are often found, such as those with long stamens that become spiny on flowers with large protruding stigmas and much dry powder +pollen posthaste wind-transfer; that regular and simple flowers de- +pend largely on dichogamy, whether wind- or insect-pollinated. Most +flowers are dichogamous. + +A diagram showing a flower with a long stamen and a spiny stigma. +No. Common as it might be. The familiar +flower of the garden. The stamen is spurred. Lure in the season, +the insect comes and alights upon the surface of the ground. A small +insect, such as a fly, comes upon such a flower and it are + +CHAPTER XX + +PARTICULAR FORMS OF FLOWERS + +270. GENERAL FORMS.—Flowers vary wonderfully in size, form, color, and in shapes of the different parts. These variations are characteristic of the species or kind of plant. The flowers of one plant may differ widely. In many cases, the disguises of the parts are so great as to puzzle botanists. Some of the special forms, notably in the orchids, seem to have arisen as a means of adapting the flower to pollination by particular kinds of insects. A few well-marked forms are discussed below in order to illustrate how they may differ among themselves. + +271. When in doubt as to the parts of any flower, look first for the corolla, which is usually easily told by the perianth or young seed-case. Stamens may be told by the pollen. If there is but one series in the floral envelope, the flower is assumed to lack the corolla; it is apetalous (257). The calyx, however, in such cases, may look like a corolla, e. g., bawheadlet, sassafras, smartweed, knotweed (Fig. 193). The parts of flowers usually have a numbered relation to each other; they are its 3's or multiples of this number. The pistil is often an exception to this order, however, although its compartments or carpels may follow the rule. Flowers on the plan of 5 are said to be pentamorous; those on the plan of 3 are trimerous (merous is Greek for "order" or "plan"). In descriptive botany these words are often written 3-merous and 5-merous. + +272. The corolla often assumes very definite or distinct forms when gamopetalous. It may have a long tube with + +(136) + +**GENEAL FORMS** + +137 + +a wide-flaring limb, when it is said to be *trumpet-shaped*, as in morning-glory (Fig. 217) and pumpkin. If the tube is very narrow and the limb stands at right angles to it, the corolla is said to be *spatulate*. + +If the tube is very short and the limb wide-spreading and nearly circular in outline, the corolla is *rotate* or *wheel-shaped*, as in potato (Fig. 219). + +273. A gamopetalous corolla or gamopetalous calyx is often cleft in such way as to make two prominent lobes. Such a corolla may be *lipped* or *labiate*. Each of the lips or lobes may be notched or toothed. + +In 5-merous flowers, the lower lip is usually 3-lobed and the upper one 2-lobed. Labiate flowers are characteristic of the mint family (Fig. 257), and the family therefore is called the Labiate family. Labiate means merely lipped, without specifying the number of lips or lobes; but it is commonly used to designate 2-lipped flowers. Strongly 2-parted polypetalous flowers may be said to be labiate; but the term is oftener used for gamopetalous corollae. + +274. Labiate gamopetalous flowers which are closed in the throat (or entrance to the tube) are said to be grinning or personate (means mocked, or person-like). Snapdragon is a typical example (Fig. 220); also toad-flix (Fig. butter-and-eggs (Fig. 211), and many related plants. Personate flowers usually have definite relations to insert + +A diagram showing a flower with three petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +A diagram showing a flower with five petals and a central column. +An illustration of the labiate form of the mint family, characterized by having two upper lobes that are toothed or notched on their edges, while the lower lobe has three distinct lobes. The illustration shows four different stages of the labiate form, each stage being labeled "labiate flowers of petaur." The first stage shows the upper lobe being toothed, the second stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the third stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the fourth stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the fifth stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the sixth stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the seventh stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the eighth stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the ninth stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the tenth stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the eleventh stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the twelfth stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the thirteenth stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the fourteenth stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the fifteenth stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the sixteenth stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the seventeenth stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the eighteenth stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the nineteenth stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the twentieth stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the twenty-first stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the twenty-second stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the twenty-third stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the twenty-fourth stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the twenty-fifth stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the twenty-sixth stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the twenty-seventh stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the twenty-eighth stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the twenty-ninth stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the thirty-first stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the thirty-second stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the thirty-third stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the thirty-fourth stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the thirty-fifth stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the thirty-sixth stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the thirty-seventh stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the thirty-eighth stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the thirty-ninth stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the forty-first stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the forty-second stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the forty-third stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the forty-fourth stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the forty-fifth stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the forty-sixth stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the forty-seventh stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the forty-eighth stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the forty-ninth stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the fifty-first stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the fifty-second stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the fifty-third stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the fifty-fourth stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the fifty-fifth stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the fifty-sixth stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the fifty-seventh stage shows both upper lobes being toothed, the fifty-eighth stage shows both upper lobles + +138 +PARTICULAR FORMS OF FLOWERS + +pollination. Observe how a bee forces his head into the closed throat of the toad-flax. + +25. LILY FLOWERS. — In plants of the lily family (Lilieae) the flowers are typically 3-nerved, consisting thus of three petals, six stamens and a 3-carpelled pistil. The parts in the different series are distinct from each other (excepting the carpels,) and mostly free from other series. The sepals and petals are so much alike that they are distinguished chiefly by position, and for this reason the words calyx and corolla are now used, but the flower is still called a perianth and the parts are segments. Flowers of lilies and trilliums (Fig. 221) answer these details. +Not all flowers in the lily family answer in all ways to this description. The term perianth is used in other plants than the Lilieae. + +26. PAPILIONACEOUS FLOWERS. — In the pea and bean tribe the flower has a special form of perianth. The calyx is a shallow 5-toothed tube. +The corolla is composed of four pieces,—the large expanded part at the back, known as the stand-ard or banier; the two hooded side pieces, known as the wings; the single boat-shaped part beneath which is the keel. +The keel is supposed to represent two united petals, since the calyx and stamens are in 5's or multiplies of 5; moreover, it is composed of two distinct parts in cassia (Fig. 223) and some other plants of the pea family. Flowers of the + +A diagram showing the structure of a flower with sepals, petals, stamens, and pistil. + +27. Flower of trillium. + +Perennial flowers of solanumæ. + +**PAPILIONACEOUS FLOWERS** + +130 + +pea shape are said to be **papil- +ionaceous** (Latin *papilio*, a but- +terfly). + +277. Flowers of the pea and its kind have a peculiar +flat arrangement of stamens. The sta- +mens are 10, which 9 are united into a +tube which incloses the pistil. The tenth +stamen lies on the upper edge +of the pistil. The remains of +the pistil are seen in Fig. +190. The stamens are said to +be **diadelphous** (“in two brother- +hoods”) when united into two +groups. Stamens in one group + +278. Papilionaceous flowers.— +Sweet pea. + +monadelphous, and this arrange- +ment occurs in some members of +the bean family or pea family. + +278. MALLOW FLOWERS.—The +flowers of the mallow family are +well represented in single holly- +hocks (Figs. 206, 207) and in the +little plant (Fig. 224) known as +“cheese.” The peculiar structure +is the column formed by the +filaments of the enclosed styles, and +the ring of ovaries at the bottom +of the style-tube. The flower is 2n- +5-merous. Count the ovaries. +They sit on the torus, but are + +A diagram showing the arrangement of stamens in papilionaceous flowers. +Cactus flowers, showing the arrangement of stamens. + +Common mallow, a trailing plant, is given as an example of this plant. + +131 + +140 PARTICULAR FORMS OF FLOWERS + +united in the center by the base of the style-tube, which forms a cone-shaped body that separates from the torus when the fruit is ripe. All of the ovaries develop, or are some developed out of the struggle for existence. The calyx is often raised up like a cup, and has one or more extra calyx. These bracts form an involucre. An involucre is a circle or whorl of bracts standing just below a flower or a flower-cluster. The umbel of wild carrot (Fig. 180) has an involucre below it. The whole family of plants, known as the Malvaceae or Mallow family, has flowers similar to those of the hollyhock. To this family belong marsh mallow, althea, okra, cotton. Observe that though the hollyhock is a great tall-growing showy plant and the "cheeses" is a weak trailing inconspicuous plant, they belong to the same family, as shown by the structure of their flowers. + +A lady's-slipper, to illustrate the evolution of orchids. + +279. ORCHID FLOWERS.—The flowers of orchids vary wonderfully in shape, size, and color. Most of them are specially adapted to insect pollination. The distinguishing feature of the orchid flower, however, is the union of stamens and pistil in one body, known as the column. In Fig. 225 the stemless lady's-slipper is shown. The flower is 5-merous. One of the petals is developed into a great + +25 + +OCHID AND SPATHE FLOWERS + +141 + +sae or "slipper," known as the *lip*. Over the opening of this sae the column hangs. The column is shown in de- +tail: $a$ is the stigma; $d$ is an anther, and there is another similar one on the opposite side, but not developed. The orchid has no stamens, but two an- +thers, which do not produce pollen. In most other orchids there are three good +anthers. In orchids the pollen is usually borne in adherent masses, one or two +masses occupying each spuriumum of the +anther, whereas in most plants the pollen is in separate grains. These adherent masses +are often very large, as in the orchids. Orchids +from the tropics are much grown in choice +greenhouses. Several species are common +in woods and swamps in the northern +states and Canada. + +280. SPATHE FLOWERS.—In many plants, very simple (often naked flowers) are borne in dense, more or less +fleshy spikes, and the spike is inserted or attended by a +spathe, which is called a spathe, and is used as a +spathe. The spike of flowers is technically known as a spadix. This type of +flower is characteristic of the great arum +family, which is chiefly tropical. The +commonest wild representatives in the North are duck-in-the-pulpit or Indian +turban (Fig. 226) and skunk cabbage. +In these arums the spathe is green, +while the spadix is either all dichlamydeous and naked, or the pistillate +flowers (comprising only a 1-headed +ovary) are borne at the base of the +spadix, and the staminate flowers (each +of a few anthers) are above them. The cyrtises ripen into red berries. In the skunk cabbage all the flowers + +227. Wild onion, with bulbous roots, cup-shaped leaves, and numerous flowers. + +A plant with a bulbous root, cup-shaped leaves, and numerous flowers. + +142 + +PARTICULAR POEMS OF FLOWERS + +are perfect and have four sepals. The common calla lily is a good example of this type of inflorescence. + +281. COMPOSITOUS FLOWERS.—The head (anthodium) or so-called "flower" of sunflower (Fig. 177), thistle, aster, daisy, chrysanthemum, golden-rod, is composed of several or many little flowers, or florets. These florets are enclosed in a more or less dense and usually green involucre. In the thistle (Fig. 228) this involucre is prickly. A longitudinal section (Fig. 229) discloses the florets, all attached at bottom to a common tube, and densely packed in the involucre. The pink tips of these florets constitute the showy part of the head. + +282. Each floret of the thistle (Fig. 230) is a complete flower. At a is the ovary. At b is a much-divided plumy calyx, known as the pappus. The corolla is long-tubed, rising above the pappus, and is enlarged and 5-lobed at + + +A close-up view of a thistle head showing its structure. + + +230. Head of pasture-thistle showing the high prickly involucre. +231. Longitudinal section of thistle head. +232. Floret of thistle. + +COMPOSITOUS FLOWERS + +143 + +the top, c. The style projects at e. +The five anthers are united about the style in a ring at f. Some +anthers are said to be syng- +nemata. These are the various +parts of the florets of the Com- +posite. In some cases the pappus +is in the form of bars, bristles, or +scales, and sometimes it is want- +ing. The pappus, as we shall see +later, assists in distributing the +seed. Often the floret is not all +alike. The corolla of those in the +outer circles may be developed. +201. Compositae or bachelor's-bur, +or dandelion, or sunflower, etc., the +petals are large and showy. + +A flower with a long, strap-like or tubular part, and a head that has the appearance of being one petal. +long, strap-like or tubular part, and +the head then has the appearance of being one petal. Of such is the +sunflower (Fig. 177), +aster (Fig. 227), bache- +ler's button or corn +flower (Fig. 231), and +field daisy (Fig. 169). +202. Double dahlia. In some, the florets have de- +veloped rays, as in the dahlia (Fig. 232), and irishman- +thum. In some species, as dande- +lion, all the florets naturally have +rays. Syngenesious arrangement of +anthers is the most characteristic sin- +gle feature of the composites. + +A flower with a double corolla and ray petals. +double corolla-tube is formed by two +rays. +In some involucrated composite, +all the florets may develop rays, as in +the dahlia (Fig. 232), and irishman- +thum. In some species, as dande- +lion, all the florets naturally have +rays. Syngenesious arrangement of +anthers is the most characteristic sin- +gle feature of the composites. +203. Double back-year. +Compare with Fig. 208. + +A flower with a double corolla and ray petals. +double corolla-tube is formed by two +rays. +In some involucrated composite, +all the florets may develop rays, as in +the dahlia (Fig. 232), and irishman- +thum. In some species, as dande- +lion, all the florets naturally have +rays. Syngenesious arrangement of +anthers is the most characteristic sin- +gle feature of the composites. + +144 + +PARTICULAR FORMS OF FLOWEES + +283. ATTACHMENT OF THE FLOWER PARTS.—The parts of the flower may all be borne directly on the torus, or one part may be borne on another. With reference to + +234. Narcissus or daffodil. Single flower at the right; double flowers at the left. + +the pistil or ovary, the stamens and envelopes may be attached in three ways : hypogynous, all free and attached under the ovary, as in Fig. 187 ; perigynous, or attached to a more or less evident cup surrounding the ovary, as in Fig. 194 ; epigynous, some or all of them apparently borne on the ovary, as in Fig. 189. + +284. DOUBLE FLOW. + +**EXPLANATION:** Under the stimulus of cultivation and increased food-supply, flowers tend to become double. True doubling arises in two ways, + +235. Petals arising from the staminal column of hellebore; and accessory petals in the cerealia-wheel. + +A black-and-white illustration of a woman holding a bouquet of flowers, with a large lily in her hand. +A close-up of a lily flower, showing its structure. + +DOUBLE FLOWERS 145 + +morphologically: (1) stamens or pistils may change to petals (Fig. 235); (2) adventitious or accessory petals may arise in the circle of petals. Both of these categories may be present in the same flower, as in Figs. 234, 234, and 235. In the full-developed hollyhock, the petals derived from the stigmatic column are shorter and make a rosette in the center of the flower. + +Other modifications of flowers are sometimes known as doubling. For example, double daffons (Fig. 232) and sunflowers have forms in which the disk flowers have developed rays. The snowball is another case. In the wild plant (Fig. 236) the external flowers of the cluster are large and sterile. In the cultivated plant (Fig. 237), the flowers have become large and sterile. Hydrangea is a similar case. + +A photograph of a double flower, likely a daffodil, with multiple layers of petals. +28. The wild or original form of the snowball. +- Double flowers larger. + +29. Cultivated snowball, in which all the flowers in the cluster have become large and sterile. +- The outer flowers are large and sterile. +- The inner flowers are small and normal. + +**Review:** How do flowers vary in form? How are the variations produced? Determine by dissecting a flower of one of the following: 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morning-glory, 5-morn + +146 + +PARTICULAR FORMS OF FLOWERS + +*mens:* Describe a mallow flower, Orchid flower, Spur-thorn flower, Composant flower. + +*What do you understand by the terms hypogynous, perigynous, epigynous? How do flowers become double? What is meant by doubling in composites flowers? In single flowers? + +**Nore.** The flowers of grasses are too difficult for the beginner, but if the pupil wishes to understand them he may begin with the spikelet of rye (Fig. 230). A spike of wheat is made up of flowers and bracts. The flowers are in little clusters or spiklets (often called "florets") by botanists. One such spiklet is shown at b, in Fig. 238. Each spiklet contains from 1-4 flowers or florets. The structure of this spiklet is similar to that of rye (Fig. 230) and other grasses. The panicle has 2 leafy prophylls, trilobed stipules (widespread in grasses), and a spikelet (Fig. 239). There are 3 stamens, a, b, c. There are no pistils in the spikelet (a part of the flower (not shown in the cut) which probably represent true pistils have been omitted). + +The entire spikelet is also *perigynous*: these are the two lowermost parts in b, Fig. 239. + +*Spikes and flowers of wheat, rye, oats, barley, and millet.* A spike of wheat is c, Fig. 238. The larger one, d, is the spikelet which contains the flowers. The smaller, e, is a palel. + +The entire spikelet is subtended by two bracts or *panicles*: these are the two lowermost parts in b, Fig. 239. + +*Flower of rye.* Flower of rye, Fig. 238. The *stamens*, a, b, c, are three stamens; d is a *pistil*. + +CHAPTER XXI + +FRUITS + +285. The ripened ovary, with its attachments, is known as the fruit. It contains the seeds. If the pistil is simple, or of one carpel, the fruit also will have one compartment; but if the pistil is compound, or of more than one carpel, the fruit usually has an equal number of compartments. The compartments in pistil and fruit are known as *locules* (from Latin *locus*, meaning "a place"). + +286. The simplest kind of fruit is a *ripened 1-located ovary*. The first stage in com- +plexity is a ripened 2-, or +more, carpel. Very +complex forms may arise by +the attachment of other parts to the scory. Sometimes the style persists and becomes a beak (unistratoid peds, dentaria, Fig. 240) or a tail as in elema- +tic; or the calyx may be at- +tached to the base of the +ovary may be imbedded in the +receptacle, and ovary and re- +ceptacle together constitute +the fruit; or an involucre +may become a part of the +fruit, as in the bursk of the +walnut and hickory, and cup +of the acorn. The cheapest (Fig. 241) and the beech bear a prickly involucre, but the nuts, or true fruits, are not + +(47) + +148 +F R U I T S + +grown fast to it, and the involucre can scarcely be called a part of the fruit. A ripened ovary is a pericarp. A pericarp to which other parts adhere, has been called an accessory or rein- force. + +287. Some fruits are dehiscent, or split open at maturity(564) and liberate its seeds; others are indehis- cent, or do not open. A dehiscent pericarp is called a pod. The parts through which such a pod breaks or splits are known as valves. + +In indehiscent fruits the seed is liberated by the decay of the envelope by the ger- perspective. Such are known as samaras or key-fruits (conehit Ch. XXII). Maple, elm (Fig. 93), and ash (Fig. 127) are examples. + +288. PERICARPS.—The simplest pericarp is a dry, one- seeded, indehiscent body. It is known as an akene. A head of akenes is shown in Fig. 242, but the structure is explained in Fig. 191. Akenes may be seen in buntreep, hepatica, anemone, anartia, and other plants. + +289. A 1-seeded pericarp which deliquesces along the front edge (that is, the inner edge, next the center of the flower) is a follicle. The fruit of the larkspur (Fig. 243) is a follicle. +There are usually five of these fruits (sometimes three or four) in each larkspur flower, each pistil ripening into + +A diagram showing a dehiscent fruit with a central cavity and two halves splitting apart. + +290. Akenes are also known as biser- ious. + +22 + +230. Capsules of diotra or Jimson weed. +Septebridal and bidental. + +231. Vomit trifolia of +barbapar. Normal +plant with +pads, but some +showing signs +of existence. + +232. Apical double +leaf in the form +of branching leaf. +Two leaves united +to a central shaft. + +233. Foliodes of +a species of +Lima bean, +not yet +delimited. + +234. Legumes of perennial +or evergreen pea. + +235. Legumes of Lima bean + +236. Capsules of +Lima bean. +Septebridal. +17 + + +23. Torn sepalled fruit of the mignonette. +Two locules are closing by abortion of the ovules. + + + +24. St. John's-wort. +Sepertidal. + + + +25. Loculicidal pod of snap-dry. + + + +26. Torn flex capsule. + + + +27. Floral diaphragm of campanulae capsule. + + + +28. Shepherd's purse. +Stipe. + + + +29. Large 3-valved pod of the tree of trema or trumpet-creeper. + + + +30. Two-valved pod of catalpa. + + +PERICARPS +151 + +a follicle (Fig. 244). If these pistils were united, a single compound pistil would be formed. Columbine, peony, nine-bark also have follicles; milkweed, also (Fig. 247). + +290. A 1-lobed pericarp which dehisces by both edges is a **legume**. Peas and beans are typical examples (Figs. 246, 247): in this case, this character gives name to the pea-fam., — Leguminosae. + +291. A compound pod—dehiscence pericarp of two or more carpels—is a **capsule** (Figs. 248, 249). There are some capsules of one locale, but in most cases the ovary wall (in the ovary stage) and the partitions have vanished (Fig. 250). Sometimes one or more of the carpels are uniformly crowded out by the exclusive growth of other carpels (Fig. 251). The seeds or parts which are crowded out are said to be **dehiscence**. + +292. There are several ways in which capsules dehise or open. When they break along the partitions (or septa), the mode is known as **septicial dehiscence**; Fig. 252 + +30. Berries of the snowberry. +30. Berries of the snowberry. +30. Berries of the snowberry. +30. Berries of the snowberry. + +30. Berries of the snowberry. +30. Berries of the snowberry. +30. Berries of the snowberry. +30. Berries of the snowberry. + +30. Berries of the snowberry. +30. Berries of the snowberry. +30. Berries of the snowberry. +30. Berries of the snowberry. + +30. Berries of the snowberry. +30. Berries of the snowberry. +30. Berries of the snowberry. +30. Berries of the snowberry. + +30. Berries of the snowberry. +30. Berries of the snowberry. +30. Berries of the snowberry. +30. Berries of the snowberry. + +30. Berries of the snowberry. +30. Berries of the snowberry. +30. Berries of the snowberry. +30. 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Berries of the snowberry. +30. Berries of the snowberry. + +30. Berries of the snowberry. +30. Berries of the snowberry. +30. Berries of the snowberry. +30. Berries of the snowberry. + +30. Berries of the snowberry. +30. Berries of the snowberry. +30. Berries of the snowberry. +30. Berries of the snowberry. + +30. Berries of the snowberry. +30. Berries of the snowberry. +30. Berries of the snowberry. +30. Berries of the snowberry. + +30. Berries of the snowberry. +30. Berries of the snowberry. +30. Berries of the snowberry. +30. Berries of the snowberry. + +/imgs/> + +152 +**F R U I T S** + +shows it. In septicidal dehiscence the fruit separates into parts representing the original carpels. These carpels may still be entire, and then they detach individually, usually along the inner edge as if they were follicles. When the compartments split in the middle, between the partitions, the mode is *loculical dehiscence* (Fig. 533). In some cases the dehiscence is at the top, when it is said to be apical (although several modes of dehiscence are possible). When the whole top comes off, as in purslane and garden portulaca (Fig. 254) the pod is known as a *pyxis*. In some cases apical dehiscence is by means of a hole or clefts (Fig. 555). In pinks and their allies the dehiscence does not extend much beyond the apex (Fig. 250). Dehiscence may be *basal* (Fig. 256). Two-bellied capsules which resemble legume pods, transparent appearance are those of catnip and truss-clover (Fig. 257). + +293. The peculiar capsule of the mustard family, or Cruciferae, is known as a *silique* when it is distinctly longer than broad (Fig. 240), and a *siliceum* when its breadth nearly equals or exceeds its length (Fig. 259). A cruciferous capsule is 2-carpellate, with a thin partition, each locule containing seeds in two rows. The two valves detach below upon maturity. Cabbage, turnip, mustard, cress, radish, shepherd's purse, sweet Alyssum, wallflower, honesty, are examples. + +294. The pericarp may be *pericarpium* or *pericarpium*, *fleshy and indehiscent*. A pulpy pericarp with several or many seeds is a *berry* (Fig. 260). To the horticulturist a berry is a small, soft, edible fruit, + +A diagram showing the dehiscence of a fruit. + +303. Aggregate fruits of necessity, *fleshy and indehiscent*. A pulpy pericarp with several or many seeds is a berry (Fig. 260). To the horticulturist a berry is a small, soft, edible fruit, + +**PERICARPS** + +153 + +without particular reference to its structure. The botani- +cal and horticultural conceptions of a berry are, therefore, +unlike. In the botanical sense, gooseberries, currants, +gooseberries, potato-balls and even eggplant fruits (Fig. 261) +are berries; strawberries, raspberries, blackberries are not. + +293. A fleshy pericarp containing one relatively large seed or stone is a drupe. Examples are plum (Fig. 262), peach, cherry, +apricot, olive. The walls of the pit in the plum, peach, +and cherry are formed from the inner coats of the ovary, +and the flesh from the outer coats. Drupes are also +known as **stone fruits**. + +296. Fruits which are formed by the subsequent union +of separate pistils are aggregate fruits. The carpels in +aggregate fruits are normally more or less fleshy. +In the raspberry and blackberry flowers the pistils are essentially distinct, but as the pistils ripen they cohere and form +one body. Fig. 263. Each of the carpels or +pistils in the raspberry and blackberry is a little drupe, or *drupulet*. In the raspberry the +entire fruit separates from the torns, leaving +the torns on the plant. In the +blackberry and dewberry the fruit +remains attached to the torns, and the torns +are removed together when the +fruit is picked. + +297. ACCESSORY FRUITS.—When 35. Tip of stem. +the pericarp and some other part grow together, the fruit +is said to be accessory or reinforced (286). An example + +A diagram showing a section of a fruit with a central core surrounded by several smaller sections. +*Diagram of a fruit with a central core surrounded by several smaller sections.* + +367. Apple flowers. + +368. Young apple fruits. + +ACCESSORY FRUITS +155 + +is the strawberry (Fig. 264). The edible part is a greatly enlarged *torus*, and the pericarps are akenes imbedded in it. These akenes are commonly called seeds. + +298. Various kinds of reinforced fruits have received the name of pome, because they resemble the *hip*, characteristic of roses, Fig. 265. In this case, the torus is deep and hollow, like an urn, and the separate akenes are borne inside it. The mouth of the receptacle may close, and the walls sometimes become fleshly : the fruit may then be mistaken for a berry. + +299. Pome of sumac (Rhus typhina), pear, apple, and quince is known as a *pome*. In this case the five united carpels are completely buried in the hollow torus, and the torus makes most of the edible part of the ripe fruit, while the pistils are represented by the core (Fig. 266). Fig. 267 shows the apple in bloom; Fig. 268 shows young fruits, only one having formed in each cluster. In the heart-leafed plum of Fig. 267, note that the seeds are far from being separated from the torus (anexy of the fig) in Fig. 268. In the plum flower (Fig. 191), note that the pistil sits free in the hollow torus; imagine the pistil and itsem grown together, and something like a pome might result. The fruit of pumpkin, squash (Fig. 269), melon and ensemblem is a *pepo*. The outer wall is torus, but the seeds do not persist, and the fruit is normally 5-leaved (though the particulate may disappear as the fruit ripens). + +299. GYMNOSPERMUS FRUITS.—In pines, spruces, and their kin, there is no fruit in the sense in which the word is used in the preceding pages, because there is no ovary. The ovaules are naked or uncovered, in + +A small illustration showing a pine cone with several cones attached to a central axis. +Winged Pine Cone + +156 + +F R U I T S + +the axisls of the scales of the young cone, and they have neither style nor stigma. The pollen falls directly on the mouth of the ovule. The ovule ripens into a seed (Fig. 270) which is usually winged. Because the ovule is not borne in a sac or ovary, these plants are called **gynnosperms** (Greek for "naked seeds"). + +All the true cone-bearing plants are of this class; also certain other plants as red cedar, juniper, yew. The plants are monoecious, i.e., male and female flowers are on the same plant. + +The staminate flowers are mere naked stamens borne beneath scales, in small yellow catkins which soon fall. The pistillate flowers are naked ovules beneath scales on cones which persist (Figs. 271, 272). + +251. Pistillate cone +of yew. +This tree is one of the commonest planted evergreen. + +**Question:** What is a fruit, as understood by the botanist? What is a locale? What is a seed-fruit, and accessory or reinforced fruits? +Define pericarp. Peel. What are dehiscent and indehiscent fruits? What is a manna or key-trunk? Define aneac. Follicle. Lomandra. What is a cyme? Define cyme. Apocarpous dehiscent. Bunchy dehiscent. What is a pyxis? Silique? Silicle? Berry? Drone? Dimpellet? Explain an aggregate fruit. Explain the fruit of strawberry, rose, apple, squash. What is the fruit of the fig? + +**Note:** Fully mature fruits are best for study, particularly if it is desired to see dehisence. For comparison, ptilae and partially grown fruits should be had at the same time. If the fruits are not ripe enough, they may be placed in a dish to dry. In the school it is well to have a collection of fruits for study. The species may be kept in glass jars. + +The following diagram will tell the pupil to remember that the fruits to which particular names have been given. He must beware, however, that the diagram does not express the order of evolu- +tion of the various kinds. He should also remember that there are + +REVIEW ON FRUITS 157 + +many common fruits which answer to no definition, and these should be studied and compared with the forms which have received definite names. + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
PedicelsDry pericarp...Simple... akene (indichiscent)
Tallie (dehiscent)
Compound (capsule)sepulchral dehiscence
loculical dehiscence
aerial dehiscence.
Fleshy pericarp...berry [Pyxis]
drupe
Aggregate pericarp...drupelet
+ +Accessory FRUITS - strawberry +hip +pome +pulp + +GYMNOSPERMous OR CORE FRUITS + +A close-up of a plant with green leaves and small white flowers. + +Autumn Fruits + +CHAPTER XXII + +DISPERSEAL OF SEEDS + +300. It is to the plant's advantage to have its seeds distributed as widely as possible. It has a better chance of surviving in the struggle for existence. It gets away from competition. Many seeds and fruits are of such character as to increase the chances of wide dissemination. The commonest means of dissemination may be classed under four heads : explosive fruits ; transportation by wind ; transportation by birds ; water. + +A diagram showing the structure of the bean seed pod. +23. Explosive fruits of the bean, Phaseolus vulgaris, pod is shown at 1. The diagram shows 2, 3, 4. +8. The structure of the bean seed pod. + +301. EXPLOSIVE FRUITS. -- Some pods open with explosive force and scatter the seeds. Even beans and everlasting peas (Fig., 246) do this. More marked examples are the locust, witch hazel, garden balsam, wild jewel weed or impatiens (Fig. 275), and oxalis (Fig. 273). The oxalis is 274. Winged oca of Catalpa. + +A diagram showing the structure of the winged oca fruit. +274. Winged oca fruit of catalpa. + +Wind-borne fruits of dandelion. + +(158) + +WIND - TRAVELEERS 159 + +The elastic tissue suddenly contracts when debiscence takes place, and the seeds are thrown violently. The squirting cucumber is easily grown in a garden (procure seeds of seedsmen), and the fruits discharge the seeds with great force, throwing them many feet. + +A close-up photograph of a plant with numerous small, white, fluffy seeds attached to its branches. +23a. Tumble-down ready for a journey. In a gentle wind it rides high in the air. + +302. WIND-TRAVELERS.—Wind-transported seeds are of two general kinds;—those which are provided with wings, as the flat seeds of catalpa (Fig. 274) and cone-bearing trees (Fig. 270) and the samaras of ash, elm, + +14 + +160 +DISPERAL OF SEEDS + +A close-up photograph of a milkweed plant with its seed pods. The seed pods are fluffy and white, hanging from the plant. The background is dark. + +27. The expanding balloon of the milkweed. + +tulip-tree, ailanthus, and maple; those which have feathery buoys or parachutes to enable them to float in the air. +Of the latter kind are the fruits of many composites, in which the pappus is copious and soft. Dandelion (Fig. + +DISPERSEAL BY BIRDS 161 + +275) and thistle (Fig. 276) are examples. The silk of the milkweed (Fig. 277) has a similar office, and also the wood of the cat-tail (Fig. 278). Recall the cotyledons seeds of the willow and poplar. + +303. DISPERSEAL BY BIRDS.—Seeds of berries and of other small fleshy fruits are carried far and wide by birds. The pulp is digested, but the seeds are not injured. Note how the cherries, raspberries, blackberries, + +A close-up view of a berry with a bird's beak in the background. +379. The fruits of the rutaceae family, such as the bittersweet vine, are dispersed by birds. + +and Juniperies spring up in the fewest places where the birds red. Some here ries and drapes persist far into winter, when they supply food to cedar birds, robins, and the winter birds. Fig. 279. Red cedar is distributed by birds. Many of these pulpy fruits are agreeable as human food, and some of them have been greatly enlarged or "improved" by the arts of the cultivator. Consult paragraph 379 for the process by which such result may have been attained. + +304. BURS.—Many seeds and fruits bear spines, hooks, and hairs which adhere to the coats of animals and to + +x + +162 + +DISPERAL OF SEEDS + +A diagram showing the dispersal of seeds. +clothing. The burdock has no involucre with hooked scales, containing the fruits inside. Fig. 280. The clover is also an involucre. Both are compositous plants, allied to thistles, but the whole head, rather than the separate fruits, is transported. In some compositions fruits the pappus takes the form of hooks and spines, as in the "Spanish needles" and "hedge forks." Fruits of various kinds are known as "stek tights," as of the agrimony and hound's tongue. Those who walk in the woods in late summer and fall are aware that plants have means of disseminating their seeds. Fig. 281. If it is impossible to identify the burs which one finds on clothing, the seeds may be planted and specimens of the plant may then be grown. + +REVIEW. What advantage is it to the plant to have its seeds widely dispersed? What are the leading ways by which fruits and seeds are dispersed? Name some ex- +plosive fruits. Describe wind-travel- +ers. What seeds are carried by birds? +Identify some burs with which you are familiar. + +Note.—This lesson will suggest other ways in which seeds are trans- +ported. Nuts are carried by squirrels. +280. The cow is carrying burdocks. + +279. Drupe of the black haw, loved of robins in winter. + +280 + +REVIEW ON SEED DISPERSAL 163 + +for food, but if they are not eaten they may grow. The seeds of many plants are blown on the snow. The old stalks of weeds, standing through the winter, may serve to disperse the plant. Seeds are carried by water down the streams and along shores. + +Some seeds are carried by animals, often spring up from seed brought in the fleece. Sometimes the cuttle plant is rolled for food by the beaver. Such plants are "tumble weeds." Examples: Russian thistle (Fig. 90), hair-grass or thumb-grass (Fimbrima capillaris), cyclops (Cyclops scutellatus), and white amaranth (Amaranthus albus). About seaports strange plants are often found which have been introduced in the earth which is used in ships for ballast. These plants are usually known as "ballast plants." Most of them do not persist long. + +St. + +Strolling has may be fitted in the school-room window and used as a means of teaching children how to make use of the accumulated water, tithonium, cattleya, gentian, some begonias, and other plants. The water can be used for watering some school-roses. If the plants become sick, take them to the botanist's. + +A line-lined box may be fitted in the school-room window and used as a means of teaching children how to make use of the accumulated water, tithonium, cattleya, gentian, some begonias, and other plants. The water can be used for watering some school-roses. If the plants become sick, take them to the botanist's. + +CHAPTER XXIII + +GERMINATION + +303. THE SEED.—We have found (258) that by the process of fertilization a seed is formed. The seed contains a miniature plant or embryo. The embryo usually has three parts which have received names: the little stemlet or caulicle; the seed-leaf or cotyledon (usually 1 or 2); the bud or plumule lying between or above the cotyledons. These parts are well seen in the common bean (Fig. 282), particularly when the seed has been soaked for a few hours. One of the large cotyledons comprising half of the bean is shown at r. + +The other cotyledon is at s. The plumule is at t. + +The cotyledons are attached to the caulicle at f; this point is the first node, and the plumule is at the second node. + +306. Every seed is provided with food, to support the germinating plant. Commonly this food is starch. The food may be stored in the cotyledons, as in bean, pea, squash, or onion, or in the cotyledons, as in castor bean, pine, walnut, etc. + +When the food is around the embryo, it is usually called endosperm. + +307. The embryo and endosperm are enclosed within a covering made of two or more layers and known as the seed-coats. Over the point of the caulicle is a minute hole or a thin place in the coats known as the micropyle. This is the point at which the pollen-tube enters the forming ovule and through which the cambium breaks in germination. The micropyle is shown at w in Fig. 283. + +The scar where the seed broke from its funiculus or stalk + +(169) + +THE SEED 165 + +is the hilum. It occupies a third of the length of the bean in Fig. 283. The hilum and micropyre are always present in seeds, but they are not always close together. In many cases it is difficult to identify the micropyre in the dormant seed, but its location is at once shown by the protruding caudicle as germination begins. Opposite the micropyre in the bean (at the other end of the hilum) is an elevation known as the raphe. This is formed by a union of the funiculus or stalk with the seed-coats and through it food was transferred for the development of the embryo during the formation of the seed. + +398. Seeds differ wonderfully in size, shape, color, and other characteristics. They also vary in longevity. These characteristics are peculiar to the species or kind. Some seeds maintain life only a few weeks or even days, whereas others will "keep" for ten or twenty years. In special cases, seeds have retained vitality longer than this limit, but the above-mentioned seeds, several thousand years old, have been taken from graves in Egypt. + +399. GERMINATION.—The embryo is not dead; it is only dormant. When supplied with moisture, warmth, and oxygen (air), it awakens and grows; this growth is germination. The embryo lives for a time on the stored food, but gradually the plantlet secretes a foodstool in the soil and gathers food for itself. When the plantlet is finally able to shift for itself, growth continues rapidly. + +400. Germination.—The seed first absorbs water, and swells. The starchy matters gradually become soluble. The seed-coats are ruptured, the cotyledons and plumule emerge. During this process the seed respires freely, throwing off carbon dioxide (CO₂). Fill a tin box or large-necked bottle with dry beans or peas, then add water; note how much they swell. Secure two fruit-jars. Fill one of them a third full of beans and keep them moist. Allow the + +A diagram showing the parts of a bean seed. +External parts of bean. + +166 +GERMINATION + +other to remain empty. In a day or two insert a lighted splinter or taper into each. In the empty jar the taper burns, it contains oxygen. + +In the seed jar the taper goes on, the air has been replaced by carbon dixoid. Usually there is a perceptible rise in temperature in a mass of germinating seeds. + +311. The cadicle usually elongates, and from its lower end a foot is formed. The elongating cadicle is known as the hypocotyl ("below the cotyledons"). That is, the hypocotyl is that part of the stem of the plantlet lying between the roots and the coty- +ledon. The general direction of the young hypocotyl or emerging cadicle is downwards. As soon as roots form it becomes fixed, and subterranean growth tends to raise the cotyledons above the ground, as in the bean. When cotyledons rise into the air, germination is said to be epigaeal ("above the earth"). Bean and pumpkin are examples. When the hypocotyl does not elongate greatly and the cotyledons remain under ground, the germination is hypogaeal ("beneath the earth"). Pea and scarlet runner bean are examples. + +When the germinating seed lies on a hard surface, as on closely compacted soil, the hypocotyl and rootlets may not be able to secure a foothold, + +A diagram showing a seedling with its roots spreading apart. +285. Cotyledons of perminat- +ing bean spread apart +to lie on a hard sur- +face and produce +rootlets. + +A diagram showing a seedling with its roots spreading apart. +286. Germination of bean. + +A diagram showing a seedling with its roots spreading apart. +287. Germination of pea. + +A diagram showing a seedling with its roots spreading apart. +288. Germination of scarlet runner bean. + +GERMINATION OF BEAN 167 + +and they assume grotesque forms. Fig. 284. Try this with peas and beans. + +312. The first internode above the cotyledons—betweeen the cotyledons and the plumule—is the hypocotyl. It carries the plumule into the air, and the plumule-leaves expand to the 20th segment of the first true leaves of the bean plant. These first true leaves, however, may be very unlike the later leaves. + +313. GERMINATION OF BEAN. — The common bean, as we have seen (Fig. 282) has cotyledons which occur all along the stem, but in the Lima bean, when the hypocotyl or elongating canalicule emerges, the plumule-leaves have begun to enlarge and to unfold (Fig. 285). + +The hypocotyl elongates rapidly. One end of it is held by the roots. The other is held by the seed-coat in the soil, and it takes on the form of a loop, and its central part "comes up" first (a, Fig. 286). Presently it draws the cotyledons out of the seed-coats, and then it straightens and the cotyledons expand. These cotyledons or "halves of the bean," germinate complete. + +For about two days (b, Fig. 286). They then become green and probably perform some function of foliage. Be- cause of its large size, Lima bean shows all these parts well. + +314. GERMINATION OF CASTOR BEAR. + +In the castor bean the imbibed micropyle are at the smaller end (Fig. +A diagram showing the germination process of a castor bean. +29, Castor bean. Embryo at left, megalo-dome at right. + +30, Castor bean. Embryo at left, megalo-dome at right. + +168 +**GEEMINATION** + +287). The bean "comes up" with a loop, which indicates that the hypocotyl greatly elongates. On examining a germinating seed, however, it will be found that the cotyledons are contained inside a flexy body, which can be seen by removing the sur- +spore. To its inner surface the thin, veiny cotyledons are very closely appressed, absorbing its substance (Fig. 280). +The cotyledons increase in size as they reach the air (Fig. +290), and become functional leaves. + +A diagram showing the germination of a corn seed. + +29. Sprout ing Indian corn, showing the two cotyledons, one of which is plumed. + +29a. Kernel of Indian corn, showing the two cotyledons, one of which is plumed. + +315. **GERMINATION OF CORN** + +Note that the micropyle and hilum are at the smaller end (Fig. 291). + +Make a longitudinal section through the narrow diameter; Fig. 292 shows it. The single cotyledon is at \(a\), the coleole at \(b\), the plumule at \(p\). The cotyledon remains in the seed. The food is stored in the cotyledon as well as in the plumule, chiefly the latter. + +The coleole shows a short plumule, with a sheath- +ing leaf (Fig. 293). The tip is confined from the tip of the coleole, i.e., the coleole is held in a sheath (formed mostly from the seed-cells), and some of the roots escape through the upper end of this sheath (see Fig. +293). The epicotyl elongates, par- +ticularly when it is plumed deep or if it is kept for some time confined. In Fig. 294 +the epicotyl has elon- +gated from \(k\) to \(p\). The true plumule-leaf is at \(o\), but other leaves grow from its sheath. In Fig. 295 the roots + +A diagram showing the germination of a corn seed. + +29. Indian corn, a plumed seed. + +29a. Indian corn, showing the two cotyledons, one of which is plumed. + +to \(e\), epicotyl. + +291 + +**EVIEW ON GERMINATION** + +163 + +are seen emerging from the two ends of the caulicle-sheth, $c$, $m$; the epicotyl has grown to $p$; the first plumule-leaf is at $a$. + +**REVIEW—What does a seed contain? What do you understand by the term "germination"? Where is the food in the seed? What are the seed-cells? What is the micropyle? Hithum? How may the position of the micropyle be determined in a seed?** + +With what are these differences associated? What is germination? Under what conditions does a seed germinate? Is germination complete? What is the first phenomenon of germination? Explain the relation between the root and hypocotyl. Hypocotyl and epicotyl. Hypogean and epigean germination. What becomes of the plume? Explain germination of a seed which you have studied. + +Note.—Few subjects connected with the study of plant life are so interesting and important as germinations. The pupil should prepare the soil, plant the seeds, and observe their growth. Plant in pots or shallow boxes. Cigar-boxes are excellent. The depth of planting should be two-thirds of an inch. Cover the seeds. It is well to begin the planting of seeds at least ten days in advance of the last frost. The seeds may be planted at intervals. A day or two before the study is taken up, put seeds to soak in milk or cloth. The pupil then has a series from endomycotyledonous to exomycotyledonous. The leaves can be made out. Dry seeds should be had for comparison. + +Good seeds for study are those detailed in the lesson, --bean, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn, --corn. Make drawings and notes of all the events in the + +294. Natural planting of the fruits of Norway maple. +295. The beginning. +296. A later stage. +297. Another position. +298. The wing cast off ; the seed-casts still adhering. +299. Casting the seed-casts. +300. Free from the seed-casts. +301. Free. + +NOTE ON GERMINATION + +germination. Note the effects of unusual conditions, as planting too deep and too shallow and different sides up. For hypogeal germina- +tion, use the garden pea, scarlet runner or Dutch ease-knife bean, +acorn, horse-chestnut. Squash seeds are excellent for germination +studies, because the cotyledons become green and leafy and germina- +tion can be studied by the growth of these leaves. The common summer +bean, is explained in "Lessons with Plants." Onion is excellent, +except that it germinates too slowly. In order to study the root +development of germinating plants, it is well to provide +dry peat moss in which the seeds may be planted. + +Observe the germination of any seed which is common about the +premises. Where chas and maples are abundant, the germination of +these trees can be studied in flower and along fences. Fig. 296 to +303 suggest observations on the germination of seeds as a means +of ornamental tree. + +When studying germination, the pupil should note the differences +in shape between cotyledons and pinnate-leaves and between pinni- +cule-leaves and the normal leaves of the plant. Fig. 143. Make drawings. + +Germination of beans and peas. + +CHAPTER XXIV + +PHENOGAMS AND CRYPTOGAMS + +316. The plants thus far studied produce flowers; and the flowers produce seeds by means of which the plant is propagated. There are other plants, however, which produce no seeds, and these plants are more numerous than the seed-bearing plants. These plants propagate by means of spores, which are usually simple germinative cells containing a single nucleus, and are very small, and sometimes are not visible to the naked eye. + +307. Prominent amongst the spore-propagated plants are ferns. The common Christmas fern (so-called because it remains green during winter) is shown in Fig. 304. The plant has no trunk. The leaves spring directly from the ground. The leaves of ferns are called fronds. They vary in shape, as either long or short. Compare Fig. 125 with the picture given this chap- ter. Some of the fronds are seen to be narrower at the top. If these are examined more closely (Fig. 305) it will be seen that the leaflets are contracted and are densely covered beneath with brown bodies. These bodies are portions of sporangia or spore-cases. + +308. The sporangia are collected into little groups, known as sori (singular, sorms) or fruit-dots. Each sorus is covered with a thin scale or shield, known as an + +(172) + +STRUCTURE OF FERNS + +173 + +**indusium.** This indusium separates from the frond at its edges, and the sporangia are exposed. Not all ferns have indusia. The polypode (Figs. 306, 307) does not; the sori are indusiate. In the maidenhair (Fig. 300) the edge of the frond turns over and forms an indusium. In some ferns (Fig. 310) an entire frond becomes contracted to cover the sporangia. In other cases the indusium is a sac-like covering, which splits up (Fig. 511). + +**310. The sporangium or spore-case of a fern is an open or less globular body and usually with a stalk (Fig. 307). It contains the spores. When ripe it bursts and the spores are set free. Lay a nature fruiting frond of any fern on white paper, top side up, and allow it to remain in a dry, warm place. The spores will disengage on the paper. + +**311. In a moist, warm place the spores germinate. They produce a small, flat, thin green mass or less heart-shaped membrane (Fig. 312). This is the prothallus. Sometimes the prothallus is an inch or more across, but oftener it is less than a fourth this size. It is commonly unknown except to botanists. + +Prothallus may often be found in greenhouses where ferns are grown. Look on the moist stone or brick walls, or + +A diagram showing the structure of a fern frond with an indusium. +Common polypode form. +Polyptodum vulgare. +Sori and sporangia of polypode. + +286. Common polypode form. +Polyptodum vulgare. +Sori and sporangia of polypode. +Prothallus. +Sometimes the prothallus is known except to botanists. +Prothallus may often be found in greenhouses where ferns are grown. Look on the moist stone or brick walls, or + +174 +PHENOGAMS AND CRYPTOGAMS + +on the firm soil of undisturbed pots and beds. Or spores may be sown in a damp, warm place. + +321. On the under side of the prothallus two kinds of organs are borne. These are the *archegonium* and *antheridium*. The former is a hollow, egg-shaped organ, with a minute specialized part at its base. Their positions on a particular prothallus are shown at a and b in Fig. 312, but in some ferns they are on separate prothalli (plant divisions). The spermatia escape from the antheridium and in the water which collects on the prothallus are carried to the archegonium, where fertilization takes place. From a fertilized archegonium develops a new plant, this being the *fern*. +In most cases the prothallus dies soon after the fern plant begins to grow. + +322. The fern plant, arising from the fertilized egg in the archegonium, becomes a perennial plant, each year producing spores from its fronds, as we have seen; but these spores—which are merely detached special kinds of cells—produce the prothallial phase of the fern plant, from which new fern plants arise. +A fern is ferti- lized but once in its lifetime. This alternation of phases is called the alternation of gen- erations. The first or fertilized plant is the gametophyte, and the sec- +ond or non- fertilized plant is the *sporophyte* (phyton is Greek for "plant"). + +323. The alternation of generations runs all through the vegetable kingdom, although there are some groups of plants in which it is very obscure or apparently want- + +WHAT A FLOWER IS + +175 + +ing. It is very marked in ferns and mosses. In algae (including the seaweeds) the gametophyte makes the "plant," as the non-biologist knows it. There is a general tendency, in the evolution of the reptable kingdom, for the gametophyte to lose its relative importance and for the sporophyte to become larger and more highly developed. In the seed-bearing plants the sporophytic condition is the only one reached by the mature plant. The gametophytic stage is of short duration and the parts are small : it is confined to the time 390. Female and sterile fronds of fertilization. +024 The sporophyte of seed-plants, or the "plant" as we know it, produces spores which develop into pollen grains and the other kind embryos. +311. A car-like indusium. The pollen-spores are borne in sporangia, which are united into what are called anthers. The embryo-sac, which contains the egg-cell, is borne in a sporangium known as an ovule. A gametophytic stage is present in both pollen and embryo-sac: fertilization takes place, and the embryo arises. Soon this sporophyte becomes dormant, and is then known as an embryo. The embryo is packed away within tight-fitting coats, and the entire body is the seed. When the con- +ditions are right, the seed germinates and the sporophyte grows into herb, bush, or tree. The +utility of the alternation of generations is not understood. + +312. Portionals of a fern. Enlarged Arachnogonium (Arachnogonium b.) + +176 + +**PHENOGAMS AND CYPTOGAMS** + +225. It happens that the spores of seed-bearing plants are borne amongst a mass of specially developed leaves known as *flowers*; therefore these plants have been known as the *flowering plants*. Some of the leaves are develop-ed as envelopes (calyx, corolla), and others as spore-bearing parts, or *sporophytes* (stamens, pistils). But the spores of the lower plants, as of ferns and mosses, may also be borne in specially developed foliage, so that the line of demarcation between flowering plants and flower-less plants is not so definite as was once supposed. The one distinction between flowering plants and other plants is the fact that one produces seeds and the other does not. The seed-plants are now often called * sperma- phytes*, but there is no single coordinate term to set off those which do not bear seeds. It is quite as well, for popular purposes, to use the old terms, *phenogams* for the seed-bearing plants and *cryptogams* for the others. + +These terms have been objected to in recent years because they imply that the expression *flower* refers to *glo- pogam* refers to the fact that the flowers are showy, and cryptogam to the fact that the parts are hidden), but the terms represent distinct ideas in classification. Nearly every word in the language has grown away from its etymology. The cryptogams include three great series of plants—the Thallophytes or alga, lichens and fungi, the Bryophytes or moss-like plants, the Pterophytes or fern-like plants. In each of these series there are many families (Chapter 3). + +**REVIEW.—What is a spore? Describe the appearance of one plant which you have studied. What are the sporae and sporangia? What is a spore? Isidium? What grows from the spore? How does the new "flower" plant arise? What is meant by the phrase "alternation of generations"? What is a sporophyte? Describe the alternation in flowering plants. Explain the flower from this point of view. What is the significance of the word spermo- phyte? Contrast phenogam and cryptogam.** + +NOTE ON CRYPTOGAMS + +Note.—All the details of fertilization and of the development of the generations are omitted from this book, because they are subjects for specialists and demand more training in research methods than the high-school pupil can properly give to plant study. Cryptogams are more numerous than phanerogams, and for this reason it has been wise to include them in this book rather than to omit them altogether. This position is untenable, however, for the best plant subjects for youth are those which mean most to his life. It is said, also, that they are too simple for the beginner, but the life-cycle is relatively simple in all cases; but the initial stage of plants should be undertaken for the purpose of quickening the pupil's perception of common and familiar problems rather than for the purpose of developing a technical knowledge of a given science. + +A close-up view of a fern frond. +True ferns are inhabitants of the tropics. +They are often grown in choice greenhouses. + +L + +CHAPTER XXV + +STUDIES IN CRYPTOGAMS + +The special advanced pupil who has acquired skill in the use of the compound microscope, may desire to make more extended excursions into the cryptogamous orders. The following plants, selected as examples in various groups, will serve as a beginning. + +ALGAE + +The algae comprise most of the green floating "seum" which covers the surface of ponds and other quiet waters. The masses of plants are often called "frog spittle." Others are attached to stones, pieces of wood, or other objects submerged in streams or lakes, and many are found on moist ground and on dripping rocks. Aside from these, all the plants commonly known as seaweeds belong to this category. They are inhabi- +tants of salt water. + +The simplest forms of algae consist of a single spherical cell, which multiplies by repeated division or fission. These are termed *zoospores.* The next finer fil- +aments, i. e., the plant-body consists of long threads, either simple or branched. Such a plant-body is termed a *filament.* This filament is the representative body of all plants which are not differentiated into leaves or stems. Leaves such plants are known as *bryophytes* (225). All algae contain chlorophyll, and are able to assimilate car- +bon dioxide from the air. This distinguishes them from +the fungi. + +Strand of cryptogams. +A strand of cryptogams. A green alga is in spore-form (Fig. 31d). This plant usually forms colonies on stones or on aquatic plants in ponds. + +Sporangium.--One of the most common forms of the green algae is sporangium (Fig. 31d). This plant usually forms colonies on stones or on aquatic plants in ponds. + +The filamentous character of the thallus can be seen with the naked eye or with a hand-lens, but to study it care- +fully a microscope magnifying two hundred diameters or more should + +(178) + +A L G E + +be used. The thallus is divided into long cells by cross-walls which, according to the species, are either straight or curiously folded (Fig. +341). The choanophyll is arranged in beautiful spiral bands near the wall of each cell. From the character of these bands the plant takes its name. Each cell is provided with a nucleus +and other protoplasmic elements, but no chloroplasts. In the center of the cell, as Fig. 323, by delicate strands of protoplasm radiating toward the wall and terminat- +ing at certain points in the choanophyll band. The +nucleus is situated in the middle of the cell near the +wall. The interior of the cell is filled with +cell-sap. Easily one sees that if the cells are cut transverse, +deciduous solutions remain (14) they become clear. + +Sporangiophytes are vegetatively propagated by the break- +ing off of parts of the thalli, which continue to grow +outwards until they reach a certain length, then become +dormant for a time, are formed by a process known as +**reproduction**. Two thalli lying side by side send out +short projections, usually from all the cells of a long +thread-like structure. These projections grow outwards +opposite cells grow toward each other, meet and fuse, +forming a connecting tube between the cells. The +choanophylls of both cells are united by this connecting +tube. The two tubes pass through this tube, and unite with the contents of the other +cell. The entire mass then becomes surrounded by a thick redilose wall, thus completing the **sporangium**, or **zygospore** (Fig. 314, 2). + +The sporangia are produced on the surface of moist or damp soil. +The thallus is much branched, but the threads are not divided by cross-walls as in sporangiophytes. The plants are obtained by means of +colorless root-like organs which are like theoot-shanks of the +higher plants. They are called *rhizoids* and are choanophylls in the form of grains scattered through the thallus. + +*Vanceriaria* has a special mode of vegetative reproduction by means of secondary growth. A short, enlarged lateral branch known as the *sporangium*, when this sporangium bursts the entire contents escape, forming a large single +warm-organ, which swells about by means of numerous buds or cells. +These buds grow outwards and produce new branches growing with the naked eye. After swimming about for some time they come to rest and germinate, producing a new plant. + +The formation of rooting-spores of *vanceriaria* is accomplished + +180 +STUDIES IN CRYPTOGAMS + +by means of special organs, Fig. 315. a. and Fig. 315. b. Both of these are specially developed branches from the thallus. The antheridia are nearly cylindrical, and curved toward the oogonium. The upper part of an antheridium is cut off by the lower part of the thallus; in it numerous elliptic spermatella are formed. These escape by the ruptured apex of the antheridium (Fig. 316). The oogonia are more enlarged than the antheridium and have a beak-like projection turned a little to one side of the apex. They are separated from the thallus through a cavity which contains a green egg-cell, the egg-cell. The apex of the oogonium is dissolved, and through the opening the spermatella enter into the oogonium. After fertilization the egg-cell becomes invested with a thick wall and is thus converted into a resting-spore, the oospore (Fig. 316). + +Fungi + +Some forms of fungi are familiar to every one. Mucorums and toadstools, with their various forms and colors, are common in fields, woods, and pastures. In our household the common moccas are familiar intruders, appearing on old vegetables, and even within tightly sealed fruit jars, where they form a felt-like layer dustered over the surface of the food. The toadstool is a very common plant. The strange occurrence of these plants long mystified people, who thought they were productions of the dead matter upon which they grew, until it was discovered that they were not such but had been blind, cannot originate spontaneously; it must start from something which is analogous to a seed. The seed in this case is a spore. + +The spore is a minute reproductive body of all flowerless plants. A spore is a very simple structure, usually of only one cell, which may be produced by a vegetative process (growing out from the ordinary plant tissues), or it may be the result of a fertilization process (316). + +Fig. 316. +The oospore of *Mucor*. + +**F U N G I** + +181 + +**Mould — One of these moulds, Mycor amedus, which is very com- +mon on all decaying fruits and vegetables, is shown in Fig. 317, some- +what magnified. When fruiting, this mould appears as a dense mass +of long white hairs, often over an inch high, standing erect from the +fruit or vegetable upon which it is growing. +Q. 0. 0. +The mycelium is a minute +rounded spore (q, Fig. 318), which lodges on the +decaying material. When the spore germinates, +C. C. C. +it produces a delicate thread which grows rapidly +and forms a network of fine threads (a, Fig. 318), +which soon permeate every part of the substance on which +the plant grows (b, Fig. 318). One of these threads is termed a hypha. +All the threads together form what is called the mycelium. +This mycelium decomposes the material in which it grows, and thus the +mould liberates the mineral food (Fig. 317). It corresponds physiologically to +the roots and stems of other plants. + +When the spores are formed, about three days old it begins to form the +long fruiting stalks which we first noticed. To study them, use a +compound microscope magnifying about two hundred diameters. +One of the stalks, magnified, is shown in Fig. 319, a. It consists of a +conical head (a) with a short neck (b), and a long slender stalk (c). +The sporangium, st., the stalk is separated from the sporangium by a wall which is formed at the base of the sporangium. This wall, +however, does not separate the head from the neck. The neck +is thin, but it arches up into the upper +sporangium like an inverted pen. It is known +as the *ectalum*, e., when the sporangium is young, +it dissolves and allows hundreds of spores, +which were formed in the cavity within +the sporangium, to escape, b. All that is left of the head is a small, +shaped edemalum e. and its summit, c. +The spores which have been set free by the +breaking down of the wall are now +scattered by wind and other agents. +Those which lodge in favorable places be- +gin to grow immediately and reproduce +the fungus by means of their own spores. + +The mycor ame continues to reproduce itself in this way indefi- +nitely, but these spores are very delicate and unlikely if they do not fall on favorable ground, so that the fungus is provided with another + +318 Mycor amedus: spore (q) and mycelium (a). +319 Mycor amedus: head (a), neck (b), and stalk (c). + +182 + +STUDIES IN CRYPTOGAMS + +means of carrying itself over unfavorable seasons, as winter. This is accomplished by means of various thick-walled resting-spores or zygospores. + +The zygospores are formed on the mycelium buried within the substance on which the plant grows. They originate in the following manner: Two thalli which lie near to- gether, with their tips touching, grow together until each other finally meet (Fig. 320). The walls at the ends, $a$, then disappear, allowing the centinels to flow together. At the same time, however, two short branches, $b$, $c$, arise from the central part, $b$, separating the short section, $c$, from the remainder of the thread. This section now increases in size and becomes a new thallus. The old thallus will be ornamented with thickened tubercles. The zygospore is now mature and after a period of rest, it germinates, either producing a sporangium di- rectly or by means of a zoospore. + +The zygospores of the mucors form one of the most interesting and instructive objects among the lower plants. They are, however, very difficult to find in nature. In some cases they remain granular, may be frequently found in summer growing on rootstocks. This plant mainly produces zygospores. The spores are large enough to be recognized with a hand-lens. The material may be dried and kept for winter study, or the zygospores may be prepared for permanent microscopic mounts in the ordinary way. + +Zygospores are also produced by several fungi (181). + +There are many other fungi which are parasitic on living plants and animals. Some of them have interesting and complicated life-histories, undergoing many changes before the original spore is again produced. The black spot of wheat and the common rust of wheat will serve to illustrate the habits of parasitic fungi. + +The willow mildew, +Ustilago ulmaria, forms white patches on the leaves of willows (Fig. 321). These patches consist of numerous interwoven thalli which may be recognized as the mycelium of the fungus. The mycelium in this case lives on the surface of the + +A diagram showing the formation of a zygosporangium. +321 Coenobium of willow mildew. + +F U N G I + +leaf and nourishes itself by sending short branches into the cells of the leaf to absorb food materials from them. + +Numerous summer-spores are formed on short erect branches all over the white surface. One of these branches is shown in Fig. 322. + +When it has grown to a certain length, the branch breaks off and falls to the ground, leaving a wide space which fall and are scattered by the wind. Those falling on one another form a dense mat of white woolly stuff. + +This process continues all summer, but in the later part of the season proper, vision is made to maintain the middle thickness of the mat. In this way, large patches are slowly examined in July or August, a number of little black holes will be seen among the white woolly stuff. Little holes are called perithecia (Fig. 323). To the naked eye they appear as minute specks, but when seen under a magnification of 200 diameters they present a very interesting appearance. + +The perithecia are small, spherical bodies covered around the outside with a fringe of crook-like hairs. The resting-spores of the white woolly stuff are enclosed in one or more included within the leathery perithecia. Fig. 324 shows a section of a peritheium with the spores arising from the bottom. The spores remain securely packed in the peritheia until they are opened in the autumn but fall to the ground with the leaf and there remain securely protected among the dead foliage. The following spring they mature and are liberated by means of the leathery perithecia. They are then ready to attack the un- folding leaves of the willow and repeat the cycle of the plant. + +Wheat rust. --The development of some of the rusts, like the common wheat rust (Puccinia gra- minis), is even more increasing and complicated than that of the mildew. Wheat rust is also a + +183 + +Illustration showing a magnified view of a wheat rust perithecium. +322. Summer-spores of willow mildew. + +323 + +Illustration showing a magnified view of a wheat rust perithecium. +324. Section through a wheat rust perithecium. + +325 + +Illustration showing a magnified view of a wheat rust perithecium. +326. Section through a wheat rust perithecium. + +184 STUDIES IN CRYPTOGRAMS + +true parasite, affecting wheat and a few other grasses. The mycelium here cannot be seen by the unaided eye, for it consists of threads which are present within the host plant mostly in the intercellular spaces. These threads also send short branches, or haustoria (180), into the neighboring cells of the host plant. + +The resting-spores of wheat rust are produced in late summer, when they may be found in black lines breaking through the leaf-surface of the wheat plants. They are formed in masses, called sori (Fig. 325), from the ends of numerous crowded mycelial strands just beneath the epidermis. The sori are usually round or oval, and are very small and can be well studied only with high powers of the microscope (Fig. 326). Each sori contains a conical, con- celled body with a thick wall (Fig. 326). Since they are the resting- or win- ter-spores, they are termed teleosporae ("completed spores"). These sori remain on the plant until the sori during winter. The following spring each cell of the teleosporae puts forth a rather stout thread, which does not grow more than several times the length of the stem and terminates in a blunt extremity. This thread is called a teliospore. It becomes divided into four cells by cross-walls, which are formed from the top downwards. Each cell gives rise to a hypha which grows outwards and divides into two, forming a single small space at its summit. In Fig. 327 a germinating spore is drawn to show the basal lamina, b, divided into four cells, each producing a short branch with a bud-like end. + +A most remarkable circumstance in the life-history of the wheat rust is the fact that the mycelium is not killed by the teleosporae but can only in barberry leaves. The reason for this is that no barberry bushes are in the neighborhood the teleosporae finally perish. + +The teleosporae of wheat rust produce a bush germinate immediately, producing a mycelium which enters the barberry leaf and grows within its tissues. Very soon the fungus produces a new kind of spores on the barberry leaves. These are + +325 +Resting-spores of wheat rust. +326 +Sori containing teleosporae of wheat rust. +327 +Teleosporae of wheat rust. + +called *teleomorphs*. They are formed in long chains in little fringed cups, or *scorod*, which appear in groups on the lower side of the leaf (Fig. 328). These orange or yellow scolids are termed *cluster-cups*. + +In Fig. 329 is shown a cross-section of a leaf showing the long chains of spores, and the mycelium in the tissues. + +The *teleomorphs* are formed in the spring, and after they have been set free some of them lodge on wheat or other grasses, where they germinate and produce new plants. The spores enter the leaf through a stomate, whence it spreads among the leaves of the wheat plant. During sum- +mer one-celled *zoospores* ("diphyle spores") are produced in a num- +ber of these *teleomorphs*. These zoospores swim immediately and serve to disseminate the fungus during the summer on other wheat plants or grasses (Fig. 330). Late in the season, *zoospores* are again produced, especially on the roots of the plant. + +Many facts besides demonstrating that gramine produce different spore-forms on different plants, has been observed in nature. This phenomenon is called *heterocormy*, and was first shown to exist in the case of the *barberry* (Berberis vulgaris) by the peasants of Europe who ob- +served and asserted that barberry berries were more abundant when the wheat was sown before summer explained the rela- +tion between the cluster-cups on +barberry and the rust. +This relation was actually +demonstrated, as has +been shown in Fig. 331, +by means of two varieties +of wheat, one of which +hosts by means of their respective +plants and thus producing the rust, producing the curiously yellow scolids found on the branches of red +currant bushes. In this way, the "apple" is browsed by yellow masses. It has been found that these attack various fruit trees producing scolids on their leaves. + +Fig. 328. Leaf of barberry with cluster-cups. +Fig. 329. Section through a cluster-cup on a leaf of barberry. + +185 + +186 +STUDIES IN CRYPTOGAMS + +LICHENS + +Lichens are so common everywhere that the attention of the student is sure to be drawn to them. They grow on rocks (Fig. 346), trunks of trees, old fences, and on the earth. They are too difficult for botanists to study without a microscope, but they are so interesting that they have been studied by many botanists. + +Lichens were formerly supposed to be a distinct or separate tribe of plants, and many species have been described. They are now known to be the green cells of various species of algae, overgrown and held together by a fungus-like substance, which is called mycelium. + +The result is a growth unlike either component. This association of alga and fungus is usually spoken of as symbiosis, or mutually helpful growth, the algae furnishing some things, the fungi others, and each contributing something to the other. The two organisms do independently. By others this union is considered to be a nubil form of parasitism, in which the fungus profits at the expense of the alga. + +As long as the alga is able to live independently, it can remain so and be able to give independence, and that under such conditions the algal cells seem to thrive better than when impregnated by the fungus. + +Lichens propagate by means of *secreta*, which are tiny ports separated from one another by a thin film of water. These more or less circular cells overgrow with fungous threads. These are readily observed in many lichens. They also produce spores, usually ascospores, which are always the product of the fungous element, and which are produced in large quantities in the presence of algal cells, to which the hyphae immediately cling. + +Lichens are found in the most inhospitable places and, by means of their spores, spread over all parts of the world except the harshest regions. By making thin sections of the thallus with a sharp razor and examining under the compound microscope, it is easy to distinguish the two components in many lichens. + +LIVERWORTS + +The liverworts are peculiar, green plants usually found growing on wet cliffs and in other moist shady places. They frequently occur in greenhouses where the soil is kept constantly wet. One of the commonest liverworts is Marchantia polymorpha, two plants of which are shown in Fig. 351. It has a stem covered with leafy lobules that branch out from the stem, becoming repeatedly forked as it grows. The end of each branch is always conspicuously notched. There is a prominent nubil extending along the center of each + +A diagram showing a liverwort plant with its stem and leafy branches. + +LIVEEWOETS + +branch of the thallus. On the under side of the thallus, especially along the midrib, there are numerous rhinoids which are the purpure of roots, absorbing water and food from the atmosphere during the plant in its place. The upper surface of the thallus is divided into minute rhombic areas which can be seen with the naked eye. Each of these areas is perforated by a small becoming pore or stomate which + +Plants of marinaux. + +leads into a cavity just beneath the epimonia. This space is surrounded by chlorophyllous cells, some of which stand in rows from the bottom of the cavity (Fig. 35). The delicate assimilating tissue is thus brought in close communication with the outer air through the pores in the thick protecting epimonia. + +At the base of each rhinoid are two or three long tubes which contain small green bodies. These bodies are buds or gemmae which are outgrowths from the cells at the bottom of the cup. They become hardened and are then dispersed by the rain to other places where they take root and grow into new plants. + +The same-looking organs on the thallus of marinaux are the stalked bodies shown in Figs. 33, 34, 35. These are termed archeopores and archerophores respectively. The archerophores are very interesting, but their parts are so minute that they can be studied only with a powerful microscope. Section of thallus of marinaux, showing archerophores, from 100 to 400 times. Enlarged drawings will guide the pupil. + +The archerophores are feathery lobed disks borne on short stalks (Fig. 35). The upper surface of the disk shows openings scarcely + +188 +STUDIES IN CRYPTOGAMS + +visible to the naked eye. However, a section of the disk, such as is shown in Fig. 324, shows that the pores lead into oval or circular cavities in the receptacle. From the base of each cavity there arises a thick club-shaped body, the anthorhizum. Within the anthorhizum are formed many sperm-cells which are capable of swimming about in + +234. Section through anthorhizosphere of manzhatia, showing anthorhizum. +One anthorhizum more magnified. + +water by means of long lashes or cilia attached to them. When the anthorhizum is mature, it bursts and allows the ellated sperm-cells to escape. + +The archegonophores are also elevated on stalks (Fig. 325). Instead of a simple disc, the receptacle consists of nine or more finger-like rays, each bearing a single archegonium. The rays are fringed, cartilaginous, peculiarly leaf-like bodies, or archegonia, are situated on the archegonophores. The archegonia are not visible to the naked eye. They can be studied only with the microscope (X about 400). One of them much magnified is represented in Fig. 326. It consists of two parts, $a$, and the rounded receptor, $b$, including a large free cell—the egg-cell. + +We have seen that the anthorhizum at maturity discharges its sperm-cells—these swim out through the pores and enter the archegonia and egg-cells, which are thus fertilized, as pollen fertilizes the ovules of higher plants. The mature egg-cell then develops into the spore-capitate or sporocystus. The mature spore-capillaries may be seen in Fig. 326. They consist of an outer wall, $c$, and an inner wall, $d$, at the base of which is imbedded in the tissue of the receptacle from which it is separated by a narrow space. + +235. Archegonophores +map of manzhatia. + +236. Archegonophore +of manzhatia. + +Some of them finally find their way to the archo- +gonium and egg-cells, which are thus fertilized, as pollen fertilizes the ovules of higher plants. The mature egg-cell then develops into the spore-capitate or sporocystus. The mature spore-capillaries may be seen in Fig. 326. They consist of an outer wall, $c$, and an inner wall, $d$, at the base of which is imbedded in the tissue of the receptacle from which it is separated by a narrow space. + +The archorhizum is responsible for the development of the sporocystus. At maturity the sporocystus is ruptured at the apex, + +188 + +**MOSSES** + +189 + +A diagram showing the structure of a moss spore. +25. Spores and clusters of marchantia. + +setting free the spherical spores together with numerous filaments having spirally thickened walls (Fig. 237). These filaments are called cilia. When drying, they exhibit rapid movements by means of which the spores are scattered. The spores germinate and again produce the thallus of marchantia. + +**MOSSES** + +If we have followed carefully the development of marchantia, the study of use of the mosses will be comparatively easy. The mosses grow on rocks, stones, and on the soil both in wet and dry places. One of the commoner mosses, known as Polytrichum commune, may serve as an example. This plant grows on rather dry soil, especially in the borders of woods where it is often seen growing. In wet weather it has a reddish brown appearance, but when moist they form beautiful green cushions. This color is due, in the first instance, to the color of the old leaves and leucens, in the second instance, to the peculiar action of the green living leaves under the influence of changing moisture. + +Section of leaf of Polytrichum commune. +Turn-conditions. The inner surface of the leaf is covered with thin, longitudinal ridges of delicate cells which contain chlorophyll. These cells are so closely packed that they form a sort of tube, and the leaf consists of thick-walled, corky cells which do not allow moisture to penetrate. When the air is moist the green leaves spread out, exposing the chlorophyll cells to the air, but in dry weather the micro + +A diagram showing the structure of a moss leaf. +40 Section of leaf of Polytrichum commune. + +190 +STUDIES IN CRYPTOGRAMS + +gins of the leaves roll inward, and the leaves fold closely against the stem, thus protecting the delicate assimilating tissue. + +The anthelaria and areogoniums of polytrichum are borne in groups at the ends of the branches on different plants (many mosses bear both organs on the same branch). They are usually sessile, but some have characteristic leaves termed *pericarcius* or *peri- +cerci* leaves. Multicellular hairs known as *parapodes* are scattered among the leaves, and these may be found between the leaves with the organs borne within them; they are called *receptacules* or, less aptly, +*receptacles*. The areogonia are very highly magnified to be studied. + +The anthelaria are borne in broad cup-like receptacles on the +nematoid plants (Fig. 320), which are often very small. The +phythes are and not sunk in cavities. At maturity they burst and allow the sperm-cells or *sporom- +ocysts* to escape. In polytrichum when the re- +ceptacle has fallen off, the function the stem continues to grow from the center of the plant towards its summit. The +areogonia are borne in other receptacles on different plants. +They are like the areogonium of Polytrichum, but they stand erect on the end of the branch. + +The sporogonium which develops from the fertilized egg is shown in Fig. 340, a, b. +It consists of a long, brown stalk with a bulbous base at its summit. The base of the stalk is embedded in the end of the moss stem by which it is attached. The +sporangium is entirely enclosed by a hairy cap, the calyptra, b. The calyptra is really the remnant of the +areogonium, which, for a time, increases in size to accommodate + +268. Polytrichum commune, *r.t.* fertile plant, +one on the left in fruit; *e.*, nematoid plant. + +**MOSSES—FE rins** + +and protect the young growing capsule. It is family torn loose and carried up on the spore-case. The mouth of the capsule is closed by a circular lid, the *spore-cup*, having a conical projection at the center. The operculum soon drops, or it may be removed, displaying a fringe of silky hairs, which covers the mouth of the capsule. + +This ring of teeth is known as the *spore-sieve*. In most mosses the teeth exhibit peculiar hygroscopic movements, i.e., when moist they bend outwards and upon drying curve in toward the mouth of the capsule. This movement is used by the spores, hence, to dispose the spores generally over a long period of time. + +Not the entire capsule is filled with spores, but the center of the capsule is occupied by a columnar strand of tissue, called the *sporangium* or *sporangial tube*, covered by a mem- branous band, closing the entire mouth of the capsule except the narrow annular cinctus guarded by the teeth. In this manner the spores are protected until they reach a sufficient length of the membrane, allowing the spores to fall out through the spaces between them. + +When the spores germinate they form a green, branched leafy plant, known as *prothallus*. This gives rise directly to moss plants, which appear as little buds on the thallus. When the moss plants have sent their little rhizoids into the earth, the prothallus dies, for it is no longer neces- sary for the support of the little plants. + +**FE rins** + +The adder's tongue fern, Ophioglossum vulgatum, shown in Fig. 341, is one of a peculiar type of fern be- longing to the family Ophioglossaceae. This plant has a short-lived prothallus, which produces two leaves each year. The roots arise near the bases of the leaves. The leaves now annually divided into a sterile and a fertile part, the latter being a sporophyll. The sporophylls are produced in pairs along each side of a petiole to a petiole. The young leaves are included by the *sporangium* sheathing base of the petiole. The growth is very rapid and begins in March or April, and continues until before it is ready to unfurl. During its development each leaf is shedded by the one preceding it. + +The sporophyll is elevated on a stalk arising near the base of the sterile part of the frond. The upper part consists of a spike bearing + +192 +STUDIES IN CYPTOGAMS + +two rows of large spore-cases or sporangia sunk in the tissue. At maturity the sporangia open by transverse splits and discharge the enclosed spores. + +When the spores germinate they produce columnaran tubercles protruding from the cover, are rarely found, and of whose history little is known. They develop anucleate and antheridial filaments on the surface of the ground, and the fertilized egg produces the young fern plant. + +The generations of the true forms are explained in Chapter XXIV. + +**EQUISETUMS, OR HORSETAILS** + +There are about twenty-five species of equisetum, constituting the only genus of the unique family Equisetaceae. Among these E. arvense is the most common and useful species. + +In this species the leaves are simple and at least of two-annual production are performed by separate shoots from an underground rhizome. The fertile branches appear early in spring. The stem, which is 3 to 6 inches long, is covered with a thin, smooth, green bark. Each node bears each shootlet at the base by a circle of scale-leaves. The sheaths are of a pale yellow color. They contain no chlorophyll, and are nourished by the food stored in the rhizome (Fig. 242). + +The sterile branches are produced later in spring. The sterile leaves or sporophylls which are collected into a spike or come at the end of the stalk (Fig. 242, a). A single sporophyll is shown at b. It consists of a short stalk which terminates in a broad, mushroom-like head. Several fertile sporophytes are borne on each sterile branch. + +The spores formed in the sporangia are very interesting and beautiful objects when examined under the microscope (X about 200). They consist of two cells, one of which is a thick-walled head attached to the spore at their intersection, a. These heads exhibit hygroscopic movements by means of which the spores become entangled, and are held together. This is of advantage to the plant, as we shall see below. + +All the spores are alike, but some of the prethalli are better nourished and grow to a greater size than others. The large prethalli bear many antheridia, while those that have been poorly nourished, both of these organs are much like those of the ferns, and fertilization is accomplished in the same way. Since the prethalli are mainly noticeable because the special advantage of the spiral bands holding the spores together so that both kinds of prethalli may be in + +EQUISETUMS—ISOETES 193 + +close proximity, will be easily understood. As in the fern, the fertilized egg-cell develops into an equisetum plant. +The stems are erect, and bear a single leaf in the season. They give rise to repeated wheels of angular or furrowed branches. The leaves are very much reduced scales, situated at the internodes. The stems are provided with chlorophyll and act as assimilating + + +A small plant of Equisetum arvense, at an early shoot. B, fertile shoot showing the two kinds of leaves, the sterile ones being sheathing. C, a young stem with a few leaves. D, a mature stem with several leaves. E, a mature stem with a few leaves. F, a mature stem with a few leaves. + + +312. Equisetum arvense; *a*, sterile shoot; *b*, fertile shoot showing the two kinds of leaves, the sterile ones being sheathing. + +tissue, nourishing the rhizome and the fertile shoots. Nutriment is also stored in special tubers developed on the rhizome. + +Other species of equisetum have only one kind of shoot—a tall, hard, leafless, green shoot with the spores at its summit. Equisetum stems are full of cells and they are sometimes used for weaving flowers and attendants; hence the common name "weaving rush." + +**ISOETES** + +Isoetes or quillworts are usually found in water or damp soil on the shores of lakes and ponds. A general habit of a plant is seen in Fig. 313.a. It consists of a short, perennial stem bearing numerous erect, quill-like leaves with broad sheathing bases. The plants are commonly mistaken for young grasses. + +A small plant of Isoetes showing the sheathing leaves. + +194 +STUDIES IN CRYPTOGRAMS + +Lomatia bears two kinds of spores, large roughened one, the macrospore, and small ones or microspores. Both kinds are formed in sporangia borne in an excarnation in the expanded base of the leaf. + +The macrospores are formed on the outer, and the microspores on the inner leaves. A sporangium in the latter case is a hollow sac, partly covered by a thin membrane, the calyx. The mi- +crosporangium appears at the upper end of the sporangial tube. + +The spores are liberated by the decay of the sporangia. They form rudimentary prothalli of two kinds. The microprosprothallus produces prothallus with thickened roots, and is called a rhizoid prothallus with archegonia. Fertilization takes place as in the mosses or liverworts, and the fertilized egg-cell, by continued growth, grows into the protonema plant. + +ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS + +In Chapter XXIV the alternation of generations and the terms prothallus and sporophyte were explained. In many of the plants just studied, this alternation is more clearly and beautifully marked than in any other group of plants. In Lomatia, for example, the egg-cell (or egg-sporangium) gives rise to a new plant-form or generation different from the one which produced it. The thallus produces the egg- cell of a new plant, but this new plant is not like the thallus which produced the egg, nor does it lead an independent existence. It is the sporo- +phore-plant, and not until its death does it produce a new physiological part thereof. The sporophore-plant produces spores. It is the sporophyte generation of the plant, and not until the sporae germinate is the thallus again produced. The same is true in the mosses. The new plant is not like the parent plant, but leads an independent existence. The fertilized egg-cell develops into the sporophyte—the spore-case and its stem. We can pull the stem of the capsule out of the moss plant and thus separate the sporophyte from the gametophyte. + +A diagram showing how Lomatia produces its spores. + +195 + +ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS + +The fungi and algae are omitted from these remarks. In the former there is nothing analogous to the zygospore and the gameto- +phyte. In algae like *Euglena*, evidently the whole plant is a ga- +metophyte and, since the zygosperme germinates directly into a new +gametophyte, there is probably no zygospore. In some other alge +taxa, however, the zygosperme is a spore and the discussion of these +would lead too far for the present purpose. + +In the ferns the egg-cells are developed on the prothallus. +This is the gametophyte. It corresponds to the thallus of mar- +chantia and to the gametangium of *Pteris* and *Polypodium*. + +The plant developing from the fertilized egg-cell is the large and beautiful "fern plant" represented into stems and leaves. Since the +ferns plant possesses the gametophyte directly, it is the sporophyte and +corresponds to the shoot and capsule of *Pteris*. Both zygospore +and gametophyte lead an independent existence. + +As we pass on to equisetum and isoetes, the sporophyte is still +more complex than that of *Pteris*. The zygospore (zygote) is a +prolifera (gametophyte) is very rudimentary, consisting only of a +few cells remaining within the spore, which merely bursts to expose +the megaspore or to allow the sperm-cells to escape. Moreover, the +sporophyte is not a simple shoot but consists of several sequences cor- +responding to the pollen and embryo-sac of higher plants. + +This gradual increase of the sporophyte and reduction of the +gametophyte can be seen through the flowering plants in which +"the plant" is the sporophyte. The gametophyte is represented simply by a few cells in the perminning pollen grain and in the embryo-sac. + +One of the tuft season (Lentibryon) + +Outside and inside view of a tuft, the latter showing the radiating stroma extending to the light + +30. Desert vegetation. +* The tree cacti grow only in special regions, Arizona. + +31. Plants seize the first opportunity to grow. Palisades of the Hudson. + +PART II - THE PLANT IN ITS ENVIRONMENT + +CHAPTER XXVI + +WHERE PLANTS GROW + +326. ENVIRONMENT.—The circumstances and surroundings in which an organism lives constitute its environment. The environment comprises effects of soil, moisture, temperature, altitude, sunlight, competition with animals and other plants, and the like. An organism is greatly influenced by its environment to conditions in which it can live. Not only must a plant live and must multiply its kind, but it must adapt itself to its environment. + +327. The particular place in which a plant grows is known as its habitat (i. e., its "habitation"). The habita- tal of a given plant may be a swamp, hill, rock, sand plain, forest, shore. The plant inhabitants of any region are said to be native to that region. Those of the flora of a member or part of a country, or of a country. The word is also used for a book describing the plants of a region (as in Part IV). + +328. PLANTS GROW WHERE THEY MUST.—The plant is not able to choose its environment. It has no volition. Its seeds are scattered; only a few of them fall in pleasant places. The seeds make an effort to grow even though the places are not favourable; and so it happens. + +157 + +198 +WHEE PLANTS GROW + +that plants are often found in places which are little adapted to them. See the fern growing on a brick in Fig. 69. +Plants must grow in unoccupied places. +329. Not only do the seeds fall in unfavorable places, but in many cases the seedlings that come forth grow where they must, not where they will. + +There are, of course, certain limits beyond which plants cannot grow. Water lilies can thrive only in water, and white oaks only on dry land, but it is seldom that either the water lily or the oak finds the most congenial place in which to grow. Fine large plants of the lily and strong grand trees of the oak are so infrequent, as compared with the whole number, that we stop to admire them. + +330. Originally, plants were aquatic, as animals were. Much of the earth was sea. Many plants are now aquatic, and the larger number of these—as algae and their kin—belong to the lower or older forms of plant life. Many plants of higher organization, however, as the water lilies, have taken to aquatic life. True aquatic plants are those which live entirely in water, and which die when the water dries up. They are to be distinguished from those which live on shores or in swamps. Aquatic plants may be wholly immersed or under water, or partly **emersed** or standing above the water. Most flowering aquatic plants come to the surface to expand their flowers or to ripen their fruits. Some aquatic plants are free-swimming, or not attached to the bottom. Of this kind are some utric- + +The bottom green on the hard rock. +336. The utric green on the hard rock. + +AQUATIC AND TERRESTRIAL PLANTS 199 + +ularias, or bladder-worts. In some waters, particularly in the ocean, there are enormous quantities of free-swimming microscopic life, both animal and vegetable, which is carried about by currents. This is known under the general name of plankton (Greek for "wandering" or "roaming"). + +331. The general tendency has been for plants to become terrestrial, or land-inhabiting. Terrestrial plants + +A plant with long, thin leaves growing in water. +*Salvinia* is seen growing on top, out dead and dying underneath. +Some plants grow in water throughout their entire life, but never in water throughout their entire life, such as seaweed, bog, and marsh plants. Some plants have the ability to grow in standing water when young and to become terrestrial as the water dries up. Such are amphibious. Some buttercups are examples. + +332. Some plants grow in very special soils or special localities, and consequently are infrequent or are confined to certain well-marked geographical regions. Fig. 344. +Common plants are those which are able to accommodate + +344 + +200 WHERE PLANTS GROW + +themselves to widely different environments. Weeds are ex- +amples. Many plants have become so specialized in habitus as to be parasitic, saprophytic, or epiphytic. Chap. XIII, +335. Common plants often grow in most unusual and difficult situations. They may be found growing only in fields, but often gain a foothold in chinks in logs, on rotting posts, in cretches of trees, on old straw stacks, in clefts and crannies of rocks. In moist climate, as Eng- +land, plants often grow on thatched roofs. + +334. Plants may be said to be seeking new places in which to grow. Whenever ground is cleared of vegeta- +tion, plants again spring up. The farmer plows the land and weeds immediately take a wide berth of weed +appears. Any breach or break in the earth's surface makes room for a new group of plants. Note how the railway embankments and the newly graded roadsides take on a covering of vegetation. Observe the ravines. When- +ever soil is formed at the base of a cliff, plants at once secure a foothold. Fig. 345. + +335. PLANTS AND THE FORMATION OF SOIL — This they do by means of breaking down the rock; by +passing into earth when they decay. Even on the hardest rocks, ferns and mosses will grow. Fig. 346. +The rhizoids eat away the rock. A little soil is formed. +Ferns and other plants gain a foothold. The euvices are entered and widened. Slowly the root acids corrode the stone. Leaves and stems collect on the rock and decay. +Water and rain lend their aid. As the euvices pass, the rock is worn away and loosened. Note the soil which collects on level rocks in woods where wind and rain do not remove the accumulations. + +336. In bogs and marshes and on prairies the remains of plants form a deep black soil. In bogs the vegetable +matter is partially preserved by the water, and it slowly becomes solidified into a partially decayed mass known as + +538. A landscape devoid of vegetation, Western United States. + +539. A landscape with vegetation, Belgium. + +302 + +**PEAT.** When dug out and dried, peat may be used as fuel. Finally it may decay and make a vegetable soil known as **muck.** When thoroughly decayed, plants become **vege- table mold or humus.** New plants grow on peat or muck, and the surface of the bog rises to the level of the bog, and the surface may finally become so high as to support plants of the high lands. The chief agent in the formation of peat bogs is sphagnum moss. New moss grows on the old, and the bog becomes higher as time goes on. Fig. 347. + +**337. PLANTS CONTRIBUTE TO SCENERY.** Aside from sky and air, natural scenery depends chiefly on two things: the physical contour of the earth; the character of the vegetation. Attractive landscapes have a varied vegetation. Imagine any landscape with which you are familiar to be devoid of vegetation. Figs. 348 and 349. + +**REVIEW.** What is meant by environment? By habitat? Plant What determines where plants shall grow? What is an aquatic plant? Explain immersed, emergent, free-swimming. What is plankton? Ex- plan terrestrial. Amphibians, Why are some plants rare or local? Why are some plants common? What are the places in which roots and leaves are growing? Give examples of how plants occupy the new places. How do plants aid in the formation of soil? Explain what is meant by peat, muck, humus. How are peat bogs formed? + +What relation have plants to scenery? + + +The same landscape in winter and summer. + + +CHAPTER XXVII + +CONTENTION WITH PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT + +338. THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT. — We have seen (326) that the environment in which a plant grows is made up of two sets of factors—the physical environ- +ment of climate and soil, and the organic environment of competing animals and plants. + +339. ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE IN GENERAL. — Every particular climate causes particular modifications in its plants. There are two ways, however, in which plants are modified or adapted to climate: modification in the length of the period of growth; modification in stature. Any modification of the plant, visible or invisible, which adapts it to grow in a climate at first inju- +rious to it, is acclimatization. + +340. In short-season climates, plants hasten their +growth. They mature quickly. Indian corn may re- +quire three months to ripen in warm countries, but only three months in very cold countries. + +Nearly all garden vegeta- +bles mature quicker from +the time of planting in the +North than in the South +when they are raised from +seeds grown in their respecti- +ve localities. Many people are +aware of this and they like to raise seeds of early varieties +in the North, for such seeds usually give "early" plants. +Many plants which are perennials in warm countries be- +come annuals or plur-annuals in cold countries(14). + +A ship with a large cargo of vegetables. +341. Gardening of some growing to New York (on the left) and in Alabama. + +(30) + +204 +PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT + +341. Even germination is usually more rapid from northern-grown seeds than from southern-grown seeds of the same kind. The plants "come up" quicker. Secure seeds of the same variety of corn or bean grown in the North and sown in the South will germinate and make the experiment (Fig. 350). + +The same results often show in the vegetation of cuttings of trees and grape vines from the South and North. Vegetation is quick in the North; the "burst of spring" is usually more rapid. 342. Plants are often dwarf or smaller in stature in short-season climates. Indian corn is a conspicuous example. As one ascends high mountains or travels in high latitudes, he finds the seed becoming smaller and smaller until finally he passes beyond the region in which the tree can grow. Many of the Eskimos doubt the statements of travelers that there are plants as high as a man. In these high altitudes and high latitudes, plants tend also to become prostrate. + +343. PLANTS ARE INFLUENCED BY WIND—in regions of strong prevailing winds, as on lake and sea shores and on hills and mountains, tree-tops develop unsymmetrically + +A photograph showing a group of evergreen trees growing on a wind-swept hilltop of the Rocky Mountains. +351. Evergreen trees on wind-swept heights of the Rocky Mountains. + +Indian corn is a convenient example. As one ascends high mountains or travels in high latitudes, he finds the seed becoming smaller and smaller until finally he passes beyond the region in which the tree can grow. Many of the Eskimos doubt the statements of travelers that there are plants as high as a man. In these high altitudes and high latitudes, plants tend also to become prostrate. + +One-sided holly tree growing near the ocean. New Jersey. + +Pines bent by heavy winds falling from mountains. Mediterranea region. + +206 +PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT + +and are heaviest on the leeward side. Figs. 351, 352. Observe this fact in orchards in windy regions, and note that the most unsymmetrical trees are those on the exposed side of the plantation. + +344. Trees often lean away from the prevailing winds. Fig. 353. The tips of the branches of ex posed trees usually indicate there are strong prevailing winds. Fig. 354. Observe trees in pastures and along road-sides, particularly in high places and within a few miles of exposed shores. + +Fig. 354. A tree which shows which way the wind blows. +Oklahoma. + +345. PLANTS ARE PROFOUNDLY INFLUENCED BY SOIL.— + +The food supply varies with the kind of soil, and the food supply determines to a large extent the character of the individual plant. On poor soils plants are small; on rich soils they are large. The difference between poor and good yields of wheat, or any other crop, is largely a question of soil. The farmer reinforces his poor soils by the addition of fertilizers, in order to make his plants vary their yield. + +346. The moisture-content of the soil exerts a marked influence on plants. We have found (151) that a large + +PLANTS ARE INFLUENCED BY SOIL 207 + +part of the plant-substance is water. The water is not only itself plant-food, but it carries other foods into the plant and transports them from tissue to tissue. However rich a soil may be in mineral plant-foods, it is inert if it contains no moisture. The character of the plant is often determined more by the moisture in the soil than by all the other food materials. Note how rank the plants are in low places. Observe how the weeds grow about the barn where + +A close-up of a plant growing in a rich, moist soil. +235. *Lush* oats, on rich ground the grain is often broken by wind and rain, but on poor ground it grows luxuriantly. + +The soil is not only rich but where moisture is distributed from the rays. Contrast with these instances the piny plants which grow in dry places. In dry countries irrigation is employed to make plants grow vigorously. In moist and rich soil plants may grow so fast and so tall as not to be able to withstand the wind, as in Fig. 355. + +317. PLANTS ARE INFLUENCED BY THE EXPOSURE OF THE PLACE IN WHICH THEY GROW.—The particular site or outlook is known as the exposure or aspect. The exposure, for instance, may be southward, eastward, bleak, warm, + +Image Description: A close-up of a plant growing in a rich, moist soil. + +208 +PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT + +cold. A favorable exposure for any plant is one which supplies the requisite amount of warmth, room, sunlight, moisture, and plant-food, and immunity from severe winds and other destructive agencies. Against the edge of a field of corn, where the sun shines directly on the plants, they thrive unusually well. Note the plants of any kind grow- + +A photograph showing a row of young trees growing near the edge of a field. The sun is shining directly on the plants, creating a favorable exposure. + +306. The thriving dogwood is seen at its best along the margin of the wood. + +ing in different exposures: observe that they vary in stature, time of maturity, color of foliage and flowers, productiveness, size of leaves and flowers, longevity. + +REVIEW.—Contrast physical and organic environments. How are plants influenced by their environment? How does the time of maturity is influenced by climate. How is germination influenced ? Explain how climate influences stature. How do winds affect plants? How are plants influenced by soil? By soil moisture? Exposure? + +208 + +CHAPTER XXVIII + +COMPETITION WITH FELLOWS + +348. THE FACT OF STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE.—We have seen (Chapter IX) that branches contend amongst themselves for opportunity to live and grow. Similarly, separate plants contend with each other. We shall observe presently that this is true also of animals, though we do not observe it by considering the effects which all plants make to propagate themselves. The earth is filled with plants. It is chiefly when plants die or are killed that places are made for others. Every one of these plants puts forth its utmost effort to perpetuate its kind. It produces seeds by the score or even by the thousand. In some instances it propagates also by means of vegetative parts. If the earth is full of life, it is because it must multiply its kind, there must be struggle for existence. + +349. The effects of struggle for existence are of three general categories: (1) the seed or spore may find no opportunity to grow; (2) sooner or later the plant may be killed; (3) the plant may vary, or take on new characters, to adapt itself to the conditions in which it grows. Consider the crop of seeds which any plant produces; how many will reach maturity? How many of these young plants reach maturity? Note the profusion of seedlings under the maples and elms, and then consider how few maple and elm trees there are. Count the seeds on any plant and imagine that each one makes a plant; where will all these new plants find a place in which to grow? + +350. WHAT STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE IS.—Struggle for existence with fellows is competition for room or + +X +(260) + +352. There is no opportunity for weeds in a field of good wheat. + +353. Divergence of character in a cornfield. + +WHAT STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE IS 211 + +space, for food and moisture in the soil, for light. We may examine exam- ples in each of these three cate- gories. + +551. If the earth is filled with plants, there must be some compe- tition for every inch of its surface. If it is not populated with plants it is usually because it has re- cently been moved. If the farmer does not move or till his soil frequently, various plants get at a foothold, and then plants have to seek weeds, between which they can grow, or other plant, occupies ; then calculate how much space would be required for all the seed-lings of that tree or plant. +The greater the population of the soil, the more chances have other plants to gain a foothold. When the wheat completely covers the ground, as in Fig. 357, there are no weeds to be seen. + +552. Plants of different form and habit may grow + +A small illustration showing a tree with leaves and branches. +The trees here appropriated the food and moisture so that a large area remains bare of vegetation. + +553. The tree has appropriated the food and moisture so that a large area remains bare of vegetation. + +The earth is clothed from top to bottom with plants. Compare Fig. 36. + +20 + +301. Low shade-bearing plants on the forest floor. + +302. A primeval pine forest. +Along the roadway foreign vegetation has come in. Michigan. + +DIVERGENCE OF CHARACTER + +215 + +together, and thereby the area may support more plants than would be possible if only one kind were growing on it. This principle has been called by Darwin the divergence of character. When an area is occupied by one kind of + +A photograph showing a field with a mix of different plant species, including corn, pumpkins, and other vegetation. +30. On the top of an orange tree. + +plant, another kind may grow between or beneath. Only rarely do plants of close botanical relationship grow together in compact communities. A field which is full of corn may grow pumpkins between. Fig. 258. A full meadow may grow white clover in the bottom. In a dense wood herbs may grow on the forest floor. When an + +214 +COMPETITION WITH FELLOWS + +364. The tree-tale pine. + +under trees. This is partly the rain by the tree-top, and lack of available food and knowns that he cannot hope to secure much rain on his own land, even beyond the point at which the trees intercept the rain and light. It is difficult to establish new trees in the vacancies in an old orchard. +354. In Chapter VIII we studied the relation of the plant to its surroundings, sunlight. Plants also compete with each other for light. Plants climb to get to the light (Chapter XVI). +Fig. 360. Some plants have become adapted to orchard can support no more trees, weeds may grow beneath. + +353. We have learned (25, 36) that roots go far and wide for food and moisture. The plant that is first established appropriates the food to itself and newcomers find difficulty in gaining a foothold. Note the bare area near the elm tree in Fig. 360. Real how difficult it is to make plants grow when planted due to the intercepting of partly shade, and partly to moisture in the soil. + +363. The forest center Looking from the woods, with the forest rim shown in Fig. 366 seen in the distance. + +STREUGGLE FOR SUNLIGHT + +subdued or transmitted light, but no green plants can grow in darkness. The low plants in forests are shade-layers. Fig. 361. Note the plants which seem to be shade-layers and those which prefer full sunlight. Some plants adopt themselves to such conditions. Most trees are shade-layers. + +355. In the midst of dense plant populations, each individual grows upwards for sunlight. Thus are fore- + +The forest floor looking towards the wood. + +ests made; the competing trees become long slender boles with a mantle of foliage at the top. The side-branches die for lack of light and water, and they fall from decay or broken by storm; the wounds are healed, and the hole becomes symmetrical and trim. Fig. 362 shows the interior of a primeval pine forest. Note the bare trunks and the sparse vegetation on the dim forest floor. Fig. 363 is the top of a great forest. With these pictures compare Figs. 73 and 76. Fig. 357 shows a deep wheat forest. +A lone survivor of a primeval forest is shown in Fig. 364. + +367. The foliage bank of a tangle. + +368. View just inside the tangle. + +STRUGGLE FOR SUNLIGHT + +In dense plantations, plants tend to grow to a single stem. When these same plants are grown in open or cultivated grounds, they often become bushy or develop more than one trunk. In what places have you seen trees with more than one stem? + +On the margins of dense populations, each individual grows outwards for sunlight. Note the dense forest rim: then plunge through it, and stand by the tall bare trunks. Figs. 365 and 366 show these two views of the same forest. Note the kinds of trees and other plants that grow in areas similar to those depicted in these illustrations. Note the dense wall of foliage in Fig. 367, and the thin brushy area just behind it in Fig. 368. Compare this with the rows of young trees on the outside rows in thick orchards. Consider how the plants extend over the borders in dense flower-beds. Note where the best foliaged plants are in the greenhouse. Notice the foliage on the outer rows in a very thick orchard. + +**Review.** Why is there struggle for existence? How does it affect plants? Tell what it is. How do plants compete for space? What is meant by "survival of the fittest"? Give some examples. How do plants compete for food from the soil? In what respects have plants become adapted to the light relation? How do plants grow in dense plantations? On the margins of these plantations, how do they grow? Illustrate how it has adapted itself to competition with its fellows. + +A dandelion killed in shade and sun. + +A hydrophytic society, New York. +30. + +A mesophytic society, Michigan. +29b. + +CHAPTER XXIX + +PLANT SOCIETIES + +357. WHAT PLANT SOCIETIES ARE.—In the long course of evolution, in which plants have been accommodating themselves to the varying conditions in which they are obliged to grow, plants here become adapted to every different environment. Certain plants therefore, may live together under each other, all enjoying similar con- +ditions and surroundings. These aggregations of plants which are adapted to similar conditions are known as plant societies. + +358. Moisture and temperature are the leading factors in determining plant societies. The great geographical societies or aggregations of the plant world are for convenience arranged according to their moisture supply. There are (1) hydrophytic or wet-region societies, comprising aquatic and bog vegetation (Fig. 501); (2) xerophytic or arid-region societies, comprising desert and most sand-region vegetation (Fig. 541); (3) mesophytic or mid-region societies, comprising the vegetation in intermediate regions (Fig. 570). Mesophytic vegetation is characteristic of most regions which are fit for agriculture. Xerophytic or salt-region societies are also distinguished, comprising the semishore and salt-area vegetation (Fig. 571). Much of the characteristic scenery of any place is due to its plant societies (357). + +Xerophytic plants usually have small and hard leaves, apparently to prevent too rapid transpiration. Usually, also, they are characterized by stiff growth, hairy covering, spines, or a much-contracted plant-body, and often + +(209) + +220 +PLANT SOCIETIES + +by large underground parts for the storage of water. +Halophyte plants are usually fleshy. + +539. Plant societies may also be distinguished with reference to latitude and temperature. There are tropi- +A halophytic or seashore society. New Jersey. + +cal societies, temperate-region societies, boreal or cold-region societies. With reference to altitude, societies might be classified as lowland (which are chiefly hydrophytic), intermediate (chiefly mesophytic), subalpine or mid-mountain (which are chiefly boreal), alpine or high-mountain. + +540. The above classifications have reference chiefly to great geographical flora or societies. But there are societies within societies. There are small societies coining within the experience of every person who has ever seen plants growing in natural conditions. There are roadside, fence-row, lawn, thicket, pasture, dune, woods, elfin, barnyard societies. Every different place has its characteristic vegetation. Note the smaller societies in Figs. 369 + +PLANT COLONIES 221 + +and 370. In the former is a water-lily society and a cat-tail society. In the latter there are grass and bush and woods societies. + +351. SOME DETAILS OF PLANT SOCIETIES. --Societies may be composed of scattered and intermingled plants, or of dense clumps or groups of plants. Dense clumps or groups are usually made up of one kind of plant, and they are then called colonies. Fig. 372. Colonies of most plants are transient; after a short time other plants gain a foothold amongst them, and an intermingled society is the outcome. Marked exceptions to this are grass colonies and forest colonies, in which one kind of plant may hold its own for years and centuries. + +A colony of weeds in a barrow. +352. A colony of weeds in a barrow. + +353. The beginning of a forest on a heath. +Grass and weeds are here and there a young trees and a forest tree. +The border is already forming. + +The beginning of a forest on a heath. +Grass and weeds are here and there a young trees and a forest tree. +The border is already forming. + +223 +PLANT SOCIETIES + +A photograph showing a forest with trees and bushes. + +251. The return to forest. Bushes and trees now begin to crowd. + +362. In a large newly cleared area plants usually first establish themselves in dense colonies. Note the great patches of nettle, jewel-weeds, smart-weeds, cloths, burrs, fire-weeds in recently cleared but neglected swales, also the fire-weeds in recently burned areas, the rank weeds in the neglected garden, and the ragweeds and May-weeds along the recently worked highway. The competition amongst themselves and with their neighbors finally breaks up the colonies, and a mixed and interlacing growth is generally seen. + +A photograph showing a garden with various plants growing. + +363. In most parts of the world the general tendency of neglected areas is to run into forest. All plants rush for the clearings near here and there bushes gain a foothold. Young trees come up; in time these shade the + +A photograph showing a forest with trees and bushes. + +273. Rod and tree seedlings. About the building the trees find refuge from the moving machine. + +BOTANY OF FORESTS + +325 + +bushes and gain the mastery. Sometimes the area grows to peep out or bide, and people wonder why the original forest trees do not return; but these forest trees may be growing unobserved here and there in the jungle, and in the slow processes of time the poplars perish—for they are short-lived—and the original forest may be replaced. Whether this kind of forest or another returns will depend largely on the kinds which are most seedful in that vicinity and which, therefore, have been preserved most profusely. Much depends, also, on the kind of undergrowth which first springs up, for some young trees can endure more heat than others. Figs. 375 and 374 show two stages in the return to forest. + +361 Pasturing and mowing tend to keep an area in grass. This is because the grass will thrive when the tops are repeatedly taken off, whereas trees will not. Note that the wild herbs and bushes and trees persist along the fences and about old buildings, where animals and mowing machines do not take them off. A land worthy sooner grow- +ing or mowing. Consider Figs. 36, 375, 374. The farmer + +The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +256. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +257. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +258. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +259. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +260. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +261. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +262. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +263. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +264. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +265. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +266. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +267. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +268. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +269. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +270. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +271. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +272. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +273. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +274. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +275. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +276. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +277. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +278. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +279. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +280. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +281. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +282. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +283. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +284. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +285. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +286. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +287. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +288. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +289. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +290. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +291. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +292. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +293. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +294. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +295. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +296. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +297. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +298. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +299. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +300. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +301. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +302. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +303. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +304. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +305. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +306. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +307. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +308. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +309. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +310. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +311. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +312. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +313. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +314. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +315. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +316. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +317. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +318. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +319. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. +320. The farmer mows part of his cabbage garden. + +Note that the wild herbs and bushes and trees persist along the fences and about old buildings, where animals and +mowing machines do not take them off. + +A land worthy sooner growing or +mowing. + +Consider Figs., 36, 375, 374. + +The far- +mer + +224 +PLANT SOCIETIES + +keeps his wild pastures "clean" by turning in sheep: the sheep are fond of browsing. + +365. Some plants associate. They grow together. This is possible largely because they diverge or differ in character (552). Plants may associate in two ways: by growing side by side; by growing above or beneath. In sparsely populated societies (as in Fig. 371) plants may grow along-side each other. In most cases, however, there is overgrowth and undergrowth: one kind grows beneath another. Plants which have become adapted to shade (554) are usually under- +ground. Note that in a tall swamp (Fig. 378), grasses and other narrow-leaved plants grow in the bottom, but they are usually unseen by the casual observer. +Search the surface of the ground in any swale or in a meadow. Note how much undergrowth in woods or under trees (Fig. 379). Observe that in pine and spruce forests there is almost no undergrowth, because there is very little light. Fig. 362. +366. On the same area the societies may differ at + +A small illustration showing a plant with a broad leaf and a smaller plant with a narrow leaf growing close together. + +377. An aquatic society in which several kinds of plants grow side by side. + +278. Grasses and narrow-leaved plants grow between the cat tail bags. + +362 + +different times of the year. There are spring, summer, and fall societies. The knoll which is clad with grass and strawberries in May may be aglow with goldenrod in September. If the bank is examined in May, look for the young plants which are to cover it in July and October; if in September, find the dead stalks of the florn of May. What succeeds the skunk cabbage, hellebores, trilliums, phlox, violets, butternuts, and other early flowers precedes the wild onions, cup-rugose, asters, and golden-rod in fall 367. In hands which gradually rise from wet to dry, the societies may take the form of belts or zones. Starting at a shore, walk back into the high land; note the changes in the flora. Three zones are shown in Fig. 380, 381. To a large extent the color of the landscape is determined by the character of the plant societies. Evergreen societies remain green, but the shade of green varies from season to sea- +son: it is bright and soft in spring, becomes dull in midsummer and fall, and usually assumes a dull yellowish tone in winter. Deciduous societies vary remarkably in color—from the dull browns and grays of winter to the brown-greens and olive greens of spring, the staid greens of summer, and the brilliant colors of autumn. + +The autumn colors are due to intermingled shades of green, yellow, and red. The coloration varies with the kind of plant, the special location, and the season. + +29. Overgrowth and undergrowth in these societies. + +225 + +226 +PLANT SOCIETIES + +Even in the same species or kind, individual plants differ in color; and this individuality usually distinguishes the plant year by year. That is, any plant which is now deep red this autumn is likely to exhibit that color every year. The autumn color is associated with the natural maturity and death of the leaf, but it is most brilliant in long and open falls--largely because the ripens more gradually and persists longer in such seasons. It is probable that the autumn tints are of no utility to the plant. The yellows seem to be due to the breaking down and liberation of the chlorophyll. Some of the intermediate shades are probably due to the unmasking or liberating of normal cell color-bodies which are covered with or obscured by chlorophyll in the growing season. The reds are due to changes in the color of the cell sap. Autumn colors do not appear in frost. Because of the long, dry falls and the great variety of plants, the autumnal color of the American handspice is phenomenal. + +369. ECOLOGY.--The study of the relationships of plants and animals to each other and to seasons and environments is known as ecology (still written *ecology* in the dictionaries). All the discussions in Part II of this + +Three society pine--bag, forest rim, forest. +300. Three society pine--bag, forest rim, forest. + +**ECOLOGY** + +227 + +book are really different phases of this subject. It con- +siders the habits, habitats, and modes of life of living +things—the places in which they live, how they integrate +or are disintegrated, their different feeding times +and seasons of flowering, producing, growing, and the like. + +**BETTER.—What is a plant society? Why do plants grow in so- +cieties?—Namo societies that are determined chiefly by moisture. +What societies are most abundant where you live? Name those de- +termined by moisture. What are the most abundant in your area? +Name those determined by sunlight. Where do they most market? Why do +they tend finally to break up? How are societies made up when socie- +ties are not present? How do forests arise on cleared areas? What +effect does the removal of trees have upon the soil? What effect does +undergrowth and overgrowth? Explain how societies may differ at +different times of the year. What are some or both societies? Discuss +minimum and maximum temperatures. + +Note.—One of the best of all subjects for school instruction in +botany is the study of plant societies. It adds definitions and rest +to excursions. Let one excursion be confined to one or two societies. +Visit woods, fields, meadows, orchards, gardens, pastures, or +meadows; another a meadow; another a meadow field; another a cliff or +ravine, etc. Visit shores whenever possible. Each pupil should be +assigned a lot of ground—say 10 or 20 ft. square—for special study. +In each society note the following: (1) the relative abundance of the var- +ieties; (2) the relative abundance of the leaves. The lots secured in differ- +ent regions should be compared. It does not matter if the pupils take +notes on the names of plants but it is well to make a list of them with +the names. It is a good plan for the pupil to make a dried specimen of +each kind for reference. The pupil should endeavor to discover why +the plants grow as they do. + +Everyone should learn to grow plants. + +CHAPTER XXX + +VARIATION AND ITS RESULTS + +370. THE FACT OF VARIATION.—No two plants are alike (16). In size, form, color, weight, vigor, productiveness, season, or other characters, they differ. The most usual form of any plant is considered to be its type, that is, its representative form. Any marked departure from this type is a variation, that is, a difference. + +The variations in plants are Variations of many degrees. The differences, in my case, may be so slight as to pass unnoticed, or they may be so marked as to challenge even the casual observer. If a red-flowered plant were to produce flowers in different shades of red, the variation might not attract attention ; but if it were to produce white flowers, the variation would be marked. Whenever the variation is so marked and so constant as to be worth naming and describing, it is called a variety in distinction from a species. When it is used as a term of praise or as to have value for cultivation, it is called an agricultural or horticultural variety. There is no natural line of demarcation between those variations which chance to be named and described as varieties and those which do not. Varieties are only named variations. + +371. Variations may arise in three ways: (1) directly from seeds; (2) directly from buds; (3) by a slow change of the parent plant until it has grown to maturity. Variations arising from seeds are seed-varieties; those which chance to be named and described are seed-varieties. Never does a seed exactly reproduce its parent: if it dies, there would be two plants alike. Neither do any + +(228) + +THE KINDS OF VARIATIONS 229 + +two seeds, even from the same fruit, ever produce plants exactly alike. Even though the seedlings resemble each other so closely that people say they are the same, nevertheless they will be found to vary in size, number of leaves, shape, or other features. Figs. 381 and 382 illustrate seed-variation. + +57. Seed-variation arising directly from buds, rather than from seeds, are bud-variations, and the most marked of them may be described and named as bud-varieties. We have learned in Chapter IV how the hereditary power of plants is exerted by means of buds; not only of these buds will reproduce exactly the plant from which it was taken. We have already discovered (17, 118) that no two branches are alike, and every branch springs from a bud. Bud-variation is usually less marked than seed-variation, however, + + +20. An abortive tree from which seeds were taken one day. + + +366 The progeny of the seeds of the tree shown on Fig. 38 + +No two plants alike. + +yet now and then one branch on a plant may be so unlike every other branch that the horticulturist selects buds from it and endeavors to propagate it. "Weeping" or pendent branches sometimes appear on upright trees; nee- + +A diagram showing a tree with branches labeled A, B, C, D, E. + +230 + +tarines sometimes are borne on one or more branches of a peach tree, and peaches may be borne on nectarine trees; russet apples are sometimes borne on Greening apple trees; white roses are sometimes found on red-flowered plants. + +375. Frequently a plant begins a new kind of variation long after birth, even after it has become well established. It is on this fact that successful agriculture depends, for the farmer makes his plants better by giving them more food and care; and betterment (like deterioration) is only a variation as compared with the average plant. Plants which start to all appearances equal may end unequal; some may be tall and vigorous, others may be short and weak. "What?" some will be worth investing and some will not. + +376. THE CAUSES OF VARIATIONS.—Variations are due to several and perhaps many causes. One class of causes lies in the environment, and another lies in the tendencies derived from parents. Of the environmental causes of variation, the chief is food supply. Good agriculture consists largely in increasing the food supply for plants by giving each plant abundant room, keeping out competitors, and so forth. The effect of these factors is shown in Fig. 383. Another strong environmental factor is climate (Chapter XXVII). It is very difficult to determine the exact causes of any variation. There is much difference of opinion respecting the causes of variation in general. The extent of variation due to food supply is well illustrated in Fig. 383. The two pigweed seeds only five feet apart, one in a mulched bed by a walk, the other near a grassy bank. The former weighed 1/2 oz., the other 41/2 oz., or 156 times as much. + +377. HEREDITY.—Marked variations tend to be perpetuated. That is, offspring are likely to retain some of the peculiarities of their parents. This passing over + +SELECTION—EVOLUTION + +231 + +of characters, from parent to offspring is heredity. +By "selecting the best" for seed the farmer maintains and improves his crop. +It is said that "like produces like." This is true of the general or average features, +but we have seen that the reproduction is not exact. It is true only +that the offspring produces similar Fig. 384 represents a marked case of he- +redity of special characters. The plants on the right grew from a parent 24 in. high and +10 in. broad, while those on the left grew from one 12 in. high and 9 in. broad. (For a history of these parents see "Survival of the Unfittest," p. 261.) + +378. SELECTION.—There is intense struggle for existence; +there is universal variation; those variations or kinds live which are best fitted to live under the particular conditions. +This persistence of the best adapted and loss of the least adapted is the process denominated by Darwin's phrase natural selection or "survival of the fittest." +Natural selection is also known as Darwinism. + +379. By a similar process, the cultivator modifies his plants. He chooses the variations which please him, and from their offspring constantly selects for seed-bearing those which he considers to be the best. In time he has a new variety. Plant-breeding consists chiefly of two +things: producing a variation in the desired direction; selecting, until the desired variety is secured. + +Fig. 384. +Variation—Ragged little pigmoids of parent 24 in. high and 10 in. broad, and one 12 in. high and 9 in. broad. (For a history of these parents see "Survival of the Unfittest," p. 261.) + +232 +VARIATION AND ITS RESULTS + +380. EVOLUTION.—Variation, heredity, natural selection, and other agencies bring about a gradual change in the plant kingdom; this change is evolution. The hypothesis that one form may give rise to another is now universally accepted amongst investigators; but whether the vegetable kingdom has all arisen from one starting point is unknown. Only a few of the general lines of the unfolding of the vegetable kingdom, with numberless details here and there, have been worked out. Not every form or kind of plant can be expected ever to vary into another, but many kinds must pass through their course and are undergoing the age-long process of extinction. It is believed, however, that every kind of plant now living has been derived from some other kind. Evolution is still in progress. Variation and heredity are the most important facts in organic nature. + +REVIEW.—What is a variation? A variety? Agricultural variety? How may variations arise? Explain each of the three categories. What are some of the causes of variation? What is heredity? Selection? What are essentials in plant-breeding? What is evolution? + +A diagram showing the stages of development of a seedling. The progress of little and big plants. + +303 + +PART III—HISTOLOGY, OR THE MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANTS + +CHAPTER XXXI + +THE CELL + +381. THE CELL AS A WHOLE.—All of the higher plants are made up of a large number of bodies or parts called cells. These are so minute that, in most cases, they are invisible to the naked eye. + +382. CELLS ARE OF MANY FORMS.—In general, plant cells may be assigned to some one of the following forms: + +spherical, as in protococcus (a minute alga to be found on damp walls and rocks), and apple flesh; + +polyhedral, or many-sided, as in pith of elder; + +tabular or flat, as in epidermis of leaves; + +cylindrical, as in vanaria, spirogyra; + +fibrous; + +vascular, as the ducts of wood; + +stellate, as in the interior of leaves of lathyrus (sweet pea) and other plants. + +383. PARTS OF A CELL.—Every living, growing cell contains protoplasm (171), a colorless, semi-fluid substance, which is usually enclosed within a cell-wall. Within the wall, also, and sometimes closely surrounded by protoplasm, is a dense body known as the nucleus. The nucleus usually contains a smaller central part, or + +(26) + +234 +THE CELL + +nucleolus. Cell-walls are so often absent that it is quite as well to think of a cell as a single nucleus with its attendant protoplasm. The nucleus is an essential part of every cell, and is intimately connected with the wonderful process of cell-division. In some very few forms of plants, as in some of the bacteria, no nucleus has yet been clearly made out. + +384. NATURE OF PROTOPLASM.--Protoplasm, with its nucleus, forms the essential part of all living, acting cells. It is possible in many cases to find a small mass of living protoplasm with a nucleus but without a cell-wall. Protoplasm is not entirely homogeneous, for when examined with a microscope of very high power it is often found to consist of a network of heterogeneous material. This network or network contains minute minute granules, called micro-somes, and lies in a clear "ground mass" composed of cell-sap. On a glass slip mount in a drop of water some compressed or brewer's yeast which has been growing in a thin syrup of white sugar for twenty-four hours; place over the drop a thin cover-glass, and examine with the compound microscope, first with the low power and then with the high. The individual cells should be visible. Note the shape and size of the cells, and also the number and size of a few of them. A similar study may be made of the soft pulp scraped from a celery stem; or hairs scraped from the surface of a begonia leaf; or threads of sparganium; cells of proteaceae; or soft white cells of an apple; the thin leaves of various mosses; the epidermis of wax plant. + +A diagram showing the structure of a cell. + +385. Cells in periods of degeneration. Two cells contain cytoplasmic vacuoles. +Two cells contain cytoplasmic vacuoles. +Cytoplasmic vacuoles are large. +VACUOLAE.--Protoplasm often does not entirely fill the cell. There may be a number of cavities or vacuoles in a single cell. These vacuoles are filled with cell-sap (r., Fig. 385). In some parts, as in buds and root-tips, where the cells are most + +A diagram showing the structure of a cell with vacuoles. + +actively dividing, the protoplasm may entirely fill the space and no vacuoles be present. + +36. MOVEMENTS OF PROTOPLASM.—Within the cell-wall, many times the protoplasm shows a tendency to move from place to place. This movement is chiefly of two kinds: (1) circulation, or movement not only along the walls but also across the cell-body, as seen in the long, thin-walled cells of eudicotyledon, in the staminal hairs of trachelanthus (Fig. 385), in the stinging hairs of nettle; in stellate hairs of hollyhock. (2) rotation, or movement along the walls only, well seen in the cells of many water plants, as elodea, chara, and nitella (Fig. 387). + +37. Besides these and other movements of protoplasm within the cell-wall, there are movements of the protoplasm itself, or of the protoplasmic substance, of two main types: (1) ameboid or creeping movements, such as may be seen in a plasmodium of myxomycetes, or in an amoeba; (2) swimming by means of cilia or flagella, illustrated in the swarm-spores of water-fungi, and of some algae, and in the cilia of the unicellular bodies (swarm-spores and bacteria) are often moved very rapidly. To see movement in protoplasm, carefully mount in water a few hours from the stamens of trachelanthus (spider-wool). The water should not be too cold. Examine with a power high enough to see movements of protoplasm. Make a sketch of several cells and their contents. It may be necessary to make several trials before success is attained. + +A diagram showing the movement of protoplasm within a cell. +235 + +236 +THE CELL + +in this experiment. If the microscope is cold, heat the stage gently with an alcohol lamp, or by other means; or warm the room. See Fig. 386. + +388. NATURE OF CELL-WALL.--The cell-wall of very young cells is a delicate film or membrane. As a cell grows in size the wall remains thin and does not begin to thicken until the cell has enlarged to certain limits. The fundamental substance of cell-walls is a colorless material known as cellulose. The cellulose generally stains blue with hematoxylin. Often by incrustations or deposits of one kind or another, the cellulose reaction is lost or obscured. Two + +A diagram showing the structure of a plant cell, including the cell wall, cytoplasm, nucleus, and vacuole. + +387. Rotation of protoplasm in Rhodora Canadensis (after known as Archaealectus). Common in ponds. + +of the most common additions are lignin, forming wood, and sebieria, forming cork. The walls then are said to be lignified or suberized. + +389. In all the cells studied in the above experiments the walls are soft. In general, those cells which have thin walls are called parenchymatous cells. Some cells, as those of nuts and the grit of pear fruit, have very thick walls, and are called sclerenchymatous cells. In many cases the cell-walls are intermediate between these extremes. + +390. Cell-walls often thicken by additions to their inner surfaces. This increase in thickness seldom takes place normally in all parts. Many times the wall remains thin at certain places, while the rest of the wall becomes very thick. Again the walls may thicken very much in angles or along certain lines, while most of the wall remains thin. As a result of this uneven thickening + +MULTIPlication of cells 237 + +the walls of cells take on certain definite markings. Some of the names applied to these markings are: + +**Pitted**, with little holes or depressions, forming very thin places, as seen in seeds of sunflower, corn, and other plants; pits seen in the stem of the ensiform. + +**Bordered pits**, when the pits are enclosed in the cell-wall, as in wood of pines and other conifers. Fig. 388. + +**Spiral**, with the thickening in a spiral band, as in the primary wood of most woody plants and in the veins of leaves. Fig. 389. + +**Annular**, with the thickening in the form of rings, seen in the veins of leaves of the balsam in stem of Indian corn. Fig. 389. + +**Scalariform**, with elongated thin places in the wall, alternating with the thich ridges which appear like the rounds of a ladder. Fig. 389. These are well shown in a longitudinal section of the root of the brake fern (Pteris). + +31 Multiplication of cells—Cells give rise to new cells by division of the plant grow. The most common method by which cells are multiplied is that called cell division. A modified form of cell division is called budding. Cell division is a process by which two (or more) cells are made from one original cell. Cells which bore an abundance of protoplasm are usually abundant in young plants; this division process is at first an internal one. The nucleus gradually divides into two masses and the protoplasm of the cell is apportioned between these two nuclei; a new cell-membrane, or partition wall, is usually thrown across and the cell is completely + +A diagram showing different types of cell markings. +Markings in cell-walls, as in sunflower, annular, etc. + +A diagram showing a longitudinal section of a root. +Budded root. + +238 THE CELL + +divided into two cells. Fig. 390. In some cases, however, the nucleus divides many times without the formation of a cell-wall. The cell which begins to divide is called the mother cell, and the resulting cells are daughter cells. + +390. Four steps in process of cell-division. +The mother cell at left, far advanced in division; daughter cell just beginning to divide. +391. A construction of the unit. +Cells of the yeast plant and the spores of many fungi multiply in this way. + +391. In no case, so far as we yet know, can the cell divide without a division of the nucleus and the protoplasmic mass. There are two methods of nuclear division: (1) direct, as found in the old cells of mitosis, trebocentum, and others, in which the mass of the nucleus divides by simple constriction, leaving two nuclei; (2) indirect, as in young tissue, in pollen grains, spores, etc. There are several stages in the latter process. The nucleus divides in intricate methods, giving rise to odd forms known as nuclear figures. Mitosis and karyocinesis are names sometimes given to indirect nuclear division. The study of this process is a very difficult one, as it requires a very high power microscope to see the different stages. They are easily seen in cells forming spores, such as those of pollen grains of that plant, but may be studied in all plants. The process is too difficult for the beginner to trace, but it is outlined in the note on next page. Fig. 390 is not intended to represent all the stages in indirect nuclear division. + +REVIEW.-What are some of the forms of cells? Name the parts of a living cell. What part or parts are essential in all cases? Give + +A diagram showing four steps in the process of cell-division. + +A diagram showing a construction of the unit. + +KARYOKINESIS + +259 + +your idea of the nature of protoplasm. What difference did you find between the cells of yeast and those of green alga? In what ways do they resemble each other? Tell the name of cells of protozoa and of apple, or of other material studied. What is a vacuole? What does it contain? Describe the structure of a vacuole. The protoplasm within the cell-wall, and explain how such may be observed. Name and describe two movements of naked protoplasm. Tell something of the texture of cell-walls. What causes the markings found on cell-walls? How are these markings formed? What is the structure of bordered pits. Make a sketch of spines, annular, and scallop-markings. +Name two methods of cell-multiplication. Describe the process of cell-division. How does cell-building differ from cell-division? Name two methods of nuclear division. Which is the more common method. + +Note to PARADESIGN 263—Karyokinesis (the indirect or mitotic process) is a very important subject in zoology, but its variations vary in different plants, but the essential features are as follows: + +During the restating the nucleus is surrounded by a very deli- +cate but distinct membrane. Within this membrane is a nutritive-net- +work, which is made up of many fine threads, some of which in stained preparations are highly colored, and for this reason have received the name chromosomæ. The network is surrounded by nuclear- +sap, and often touches with its membrane. Immediately outside the net- +work is a second membrane, which is also surrounded by nuclear-sap, +changes into a definite, much-ridged, deeply-stained ribbons, in which +the granular structure is much less noticeable, and in this turn sec- +tions traverse the whole mass of the nucleus without breaking through +the previous layer. Finally, shortly surrounding the nucleus new grad- +ually converge towards two points lying on opposite sides of the +nucleus and at a slight distance from the membrane. This is accom- +panied by a change in the form of the chromosomæ. A new body is +produced, with the two previously mentioned points of convergence +acting as poles. Meanwhile both the nuclear membranes and the nu- +clei have disappeared, but whether these structures take part in +the formation of the new bodies or not is not known. The production +of protoplasmic threads called axons sometimes occur around the +poles, and in few lower plants, as well as in most animals, the pair +is occupied by a single thread running from one pole to another. +The chromosomes now move to the equator of the spindle, where they arrange themselves in a definite manner, forming the so-called axonal point (axonophore- +stage). Each segment splits longitudinally, apparently on account of + +210 +THE CELL + +the contractive action of the spindle fiber to which it is attached; and one daughter-segment passes to each pole (metaphase stage). Each of the two groups of daughter-segments very soon becomes surrounded by a new membrane, the chromosomes gradually fuse end to end, the nucleolus reappears, and at length two resting nuclei are produced similar in all respects to the original nucleus. Meanwhile each spindle fiber becomes swollen at the equator, thus producing a series of dots all arranged in one plane. These at length fuse, forming a single nucleus. The nuclear membrane then appears, the peripheral expansion of the spindle at length reaches the lateral walls, and cell-division is thus complete. This process of indirect nuclear division is one of the most wonderful phenomena yet discovered in organic life. It has been observed that this process is hereditary, but also because it has been found that hereditary characteristics are in all probability transmitted solely through the chromosomes. The longitudinal division and separation seem to be for the purpose of transmitting the hereditary characteristics from one generation to another. + +The subject, however, is still in its infancy, and authors disagree both as to details and as to theoretical considerations. + +No less obscure, Arrhenius and Miescher have shown that outlined in Part II is the fact that if one does not occupy the pupil's time each school day for six weeks. These chapters are intended only as laboratory guides. The pupil should work out each structure with his own hands under the direction of his teacher. The work in this Part deals with only the elements of the subject, but it is such as the high school pupil can hope to take up with profit. + +**Apparatus.—** The apparatus necessary for the work outlined in these chapters may be obtained from any of the leading microscope supply houses and laboratory supply stores at a low figure. Schools should obtain catalogues from the following and other reliable dealers: + +Daniel & Lomb Optical Co., Rochester, N. Y. +Emmer & Co., New York City. +The Franklin Educational Co., Boston. +Queen & Co., Philadelphia. +Richardson-Merrell Chemicals and New York. +Richardson-Lea Company, Buffalo. +Williams, Brown & Early, Philadelphia. +Genova Optical Co., Chicago. +Whitney Scientific Co., New York. +Chas. Lentz & Sons, Philadelphia. +Richard Kay & Co., New York. +Cambridge Botanical Supply Co., Cambridge, Mass. + +APPARATUS AND METHODS + +The microscope should have a one-inch and perhaps a two-inch eyepiece and two objectives of say 1- and 5-inch focal lengths. By arranging the laboratory study of the pupils at different times each microscope may be used by three, four, or even more pupils. + +There should be a microslide or section-cutter for use by the class. + +Each pupil should have his own individual tools and bottles of reagents, as follows: + +1. ground glass (holder-ground on one side only), +2. small scalpel, +3. 1 pair forceps, +4. 2 sharp needles mounted in handles / as penholders) (Fig. 100), +5. medium-sized brush, +6. small emu's hair brush, +7. A number of slides and cover glasses. + +Of reagents, stains, and other chemicals, there should be the following: + +Glycerine. +Ninety-five per cent alcohol. +Formalin (40 per cent formaldehyde). +Clearer (made of three parts tarsoltsine and two parts melted crys. salt of curdled acid). +Canada balsam. +Ether. +2 per cent and 5 per cent collodion, +Ioline dissolved in water, +" " " " " " alcohol. +Hematoxylin. +Copper sulphate solution. +Potassium hydroxide solution. +Fehling's solution (see paragraph 397). +Alciane (bromine test in alcohol). + +The two per cent collodion is made of forty-nine parts alcohol, forty-one parts water, and one part gum arabic. This strength is suitable to use in sticking sections to the glass slide to prevent their escape during the staining and clearing process. It need not be used unless desired. Collodion is a very useful substance for making preparations with the head "bobbed" (see page 247). Pupils must exercise great care in using curdled acid, as it burns the flesh. + +Hematoxylin stain may be obtained of dealers in a condition + +1 + +242 THE CELL + +ready for use, or may be prepared by this recipe (Gage's Hematoxylin). +Distilled water 200 cc., and potash alum 71 grams, boil together for five minutes in glues dish or agate ware. Add enough boiled water to bring the volume back to 200 cc. When cool add 4 grams of chloral hydrate and $\frac{1}{2}$ gram of hematoxylin crystals which have been previously dissolved in 5 cc. of water. The solution is quite permanent, and becomes of deeper color after standing for some time if left in a light place and frequently shaken. It stains the tissues which bear it, but does not stain the cells, causing them to show out distinctly with the other tissues. + +Preparing and Keeping Laboratory Material.—In preparing material for the experiments outlined in Part III, the pupil or teacher will find it convenient to prepare a stock solution of hematoxylin, and preserve it until the time for use. Soft material should be dehydrated and hardened by placing it in about 40 per cent alcohol for several hours to two days, according to its size, and then placing it in 80 per cent alcohol for one week. Harder materials can be placed in 80 per cent alcohol, and is ready for use at any time. When thus preserved, the tissues containing protoplasm are sometimes much shrunken. For this reason it is well to preserve some of the fresh material in 10 per cent alcohol for a few days. One of the best liquids is a 2 per cent or 2½ per cent solution of formalin. This preserves material well but does not dehydrate it. Formalin turns brown. + +Free-hand Cutting and Mounting.—To cut sections, the material may often be held between pieces of pith or smooth cork in the microscope or fingers. The material and sections should be kept wet with distilled water. + +The sections when cut should be wet in water, then stained with hematoxylin for a few minutes; drain off the hematoxylin and rinse with water; then use ninety-five per cent alcohol to extract out the water; drain off the alcohol; then place on a slide for a few minutes. Put a drop of Canada balsam on the sections, and they are ready for the thin cover glass. Mounts thus made are permanent. +Some students have found that hematoxylin does not mix readily with alcohol and balsam does not mix with water nor with alcohol. Sections mounted before they are freed from water become cloudy and worthless. + +Filing and Microscopic Sectioning.—For the purpose of preparing permanent microscopic sections of leaves, wood, or any other plant-tissues, select typical specimens of the part desired and cut them + +FIXING AND MICROTOME SECTIONING 243 + +Into pieces as small as can be conveniently handled. These may +then be prepared by the following procedure: + +1. Fixing: If the material is to be used simply for the study of +tissue-arrangement, cell-structure, etc., the treatment with alcohol +described in the paragraph relating to the preparing and keeping of +blood smears may be employed. The material will then be preserved. +Protoplasmic structures, however, are likely to be distorted or dis- +turbed after this treatment, due to the slow process of fixing. Some +methods of quickly killing or "fixing" the protoplasm is therefore neces- +sary. The following methods have been found satisfactory, among which the following is perhaps the best. Cut the fresh material into very small pieces (the smaller the better) and drop into so-called +absolute alcohol (90 per cent ethyl alcohol). This solution is pre- +pared by dissolving 90 parts absolute alcohol in one part water. With ether stains some accurate fixing +agents may be used, such as chrome acid, nile blue, nile red acid, +etc., either separately or in combination. The treatment, however, +is not always necessary. + +2. Insealing: The pieces must be imbedded in some substance +in which they can be held and sectioned. For this purpose col- +lodion is generally used. Tear off a sheet, and cut it according to +the size required. Immerse a piece of collodion in about 50 cc. of mi- +nch. After twenty-four hours this may be pressed back into the +stock bottle, and an equal amount of 3 per cent calcium iodide put on the +material. The collodion will then adhere firmly to the glass, which +means that these operations must be performed as quickly as +possible, and the cork of collodion bottles should always be +sealed by holding the bottle down for a few seconds. Leucine +is also suitable for imbedding purposes. A small piece of glass is +poured the contents of the vial into a paper box, which may be made +by folding a piece of writing paper. The size of the box must be +judged so that each piece of material will be surrounded by a +cylinder of leucine at least 1 cm. thick. The pieces should be pressed +with waxidne to prevent the collodion from sticking. The pieces +will sink to the bottom, where they may be arranged with a needle. +If there is any excess of leucine left over, it may be poured into the +box. The box should then be placed in a shallow vessel on the +bottom of which a little alcohol has been poured, and covered with +a pane of glass leaving a very small opening on one side. In about +half an hour all excess leucine will have evaporated, leaving only +the consistency of cheese. The material may now be cut into +small blocks and stored in 85 per cent ethanol. + +3. Cutting: For cutting sections, either a hand microtome or a + +244 +THE CELL + +small sliding microscope and a sharp razor are necessary. Cut one of the pieces of cellulose into an oblong, black block with the included material near one end. This can be clamped in the microtome, be- +held in place by a flat piece of cork on each side. The cellulose must project above the cork. The razor should be adjusted in such a manner that the cutting edge is at right angles to the slide. The blade should be tilted downwards so that only the cutting edge comes in contact with the block which should not be scraped by the lower flat surface of the razor back of the edge. Both the cellulose and the cork should be moistened with water before beginning the process of cutting. When several sections have been cut they may be floated out on a slide and arranged near the center. Then with a pipette place a drop of ether on the sections. This partially dis- +solves the alcohol and leaves a clear film over the sections. The slide is then covered with water to remove the alcohol, after which it is ready for staining. Sections are rinsed if allowed to become dry by placing them in a small dish of water. + +4. Stain with hematoxylin for from three to five minutes, and wash off the surplus stain with water. + +5. Drain off the water and dehydrate by keeping the slide flooded with alcohol until all moisture is removed, changing it in a vessel of alcohol. + +6. Pour off the alcohol and cover the slide with a clearing mat- +ture (see p. 241) and allow it to stand for ten minutes. The eluorv removes the alcohol which cannot mix with balsam. + +7. To examine the sections, use a pair of forceps without touching the sections. Then place a small drop of prepared Canada balsam on the sections near the center of the slide, and with a pair of forceps lay one section down on another, so that both are covered with Canada balsam. It will spread out to the edge of the cover- +glass without exuding. The slide is now ready to be examined. It should be cleaned and labelled and put away in a small wooden box which is furnished by dealers in microscopic supplies. + +Box of microscope slides, and a packet of cellulose drying in a glass vessel. + +CHAPTER XXXII + +CONTENTS AND PRODUCTS OF CELLS + +394. THE LIVING CELL IS A LABORATORY.—In nearly all cells are found one or more non-protoplasmic substances which are produced by the plant, and others seem to be discarded or excretory products. There is considerable division of labor among the cells of higher plants, one cell or group of cells producing one product and another cell producing another product. + +395. CHLOROPHYLL.—Cells may contain chlorophyll bodies if they are exposed to the sunlight. Chlorophyll is a green substance infiltrated in a protoplasmic ground-mass. It imparts color to all the green parts of the plant. Its presence is absolutely necessary in all plants which have to secure their nourishment wholly or in part from the air and from mineral matter of soil. Review Chapter XII. Most important matter of soil is decomposed into simple organic bodies, but not into organic nitrogen (Chapter XIII). The oval bodies in the cell of Figs. 411, 413, 414, are chlorophyll bodies. + +396. CELL-SAP.—Often the most abundant of the different cell contents is cell-sap. It may contain a number of different substances, many of which are in solution and can be detected by the use of chemical reagents. Some of these substances are: + +with (lucine) + +grape (glucose or dextrose, C$_6$H$_{12}$O$_6$), + +Sugar, + +fruit (levulose), + +cane (saccharose, C$_{12}$H$_{22}$O$_{11}$), + +melit (malasse). + +(253) + +246 +CONTENTS AND PRODUCTS OF CELLS + +Inulin, which takes the place of starch in composite and others. +Fats and oils, as in flaxseed and castor bean. +Mucus or mucilage, as in orchid roots, onions, quince seed, ducts of some plants, as cydends. +Tannins, as in oak, hemlock bark, and many other plants. +Atropa, in belladonna. +Nicotin, in tobacco. +Emetic, in ipecac root. +Caffeine, in coffee. +Alkaloids, +Streptocin, in nux vomica. +Morphin, in Papaver somniferum (opium poppy). +Quinine, in cinchona or Peruvian bark tree. +Resins, as in Coniferous. +Gum-resins, Cautchouc, as in India-rubber plant. +Formic, as in stinging nettle. +Acetic, as in fermented cider. +Ozolic, mostly in form of calcium oxalate (see crystals, Fig. 385). +Methylated sugar, +Citric, as in lemon. +And many others. + +307. Sugar is found in almost all parts of the plant and at all periods of growth. In a few it is crystallized, as in date-seeds, squills, and others. Sugar serves as a reserve material in such plants as beet, cane, corn, onion. Being readily soluble, sugar is a convenient form for the transportation of the food store from one part of the plant to another. It is also stored by the roots during the season and from roots to stems and leaves during the spring season. It results from the digestion of starch (168). See note p. 251. Sugar in fruits attracts many animals, and in + +TESTS FOR SUGARS AND OIL. +247 + +nectar of flowers it attracts insects. To test for glucose: +Make a thick section of a bit of the edible part of a pear and place it in a bath of Fehling's solution. After a few moments both the liquid containing the section for one minute, and the section itself will become golden, showing a deposit of an oxide of copper and perhaps a little copper in the metallic form. A thin section treated in like manner may be examined under the microscope, and the fine particles, precipitated from the solution by the sugar of the pear, may be clearly seen. (Fehling's solution is made by taking one part each of these three solutions and two parts water.) (1) Copper sulfate, 9 grams; (2) potassium iodide, 3 grams; (3) potassium permanganate, in 250 c.c. water; (3) Rochelle salt, 4 grams in 250 c.c. water. + +To test for cane sugar: (1) Make a thin section of sugar beet and let it stand a few minutes in a strong solution of copper sulfate. Then carefully rinse off all the salt. (2) Heat in a very strong solution of potassium hydrate. There will be seen a blue coloration in the section gradually changing to yellow. + +To test for oil: Mount a thin section of the endosperm of castor-seed seed in water and examine with high power. Small drops of oil will be quite abundant. Treat the mount with albinin (benzene red in alcohol). The drops of oil will stain red. This is the standard test for fats and oils. + +To examine gum-resin: Mount a little of the "milk" juice of the leaf stem of the garden poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima). It is of a creamy consistency. Examination under the microscope shows that it is not white, as it seems to the naked eye. The particles are yellowish or colorless and are insoluble. These particles are gum resin. They have been emulsified by the plant, making the juice appear white. + +238. CONTENTS NOT IN SOLUTION—Starch is the most + +248 +CONTENTS AND PRODUCTS OF CELLS + +abundant of the solid products of the cell. Starch grains have a definite form for each group of plants, and groups can be determined by the form of their starch grains. +Detection of adentition of various products containing starch is made possible by the presence of starch. In potato starch the grains are ovate, with a "nucleus" near one end, as shown in Fig. 301. In peonietta they are dumb-bell shaped, with two nuclei (Fig. 301). +In corn they have equal diameters, with radial fissures. In Egyptian lotus they are forked or branched. So far as known all starch grains are marked with rings, giving a striped appearance, +indicating the different layers of the layers. +When all water is driven out of the starch the rings disappear. The layers are more or less concentric, and are formed about a starch nucleus. + +301. Starch grains. +a, potato; b, peonietta; c, corn. + +399. Starch grains may be simple, as found in potato, wheat, arrow-root, corn, and many others; or they may be in groups called compound grains, as in oats, rice (Fig. +311) and barley. + +400. Starch may be found in all parts of the plant. +It is first formed in presence of chlorophyll, mostly in the leaves, and from there it is carried to some other part of the plant, as to the roots or tubers, to be stored or to be used. +When found in the presence of chlorophyll it is called *transitory starch*, because it is soon converted into liquid substance to be transported to other parts of the plant. When found for future use, as in twigs and tubers, it is stored starch. + +401. The composition of starch is in the proportion of C$_{6}$H$_{10}$O$_{5}$. The grains are insoluble in cold water, but by saliva they are changed to sugars, which are soluble. Great heat converts them into dextrine, which is soluble in water. + +STARCH—PROTEIN + +Starch turns blue with iodine (75). The color may be driven away by heat, but will return again as the temperature lowers. To test for starch : Make pastes with wheat flour, potato starch, and corn starch. Treat a little of each with a solution of rather dilute iodine. Try grains from crushed rice with the same solution. Are they the same color? Cut a thin slice from a potato, and examine under the microscope. To study starch grains: Mount in cold water a few grains of starch from each of the following: potato, wheat, arrow-root (buy at drug store), rice, oats, corn, euphorbia. Study the sizes, forms, layers, fissures, and location of nuclei, and make a drawing of a few grains of each. + +40. Amylo-dextrine.—The chief product of the cell much resembling starch in structure, appearance, and use. With the needle, cut the grains change to a wine-red color. Seeds of rice, sorghum, wild rice, and other plants contain amylo-dextrine. Amylo-dextrine is a half-way stage in the conversion of starch into maltoe and dextrine. These latter substances do not react with iodine. + +43. Protein or nitrogenous matter occurs largely in the form of alcohone grains, and is most abundant in seeds of leguminous plants. It is usually small, colorless or yellowish in most plants, rarely red or green. In the common cereals they occupy the outer layer of cells of the endosperm. Fig. 392. + +In many other cases they are distributed throughout the seed. The grains vary in size and form in different species, but are rather constant within a species. + +They are only soluble in water unless certain hard parts or bodies, known as inclusiones, are present, and these may remain undissolved. The inclu- +sions may be (a) **vegetables**, as in potato, castor-oil seed; (b) **glycoids**, as in peach, mustard; (c) **calcium oxalate** + +250 +CONTENTS AND PRODUCTS OF CELLS + +late crystals, as in grape seed. To study alcarose grains and their inclusions: Cut a thin cross-section of the peripheral cells of a grain of wheat and mount in alcohol. Stain with an alcoholic solution of iodine to color the grains yellowish-brown. Mount a cover-glass on the slide and make a sketch of a few layers of cells, just beneath the epidermis. Make a sketch of a few of the grains removed from the cells. While looking at the mount run a little water under the cover glass and watch the result. Make a similar mount and study of the endosperm of castor-oil seed, or of grape seed. In the castor-oil seed look for inclusions of large starch-grains and small globules. In the grape seed globules abound, but they are so small that they do not excrete within them. This experiment will require the power of 4- or 5-inch objective. + +404. Cells may contain crystals. Besides the crystals which are found as inclusions of aleuron grains, many others may be found in many plants. In onion skin they are prisms; in night-shade they are in the form of crystal flours. In the petioles of the potato, they are visible as long, narrow, white needles, and in the rootstock of skunk cabbage and the bulbs of hyacinth they are needle-shaped and are called raphides (Fig. 385). In the leaf of the India-rubber plant (common in greenhouses) are found compound clusters resembling bunches of grapes, which are called cystoliths (Fig. 384). These crystals are also found in rape. + +A diagram showing the structure of a plant cell. +384. Cystoliths in leaf of rubber plant. +In autumn, crystals of calcium oxalate become very abundant in the leaves of many deciduous trees; examine cross-sections of peach petiole in June and again + +**REVUE ON CELL-CONTENTS** + +251 + +in October. To study crystals and cytoplasmic : section the root-stock of skunk cabbage or Jack-in-the-pulpit, the leaf of Ficus elastica, the leaf of ivy (Hedera helix); make a separate amount of each in water, and examine with the high power. When the crystals are found, draw them, with a claw of the adjacent cells. Make a similar study of a lot of other plant skin. + +403. Summary of cell-contents and products : + +1. Chlorophyll. +2. Cell-sap, and substances found in solution, +3. Starch. +4. Amylopectine. +5. Alveolar grains (cyrstaloids and globoids). +6. True crystals, and other mineral matter. + +**REVUE,** Name six classes of contents or products of the cell. +Where found? Of what use? What is chlorophyll? What is its use? +What is assimilation? Give outlines of the products of cells found in the following plants : skunk cabbage, Jack-in-the-pulpit, ivy, potato. +Name some kinds of sugar found in plants. Describe an experiment to test for cane sugar. Name for cane sugar. How may we find the oil in plants? Describe an experiment to test for any kind of gum-cotton. Why does the gum-junction it appears white? Draw a diagram of a growing potato. Tell how starch grains of other plants differ from those of potato. What are the uses of starch to the plant? Where do we find starch in the body ? Name some places in which we may find amylopectine. +How does its test differ from that for starch? What are alveolar grains? In what cells are they found in kernels of wheat? Name some of the other products found in these cells. + +Note 27866727. The digestion of starch is produced by means of enzymes or enzymized formulas (i.e., formulas which act upon starch) or by enzymes or enzymes-like substances. These enzymes, or disaccharides, are present in seeds and other living tissues containing starch. During dormant periods the enzymes either are not present, or their action is prohibited by the presence of other substances which interfere with specific changes, and produce definite chemical changes. + +Grape sugar and its assimilant, fruit sugar, appear to be two forms used generally used to plants. Cane sugar is readily inverted into these sugars. + +CHAPTER XXXIII + +TISSUES + +406. The lowest plants are unicellular or composed of only one cell. Of such are bacteria (Fig. 123). All the higher plants are composed of collections or aggregations of innumerable cells; they are multicellular. If we examine the cells of the stem, the leaves, and the roots of any common garden plant we find that they differ very widely in shape, size, and texture. + +407. Any group of similar cells is called a tissue. Each of the different tissues of a plant has its own type of cells, although the cells in a tissue may differ from each other in various minor ways. + +408. PARENCHYMATOUS TISSUE.—Thin-walled cells are known as parenchyma cells. When they unite they form parenchymatous tissue. This may or may not be elongated, but when it is it assumes a palisade form. Parenchymatous tissue is found at the growing point of a shoot or root (Fig. 35); in the mesophyll (soft pulpy part) of the leaves (Fig. 411); around the vascular bundles of stems and roots (Fig. 402 f), and in a few other places, as pith, medullary rays, etc. The cells of this tissue may be meristematic—in a state of active division and growth—or they may be permanent, no longer able to divide. + +409. One important use of this tissue is to form other tissues, as in growing points. Near the end of any young root or shoot the cells are found to differ from each other more or less, according to the distance from the point. This differentiation takes place in the region just back of + +(252) + +PARENCHYMATOUS TISSUE + +253 + +the growing point. In the mesophyll (or middle soft part) of leaves the elaboration of plant-food takes place. Intercellular spaces filled with air and other gases are com- +mon in this tissue of leaves, as well as in parenchyma of other organs. + +410. To study growing points, use the hypocotyl of Indian corn which has grown about one-half inch. The material should be placed in 40 per cent alcohol for a few hours, then in 70 per cent for the same length of time, and then in 95 per cent alcohol for use. Make a series of longitudinal sections, stain with hematoxylin, mount, and then select the middle or median one for study with the high power. Note these points (Fig. 285): (a) Root-cap beyond the growing point. (b) The shape of the endodermis, the outer layer of cells found there. (c) The group of cells in the middle of the first layers beneath the root-cap. This group is the growing point. (d) Study the slight differences in the tissues a short distance back of the growing point. There are four regions: the phloem, several rows of cells in the center, the endo- +dermis, several layers on each side, the periblum, of several layers outside the endodermis, and the dermatogen, on the outer edges. Make a drawing of the section. If a series of cross-sections of the hypo- +cotyl should be made and stained, beginning near the growing point and running back some distance, it would be found that these four tissues become more distinctly marked. The central cylinder of phloem will contain the + +A diagram showing parts of root of Indian corn at different stages of development. +growing point of root +of Indian corn at d. developing +endodermis; e. developing +phloem; f. developing +periblum; g. developing +root cap; h. root cap. +growing point group: e. root-cap. + +254 + +T I S S U E S + +ducts and vessels; the endodermis remains as endodermis; peridermis becomes the cortex of parenchyma; the derma- +tagen becomes the epidermis of the root. + +411. EPIDERMAL TISSUE.—This is a special modification of parenchyma, comprising the thin layers on the exterior of leaves and stems. The cells are often tabular or plate-like in form, as in the epidermis of leaves (Fig. 115); and their outer surface bears a layer of cuticle, a protective substance which is insoluble even in sulfuric acid. They do not bear chlorophyll and often contain only cell-sap, with a little protoplasm. Their walls are much thickened in some cases, as in Fig. 366. The cells of *Bryophyta* and *bryozoa* are considered to be modified epidermal tissue. + +412. COLLENCHYMATOUS TISSUE.—Tis- +sue composed of cells thickened at the angles, not much elongated and not lapping at the ends, is known as *collen- +chyma* (Fig. 366). It is strengthening tissue. Good examples are found in such plants as *wheat* and *member* and *geranium*. These cells are slightly elastic and allows of some stretching. Cut a few thin cross-sections of large stems of jewel-wood, and mount in water. Study with high power. + +413. SOFT BAST OR SIEVE TISSUE.—In the higher plants is a tissue known as soft bast or sieve tissue (this also forms part of the bundle; 424). It is composed of two types of cells which almost always accompany each other. There are sieve tubes and companion cells (Fig. 397). Both are elongated, thin-walled, blunt at the ends. The sieve tubes are so called because of the sieve-like areas which they bear in various parts. These areas, called sieve plates, are commonly at the ends (as partitions) but may be in the lateral walls, Fig. 397. They serve to connect the cell-cavities with each other, and through + +A diagram showing the structure of sieve tubes and companion cells. +366 + +PEOSENCHYMATOUS TISSUE 255 + +them the protoplasm strands extend, as shown in the figure. Their exact function is not known. + +414. PEOSENCHYMATOUS TISSUE.—Several elongated and strong tissues, which greatly strengthen the stems in which they occur, are collectively known as pros- +enchyma. The cells of these tissues become much thickened by the addition of layers to the inner surface, and finally lose their protoplasm. They may, at times, be used as sources for starch and other nutrients, and take an important part in the transfer of the plant juices. Some writers call this group of tissues scleren- +chyma. + +415. There are four main varieties of tissues which may be included under prosenchyma. (1) + +Fibrous tissue, composed of very thick-walled cells with very small central cavities, Fig. 123. + +They are very long and tapering at the ends, which lap. Such tissue is found in many plants where it often wholly or in part surrounds the fibre-vascular bundles. +It is more often but not always found near the soft bast; hence the cells are sometimes called *best fibres* or *hard bast.* (2) Wood tissue, or wood fibers. This is composed of cells much like the preceding in structure, + + +A cross section of a stem showing the different types of tissue: parenchyma (left), collenchyma (center), and sclerenchyma (right). + + +256 +T I S S U E S + +but with thinner walls and the central cavity not so nearly closed. In some cases such fibers have transverse walls. Wood cells constitute a large part of the wood of some plants and are in other cases found scattered only among the other procenchyma. (3) Tracheids. Cells of this tissue differ from ordinary cells in being supplied with numerous bordered pits or other characteristic markings. + +38. Longitudinal tangential series of Scotch pine wood, highly magnified, it shows tracheids with bordered pits. The dark cells are vessels of ordinary size. + +They constitute the largest part of the wood of the pines and other gymnosperms. Fig. 389. (4) Vascular tissue, composed of large vessels which become sufficient to end, forming a continuous cylinder or duct, etc. Fig. 390. From the thickened markings which these cells bear they are named *spiral*, *circular*, *pitted*, *septate*, etc., fig. 389. These vessels are often of considerable length, but are never continuous through the entire plant. Cut a grape-vine stem 2 or 3 feet long. Place one end in a glass of water and with the other end in the mouth, try to force air through the stem. If not successful, shorten the stem a little. + +**TISSUE SYSTEMS** 257 + +**416. SCLERENCHYMATOUS OR SCLEROTIC TISSUE.—** +Sclerenchyma cells are hard, not elongated, often somewhat spherical, and their thickened walls are provided with simple or branching canals. The cells of this tissue are illustrated by the common grasses, ferns, and some other plants. They may be found in the coats of many seeds, in nut shells, in the pith of some plants. +Hold a large gristy part of a pear between two pieces of smooth elder pith or cork and make free-hand sections. Mount in water. Make a drawing of a single cell showing thickness of wall, size of central cavity, wall markings. Note the general shape of the cells. + +**417. LATICIFICIOUS TISSUE.—** This (tissue found in many plants which contain latex) is a complex tissue. Laticiferous tissue is a fixed type for the vessels and cavities that fluid, as they vary greatly in different plants, being simple in the asclepias (milk weed), and complex in the dandelion. + +**418. TISSUE SYSTEMS.—** The parts of complex plants may be conveniently grouped into three *tissue systems*: +(1) Fibro-vascular tissue system. This is composed of fibro-vascular bundles. The fibrous framework of each stem is formed by a number of long, slender bundles. (Fibro-vascular means fibrous or long and slender, and having long openings or channels.) Each bundle is composed of two fundamental parts: *phloem* and *xylem*. The last fibers may or may not be present. Phloem is another name for the *soft bast or sieve tissue*, while xylem is the name of the lignified or woody part and is composed chiefly of tracheids and vessel elements. In stems of dicotyledons (angiosperms) these two parts of the bundle are separated by cambium, a meristematic layer giving rise to xylem on one side and to phloem on the other. +For types of bundles, see next chapter. (2) Fundamen- +tal tissue system. This is composed of the parenchyma + +q + +258 +REVIEW ON TISSUES + +tons tissue already described. The fibre-vascular system may be said to be imbedded in the fundamental tissue. +(3) Epidermal tissue system. This is the covering of the other systems, and is composed of epidermal tissue, already described. It is doubtful whether all the types of cells and tissues defined in this chapter are not all that may be found in plants. There are many intermediate forms, e.g., tracheids and ducts blend the one into the other; and the same is true of wood cells and tracheids. + +419. Summary of tissues studied: +1. Parenchymatous tissue. +a. Meristematic. +b. Permanent. +2. Epidermal tissue. +3. Collenchymatous tissue. +4. Soft bast or phloem (sieve tissue). +5. Mesenchymatous tissue. +a. Fibrous tissue or bast fibers. +b. Wood tissue or wood fibers. +c. Tracheids. +6. Vascular tissue or ducts. +7. Sclerenchymatous or sclerotic tissue. +8. Latex or latex tissue. +9. Tissue systems. + +REVIEW.—What is a tissue? How may two tissues differ? What is parenchymatous tissue? Name three places where this is found. Distinguish between meristematic and permanent tissue. Name two uses of parenchymatous tissue. Of what use are the intercellular spaces in parenchymatous plant tissues? What is a root tip? What part of this tip will become vascular? Describe epidermal tissue. Collenchyma. Sieve tissue. Of what use are the sieve areas? +What are the chief of the three vascular systems? Describe mesophyll tissue, wood and bark, and their relation to each other. When does an experi- +ment in blowing air through a grapevine stem indicate? De- +scribe cells of sclerotic tissue. Lenticular tissue. Name three tissue systems. What are three vascular bundles? What two classes of +tissue are found in each bundle? Of what is phloem composed? + +A diagram showing different types of plant tissues. + +CHAPTER XXXIV + +STRUCTURE OF STEMS AND ROOTS + +420. There are two main types of stem structure found among flowering plants, which have their differences based upon the arrangement of the fibre-vessel bundles. These types are endogenous and exogenous. + +421. ENDOGENOUS STEMS.—Plants with this form of stem are the *monocotyledons*. The vascular bundles are irregularly scattered through the fundamental tissue of the stem (Fig. 399), and are not arranged in circles about a common centre. The bundles are not parallel with each other, but they vary in size throughout their length. Fig. 400 shows the direction often taken by the bundles in the stem. On the exterior there is either an *epidermis* or a *false rind*. The only trees which have this kind of stem are natives of the tropics or of warm countries. The palm is one of them, and these stems are sometimes called the *palm type*. In our own climate we find many examples, such as greenbrier, Indian corn, asparagus, grasses, orchids, iris, and cat-tail. + +Cross section of stem stalk showing radial arrangement of vascular bundles. +Stippled elongate + +To study arrangement of bundles in corn: Cut thin sections of corn stem which has been preserved in alcohol. Stain with hematoxylin. Examine with the low power, and make a sketch showing the + +(259) + +arrangement of the bundles. The sections, if mounted in a permanent way, as in balsam, may be kept for further study of the bun- +260 +dles. Compare with Fig. 401. +402. EXOGENOUS STEMS.--The fibre-vae- +cular bundles in exogenous (or dicotyledon- +ous) stems are arranged in a circle around +the center, which is usually filled with pith. +Outside the ring of bundles is a cortex +of fundamental tissue. Around this is either +a layer of cork or an epidermis. Layers of +parenchyma cells, called medullary rays, +are found between the bundles and often extend- +ing from the central pith to the periphery of +the stem. These +usually are prominent in +young stems of woody +plants and in vines. Fig. +404. All trees and nearly all other woody +plants of the temperate regions, as well as many +herbaceous plants show this plan of stem. +The medullary rays are very +prominent in oak wood. +These rays are lignified in the xylem part of the +bundle and non-lignified in the phloem part. To +show arrangement of +bundles in eucyes: Pre- +pare thin cross-sections of +the stems of mei- +spermum (moonseed), +401 +Figure 401: Flowe-vascular bundles of Indian corn, much magnified. a, annular vessel; a', annular vessel with spiral canal; b, sieve tube; c, tracheid or woody fiber; r, sheath of Rhamnus; d, sheath of Populus; e, sheath of Populus (fundamental tissue or phloem); s, sieve tube; t, sheath of Populus (phloem); u, sheath of Populus (tracheid); v, transverse section of adjacent stem c; w, wood parenchyma. +402 +Diagram to show the course of the vascular bundles in mono- +cotyledonous stems. + +**OTHER STEMS—THREE TYPES OF BUNDLES** + +one year old. Stain with hematoxylin. Make a permanent mount. Study with low power, and make a sketch showing the shape and location of the fibrous-vascular bundles. +Fig. 46. See the ground for further study. If men- +spermum stems are used, the stem may be con- +tained, iry (Helenium helix) or elen- +tis may be substituted. + +**423. OTHER STEMS.—Besides the two types of stems studied above, which are prevalent among pheno- +gams, there are other structures of stems which belong to the phanerogams.** +A common arrangement of the lam- +bles is in the form of a circle some +distance from the center, with a few +other lamelles within the circle, +Within the circle are sometimes +found large areas of fibrous tissue. +Fig. 46. There are, however, whole +plants in which this arrangement, +but this mode of arrangement is +often called the **fert** type of stem. + +**424. THREE TYPES OF BUNDLES.—It has already been said (418) that every fibrous-vascular bundle is made up of two parts: (1) phloem or soft bast; (2) xylem or wood. +The relative position of these two strands of tissue is very important, and there are three ways of arrangement, on +which three types of bundles are based. These plants are collateral, concentric, and radial. + +**425. In collateral bundles, the phloem and xylem are placed side by side, the xylem being nearer the center of the stem and the phloem outside or nearer the cir- +cumference of the stem. We find this plant in the stems of phanerogams. The collateral bundles may be either open or closed. Open bundles are those which continue to increase** + +A diagram showing three types of vascular bundles: collateral, concentric, and radial. +261 + +362 STRUCTURE OF STEMS AND ROOTS + +in size during life by the presence of a growing layer at the line of union of the phloem and xylem. This layer of growing cells is called *cambium*. Dicotyledons have open collateral bundles, Fig. 402. Closed bundles are those which cease growing very early and have no cambium or growing layer. They are called closed, per- +haps from the fact that there is no means by which they may become larger. Stems of monocotyledons have bundles of the closed collateral type. Examined with high + +A cross-section of a root of brake (Pteris aquilina), showing 15 concentric flo- +vascular bundles. The two large central strands are the xylem and phloem tissues. +403 + +power cross-sections of monospermum stem and corn +stems (see Figs. 402, 403, 402, 403) which have been stained with bromothymol blue. Study the tissues found in a single bundle of each, with the aid of the illustrations. + +426. In concentric bundles, the xylem is centrally placed in the bundle and the phloem is all around it, as in club mosses and ferns (Fig. 403); or the phloem is in the center of the bundle and the xylem surrounds it, +as in the underground stems of some monocotyledons, as asparagus. +Figs. 405, 406. To see concentric bundles: + +407 + +SECONDARY THICKENING OF STEMS 263 + +Prepare cross-sections of the stem of pteris or aspidium. They should be cut very thin and stained with hematoxylin. Make a sketch showing the arrangement of the bundles. Then with the highest power study a single bundle and the sheath surrounding it. Draw. + +427. Radial bundles are characterized by having several strands of xylem tissue radiating from near the center, and each strand being surrounded by a mass of phloem. This plan is typical of young stems and rootlets, in which there is but one bundle. + +A microscopic image of a plant stem cross-section, showing radial bundles. +Microscopic view of a plant stem cross-section, highlighting radial bundles. + +428. SECONDARY THICKENING OF STEMS. - Dicotyledons (or exogenous) stems will have collateral bundles may increase in diameter each year, thus the potential of growth each spring (Fig. 407). + +They may add a ring of growth each year (Fig. 407). + +These rings may be counted on the smooth cross-cut surface of a tree, and the exact age of the tree usually can be very accurately deter mined. All growth in thickness due to the formation of new cells outside of the primary wood is called secondary thickening. + +429. As we have + +86. Part-of-cross-section-of-wood-of-asparaguses, showing a few filamentous bundles. +Part of a cross-section of wood from asparagus, showing filamentous bundles. + +264 +STRUCTURE OF STEMS AND ROOTS + +seen (425), there is a **cambium** or growing layer in every open collateral bundle just between the xylem and phloem. Each spring the cells of this layer divide many times and form new cells both inside and outside the cambium ring. Those formed inside become thick walled and are xylem. Those formed to the outside of the ring are gradually changed into phloem. The crowding of the cells within the cambium ring causes the ring itself to enlarge its circumference and move outward by this growth. + +To study secondary thickening: Cut thin cross-sections of basswood stems of different ages (one to three years old). Stain and mount. Examine with low power and sketch the arrangement of bundles in the oldest and youngest. Note the effect of growth on the medullary rays. Test them with iodine for starch. Now with the high power study the peculiar character of the bast tissue. Note the abundance of fibrous tissue found all through it. Draw a single bundle from the stem one year old, carefully + +Enlargement of a single conical bundle from Fig. 40. + +E A B K 265 + +showing the location of the cambium and the different tissues found in the xylem and phloem strands (Fig. 408). It may be thought best to precede this experiment with a similar study of two-year-old stem of moonseed, ivy or other plant. + +430. BARK.—In most woody plants that part of the stem which is outside the cambium ring is called bark. + +A cross-sectional view of a tree trunk showing the bark, phloem, and xylem. +At first it contains the epidermis or outer layer of cells, the phloem and the cortex lying between the phloem and the phloem. The gradual growth of the stem causes the outer dead layers of bark to crack more or less irregularly and finally to split off. Examples of this can be seen on the trunks of any large trees. Before the tree is many years old the cortical cells of the bark become much crushed and are lost to view. The epidermis is shed rather early in the life of the tree. + +205 +STRUCTURE OF STEMS AND ROOTS + +431. Usually very early in the life of the stem a corky layer of bark is produced. This is the product of an active layer of cells called **phellogen**. This layer is first found at those places where the stomates or breathing pores were located. The epidermis is first crowded off at these places, and the rough corky spots are called **lenticels**. Phellogen is very active in the cork oak of Spain, but we find it in nearly all woody plants. + +A section of a hardwood stem, 3 years old. The cone-shaped growths of phellogen are plainly seen. + +408. Section of hardwood stem, 3 years old. + +more), in which the bark peels off, the phellogen layer is nearly uniformly active in all parts, while in many other cases there is very little uniformity (but see Fig. 409). In this case, the phellogen gives rise to four corner wings. In the section of meiispermum already studied, it is found only under the lepidotus spots where the stomates have been located. + +Fig. 408 shows structure of the outer bark as found in the whole circumference of the three-year-old stem cut at right angles. To the left phellogen and corky tissue. Cut through sections of red currant from stems two or three years old which have been kept in alcohol at least several hours. The sections should be stained. With the highest power make a careful study of + +A cross-section of red currant twig, showing bark, cortex, phellogen, phellem, periderm, and cortex. +A cross-section of red currant twig, showing bark, cortex, phellogen, phellem, periderm, and cortex. + +STRUCTURE OF ROOTS 267 + +the phellogen and the corky tissue outside of it. Draw. +The relation of bark to woody tissue in pine is shown in Fig. 410. Cork tissue may be studied at advantage in the axils of the leaflets. + +42. STRUCTURE OF ROOTS.—At the growing point the root has a cap (of small compact cells) which protects the delicate tissues from injury (Fig. 395). Such a protection is not found in growing points (buds) of stems. In their internal structure roots differ from + +A diagram showing the structure of a root, including the radicle, cortex, endodermis, pericycle, xylem, phloem, and epidermis. + +10. White pine shows a radial longitudinal section of a root. Trace a line on the left side medullary rays crossing them. Next to the wood , is the pith, thus fundamental tissue, then the dark bark. + +stems, especially when very young. Young roots have the radial type of bundles, and there is then usually only one bundle in the root. The number of strands of xylem radiating from the center differs with the plant. In some plants such as corn, there is rarely present a true endodermis. This layer is found just within the cortex and is composed of rather thick-walled cells. How ever, many rhizomes and stems have a true endodermis. + +To study corn roots: From the roots of Indian corn a few weeks old cut thin sections; stain and mount. With the aid of the low power make a sketch showing the + +268 STRUCTURE OF STEMS AND ROOTS + +arrangement of the strands of wood and bast, and also the amount of fundamental tissue. Use the highest power and draw a portion including one strand of wood and two of bast. In this portion draw the tissues from the center out beginning with the cambium. Sections may also be made of the roots of perennial plants such as squill. + +**Review—** Name two types of stems found among flowering plants. Describe each and give examples to illustrate them. Give the plan of arrangement of bundles in fern stems. How many types of bundles are there? Upon what do their differences depend? How many layers of cells are there in the cortex? Where is there between open and closed collateral bundles? Give examples of each. Describe and give examples of concentric bundles. Endial bundles. What is secondary thickening? What plants show it? +What is the function of the cambium layer? When is it most active? When is this layer most active? Describe the work of this layer. +What part of each bundle of a dicotyledon is found in the bark? +What are blemishes? What is phloem? Describe the work of plant-blooms. What is its function? What is its sap? +What is its use? Describe fully the structure of roots, telling how they differ from stems. + +Note—See page 422—In woody stems the companion cells in such that the student is usually puzzled to understand the bundle structure. The subject will be simplified if he compares (on cross-section), the bundles in such a plant as the cucumber with that part of the vascular ring which lies between any two neighboring rays in one-year old stems of peach, elm, oak, etc. + +All material and apparatus should be kept under cover when not in use. + +A diagram showing a cross-section of a stem with different layers labeled. + +CHAPTER XXXV + +STRUCTURE OF LEAVES + +433. Besides the framework or system of veins found in blades of all leaves, there is a soft tissue (408) called **mesophyll** or **leaf-parenchyma**, and an epidermis which covers the entire outside part. + +434. **MESOPHYLL.**—The mesophyll is not all alike or homogeneous. The outer layer of it is composed of elongated cells placed perpendicular to the surface of the leaf. These are called palisade cells. The **chloroplasts** grains are most abundant in them, because they are on the side of the leaf most directly exposed to the sunlight. Below the palisade cells is the **spongy parenchyma** composed of cells more or less spherical in shape, irregularly arranged, and provided with many intercellular air cavities (see Fig. 115). In leaves of some plants exposed to strong light there may be more than one layer of palisade cells, as in + +the India-rubber plant and oleander. Ivy when grown in bright light will develop two such layers of cells, but in shaded places only one is formed as in Fig. 111. Such plants as iris and compass plant, which have both surfaces of the leaf equally exposed to sunlight, usually have a palisade layer beneath each epidermis. + +A diagram showing the structure of a leaf, including mesophyll, spongy parenchyma, and palisade cells. + +408. Mesophyll is by far the most important and useful tissue of mature leaves. It is very similar to parenchyma, but its cells are elongated and parallel to the surface of the leaf. The chloroplasts are numerous and large, and the cells contain much starch. The mesophyll is often divided into two layers by a layer of spongy parenchyma between them. The palisade layer lies beneath the upper epidermis. + +259 + +270 STRUCTURE OF LEAVES + +435. EPIDERMIS.—The outer or epidermal cells of leaves do not bear chlorophyll, but are usually so transparent that the green mesophyll can be seen through them. They often become very thick-walled, and are in most plants devoid of all protoplasm except a thin layer lining the walls, the cavities being filled with cell-sap. The sap is sometimes yellowish, as in the undersides of begonia leaves. It is not common to find more than one layer of epidermal cells on each surface of a leaf. The epidermis serves to retain moisture in the leaf. In desert plants the epidermis as a rule is very thick and has a dense cuticle. + +436. There are various outgrowths of the epidermis. +Hairs are the chief of these. They may be (1) simple, as on primula, muscarium, nucella ; (2) once branched, as on wall-flower; (3) compound, as on verbascum or mullein; (4) disk-like, as on shepherds' purse (Fig. 412); (5) club-like, as in star-shaped, as in certain crucifers. In some cases the hairs are glandular, as in Primula Sinensis and certain hairs of pumpking flowers. To study epidermal hairs: For this study use the leaves of the plants mentioned above or others which may be substituted. Cross-sections may be made so as to bring hairs on the edge of the sections. Or in some cases the hairs may be peeled or scraped from the epidermis and placed + +t12. Disk-like or radial hairs of shepherd's purse. +disk-like or radial hairs of shepherd's purse + +STOMATES + +in water on a slide. Make sketches of the different kinds of hairs. + +437. STOMATES.—Stomates or breathing-pores are small openings or pores in the epidermis of the leaves, through which air passes for the passage of air and other gases and vapors. They are placed near the large intercellular spaces of the mesophyll. Fig. 411 shows the usual structure. There are two guard cells at the month of each stoma, which may in most cases open or close the passage as the conditons of the atmosphere require. In Fig. 411 is shown a case in which they are compound guard cells, that of icy. On the margins of certain leaves, as of fustis, imitations, eblage, are modified stomates known as inter-pores. + +438. Stomates are very numerous, as will be seen from the numbers giving the pores to each square inch of leaf surface: + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
SpeciesLeaf surfaceType surface
Tulip500500
Holly62,900•••
Lilac106,000•••
Mistletoe200200
Trout-leaved
Garden-Plag.		2,500
11,572		2,500
11,572
+ +The arrangement of stomates on the leaf differs with each kind of plant. Figs. 415 and 416 show stomates on two plants, and also the outlines of contiguous epidermal cells. The guard cells contain chlorophyll. + +439. FALL OF THE LEAF.—In most common deciduous plants, when the season's work for the leaf is ended, the nutritious matter is withdrawn into the stem, and a layer + +272 +STRUCTURE OF LEAVES + +of corky cells is completed over the surface of the stem where the leaf is attached. The leaf soon falls. It often falls even before killed by frost. Deciduous leaves begin to show the surface line of articulation in the early growing season. This articulation may be observed at any time during the summer. The area of the twig once covered by the petiole is called the leaf-scar after the leaf has fallen. Figs. 53, 89, 86 show a number of leaf-scars. + +A diagram showing a cross-section of a leaf with a ring of cells around the base. +415. Stomatae of genusain leaf. + +A diagram showing a group of stomata on a begonia leaf. +416. Grouped stomatae on a begonia leaf. + +Fig. 417 shows the leaf-scar in the form of a ring surrounding the bud, for in the plane tree the bud is covered by the hollowed end of the petiole; smnna is a similar case. Examine with a hand-lens leaf-scars of several woody plants. Note the number of bundle-scars in each leaf-scar. Sections may be cut through a leaf-scar and examined with the microscope. Note the character of cells which cover the leaf-scar surface. Compare 204. + +REVIEWER'S NAME Three tissues found in leaves. On the board draw a hand-lens view of a section of a leaf. What cells of leaves bear protoplasm and chlorophyll? Why do some leaves have palisade cells near both surfaces? Describe epidermal cells. Why are their walls much more thickened in epidermis than other parts of leaves? What are stomata? Draw on the board a section through a stoma showing epidermis and mesophyll. What is the work of guard-cells? Give some idea of number of stomatae in various plants. Name five + +REVIEW ON STRUCTURE OF LEAVES 273 + +types of epidermal hairs. What use could be suggested for the dense coat of hairs on leaves of *Schefflera*? Fig. 412. + +Note.--To study leaf structure. A number of leaves can be compared by making free-hand cross-sections of leaves held between two pieces of glass, and then mounting the material in water. Study such leaves as ivy (Hedera), holly, bay, laurel, cypress, geranium, and the like. Note the number of layers of palisade-cells, the number of intercellular parenchyma, the epidermal layer, which cells bear chlorophyll? With a pencil make a drawing of the tissues of each leaf and make a drawing of the geranium. + +To study stomata on leaves. The stomata occur on the upper surface of leaves of geranium, corn, ivy, lily, and spider-leaf prepared for the above experiment, look for the stomata on the lower surface of leaves of geranium and inspissate peel bits of epidermis by tearing the leaf. Mount these in water and examine under low power. Are there any differences in the appearance of the stomata on the upper and lower surfaces? Draw a few stomata showing their guard-cells and the surrounding epidermal cells. Make a similar study and sketch of the epidermis torn from the under surface of a *Bergenia* magnified leaf. + +Stomata are also known as *stoma*, *stigmata*, *stomata*, also as *stomata*, singular *stoma*. + +41. Leaf-scar of the plane tree or sycamore. The scar surrounds the base of a bud or twig emerging from the hollow base of the petiole. +Looking for light. + +A simple laboratory table arranged over the kitchen of a school room. +The apparatus consists of a glass tube with a stopper, a test-tube, a flask, a spirit-burner, and a spirit-jar. The spirit-burner is placed on the table, and the spirit-jar is kept in the corner. The spirit-jar is used to hold the spirit-burner when it is not in use. The spirit-burner is used to heat the spirit-jar. The spirit-jar is used to hold the spirit-burner when it is not in use. The spirit-burner is used to heat the spirit-jar. The spirit-jar is used to hold the spirit-burner when it is not in use. The spirit-burner is used to heat the spirit-jar. The spirit-jar is used to hold the spirit-burner when it is not in use. The spirit-burner is used to heat the spirit-jar. The spirit-jar is used to hold the spirit-burner when it is not in use. The spirit-burner is used to heat the spirit-jar. The spirit-jar is used to hold the spirit-burner when it is not in use. The spirit-burner is used to heat the spirit-jar. The spirit-jar is used to hold the spirit-burner when it is not in use. The spirit-burner is used to heat the spirit-jar. The spirit-jar is used to hold the spirit-burner when it is not in use. The spirit-burner is used to heat the spirit-jar. The spirit-jar is used to hold the spirit-burner when it is not in use. The spirit-burner is used to heat the spirit-jar. The spirit-jar is used to hold the spirit-burner when it is not in use. The spirit-burner is used to heat the spirit-jar. The spirit-jar is used to hold the spirit-burner when it is not in use. The spirit-burner is used to heat the spirit-jar. The spirit-jar is used to hold the spirit-burner when it is not in use. The spirit-burner is used to heat the spirit-jar. The spirit-jar is used to hold the spirit-burner when it is not in use. The spirit-burner is used to heat the spirit-jar. The spirit-jar is used to hold the spirit-burner when it is not in use. The spirit-burner is used to heat the spirit-jar. The spirit-jar is used to hold the spirit-burner when it is not in use. The spirit-burner is used to heat the spirit-jar. The spirit-jar is used to hold the spirit-burner when it is not in use. The spirit-burner is used to heat the spirit-jar. The spirit-jar is used to hold the spirit-burner when it is not in use. The spirit-burner is used to heat the spirit-jar. The spirit-jar is used to hold the spirit-burner when it is not in use. The spirit-burner is used to heat the spirit-jar. Thespirit- + +PART IV + +THE KINDS OF PLANTS + +NUMBER OF PLANTS—Above 125,000 distinct kinds or species of seed-bearing plants are known and described. Probably little more than one-half of the total number now existing on the earth are known. Even in the older countries and regions, seed-bearing plants heretofore unknown to science have been found new and rare. Outlying regions are relatively little known botanically. The larger part of Africa, South America, Central America, and Con- tral Asia, and the tropical islands are only imperfectly explored for plants. Cryptogamous plants are far more numerous in kinds than seed-plants, and many kinds—as, for example, various bacteria—are almost infinite in numbers of individuals. In the lower ranges of cryptog- amous plants, as in fungi and bacteria, many new kinds are being discovered every year. Many of the kinds in which they have been most carefully studied. + +SPECIES—Each kind of plant is called a species. There is no absolute mark or characteristic of a species. Between many kinds there are intermediate forms, and some kinds vary immensely under different conditions. What one botanist considers as a distinct species, another botanist may regard as only a variety or form of another species. The number of species varies greatly in the number of species in any region. Species are not things in themselves. In practice, any kind of plant which is distinct enough to be recognized by a description, and which is fairly constant over a considerable territory, is called a + +(273) + +276 +THE KINDS OF PLANTS + +species. We make species merely to enable us to talk and to write about plants: we must have names to call them by. The different kinds of plants are the results of evolution. Probably none of them were created in the beginning. + +NAMES OF SPECIES—For one hundred and fifty years (since Linnaeus published his "Species Plantarum" in 1753), species have been known by two names, the generic and the specific. The generic name is the name of the genus or group to which the plant belongs; it corresponds to a surname. The specific name belongs only to the particular species or kind : it corresponds to a given or Christian name. Both names are necessary, however, to distinguish a plant from all others. Quercus robur is the name of all the oaks. *Quercus alba* is one of the oaks (the white oak), *Q. cierus* (the live oak) another. All maples belong to the genus *Acer*, and all elds to *Sambucus*. The same specific name may be used in any genus, as the same Christian name may be used in any family. Thus, there is a *Quercus nigra*, *Sambucus nigra*, *Ager nigrum*, "niger" meaning black. + +By common consent, the oldest proper name of any species is its generic name. If a species happens to have been named and described twice, for example, the first name, if in the proper genus, must hold; the later name becomes a synonym. It sometimes happens that the same specific name has been given to different plants of the same genus. Of course this name can be allowed to stand for only one species, and the other species must receive another name. + +In order to avoid confusion of this nature, it is customary for each man to give his own name with the species-name which he makes. Thus, if Gray describes a new Anemone, his name is written after the plant name: *Anemone cytidrius*, Gray. The author's name thus becomes an index to the history of the species-name. + +USE OF KNOWING PLANT NAMES 277 + +Plant-names are thrown into the forms of the Latin language. When plants first were studied seriously, knowledge was preserved in Latin, and Latin names were used for plants. The Latin form is now one of the technical system of plant and animal nomenclature, and is accepted in all countries; and the Latin language is as good as any other. As in the Latin language, all plant-names have gender, and the termination of the word is usually different in each gender. The species-name must agree with the genus-name in gender. Averca is neuter, so is *A. rubens* and *A. nigrescens*. *Quercus* and *Salix* are feminine; *Quercus* is feminine, *Salix* masculine; femi- nine, and neuter endings are seen in *Lindera obtusa*, *Pasti- necta sativa*, *Pisum sativum*. "Sativus" means cultivated. + +The name of a species not only identifies the species, but classifies it. Thus, if a plant is named in the genus *Averca*, it belongs to the maples; if it is named in *Fragaria*, it belongs to the strawberries; if it is named in *Ficus*, it is allied to apples and pears; if it is *Rhusatia*, it is one of the sumacs. + +**USE OF KNOWING PLANT NAMES.—The name is an introduction to the plant, as it is to a person. It is an index to its history and literture. It enables us to think and to speak about the plant with directness and precision. It brings us nearer to the plant and increases our interest in it.** + +The name is a means, not an end. Merely to know the name is of little use or satisfaction. Knowing the name should be only one step in knowing the plant. Of late years, the determining of the names of plants has been discouraged as a school-exercise. This is because all inquiry stopped when the name was secured. A name was a stone wall when it should have been a gate. + +**HOW TO FIND OUT THE NAMES OF PLANTS.—There can be no short-cut to the names of plants, for names cannot** + +278 +THE KINDS OF PLANTS + +be known accurately until the plant is known. The name and the plant should be indissolubly associated in the mind. Study first the plant. If one does not know the plant there is no occasion for knowing its name. + +Learn first to classify plants: names will follow. Look for resemblances, and group the plants around some well-known kind. Look for sunflower-like, lily-like, rose-like, mint-like, mustard-like, pea-like, carrot-like plants. These great groups are families. The families of plants are better recognized by studying a few representative plants than by a long list of their descriptions. Go to botany and use the keys in these families, in order to run the plant down to its genus and species. If the family is not recognized, use the key to find the family. Use the keys at first: gradually discard them. When one looks for relationships, the vegetable kingdom conies to have continuity and meaning. Merely to know names of plants here and there is of little use. + +It is wise for the beginner to try first to find the name of any plant. Let him first examine familiar plants or those which seem to be related to other plants which he knows. +Let him get in mind the bold characteristics of the families which are most dominant in his locality. Names are secondary and incidental. After a time, in case of each new plant, he should be able to give a shrewd guess as to its family; then he may go to the book to verify the guess. + +Let him study the flowers, and see what marked families are chosen for study. Some of these are used as the most characteristic of the American vegetation, but they are such as afford easily accessible species, either in the wild or in cultivation, and which are not too difficult for the beginner. + +The pupil should begin with plants of which he knows the common names or with which he is familiar. +Several plants should be studied in each family, in order to enable him to grasp the characteristics of the family + +**MAKING A COLLECTION** + +and thereby to lead him to compare plant-groups and to clarify his perception and widen his horizon. When these families, or the larger part of them, are understood, if the pupil desire further knowledge of species, he may go to the herbarium and find them there, or they may be classified according to their natural affinities. It is well to study more than one plant in a genus whenever possible, for then close comparisons can be made. + +**MAKING A COLLECTION**—The making of a collection of plants focuses one's attention, defines one's ideas, and affords material for study at any season. The collecting and preserving of plants should be encouraged. Not until one searches for himself, and meets with its own hands, can he appreciate it. The usefulness of this end however. It should be only a means of knowing plants as they live and grow. Too often the pupil thinks it sufficient merely to have made a collection, but the collection of itself is scarcely worth the while. + +Plants are preserved by drying them under pressure. The collection, when properly arranged and labelled is an herbarium. Each species should be represented by sufficient specimens to display its structure, foliage, flowers, fruits. If the plant is an herb, its root should be shown. There should be several or many specimens of each species to show the different forms which it assumes. It is less important to have an herbarium of many species than to have one showing the life-phases of a few species. First make specimens of the commonest species; later one may include rare ones. One should not form an herbarium which selects plants merely because they are rare is of little account except as a collection of curiosities. The commonest plants are usually the least represented in herbarium. + +Dry the plants between blotter which are 12 inches wide and 18 inches long. These blotters are called + +280 +THE KINDS OF PLANTS + +"driers." They may be purchased of dealers in botanical supplies, or they can be cut from felt "carpet paper." It is well to place the specimens in a folded sheet of newspaper, and then lay the newspaper between the driers. If the specimens are large or succulent, three or four driers should be laid between them. The sheets may be piled one above another, until the pile becomes so high (12-18 in.) that it tends to tip over. On the top place a board of the dimensions of the drier, and apply twenty to thirty pounds of stones or other weight. Change the driers—let not the newspapers—one a day at first, laying the driers on their sides for two or three days. Then these plants will dry in a week or ten days. When thoroughly dried, they retain no soft, sappy, fresh-green areas, and they usually break if bent sharply. They will be perfectly flat. + +The specimen may now be secured to strong white paper, known as "mounting paper." The regulation size of the sheets is 11½ x 16½ inches. In the queue of herbarium ledger papers. By the same it is also bought for one cent each sheet. The specimen should be large enough nearly or quite to cover the sheet, unless the entire plant is smaller than this. It may be glued down tight, as one pastes pictures in a scrap-book, or it may be held in place by strips of gummed paper. The former is the better way, because the plants are not so easily broken. Only one species should go on a sheet. + +In one corner give the name of the plant, its date of collection, name of collector, and any information as to height, color, nature of soil, and the like. Sooner or later, the label should contain the name of the plant; but the name need not be determined until after the plant is mounted. + +The sheets of one genus are laid together in a folded sheet of strong straw-colored paper. This folded sheet is + +EXPLANATION OF THE FLORA + +the "genus cover." Its size when folded is 11½ x 16½ inches. On the lower left-hand corner the name of the genus is written. If one has many sheets in one genus --say more than two-- it may be necessary to have more than one cover for each genus. The covers are made of stiff boards flatwise, one on the other, and the sheets then retain their shape and are always ready for use. + +EXPLANATION OF THE FLORA.--The following flora contains 300 species of plants in 159 genera and 25 families. These species are selected from common and representative plants, in the hope that 50 to 100 of them may be secured by any pupil. The pupil should collect his own specimens as far as possible, and he will find it useful to study them after he has studied the structure. Familiarity with 100 plants will give the pupil a good grasp of plant forms, provided he does not stop with merely acquiring the names and pressing the specimens. He should know how the plants look, where they grow, how they associate with other plants, how long they live, and the like. + +Avoid the use of keys as much as possible; learn to use the plant lists first, and direct yourself to the family, if possible. But it may be necessary to use keys at first. +In this book coordinate parts of the key are marked by the same letter: e.g., f, ff, ff', are three coordinate entries. Coordinate entries are also introduced by the same catch-word, as "flowers," "leaves," fruit. Using a key is a process of elimination. First try the plant in $x$; if it does not belong there go back and repeat the search in $y$, until finally the family is found. + +Synonyms are placed in parenthesis immediately following the accepted name. Thus "Impatiens biforma Walter" (f. false, Null.) means that the accepted name is Walter's I. biflora, but that the plant is also known by Nullat's name, I. triflora. + +Proper pronunciation is suggested by the accent, which + +282 +THE KINIS OF PLANTS + +Indicates both the emphatic syllable and the length of the vowel. +The grave accent (') indicates a long vowel; the acute accent (') a short vowel. +Terminal vowels are pronounced in Latin words. The word officinale is pronounced *officinæ-ly*; *aërea* with *as* in *Laurus* Virginiana with *a* as in *hay*, *alba* with *a* as in *hale*; *acutella* with *i* as in *hilly*; minor with *i* as in *mine*; *halimifolia* with *o* as in *hole*; Japonica with *o* as in *conz*; rimeux with *u* as in *tune*; funkia with *u* as in *run*. + +Key to the twenty-five families as represented in the following pages + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
a.CRYPTOGAMAE: no flowers or seeds: propagating by means of spores or mycelium.
b.PHENOMAEE: bearing flowers and seeds.
c.BRYOPHYTA: leaves simple, entire, often scale-like; plants usually evergreen.
d.LEAVES: leaves simple, entire, often scale-like; plants usually evergreen.
e.MONOCOTYLEDONAE: leaves one, mostly parallel-veined, not falling with a distinct articulation; stem with seat- + ing leaf-sheath (or sheaths) and a distinct separable bark; fls. mostly 3-carpers.
f.Flowers large and inconspicuous, borne on a spadix or + at the top of a spike.
g.Flowers large and showy, but not on spadices.
h.Numb-flowered, or inferior.
i.Ornate, free, or superior.
j.Ovary inferior.
k.Ovary inferior
l.Monocotyledonae: leaves one, mostly parallel-veined, not falling with a distinct joint or articulation; + stem: seating leaf-sheath (or sheaths) when seen + from one side (exogenous); and a distinct separable + bark; fls. mostly 3-carpers or 4-carpers.
m.Cholophyllous: leaves green all the time (i.e., leaves + polytheticous, pectinate, or uniklet).
n.Flowers characteristically pectinate or even naked,
p.Flowers naked or very small.
q.R. Blossoms monocious or dioecious, stamineate and + sometimes pistillate in slender racemes; fruit a + 1-celled nut: trees or shrubs.
+ +Vil. Caprifolius, p. 298 + +KEY TO THE FAMILIES + +253 + +rrr. Blossoms perfect and not in catkins, or sometimes imperfect and in short catkins, but the fruit not a nut, tree, shrub, or herb. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 + +rrr. Blossoms perfect, not in catkins; fruit an akene, hermaphrodite. IX. Polyglossaceae, p. 304 + +rrr. Flowers perfect, in catkins; fruit a nut, seed, or other body, and often showy (Polypterae). Some of the Ex- +nembehes here described are apothecial, but there is a rule only to involve monoeious, the flower. + +a. Petals and stamens borne on the not-enlarged bracts (Corylaceae). + +b. Petals and stamens borne on the enlarged bracts (Corylaceae). + +c. Leaves opposite at nodes; very narrow, often grass-like; the leaves usually not cupulif- +ously ovate. + +d. Carpels few or distinct (i.e., every com- +ponent) XI. Rhamnaceae, p. 308 + +d'. Carpels many or united (every component); c. Staminea: Fruit a diffuse head (Corylaceae). + +e. Staminea: Fruit a diffuse head (Corylaceae) + +XII. Cercocarpus, p. 310 + +e'. Staminea: smooth; fruit a nut (Hippocastanaceae) + +XIII. Medlar, p. 312 + +rrr. Petals and stamens borne on a disk or rim sur- +rounding the pistil; fruit a nut, seed, or other body. + +a. Herbs; no catkins + +XIV. Gleichenia, p. 315 + +or Trees or shrubs + +XV. Saururus, p. 315 + +rrr. Petals and stamens borne on the calyx or on both, + +but only like those. + +a'. Tree-bushes except in the great tribe (Balsamiferae) + +a". Fruit not a legume; stem 20 or more + +XVI. Balsamiferae, p. 319 + +or, tree-like bush + +a". Flowers catkinous or paniculate; showy. + +XVII. Streptocarpus, p. 323 + +mr. Flowers in heads; each head with one or two flowers + +no. Gomphostemum: corolla in one piece, at least towards the base; leaf-petiole very long or nearly linear. + +a'. Every flower solitary + +a". Fruit of 4 units, produced from a lobed corolla. + +XVIII. Lobelia, p. 326 + +rrr. Fruit not a nut or seed-like capsule; sometimes showy; + +a'. Corolla regular + +284 + +THE KINDS OF PLANTS + +n. Plant twining; corolla twisted in bud. . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXL. *Caudatolobata*, p. 528 +nn. Plant not twining; corolla plaited or folded in the bud. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . r. *Bulbophyllum*, p. 329 +nn. Corolla irregular (nearly regular in Verbascum). XXIII. *Streptocarpus*, p. 331 +ee. Corolla inferior. +r. Anthere distinct; not in heads. ...XXIV. *Corydalis*, p. 352 +rr. Anthere symgengous; in short heads...XXV. *Cypripedium*, p. 504 + +A. CRYPTOGAMS. + +I. FILICES. FERNS. + +Herbaceous and leafy plants, leaves without stems or trunks above ground, but producing perennial rootstocks below ground, and sometimes with rhizomes, which are either collected into sort which are usually borne on the under sides or margins of the fronds and which are sometimes covered with an indusium.. Most abundant in warm countries, of about 4000 species, of which about half are found in this country. The fronds of ferns are pinnate; the secondary leaflets are pinnatifid. + +a. Fruit borne in contracted panicles or on specific con- +tracted parts of the frond, these parts being devoid of resemblance to green leaves. +n. Sporangium with a ring of simple cells running around their margin. ...Osmunda +nn. Sporangium with a ring of compound elastic cells run- +ning around their margin (as in Fig. 367)....2. *Onoclea* +aa. Fruit borne on the back of green fronds (the fruting plant), or on the underside of the frond (as in Fig. +363): sporangium with a ring of elastic cells. +n. Sori naked (no indusium)...3. *Polypodium* +nn. Sori with an indusium...4. *Hymenophyllum* + +c. Pinnae entire on the lower edge, somewhat trian- +gular in outline...5. *Adiantum* +cc. Pinnae entire on the upper edge, not extending...6. *Pteris* +nnn. Sori covered with a distinct scale-like indusium. +c. Shape of sort oblong...7. *Asplenium* +cc. Shape circular indusium paler or nearly m...,8. *Drosera* + +FILICES 285 + +**L. OMEUNDA.** *FLOWERING PENN.* + +Strong stems from short creeping rootstocks, with large pinnate fronds; +sporangia covered with interwoven ridges, but wanting the elastic ring of new leaves. +*O. regalis*, Linn. *Regal fern.* +Top of the frond inserted into a fruiting pinnule; from 2 pinnate, the pinna elongate, obtuse, and nearly entire. +*O. clavata*, Linn. *Claw-fern.* +Fig. 43. Two to four pairs of pinnae near the middle of the frond. +*O. crenulata*, Linn. Fruit-bearing parts: pinnae. +*O. laciniata*, Linn. Inner-lanceolate and acute. +*O. clavata*, Linn. +Clematis form. Fig. 19. + +**4b. OMEUNDA CLAY.** *Clay-fern.* +Inserted into fruiting pinnules (where the verticillate margin is fertile with the fronds much like those of *O. Culpephala* in shape except more acute at top). + +**2. UROCLEA.** *Sessile PENN.* + +Narrow, sessile fronds, with broad sterile fronds and with the fer- +tile fronds rolled into hard contracted fronding bodies, which remain after +the sterile leaf fronds have persisted; sporangia with an elastic marginal ring on the lower surface. +*U. sessilis*, Linn. *Sessile Penn.* +Figs. 306, 307. Sterile frond triangular-ovate, the pinna extending quite to the midrib and touched by the fertile frond; fertile fronds from the other side (1-2 ft high), with a few pinnae. +Common in old pastures. +*O. Struthiopteris*, Hoffm. *Outercork fern.* +Very tall (2-5 ft), the sterile frond linear-ovate, the fertile frond linear-oblong (1-2 ft high). The fer- +tile fronds much shorter, blackish, with many pinnae. + +**3. POLYPYDUM.** *Pinecone PENN.* + +Small fertile, with simple or pinnate fronds from slender erecting +rootstocks; sporangia at the ends of little pinnules. +*P. vulgaris*, Linn. *Common polypody or polypode.* +Figs. 308, 309. +Tendrils long, slender; fertile fronds linear-oblong, pinnatifid, the lobes nearly or quite entire; fertile pinnae not constricted. + +**4a. ADIANTUM.** *Maidenhair PENN.* + +Small ferns with compound forked fronds and wedge-shaped or ovate, +whorled pinnae; sporangia at the ends of little pinnules; base of the +cords of the lobes made of the narrow margins of the pinnae. +*A. pedatum*, Linn. *Common maidenhair.* +Plant 2 ft or less high, +the leaves forked; fertile fronds linear-oblong, pinnatifid, the lobes +much indented on the upper margin. +Cied, short woods. Very graceful. + +A diagram showing the structure of a fern plant. + +286 +THE KINDS OF PLANTS + +5. PTERIS. BELLAS. +Coarse ferns of mostly dryish places, with long pinnate-straplike fronds beneath the reduced margin of the pinnales, on small, transverse veins. +P. aquilina, Linn. Comosae 8vo.; Figs. 253, 308. Fronds broadly triangular, the pinnae linear, acuminate at the base, acute at the apex, and lobed. Common in many places; perhaps our commonest fern. Two to 3 ft. high, growing in patches, particularly in burned areas. + +6. ASPLENIUM. SLEW-LEAVES. +Stalked ferns, with pinnate leaves; serot oblong or linear, borne on the upper side of a veinlet, or bearing on both opposite sides of the veinlets, these veinlets not interwoven. +P. adiantum-nigrum, Linn. Comosae 8vo.; Figs. 254, 309. Large, the fronds 2 ft. tall, growing many together, twice-pinnate; the pinnales oblong-pointed and short-toothed; seri short and close together, at maturity becoming more or less entire; the fertile fronds in form like flowers and cupules. + +7. DRYOPTERIS. SNAILED-PENNS. +Much like the last in general appearance, but the sori circular and covered with petiole or reformat indusium. +D. carthusiana (Linn.) Schott. Synonyma: *aruncoides*, Swartz; +*Christmas fern*. Figs. 304, 305. Fronds 2 ft. or less tall, narrow, once-pinnate, the pinnae serrate and bearing a larger tooth on the upper side of each segment; veins few and scattered; the leaf-stalk somewhat contracted in fruit. Common in woods. Nearly or quite evergreen. +D. filix-mas (Linn.) Schott. Synonyma: *Thecophylla Thecophylla*, Swartz; *Schottia aruncoides*. Fronds standing 2 ft. high, long-pointed, once-pinnate; the pinnales serrate; the fertile fronds revolute. +D. marginalis, Gray; Fig. 439. Large, handsome fern; the pinnales with many teeth; 2 ft. high; fronds once-pinnate, the pinnae pinnatified and leaf-scarious; seri large and close to the margin of the frond: petiole chaffy. + +A.A. PHENOGAMAS: GYNOSPERMS. + +Woody plants, mostly trees, with resinous sap and stiff needle-shaped or umbrella-like leaves; leaves bearing no ovaries, the ovules lying naked and receiving the pollen directly; flowers diclinous (usually monocious), generally in scale catkins, those catkins bearing the pistillate flowers maturing into cones but + +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations of various plant species. + +CONIFERE. E. 287 + +sometimes becoming berry-like (as in *jaspenis*). Above 200 species, +one-third of which inhabit North America; particularly abundant in elevated and mountainous regions. + +A. Cone dry, with overlapping scales. +B. Scales many and dense 1 cm. or more long. +C. Leaves simple, entire, or serrate, in sheaths or bundles of +2 to 5, persistent. +D. Cones in clusters, few-flowered, sessile. +E. In the cones, scales few, short-petiolate. 2. *Pinus.* +F. In cross-section, leaf, flat; short-petiolate. 3. *Tung.* +G. Leaves broad but very slender, in sheaths; deciduous. *Larix.* +H. Scale leaves narrow, in sheaths; leafy scales persistent. +AA. Cone modified into a berry-like, berry-like body. ... *Jaspenis.* + +I. PINES. + +**PINUS.** Pine. + +Trees with long, persistent, needle-shaped, angled leaves, in families of +2 to 3 scales per leaf; the deciduous leaves on the young branches, the sterile +leaves normally borne at the base of the +new shoot; fertile cones maturing the +second year after flowering on the tree; +for years; cotyledons several. +P. *Strobus*, Linn., White pine. Fig. 152. +15-20 ft.; needles 10-15 cm.; scale leaves for budlet: leaves long and soft; light green, in 2's; cones long and symmetrical; +in 2's; seeds winged; the cones falling after shedding the +seeds; common from New England to Georgia. +P. *Palustris*, Mill. *Lodgepole pine*. Fig. 160. +Very tall tree, with nearly vertical bark. +Foot or more, clustered at the ends of +the branches, in 2's: cone 6 cm. or more long, the scales tipped with a short +spine; seed winged; common in the north Atlantic coast. +P. *rigida*, Mill. *Pitch pine*. Fig. 421. +Medium size or small tree with rough dark +bark; needles 10-15 cm.; scale leaves in 2's, +even 2-3 in. long, conical; the scales with a +short spine; seeds as far south as Va.; +common from New England to north Atlantic +coast. An eastern species. +P. *sylvestris*, Linn., *Scotch pine*. Fig. 422. +Small tree or shrub with rough dark bark; +needles 10-15 cm.; scale leaves in 2's: +cone short, the scales tipped with a +prickle or point. Europe; very commonly planted. + +Illustration of a pine cone. +62 Pinus sylvestris + +288 + +THE Kinds OF PLANTS + +P. Americana, Hiso. *Americae plant.* Fig. 425. Large tree with very rough bark, and long, dark green stiff leaves (about 6 in. long) in 3's cone about 3 in. long, the scales not prickly. Europe, commonly planted; a common tree than the Scotch pine. + +2. PINEA. Screece. + +Trees or shrubs, or large shrub, with short, sententious leaves; cones maturing the first year, hanging at maturity, their scales thin. +Pinus Pinea +C3. Pinus Americana. American Pine. Black pine. *Pinus pina.* +A black pine tree with rough, dark brown bark and long, narrow, pointed leaves. +A close-up of the black pine's cones, which are small and clustered together on the branches. +A close-up of the black pine's needles, which are long and slender. +A close-up of the black pine's cones, which are small and clustered together on the branches. +A close-up of the black pine's needles, which are long and slender. +A close-up of the black pine's cones, which are small and clustered together on the branches. +A close-up of the black pine's needles, which are long and slender. +A close-up of the black pine's cones, which are small and clustered together on the branches. +A close-up of the black pine's needles, which are long and slender. +A close-up of the black pine's cones, which are small and clustered together on the branches. +A close-up of the black pine's needles, which are long and slender. +A close-up of the black pine's cones, which are small and clustered together on the branches. +A close-up of the black pine's needles, which are long and slender. +A close-up of the black pine's cones, which are small and clustered together on the branches. +A close-up of the black pine's needles, which are long and slender. +A close-up of the black pine's cones, which are small and clustered together on the branches. +A close-up of the black pine's needles, which are long and slender. +A close-up of the black pine's cones, which are small and clustered together on the branches. +A close-up of the black pine's needles, which are long and slender. +A close-up of the black pine's cones, which are small and clustered together on the branches. +A close-up of the black pine's needles, which are long and slender. +A close-up of the black pine's cones, which are small and clustered together on the branches. +A close-up of the black pine's needles, which are long and slender. +A close-up of the black pine's cones, which are small and clustered together on the branches. +A close-up of the black pine's needles, which are long and slender. +A close-up of the black pine's cones, which are small and clustered together on the branches. +A close-up of the black pine's needles, which are long and slender. +A close-up of the black pine's cones, which are small and clustered together on the branches. +A close-up of the black pine's needles, which are long and slender. +A close-up of the black pine's cones, which are small and clustered together on the branches. +A close-up of the black pine's needles, which are long and slender. +A close-up of the black pine's cones, which are small and clustered together on the branches. +A close-up of the black pine's needles, which are long and slender. +A close-up of the black pine's cones, which are small and clustered together on the branches. +A close-up of the black pine's needles, which are long and slender. +A close-up of the black pine's cones, which are small and clustered together on the branches. +A close-up of the black pine's needles, which are long and slender. +A close-up of the black pine's cones, which are small and clustered together on the branches. +A close-up of the black pine's needles, which are long and slender. +A close-up of the black pine's cones, which are small and clustered together on the branches. +A close-up of the black pine's needles, which are long and slender. +A close-up of the black pine's cones, which are small and clustered together on the branches. +A close-up of the black pine's needles, which are long and slender. +A close-up of the black pine's cones, which are small and clustered together on the branches. +A close-up of the black pine's needles, which are long and slender. +A close-up of the black pine's cones, which are small and clustered together on the branches. +A close-up of the black pine's needles, which are long and slender. +A close-up of the black pine's cones, which are small and clustered together on the branches. +A close-up of the black pine's needles, which are long and slender. +A close-up of the black pine's cones, which are small and clustered together on the branches. +A close-up of the black pine's needles, which are long and slender. +A close-up of the black pine's cones, which are small and clustered together on the branches. +A close-up of the black pine's needles, which are long and slender. +A close-up of the black pine's cones, which are small and clustered together on the branches. +A close-up of the black pine's needles, which are long and slender. +A close-up of the black pine's cones, which are small and clustered together on the branches. +A close-up of the black pine's needles, which are long and slender. +A close-up of the black pine's cones, which are small and clustered together on the branches. +A close-up of the black pine's needles, which are long and slender. +A close-up of the black pine's cones, which are small and clustered together on the branches. +A close-up of the black pine's needles, which are long and slender. +A close-up of the black pine's cones, which are small and clustered together on the branches. +A close-up of the black pine's needles, which are long and slender. +A close-up of the black pine's cones, which are small and clustered together on the branches. +A close-up of the black pine's needles, which are long and slender. +A close-up of the black pine's cones, which are small and clustered together on the branches. +A close-up of the black pine's needles, which are long and slender. + +3. TROUA. Hackelock Service. + +Differs from Picea by having flat 2-ranked leafed leaves; cones hang up to 10 in. high. +4. Canadensis. Carr. Hackelock. +Fig. 425. Large forest tree; with deep-furrowed dark bark and coarse-wooded trunk; its shoots become not an inch long; compact. Common lumber tree. Bark much used in making. + +5. LARIX. Larch. + +Trees or medium size; leaves soft short; in fascicles or clusters on short branchlets; falling in autumn. +Larix laricina + +T. occidentalis. Linn. *Larix celtis.* +White cedar or some places. Fig. + +CONIFERAE—ARACEAE. 289 + +485. Come J. In., or less long, bearing 2-winged seeds. Sempers and odd woods, as far south as North Carolina in the mountains. Very commonly planted as a hedge evergreen and as single specimens, but in the wild be- +coming very large trees and much used for shade. + +**JUNIPERUS. Juniper.** + +Small trees or shrubs, with opposite or whorled and alternate leaves (of two kinds), usually scale-like, which cohere and form a leafy-fruit, containing 3-6 hard seeds. +1. **J. communis Linn. Common juniper.** +Shrub, erect or semi-evergreen and bearing long to the ground, with leaves in clusters of 2 and all alike (scale-like); berries large and smooth. Banks and woods. + +2. **J. Virginiana, Linn. Red-wood.** Similar to 1. Small tree or large shrub, usually nearly pyramidal in growth, with leaves of two kinds (scale-like and awl-shaped); berries small, greenish-red, becoming purple-brown; heart-wood red and highly scented. Common on banks and in old fields. + +**B. PHENOGAMIS: ANGIOSPERMIS: MONO-COTYLEDONI** + +III. ARACEAE—Araceae Family. + +Perennial herbs, with rhizomes or stem-like tubers and aerial +jujubes; flowers minute, often dimorphic and naked, borne on a spadix +and spathe; leaves simple or compound; sepals 3 or 6; petals 3 or 6; +the entire spadix usually enlarging and bearing the coherent berries in a large head or spike. Many tropical plants, and some of temperate regions, many of them old and grotesque. Genus about 100 species; subgenus 10; tribe 10; genus 100; species about 1000. Leaves simple or com- +pound; leaves simple. +1. **Lemna Componens** Linn. +Leaves compound. +2. **Lemna Minor** Linn. +Leaves simple. +3. **Spathoceras** Sm. +Spathe open or closed at the top. +4. **Ricciocarpus** Sm. +Spathe open and spreading for its whole length. +5. **Ophioglossum** Linn. + +**Arisaema: Isran Tuber; Jack-in-the-Pulpit.** + +Stem arising from a corn-like tuber, and bearing 1 or 2 compound leaves; leaves simple; flowers solitary at the base of the spathe and the spathe above them; the top of the spatil not flower-bearing; staminate flowers of a few sessile anthers, and + +8 + +THE Kinds OF PLANTS + +the pistillate with 1 male ovary which ripens into a red few-seeded berry. Phase of spring or early summer, in rich woods. Tubers very common, often used in decoctions. The following species are distinguished by their flowers. + +A. triphyllum, Turr. Jack-in-the-Pulpit. _Cuscuta trilobata Turp._ Fig. 258. A large plant, with long-elliptic pointed leaflets; axillary purple-striped, spreading over the spadix. +A. Drosophila, Schott. Drogon-deep. Leaf usually 1, with 7-11 narrow lobes, the uppermost one broader than the spadix. + +2. SYMPLOCARPOS. Sarsk Camellia + +Leaves and flowers arising from a strong rootstock, the lvs. very large and appearing after the spadix; fs. perfect, each with 4 sepals, 4 stamina and 1 pistil; the stamens 2 or 3 times as long as the petals; the male part of the fls.-shy spadix with indubed feebly scaly spathe; spathe open and sterile, in closing the spadix. Common in wet meadows in the north-eastern states. + +3. Sidalia. Salish. Spathea purple, arising in the earliest spring; leaves very large (often 2 ft. long), simple, entire, dark green above, lighter below; scattered leaves and mild odor give the plant the name of skunk cabbage. + +3. RICHARDIA. Calla Lily. + +Leaves several from each short rootstock; their petioles sheathing the flower-bud; flowers naked and showy; petals 4, Ellipsoid; stamens numerous; stigmas 4, elliptic to oblong; stamens 457. Elbardiola, Atrament. + +The following species are cultivated, but the following is only common in Europe: + +A. Africana, Kunth. _Calla_ lilis of gar- +deners; leaves large and showy; spathe simple and erect, cross-veined, glassy white and wax-like. Cape of Good Hope. + +4. CALLA. + +Flowers from the above in bearing a spathe which does not include the spadix, and mostly perfect flowers (the upper ones sometimes staminated). Of 6 sta- +mens and 1 corolla; fruit a red berry. One species. + +528. Calla palustris. +Lilies of the marshes. Free Cultiv. Fig. 259. Leaves about 1 ft. high, the blades arrow-shaped; spathe about 2 in. broad, white on the upper face. In cold bogs, north. + +IV. LILIACEAE—Lily Family + +Herbs, with bulbs, corms, or large rootstocks; fs. mostly regular and showy, the perianth of six separate or coherent parts; the stamina usually six and standing in front of the parts of the perianth: ovary + +LILIACEAE 211 + +superior, usually 3-borne, ripening into a capsule or berry. About 200 genera, including more than 2,000 widely distributed species. +Characteristic plants are 1-7y. 1/2-of-the-calyx, onion, Solomon's seal, tulip, trillium, hyacinth, squaw-plant, yucca. + +A. Fruit a benthoidal capsule: style +not visible +a. Petals white or pale yellow: flowers in large clumps. +not visible +b. Stem stout and hairy. +not visible +c. Stem slender, with only 2 to 6 leaves. +not visible +d. Flower nodding. +not visible +e. Stem naked, bearing many flowers. +not visible +f. Flowers yellow. +not visible +g. Flowers yellowish-pale on a somewhat branch- +ing scape. +not visible +h. Flowers yellowish-green. +not visible +i. Fruit an angled berry: style or stigma: leaves +not visible +j. Fruit a globular berry: style: 1; bulb, white or greenish. +not visible +k. Foliage made up of elliptical leaves; true berries +being mere seed-stalks; stem bare on the base of the small cumbrella. +not visible +l. Foliage made up of leaves: stem bare on the base of the small cumbrella. +not visible +m. Fruit of 2 separate parts. +not visible +n. Flowers numerous on a scape. +not visible +o. Flowers hanging from the axils of leaves. +not visible + +I. LILUM, Lilus. + +Strang-growing bulbous herbs, with leafy stems usually bearing sev- +eral of many flowers; petaloid bracts or sheaths; the 6 divisions nearly equal; the perianth usually persistent; the flower having a bony +bearing groove at the base; leaves attached by a bulbous "bulb." + +a. Flowers white. + +I. longiflorum, Thunb. One to 1 ft., with serrated long +incurved pointed leaves; flowers 5 to 8, long, horizontally widened +at the base; petals narrow, spreading; stamens numerous, and out- +stretched under them; many of the bulbs are grown in the Bermuda Islands, +where the name "Bermuda Lily" is given. + +Lilium candidum, Linn., syn. Lilium bulbiferum Linn., Leaves broad-linear; +scattered; flowers numerous, 3 to 6 or less; bud widening gradually from the base. Europe. Common in gardens. + +A drawing of a lily plant. + +292 + +THE Kinds OF PLANTS + +m. *Elymus* is almost of yellow or orange. + +L. Philadelphia, Linn. Fig. 430. Flowers to 5, erect, 2-3 in. long, orange-red and spotted, the divisions separate; leaves narrow, dry soil. +L. Canadense, Linn. Two to 3 ft., with leaves in whorls and bulbs producing rhizomes or runners; its, several or many, the latter spreading horizontally, the former ascending above the middle, orange or red and spotted, meadow-sweet. +L. supramus, Linn. Fig. 430. Very tall, bearing several or many all pointing downward flowers in a panicle, the segments all pointing downward; flowers many and green. +L. tigrinus, Andr. Tiger lily, Fig. 20. Four to 5 ft., bearing several or many all pointing downward flowers in a panicle, the segments all pointing downward; flowers many and green. +E. Liliaceae. Andrographis paniculata; leaves scen- +scented; bulbous; flowers many. +L. tuberosa, Andr. Bulbous; leaves scen- +scented; bulbous; flowers many. +L. tuberosa, Andr. Bulbous; leaves scen- +scented; bulbous; flowers many. +L. tuberosa, Andr. Bulbous; leaves scen- +scented; bulbous; flowers many. +L. tuberosa, Andr. Bulbous; leaves scen- +scented; bulbous; flowers many. +L. tuberosa, Andr. Bulbous; leaves scen- +scented; bulbous; flowers many. +L. tuberosa, Andr. Bulbous; leaves scen- +scented; bulbous; flowers many. +L. tuberosa, Andr. Bulbous; leaves scen- +scented; bulbous; flowers many. +L. tuberosa, Andr. Bulbous; leaves scen- +scented; bulbous; flowers many. +L. tuberosa, Andr. Bulbous; leaves scen- +scented; bulbous; flowers many. +L. tuberosa, Andr. Bulbous; leaves scen- +scented; bulbous; flowers many. +L. tuberosa, Andr. Bulbous; leaves scen- +scented; bulbous; flowers many. +L. tuberosa, Andr. Bulbous; leaves scen- +scented; bulbous; flowers many. +L. tuberosa, Andr. Bulbous; leaves scen- +scented; bulbous; flowers many. +L. tuberosa, Andr. Bulbous; leaves scen- +scented; bulbous; flowers many. +L. tuberosa, Andr. Bulbous; leaves scen- +scented; bulbous; flowers many. +L. tuberosa, Andr. Bulbous; leaves scen- +scented; bulbous; flowers many. +L. tuberosa, Andr. Bulbous; leaves scen- +scented; bulbous; flowers many. +L. tuberosa, Andr. Bulbous; leaves scen- +scented; bulbous; flowers many. +L. tuberosa, Andr. Bulbous; leaves scen- +scented; bulbous; flowers many. +L. tuberosa, Andr. Bulbous; leaves scen- +scented; bulbous; flowers many. +L. tuberosa, Andr. Bulbous; leaves scen- +scented; bulbous; flowers many. +L. tuberosa, Andr. Bulbous; leaves scen- +scented; bulbous; flowers many. +L. tuberosa, Andr. Bulbous; leaves scen- +scented; bulbous; flowers many. +L. tuberosa, Andr. Bulbous; leaves scen- +scented; bulbous; flowers many. +L. tuberosa, Andr. Bulbous; leaves scen- +scented; bulbous; flowers many. +L. tuberosa, Andr. Bulbous; leaves scen- +scented; bulbous; flowers many. +L. tuberosa, Andr. Bulbous; leaves scen- +scented; bulbous; flowers many. +L. tuberosa, Andr. Bulbous; leaves scen- +scented; bulbous; +Tulipa tyloides +Tulip +Low bulblets plants with a few leaves near the ground on the flower-stem: flower large erect, the divisions erect or spreading horizontally. + +G.-Zerumbetum, Linn Comosum tulip Leaves 5-6 broad: peduncle glabrous: divisions of the flower broad oval or oblong: stem slender: lower leaflets lanceolate: upper leaflets ovate-lanceolate: buds reddish-purple: petals white: stamens purple: style short: fruiting pedicel short: sepals spreading. + +J.-Nasturtium officinale Decumbeant tulip Enfry and dwarf: with curved petioles and peduncles and ornamental organs: Genus Semp.: com- +mon in cultivation. + +293 Erythronium +Decumbeant Violet +Low herbs with deep-seated coiled calyxes and scape +with a few sessile or short-pedicelled bracts: flowering, the 6 strigil- +luous blade-spreading or recurved: the style long and club-shaped: Blooming in erect spring: +Erythronium dens-canescens +Erythronium dens-canescens +Erythronium dens-canescens +Erythronium dens-canescens +Erythronium dens-canescens +Erythronium dens-canescens +Erythronium dens-canescens +Erythronium dens-canescens +Erythronium dens-canescens +Erythronium dens-canescens +Erythronium dens-canescens +Erythronium dens-canescens +Erythronium dens-canescens +Erythronium dens-canescens +Erythronium dens-canescens +Erythronium dens-canescens +Erythronium dens-canescens +Erythronium dens-canescens +Erythronium dens-canescens +Erythronium dens-canescens +Erythronium dens-canescens +Erythronium dens-canescens +Erythronium dens-canescens +Erythronium dens-canescens +Erythronium dens-canescens +Erythronium dens-canescens +Erythronium dens-canescens +Erythronium dens-canescens +Erythronium dens-canescens +Erythronium dens-canescens +Erythronium dens-canescens +Erythronium dens-canescens +Erythronium dens-canescenses + +301 Erythronium Americanum Americanum + +Low plants with broad foliage, producing many flowers in spikes or dense racemes in short stems: the leaves arising directly from the base: flowers bell-shaped or funnel-shaped: the 6 lobes spreading or curling back. + +302 Hylactisthus + +Hylactisthus +Hylactisthus + +LILIACEAE + +**293** + +**H. orientalis**, Linn. *Common Grecian-lily*, Fig. 151. Early spring, the flowers of many colors and sometimes double; the perianth-layers seldom, the stamens-bases long as long as the tube. Greece to Asia Minor. + +Var. *albulus*, Baker. *Bouquet hybrida*. Flowers fewer and usually smaller, the tube shorter than the stamens-bases, the leaves shorter. France. Much cultivated. + +**5. HEMEROCALLIS** *Yellow Day-lily*. + +Strong-growing plants from tuberous roots, producing clusters of long slender-stalked, yellow flowers, erect, few-flowered and like-ly in clusters or panicles on a tall, branching scape, the divisions widely spread at the top. 16th World, but common in gardens. + +**F. bulbosa**, Linn. *Day-lily*. Flowers yellow, produced in a broad, spreading panicle, the lower parts of the scape with a few leaves; flowers large, fragrant, petal-like petals and stamens-bases long. **F. lata**, Linn. *Tulip day-lily*. Plant somewhat resembling *F. bulbosa*, but the flowers fragrant; petal-like petals and stamens-bases short. + +**F. minor**, Linn. *White Day-lily*. + +Medium-sized plants, producing dense clusters of bright, bladed leaves from stout-rooted bulbs; flowers blue or white, in clusters or panicles on a tall, branching scape, the divisions wide-spread at the top by 1 or 2 bracts; the perianth-tube long and the limb somewhat irregular. China and Japan. + +**F. subcordata**, Swartz. *White day-lily*, Fig. 152. + +Leaves broadly cordate; flowers large with petals and stamens-bases not drooping; **F. vatica**, Swartz. *White day-lily*. Flowers large with petals and stamens-bases drooping; deep blue, in a long raceme, nodding. + +**TRILLIUM** *Water-plantain*. + +Leaves from deep-seated stems like tubers; leaves 3 in a whorl, broad and several-lobed; flower stalks short; peduncles long; leaves persistent until the angles; many-seeded berry ripens; stigma-3, often sessile. Plants of early spring, growing in rich soil. + +**T. sessile**, Linn. *Flowers deep-purple; the peduncle pointed, pointed and nearly erect; leaves lanceolate-serrate, often blotched with purple.* Pa., Wt. and S. + +**T. grandiflorum**, Linn. *Common meadow-plantain or toothwort*, Fig. 231. + +Flowers large and white, the peduncle standing erect or nearly so; the + +204 +THE Kinds OF PLANTS + +petals broadest above the middle (obovate) and 2-2½ ft. long; leaves broad- +ovate, nearly or wholly orbicular. Flowers by racemose, with white petals. +T. erectum, Linn., a native of the United States, having from white to pink and purple, the petal erect or declined, the petal ovate or lanceolate and spreading; leaves broad-ovate. Frequent north, south and west of the state. + +T. grandiflorum, Nutt., a native of the West Indies, having the calyx decumbent under the broad leaves; petals obovate-lanceolate, reduced leaf. Flax of the East. + +8. **ASPARGUS.** Asparagus. + +Mostly tall, often bearing plants with club-shaped and very small scales; leaves greenish-white or greenish, small, bell-shaped, scal- +ted or in groups of 3 or 5; fruit a 3-lobed and 1-seeded small berry. + +A. officinalis, Linn., Cucumer asparagus. + +Pigweed, Asparagus-root, Asparagus-cold-water. + +A. plumosus, Linn., Fig. 16. This plant, with its large leaves and long flower-stalks, is much used for food and flowers. + +Asparagus officinalis (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.), A. plumosus (Linn.). Not of botanist). Fig.-47. + +Sarathia asparagoides, Nutt., Asparagus of Florida [not of botanist]. Fig.-47. + +Sarathia asparagoides, Nutt., Asparagus of Florida [not of botanist]. Fig.-47. + +Sarathia asparagoides, Nutt., Asparagus of Florida [not of botanist]. Fig.-47. + +Sarathia asparagoides, Nutt., Asparagus of Florida [not of botanist]. Fig.-47. + +Sarathia asparagoides, Nutt., Asparagus of Florida [not of botanist]. Fig.-47. + +Sarathia asparagoides, Nutt., Asparagus of Florida [not of botanist]. Fig.-47. + +Sarathia asparagoides, Nutt., Asparagus of Florida [not of botanist]. Fig.-47. + +Sarathia asparagoides, Nutt., Asparagus of Florida [not of botanist]. Fig.-47. + +Sarathia asparagoides, Nutt., Asparagus of Florida [not of botanist]. Fig.-47. + +Sarathia asparagoides, Nutt., Asparagus of Florida [not of botanist]. Fig.-47. + +Sarathia asparagoides, Nutt., Asparagus of Florida [not of botanist]. Fig.-47. + +Sarathia asparagoides, Nutt., Asparagus of Florida [not of botanist]. Fig.-47. + +Sarathia asparagoides, Nutt., Asparagus of Florida [not of botanist]. Fig.-47. + +Sarathia asparagoides, Nutt., Asparagus of Florida [not of botanist]. Fig.-47. + +Sarathia asparagoides, Nutt., Asparagus of Florida [not of botanist]. Fig.-47. + +Sarathia asparagoides, Nutt., Asparagus of Florida [not of botanist]. Fig.-47. + +Sarathia asparagoides, Nutt., Asparagus of Florida [not of botanist]. Fig.-47. + +Sarathia asparagoides, Nutt., Asparagus of Florida [not of botanist]. Fig.-47. + +Sarathia asparagoides, Nutt., Asparagus of Florida [not of botanist]. Fig.-47. + +Sarathia asparagoides, Nutt., Asparagus of Florida [not of botanist]. Fig.-47. + +Sarathia asparagoides, Nutt., Asparagus of Florida [not of botanist]. Fig.-47. + +Sarathia asparagoides, Nutt., Asparagus of Florida [not of botanist]. Fig.-47. + +Sarathia asparagoides, Nutt., Asparagus of Florida [not of botanist]. Fig.-47. + +Sarathia asparagoides, Nutt., Asparagus of Florida [not of botanist]. Fig.-47. + +Sarathia asparagoides, Nutt., Asparagus of Florida [not of botanist]. Fig.-47. + +Sarathia asparagoides, Nutt., Asparagus of Florida [not of botanist]. Fig.-47. + +Sarathia asparagoides, Nutt., Asparagus of Florida [not of botanist]. Fig.-47. + +Sarathia asparagoides, Nutt., Asparagus of Florida [not of botanist]. Fig.-47. + +Sarathia asparagoides, Nutt., Asparagus of Florida [not of botanist]. Fig.-47. + +Sarathia asparagoides, Nutt., Asparagus of Florida [not of botanist]. Fig.-47. + +Sarathia asparagoides, Nutt., Asparagus of Florida [not of botanist]. Fig.-47. + +Sarathia asparagoides, Nutt., Asparagus of Florida [not of botanist]. Fig.-47. + +Sarathia asparagoides, Nutt., Asparagus of Florida [not of botanist]. Fig.-47. + +Sarathia asparagoides, Nutt., Asparagus of Florida [not of botanist]. Fig.-47. + +Sarathia asparagoides, Nutt., Asparagus of Florida [not of botanist]. Fig.-47. + +Sarathia asparagoides, Nutt., Asparagus of Florida [not of botanist]. Fig.-47. + +Sarathia asparagoides, Nutt., Asparagus of Florida [not of botanist]. Fig.-47. + +Sarathia asparagoides, Nutt., Asparagus of Florida [not of botanist]. Fig.-47. + +Sarathia asparagoides, Nutt., Asparagus of Florida [not of botanist]. Fig.-47. + +Sarathia asparagoides, Nutt., Asparagus of Florida [not of botanist]. Fig.-47. + +Sarathia asparagoides, Nutt., Asparagus of Florida [not of botanist]. Fig.-47. + +Sarathia asparagoides, Nutt., Asparagus of Florida [not of botanist]. Fig.-47. + +Sarathia asparagoides, Nutt., Asparagus of Florida [not of botanist]. Fig.-47. + +Sarathia asparagoides, Nutt., Asparagus of Florida [not of botanist]. Fig.-47. + +Sarathia asparagoides, Nutt., Asparagus of Florida [not of botanist]. Fig.-47. + +Sarathia asparagoides, Nutt., Asparagus +of +Florida +[Not +of +botanist]. +Fig. +- 4 7 . + +AMARYLLIDACEAE. +215 + +V. AMARYLLIDACEAE. Amaryllis Family. + +Differ from Liliaceae chiefly in having an inferior ovary and in bearing its flowers more uniformly on scapes. More than 600 species in nearly 70 genera, widely dispersed. Representative plants are mentioned below, but many others may be found in the schools of the first three genera may be grown from bulbs in the school-room. + +A. Stem a hardy species. +1. Perennial with a erect or up in its centre. ... N. Nuciferae. +b. Perennial with no scape. +c. Anthocyanous, the leaves pointed. ... 2. Galanthus. +cv. Anthocyanous, type blunt. ... 3. Leucocorys. +aa. Stem tall and leafy. ... 4. Pulchellus. + +I. NARCISSUS. Narcissus. Daffodil. + +Low plants producing from 1 to many 6-parted flowers on a scape which arise from a bulb, the flowers usually white, sometimes yellow, or a cup or crown in its centre. Old World, but frequently cultivated. + +a. Crown as long as, or longer than, the divisions of the perianth. + +N. Narcissus, Linum. +Turgidus auriculae. Common daffodil. +Fig. 234. Scapa 1-2-in., the flower base and yellow with a relatively large cup in its centre; leaves flat and oblongs. Double form are common in gardens. + +b. Crown half so long as long as the divisions of the perianth. + +N. incomparabilis, Zott.: Scapa 1-2-in., the flower about 2-in. or so spreading; the cup in its centre yellowish-white; the petals broad and usually a deeper yellow; leaves flat and glabrous. + +naa. Crown less than half the length of the division. + +N. Tazetta, Linum. +Dipentrum auriculae. Chinese +daffodil. +Scapa 1-2-in., the cup yellow or white or yellow, small, the crown usually red-cored and usually somewhat spreading; leaves flat and glabrous. + +The narcissus known to Botanists as "Paper-white" is a white-flowered form of this species. + +N. pseudonarcissus, Linum. +Sempervirens, Sempervirens. +Scapa slender, usually 1-flowered, the flower white with the thick rim of the very short crown margined with red. + +N. Jocquelinii, Linum. +Scapa 2-3-flowered, the flowers small and yellow; the tube slender and the segments wide-spreading; leaves linear, somewhat cylindrical. + +216 +Narcissus Tazetta + +296 +THE KINDS OF PLANTS + +2. GALLANTUS. Snowdrop. +Female, spring-blooming plants, with a single white flower nodding from the top of the scape, followed by greenish leaves; perennials divisions 6; +oblong and more or less erect; the three inner ones shorter, some of them almost green-blotched at the tip; anthers and style pointed. +a. G. nivalis, Linn. Snowdrop. Fig. 43. +One of the earli- +est blooming flowers, appearing as soon as the snow is gone, +the flower being white, with a greenish-leafy scape (b) +or less high; inner divisions of the bell-shaped flower tipped with yellow. +3. LEUCANTHUS. Snowflake. +Flowers often more than 1; divisions of the perianth all +alike; anthers and style blunt; otherwise very like Gallantus. +b. L. versicolor, Lindl. Snowflake. Taller than the snow- +drop, but not so large; the scape usually 1-flowered, blossoming +earlier, the flowers larger. Eupres. + +4. POLIANTHES. Trefoil. +Leafy-stemmed leafy plants, with a thick, tubercled rootstock (whose name is derived from the Latin word for "tubercle"), and with leaves diversi- +fied with a short slightly curved tube and a spreading nearly equal +divisions: stamens included in the tube (not projecting). +a. P. mexicanus, Linn. Mexican Trefoil. A long-stemmed, chan- +nelled, many-ranked leaves; flowers very fragrant, sometimes thinned with rose. +A popular garden plant from Mexico, blooming in the open in late +summer and autumn; some forms are double. + +VI. IRIDACEAE. Iris Family + +Differs from Amaranthaceae and Lilaceae in its inferior corolla, +three stamens which are opposite the outer parts of the perianth, +and 2-ranked equitant (leaves overlapping) leaves ; stigma some- +times large and petal-like. About 60 genera and 700 species. Repre- +sentatives: Iris, Ixia, Iridopsis, Iridium, Crocus, Gladiolus, Freesia. +Crocuses and freesias are easily grown in window-boxes for winter +and spring bloom. + +a. Lobes of the style flat and colored, looking like petals………1. Iris + +a1. Lobes of the style thread-like. + +a11. Plants with one scape and flowers arising directly +from the corm…………………2. Crocus + +a12. Plants with several scapes and flowering stem. +c. Flowers in a short 1-sided cluster; plant small……….3. Freesia +cc. Flowers in a terminal spike; plant large…………..4. Gladiolus + +297 + +**IRIDACEE** + +**1. IRIS. Fleur de lis. Plant.** + +Mostly strong plants, with rhizomes or fibres; flowers mostly large and showy, the three outer segments recurving and the three inner ones usually smaller and more erect or sometimes incurving; the three long divisions of the stamens are united into a tube, which is often prolonged by a longer stigma on the under side of the style; leaves long and sword-shaped. Several wild and many cultivated species. The following species have rhizomes. + +**1. Pseudacris, Linn. Common frog-lily. Two to 5 ft., with several-flowered, often branching stems; outer divisions of the perianth with no hairs, the inner ones with short stiff hairs; flowers white or yellowish-white.** + +**2. Vernonia, Linn. Common wild blue-tongue. Two to 5 ft.; stem: leaves oval, 3-6 in. long, 1-2 in. wide; flowers about 1 in. across, the tube shorter than the corolla, the inner petals small and the outer ones with no hairs. Swampy places.** + +**3. Sibirica, Sieb. Japan iris. Two to 3 ft.; stem much overtopping the thin, broad leaves; flowers:** + + +A drawing of a plant with large, strap-like leaves and small, white flowers. + + +**4. Iris Germanica.** + +**5. Cynara scolymus.** + +**6. Fritillaria refracta.** + +Large, 1-segmented (seeds appear) plants; first, the inner leaves spreading, the outer ones very large and rounded, with no hairs or crests; color mostly in shades of blue or purple; flowers about 1 in. across; stamens with long tubes. + +**7. Germanica, Linn. Common false-hyacinth (sometimes called) Fig. 617. Two to 3 ft.; with long sword-shaped leaves; flowers few or one at a time; petals with a crest on each side; sepals with yellow hairs; the inner segments erect and arching forwards. Europe.** + +**8. CROCUS. Crocus.** + +Small, strap-like plants, the long tubular flowers and the green-like leaves are similar to those of the common crocus; flowers with the ciliate divisions all silk and erect-spreading of the inner ones a little the smaller; color either white or yellowish-white; stamens with long tubes. + +**9. Vernonia, Linn. Common cornflower. Fig. 436: Leaves: 2- to 4-in each flower, glaucous on the under side; flower closing little above the ground; color in shades of lilac and variously striped, sometimes white.** + + +A drawing of a plant with narrow leaves and small, white flowers. + + +208 +THE KINDS OF PLANTS + +3. FERNSIA. FERNAL. +Small common plants with flat leaves: flowers white or yellowish, tubu- +lar, with a somewhat spreading limb, the tube generally curved; stem about +1 ft. high, bearing several erect flowers on a adaxial cluster. Popular +name: "Fern." - **F. reptans**, Linn. - Leaves narrow; flower usually somewhat +2-lobed or irregular, while in the most perfect forms they are yellowish in some, +others greenish-yellow or fragrant. Capitule of Good Hope. + +4. GLADIOLUS. GLADIOLUS. +Tall, erect plants, with flat, strongly-veined leaves, the stem +arising from a corm (fig. 59). Flowers in a more or less 1-sided +terminal spike, short-tubed, the limb flaring and somewhat +spiny at the base (fig. 60), and in some related genera: **A. chalidus** +always long, with three large elongate segments. - **G. grandiflorus**. +- **G. grandiflorus**, Van Houtte, fig. 446. Upper segments of the peri- +phery of the flower-spike are often longer than the lower ones; number of +two or more species from the Cape of Good Hope. Summer and fall. + +BB. PHENOGAMS: ANGIOSPERMS: DICOTYLEDONS. +c. CHORIPETALE. +VII. CUPULIFERAE. OAK FAMILY. +Mesomorous trees and shrubs with staminate flowers in catkins +and the fertile in catkins or solitary: leaves alternate, with stipules +early deciduous (mostly scale-like), and the side-veins straight or +nearly so; stamens 2 to many; fruit a 1-seed nut, sometimes inclosed +in an involucre of scales or bracts; flowers usually in axillary clusters. +Representative plants are oak, chestnut, beech, birch, hazel, hawthorn. + +a. Sterile flowers in a hanging head: fruit three-crowned +nuts in a small, spiny involucre or bur. - **1. Fagus**. +aa. Sterile flowers in a hanging head: fruit a bur. +a.b. Fruit 1 to 4 rounded or flat-sided nuts in a large, sharp- +spiny involucre or bur. - **2. Castanea**. +aa.b. Fruit flat and often winged, thin and seed-like, borne +under scales in a cone. +a.c. Fruit a nut with mature cones scales thick... - **A. Betula**. +cc. Fertile flowers with a calyx: cone scales thick... - **5. Alnus** + +1. FAGUS. BECHU. +Tall forest trees with light bark, and prominent parallel side-veins in the leaves: sterile flowers in a small pendulous head, with 5-7-elev calyx + +CUPULIFERA 2061 + +and 3-8 stamens: fertile flowers 2 in a close involucre, opening into 2 three-curved "beech nuts" in a 4-valved bar. +F. americana, Lat. *American beech*. Chased-grained, hard-wood tree, with a long trunk and a spreading crown, growing in woods and swamps, usually with 9 or more pairs of nerves: ripe nutlets in the fall, and much sought by bees and squirrels. A common forest tree. + +F. americana var. canadensis, Lat. *Canadian beech*. Often planted, particularly in the form of the Purple-leaved and Waving-beech; foliage differs in being mostly ovate or elliptic, smooth-tined, with 9 or less pairs of nerves. + +2. CASTAREA. CRESTEDA + +Castarea erecta, Linn. Tree, forked branch, thick stryve flowers with 4-lobed calyx and 2-8 stamens in very few, erect or spreading catkins, which appear in clusters in midsummer; fertile flowers about 5 on an involucre, with 7-10 nerves. + +C. americana, Lat. *American cresteda*. Fig. 231. Tall, straight-grained tree, with large, broad and thin, oblong-lanceolate leaves, which are often toothed at the base; flowers in clusters of 5-10 on an involucre; sepals or less incised; cupule, cupule as far as well as flimsy, and smooth to fine. + +C. sativa, Mill. *European cresteda*. Less tall; leaves smaller and narrower than those of the American species; flowers in clusters of 5-10; sepals and their spines more incised; nutlets 1-3 or more incised, and so incised as those of the American cresteda. Very commonly planted. + +3. QUERCUS. OAK + +Quercus virginiana, Linn. Fertile flowers, with mostly heart-shaped basal leaves; sterile flowers in branching hanging catkins, with a 4-lobed calyx, and 3-12 stamens: fertile flower in a shallow involucre which becomes the cap of the seed-pod; cupule smooth or slightly roughened; cupule which represents the English oak (Q. robur) often planted in choice groves. + +a. White oak group distinguished by its light green young bark, crowded leaf-sprays, and the cupule which is not nearly as deep as that of the first year. +Q. alba, Linn. White oak. Fig. 411. Leaves oblongate, 5 or 6 inches long; leaf-sprays crowded; cupule not deeply concave or cupped, and the sinuses deep or shallow; pores small, with a rather shal low and not fringed cup. The commonest species. + +A diagram showing the structure of a white oak leaf. +A diagram showing the structure of a white oak cupule. + +b1. Quercus alba. +12 Quercus serrata. +13 Quercus Petiolaris. +Q. macrocarpa, Michx. Bar Oak. Fig. 412. Leaves convexate, downy or pale on the lower surface, toothed towards the tips and irregularly and + +300 + +THE KINDS OF PLANTS + +often deeply lobed toward the base; neurns nearly heavily fringed on the margins; young branches corky. Common summer. +Q. *Purina*, Linn. Chenardet oak. Fig. 443. Leaves rather long-oblate, toothed, with rounded teeth and yellow-ribbed; neurn long and the cup hair-serrated; bark dark with spots, deep brown, Embrica. + +A diagram showing the structure of a plant leaf. +444. Quercus blorax. +445. Quercus rubra. +446. Quercus cocinea. + +Q. *butora*, Willd. *Scopium* white oak. Fig. 441. Leaves oblongate, whitenedowny on their lower surface, toothed with angular teeth, the bases wedge-shaped; neurn small, with the margin of the cup finely fringed. Common in the north and along rivers. +Q. *vernea*, All. Live oak. Leaf broad, small, oblong, entire or sometimes spiny-toothed, thick and evergreen; acorn large, the nut about one-third covered with its scaly cup. Virginia. + +Small oak group, showing its dark furrowed back, pointed lobes and smooth upper surface, indicating the weathering of the second year. + +Q. *Rutina*, Linn. Red oak. Fig. 445. Leaves oblong or sometimes shorter, the 7-9 lobes triangular and pointing toward the tips; acorn large, hairy cupped. + +Q. *cocinea*, Wang. +Secret oak. Fig. 446. Leaves oblong, bright scarlet in autumn, thin, smooth on the lower surface, the laminae deep, with a few short hairs on the veins; acorn roundling inward and the scales close; inner bark reddish. Common. + +Q. *quercifolia*, Linn. +Black oak. Black oak. Fig. 447. +Leaves ovate, conicr, downy on the lower surface until midsummer or later, wider towards the base than at the tip (like a leaf of the scarlet oak); margin of the acorn cup not roundling inward and the scales loose; inner bark orange. Common. + +477. Quercus tinctoria. + +Small to medium-sized trees, with sterile flowers in drooping, cylindrical catkins; 3 flowers with short stamens being borne under each fertile; fertile flowers with long stamens being borne under each flower; fruit nut; acorn small; leaves simple, toothed or serrate; bark often aromatic. + +**BETULA** Runic. + +A diagram showing a Betula tree. +A diagram showing a Betula leaf. + +**CTULIFERACEAE—URTICACEAE** 301 + +a. **B. hirta**, Linn. **B. hirta**. *B. hirta* Linn. Full tree, the bark light (not perding in layers), with a few scattered, short, white hairs on the lower surface, some what cordate at base, doubly serrate, becoming glossy above; bracts of the calyx linear, free from each other; fruiting pedicels 5-8 mm long. Rich woods. + +b. **B. hispida**, Fisch. ex DC. **B. hispida**. *B. hispida* Fisch. ex DC. Branches pecking in layers; leaves scarcely cordate, dull, more densely; bracts of the showering-fruit linear, the upper one narrowly lanceolate; spreading scales less arro- +mated than the same. + +c. **B. multiflora**, Thunb. ex Benth. **B. multiflora** Thunb. ex Benth. White-flowered bitters; leaves triangular-oblong or hastate. + +d. **B. papillifera**, March. **Papaver** hirtum Linn. Common bitters. Tree of medium to rather large size, with the bark perding in very large plates or layers; leaves elliptic-lanceolate, acuminate, obtuse at apex, glabrous beneath; petiole short. + +e. **B. populifolia**, All., *Amaranthus* viridis Linn. Small and slender tree with rather high, stiffening, white pubescence; fruiting pedicels 6-7 mm long; bracts broadly lanceolate, sometimes suborbicular, usually in the winter North-eastern States. + +f. **B. alba**, Linn. *Euphorbia* alba Linn. A large tree, with triangular- +shaped leaves, which are pointed but not long-acuminate; Europe, the com- +mon cultivated white bitters. + +g. **ALNUS ALDER** + +Much like Betula, but smaller trees or bushes; flowers with a 3-5- +parted calyx and the small, soft, fertile catkins composed of thickenet, +which are produced in the axils of the leaves; flowers appear in earliest spring, from catkins formed the previous year and remaining purely developed during winter. Common about streams. + +h. **Acer** Aceraceae + +Small trees or shrubs with small tree-like, with pinnate branches; leaves oval or oblong-ovate, acute, doubly serrate, glaucescent and dory-midribbed; leaves about 5 cm long, mostly sessile. + +i. **Caltha** Ranunculaceae + +Elliptic or ovate-leaved plants with a single stem; simple stem, the under side of the leaves smooth or pilose-sentinled only on the veins; stems short-stalked. + +j. **Caltha palustris** Linn. + +*Calth* palustris Linn. + +Small plants with a single stem; leaves elliptic or ovate-leaved, obtuse or acutish; stem usually erect or ascending; fruiting pedicel short and nearly smooth beneath; +seeds peduncled. Europe; planted, various varieties with divided leaves. + +VIII. URTICACEAE—NETTLE FAMILY + +Trees and herbs, with small apetalous flowers in small clusters or solitary; leaves mostly straight-tined, with stipules; plants dioecious or monoecious; flowers in cymes or panicles; sepals usually 5 (rarely 4), imbricate at base of the calyx and opposite them; very superior, ripening into a 1-seeded indehiscent, often winged fruit. A very polymorphous association, by some botanists divided into two or three coordinate + +302 + +THE KINDS OF PLANTS + +families. More than 100 genera and 1500 species. Representatives are elm, hackberry, mulberry, orange orange, nettle, hop, hemp. + +a. Tress. + +aa. Fruit a samara. +1 Ulmus. +bb. Fruit a small drupe. +2 Cotinis. +cc. Fruit as large as an orange, formed of the whole mass of the fruit. +3 Ptelea. +ddd. Fruit resembling a blackberry, formed of the pit and flower-cluster. +4 U. morus. + +aa. Here. + +ab. Leaves digitately lobed or divided. +5 Sambucus. +ac. Plant standing erect. +6 Platanus. +ad. Leaves not lobed; plant with stinging hairs. +7 U. trifolia. + +b. Ulmus. Elm. + +Trees, mostly large and valuable for timber, with rough furrowed bark; leaves compound, pinnate, and serrated; flowers in dense clusters; the calyx 4-parted, the petals 4 on long bractlets; ovary generally 2-lobed, stippling on the calyx often visible. + +U. laevis. Michx. Slippery elm. Fig. 81-50, 146, 149. Tall and graceful tree; leaves elliptic to lanceolate; samara small, more or less hairy on the thin wing; the notch in the apex extending nearly to the seed; flowers hanging on slender stalks. One of the most American trees. + +488. Ulmus alata. +489. Ulmus americana. +500. Ulmus racemosa. + +very rough above and softer beneath; samara 5-7½ in. long, orbicular or nearly so, with the seed in the center; flowers in dense clusters. Common. + +U. laevis Michx., Fig. 81-50, 146, 149. Tall and graceful tree; leaves elliptic to lanceolate; samara small, more or less hairy on the thin wing; the notch in the apex extending nearly to the seed; flowers hanging on slender stalks. One of the most American trees. + +U. americana, Linn., Common or white elm. Figs. 81-50, 146, 149. Tall and graceful tree; leaves elliptic to lanceolate; samara small, more or less hairy on the thin wing; the notch in the apex extending nearly to the seed; flowers hanging on slender stalks. One of the most American trees. + +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. +A diagram showing different parts of a tree. + +**URTICAEE** 303 + +U. racemosus, Thomas. *Choke-choke*. Fig. 626. Smaller tree than the last, with only terminal branches; leaves with straighter veins; samaras with sharp incurved points at the apex; flowers in racemes. Less common. + +U. alata, Michx. *Wahoo-elm*. Wahoo elm. Small tree, with wide, cup-like ridges on the branchlets; leaves with long petioles; samaras with short, sharp, nearly bicarinate and acute; samaras droop, at least when young. Virginia, south and west. + +2 CELTIS. *Nettle-tree*, Hackberry. + +Elkhorn in hooks, but the fruit a 1-celled, berry-like drupe; flowers greenish, in the leaf axils, mostly dioecious; calyx 3-lobed; stamens 5 or 6; corolla absent. + +C. occidentalis, Linn. *Cotton hackberry*. Middled-sized tree with rough furrowed bark; leaves ovate-pinnate, obtuse at base, serrate; fruit persistent, becoming dry and falling within the fall when young. Low mountains. + +3 TOXYLMEN. *Orange Oak*. + +Small tree, with slender twigs in catkins, and alternate, simple leaves; sterile flowers in racemes, deciduous at maturity; fertile flowers sessile on the leafy apices; the fruit opening into an akene, the whole flower-bud becoming silky and ripening into an orange-like fruit. + +4 POMONERUM. *Murrineau arboricole*. + +Nux Vomica Linn. *Poison Ivy*. A low shrub or small tree; used as hedge-bark, but not hardy in the northernmost states; leaves narrow-ovate and nate; glossy; flowers yellowish-green; the leaves appear after the fruit opening in autumn. Me., Kan., south. + +5 IORUS. *Murrelleye*. + +Small to mid-sized trees, with broad, alternate toothed or lobed leaves; flowers in panicles or cymes, with 4-parted calyx; stamens 1, with filaments at first bent inward, the staminae cauliennae falling within; fertile flowers erecting a single akene. But the entire plant becomes poisonous to man and animals. The leaves vary considerably, often lobed and not lobed on the margins. + +6 MURRAEA. Linn. *Common mulberry*. Official a large tree in the south; leaves ovate-acuminate; flowers white or pinkish-white; fruits sweet and succulent; leaves and shoots become poisonous to man and animals. The leaves are very variable, often lobed and not lobed on the margins. + +7 MURRAEA alba Linn. *White mulberry*. Fig. 627. Leaves light green and usually glossy above, the veins prominent and which branch into many smaller veins below; petioles short or long; flowers white, whiteish, white, or purple; fruits: plianted for ornament and for fruit, also for feeding silkworms. The much-planted Brazilian Mulberry is a form of it. + +304 THE KINDS OF PLANTS + +5. CANARIS. Hesp. +Tall, strong, dioecious herbs with 5 to 75 bracts; fertile flowers in clusters, with 1 sepal surrounding the ovary, and long, hairy stigmas; sterile flowers in dense panicles, with short, soft hairs on the sepals. +a Canaris. Linn. Hemp. Six to 16 ft., strong-smelling; blooming all summer; leaves lance-shaped, large toothed. Old World; cultivated for fiber and sometimes used in waste places. + +6. RUMULUS. Her. +Twining dicotyledons of tall growth, with 5 sepals in the sterile flowers, the calyx of the fertile flowers 1 to 1½ in. wide; leaves under each scale of a sheath, thin calyx which becomes a kind of cover over the ovary. H. liquida. Linn. Cosseus herb. Perennial, rough-hairy; leaves broad-leafed, deep green, smooth above, downy beneath; flowers white or pale yellow; fruiting pedicel 1 to 2 in. long; seeds about 1 mm. long. +H. lapponica. Linn. Lapponia herb. Similar to the preceding species but less than 5 feet; calyx notaking into a "hop" often up to 2 or more inches long; native plant, cultivated for hops and sometimes for ornament. + +7. HEPATICA. Herb. +Herbaceous perennials with 5 sepals in the sterile flowers; leaves oval or oblong-ovate; flowers white or pale blue; fruits about 1 mm. long; seeds not less than 5 feet; calyx not taking into a "hop." Japan; much cultivated for ornament. + +8. URTICA. Nettle. +Annual or perennial, opposite simple leaves and stingless hairs, and mono- +cious or dioecious flowers in racemes or dense clusters, the calyx of 5 separate sepals: stamens 1; stigma sessile; flower an acute flat spike. The following species are common in Europe and America: +U. gracilis. Linn. Cassius nettle. Two to 6 ft.; leaves ovate-lanceolate, +erect, on long petioles. Common in low grounds. +U. dichotoma Linn. Two to six feet high; leaves ovate and deeply serrate, on rather short petioles, densely branched. Wood from Europe, very stinging. + +IX. POLYGONACEAE. Buckwheat Family. + +Herbs, mostly with enlarged joints or nodes and sheaths (repre- +senting stems) above them; leaves simple and usually entire, +alternate or opposite; flowers perfect or imperfect; stamens usually +borne in spikes or dense clusters: stamens 4–12, attached to the +very base of the 5–merous calyx: every 1 long, ripening into a +2-celled anther. Thirty or more genera and about 600 widely dis- +persed species. Characteristic plants are buckwheats, Rhubarb, dock, +sorrel, mustard. + +a Root-beds 1 ft., or more across, rounded. +1. Eriocaulon +aa. Root-beds narrow or not pronounced. +Ia. Eriocaulon +bb. Root-beds broad and conspicuous. +2. Rumex +IIa. Calycos (5 rarely 4) sepals, all alike. +3a. Flowers white and fragrant. +c. Flowers greenish or yellowish, not distinctly fragrant. +3b. Polygonum + +POLYGONACEAE 305 + +**1. RHUM. Rhubarb.** + +Very large-leaved perennial, sending up stout hollow flower-stalks in early summer, with smaller leaves with sheathing bases; sepals 5, all alike, withering rather than falling, and preceding beneath the 3-angled scutum; stamens 3; styles 3. + +**R. rhabarbarum.** Perennial. Flgs. 25-75. Leaves 1 ft. or more across; the thick petiole erect; frs. white, in elevated panicles. + +**2. RUMEX. Rumex. Sarsaparilla.** + +Perennial often deep-rooted plants with herbage bluish or purplish; sepals 6, the outer larger and spreading; the fructif. (known as "calyx") elongating after flowering and one or more of them bearing a glandular tubercle on the back; stamens 6-styles; frs. in panicles or corymb. + +**R. acetosella.** Dock; dock-leaves entire or slightly toothed; flowers usually perfect; bracts of calyx linear-spatulate. + +**R. obtusifolius.** Dock-leaves oblong-ovate to lanceolate; lower leaves ovate-oblong-concave and blunt, not wavy; one valve usually green-bearing. Weed from Europe. + +**R. crispus.** Dock-leaves ovate-lanceolate, acuminate at base, lanceolate at apex, wavy or erose-edged; all valves usually green-bearing. +43 +43. Rumex acetosella. +43. Rumex crispus. + +**3. SORBARIA. Sorbaria.** + +Herbs with long-stemmed spikes of flowers; flowers dioecious. + +**S. serotina.** Linn. Common or swamp sorbaria. Flgs. 45+. Low (1 ft.) or tall (2 ft.), in clumps or scattered; leaves ovate-lanceolate, acuminate at base, with regular angles; frs. are made from the grain. +43 +43. Sorbaria serotina. + +**4. TAKLUMAUM. Taklamakanum.** + +Annual herbs with somewhat triangular leaf-base; and fragrant flowers in flat-topped panicles like clusters: calyx of 5 petals; stamens 8; fruits a terete nutlet. + +**T. arizonicum.** Morsch. Common taklumakum. +Flg. 45+. Leaves triangular-ovate-shaped, long-petioled, with regular angles; frs. are made from the grain. +43 +43. Taklumakum arizonicum. +43. Taklumakum arizonicum. + +**5. POLYGONUM. Polygonum. Knotgrass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, knot-grass, + +**6. POLYGONUM CANDOLIUM. Candolium.* + +Leaves of plant: leaves erect-stalked and collaterally branched; blooming in summer and fall; small pinkish or greenish flowers mostly in racemes or panicles. + +A drawing of a plant with long stems and narrow leaves. + +**7. POLYGONUM CANDOLIUM.* Candolium.* + +Leaves of plant: leaves erect-stalked and collaterally branched; blooming in summer and fall; small pinkish or greenish flowers mostly in racemes or panicles. + +A drawing of a plant with long stems and narrow leaves. + +306 +THE KINDS OF PLANTS + +spikes (in the Knuckeeled in the leaf axils): calyx mostly 5-parted; stamens +4-5; stigmas 2 or 3; black leaves hemispheric or triangular. +a. *Knuckeeled*: flowers sessile in the axils of the leaves, greenish and +very small. +b. *P. arenicola*: Linn. *Cynoglossum arenicola*. Fig. 183. Pro- +strate or erectling; blanch green white plant, growing along the hard edges of +walks and in yards, and commonly mistaken for sox leaves small, mostly +oblong, curved; leaves oblong to elliptic; flowers a broad white margin; sta- +mens 5 or more; stigmas normally 3. Annual. +c. *P. erectum*: Linn. *Tulip Tuberifera*. One or more high +leaves, about four times larger, oblong to oval and obtuse. +Common names: +an. *Smartered*: flowers in terminal spikes, mostly pinkish. +b. *Sheaths of flowers (perennating stem) hairy on the +underside*. +c. *Fragile*: Linn. *Pratia*. Another. +d. *P. fragilis*: Linn. *Pratia*. Another. +e. *P. fragilis*: Linn. *Pratia*. Another. +f. *Fragile*: Linn. *Pratia*. Another. +g. *Fragile*: Linn. *Pratia*. Another. +h. *Fragile*: Linn. *Pratia*. Another. +i. *Fragile*: Linn. *Pratia*. Another. +j. *Fragile*: Linn. *Pratia*. Another. +k. *Fragile*: Linn. *Pratia*. Another. +l. *Fragile*: Linn. *Pratia*. Another. +m. *Fragile*: Linn. *Pratia*. Another. +n. *Fragile*: Linn. *Pratia*. Another. +o. *Fragile*: Linn. *Pratia*. Another. +p. *Fragile*: Linn. *Pratia*. Another. +q. *Fragile*: Linn. *Pratia*. Another. +r. *Fragile*: Linn. *Pratia*. Another. +s. *Fragile*: Linn. *Pratia*. Another. +t. *Fragile*: Linn. *Pratia*. Another. +u. *Fragile*: Linn. *Pratia*. Another. +v. *Fragile*: Linn. *Pratia*. Another. +w. *Fragile*: Linn. *Pratia*. Another. +x. *Fragile*: Linn. *Pratia*. Another. +y. *Fragile*: Linn. *Pratia*. Another. +z. *Fragile*: Linn. *Pratia*. Another. + +**Hydrophyllum** (Water-mint). **Hydrophyllum** (Water-mint). Hydrangea-like +plant with slender and erect, the flowers whitenish; sta- +mens 5; stigmas 2 or 3; leaves mostly 5-parted or lamina- +te, long-petioled; leaves slender and erect; flowers small or blunt; sta- +mens 5; stigmas 3; Low ground.. Perennial. + +**Pseudomimulus** (False Mimulus). **Pseudomimulus** (False Mimulus). +Hydrangea-like plant with slender and erect, the flowers whitish; +stamens 5; stigmas 2 or 3; leaves mostly 5-parted or lamina- +te, long-petioled; leaves slender and erect; flowers small or blunt; sta- +mens 5; stigmas 3; Low ground.. Perennial. + +**Punica granatum**: Linn., Smartered fruit: large plant with conspicuous +gladiolus-like flowers; spikes short-oblong and erect, the +flowers purplish; stamens 5; stigmas 2 or 3; Low ground.. Annual. + +X. CAEYOPHYLLACEAE E PINK FAMILY. + +Herbs, with opposite, mostly narrow, entire leaves without comple- +uous veins : flowers 4-5-merous, sometimes petaloid, with stamens +twice or less the number of sepals or petals, and 2 to 5 stigmas which may be wholly separate or partially united ; pod usually a 1-located + +CARYOPHYLLACEAE + +307 + +expanse commonly included in the calyx, mostly splitting from the top, the seeds usually attached to a central column. Genus between 23 and 25 species about 1800. Representative plants are pink, eruption, booming bet, cowslip, chickweed, echinacea, larkspur, spongy. + +a. Flowers polygamous, with sepals united into a tube. + b. Bases at the base of the calyx. + c. Styles 1 or 2. + d. Styles 1 or 2. + e. Styles 1 or 2. + f. Styles 1 or 2. + g. Styles 1 or 2. + h. Styles 1 or 2. + i. Styles 1 or 2. + j. Styles 1 or 2. + k. Styles 1 or 2. + l. Styles 1 or 2. + m. Styles 1 or 2. + n. Styles 1 or 2. + o. Styles 1 or 2. + p. Styles 1 or 2. + q. Styles 1 or 2. + r. Styles 1 or 2. + s. Styles 1 or 2. + t. Styles 1 or 2. + u. Styles 1 or 2. + v. Styles 1 or 2. + w. Styles 1 or 2. + x. Styles 1 or 2. + y. Styles 1 or 2. + z. Styles 1 or 2. + +I. DIANTHUS. Pink. + +Showy-flowered small herbs, with striate, many-furrowed calyx and sepals-like bases at its base; petals with slender claws of leaves, the tube usually toothed at the base. + +a. Flowers simple, no ends of branches. + +b. Chrysanthemum, China or French pink; leaves short-herbaceous, not grass-like; early-spring time and as long as the leaves; petals in white and shades of red, very showy. + c. Perennial, but grown as an ornamental plant in gardens and parks. + d. Dianthus plumarius Lin., Grasse or Scotch pink; Common pink of garden grounds; free-standing; low-growing to nine inches high; the calyx-lobes broad; greenish-yellow; flowers deep rose-purple, fringed, white or pink; perennial. + +d. Garganopsis, Linn.; common pink; flowers like those of Dianthus plumarius but with a crown of leaves; leaves grass-like; fully showy; short and broad; petals more of less toothed but not fringed; flowers fragrant. + +e. Flowers in compact clusters. + +f. Barbatia Lin., Sweet William; Fig. A65. One (or more) erect, green; flowers small; in dense clusters at top (Fig. A59). + +II. Saponaria Officinalis Linn., Rose-petunia; with leaves at its base; stems: (one style); peduncles: at top (Fig. A59). + +s. officinalis Linn., Rosaceae Bet.; Perennial forming colonies in old pastures and waste places; leaves narrow and long-stalked; flowers: one to three, white or rose, in dense clusters, often double; the petals with a crown. Europe. + +308 +308 + +308 +THE KIETHS OF PLANTS + +3. LYCENIS. LYCENIS. Cuckoo. + +Annual or perennial, with leaves usually 5, and pod opening by 5 or more teeth, rarely by 1-2, or more-nerved, naked at the base; stems 10-100. +L. Githago, Scop. (or Agrimontus Githago, Linn.). Cerae cuckoo, +because it is a common weed in wheat fields (wheat is known as corn in Europe). The flowers are white, and the leaves are long and narrow, like those of the similar size and its seasons corresponding with those of wheat: annual, 2-3 ft., hairy; flowers purple-bluish and showy, on very long stalks, the petals crowned and the calyx deeply divided into 5 parts; fruit a pod. Illustration of Lycaenis Githago +L. Cornariae. Scop. Dainty little plant, *Melissa picra*. +Annual or perennial, white-woody all over; leaves short- +long, narrow, smooth, showy. Europe. Old Ger- +man and Alpine regions. + +4. STELLARIA. Cuckweed. + +Annual or perennial, 4-5 cm. petals of equal number and deeply cleft or sometimes wending; sta- +mens 10 or less; styles usually 2; pod opening by twice as many parts as there are stamens. +457 +Stellaria media. +8. melit. Smith. Common *chickwee*, Fig. 457. +Little prostrate annual, making a mat in cultivated grounds, with ovate leaves, smooth above and adaxi- +tary, minute, white; the parted petals shorter than the calyx, the peduncle elongating in fruit. Europe: very common. Blooms in cold weather. + +5. CRASSTUMUS. MEATY CUCKOO. + +Differs from Stellaria chiefly in having 2 styles and pod splitting into twice as many parts as there are stamens; grey grasses grow in heaths. From Europe. +C. vicioides, Linn. Annual, about 6 in. high; leaves erect to spreading; flowers small. In close clusters, the petals shorter than the calyx, and the pedicels not longer than the acute sepals. +C. vulgareum, Linn. Perennial and larger; clumsy hairy; leaves oblong; +peduncles longer than the other chace sepals, the flowers large. + +XI. RANUNCULACEAE. Crowfoot or Buttercup Family. + +Mostly herbs, with various habits and foliage: parts of the flower typically 3-cleft, free and distinct, but there are some spathulae and discuses species: stems many or few, in the former case becoming biconvex and in the latter usually becoming follicles. upwards of 30 genera and 1,000 to 2,000 species. +Characters: Leaves alternate or opposite; stipules often present; sepals marginal or caduus; adnate, clasping; larkspur, scutellum, columbine, hamberry, puccy. +Known from Kosseee by the hypogynous flowers. + +Illustration of Ranunculus sceleratus +Ranunculus sceleratus Linn. +Perennial herbaceous plant with long rhizome; stem erect, +slender; leaves alternate or opposite; stipules present; +sepals marginal or caduus; adnate, clasping; larkspur, +scutellum, columbine, hamberry, puccy. +Known from Kosseee by the hypogynous flowers. + +RANUNCULACEAE. 309 + +a. Fruits akenes, several or many from each flower. +1. True buttercups, but sepals petal-like (and involucres often simulating petals) with long stamens. +c. Involucre of 2 or more narrow leaves much beneath the flower. 2. Ranunculus. +b. Involucre of 3 or more broad leaves close to the flower. 3. Helleborus. +e. True petals present, yellow or white. +1. Ranunculus. Fronds foliaceous. +a. Fronds foliaceous, mostly yellow. +2. Caltha. Fronds sparsely hairy. +3. Anemone. + +A. ANEMONE. ANEMONE. WIND-FLOWER. +Low perennial herbs with mostly showy spatulate flowers and an involucre of 2 or more usually divided leaves standing some distance below the flower; petals entering into the involucre. + +a. A. japonica, Siebold & Zucc. Japanese anemone. Three f., blooming in fall; leaves 5-7 cm.; flowers 2-5 in.-rosette; leaves with 5-6 rounded-leafed lobes. Much planted. +b. A. Virginiana, Linn. Two f., with involucre of three spatulate leaves; flowers yellow, 1-2 cm.; leaves 5-8 cm.; flowers in clusters; leaves greenish-white; head of fruit oblong, 1-2 cm.; long, hanging. + +b. A. quinquefolia, Linn. Five f., one-segmented leaf-sheath; leaves long, about 10 cm., blooming in spring; flowers white; central leaves 3, each with 3 or 4 long lobes; flowers white, purplish outside, pretty. + +b. HEPATICA. Liver-LEAF. MATT-LEAF of some places. +Differ from Anemone chiefly by having 3 simple sepals like those be- +neath the flower; flowers white, yellow, or pink; petals absent; from 11-15 flowers in scattered spring, white, bluish or blue on simple hairy sepals; leaves 5-7 cm.; heads globular. + +c. H. trifolia, Linn. Leaves with rounded lobes. +d. H. acutiloba, Linn. Leaves with acute lobes. + +2. RANUNCULUS. Cow-wort, Buttercup. Figs. 2, 187, 188, 189, 232. + +Perennials or annuals, with usually yellow flowers; sepals 3-petals, 5-lobed; the fertile petal at each of the base (calyx); leaves alternate: sheath may be large. + +a. R. aconitum, Linn. Four-leaved buttercup. Two to 3 f., from diffuse rosettes; leaves ovate-lanceolate to elliptic-oblong, acuminate at apex; blade yellow, emarginate or entire; petals yellow, emarginate or entire; summer. +b. R. bulbosus, Linn. European buttercup; bulbous plant; leaves lanceolate-lanceolate to linear-lanceolate; the terminal ones elliptic-pedicelled; flowers bright yellow. +c. R. communis, Linn. Common buttercup; two to three f., from short rhizomes at base; leaves lanceolate-lanceolate to linear-lanceolate; the terminal ones elliptic-pedicelled; flowers bright yellow. + +309 + +310 THE KINDS OF PLANTS + +**4. CALTHA.** *Manson Monotonia.* Covering (in America). + +Low tufted herbs with undivided leaves, and clusters of yellow buttercup-like flowers; sepals 5-6; petal-like; petals none; pistils 3-5, ripening into several-seeded follicles. + +**5. AQUILEGIA.** *Cuckoo-bug.* Used for "greens." + +Upright herbs, with compound leaves which have petioles expanded at the base; sepals 5-6; petals 5 or 6, each produced from a long staminate petal; phyllis 3-5; fruit a several-seeded follicle. Delphinium or larkspur is an allied genus. + +a. Sparsa straight. + +**6. *Aquilegia Canadensis*.** Linn. Common wild columbine. + +Often incorrectly called "larkspur." Fig. 48. About 2 ft.; leaflets rounded or ovate, toothed at tips; flowers about 2 in. long, drooping; scarlet or orange or merely yellow; fruit a few-seeded follicle. + +b. *A. flavescens*. Gray. Yellow columbine. Flowers bright yellow, erect or becoming so. New Mexico and Arizona. + +c. *A. virgata*. Linn. Blue columbine. A European species, common in gardens, and often full double; flowers varying from blue and purple to white, with rather short and thick hooked spurs. + +**XII. CRUCIFEREE.** Mustard Family. + +Herbs, mostly of small stature, with alternate mostly simple leaves: flowers 4-memous as to envelopes, the four petals usually standing 90 degrees apart and thereby forming a cross (whence name Cruciferae), but sometimes the two upper petals of them shorter: fruit a siliqua or silique. A very natural or well-marked family, with about 180 genera and nearly 2,000 species. Familiar plants are mustard, shepherd's purse, honesty, cress, peppermint, radish, turnip, kale, kohlrabi, horseradish. + +a. A siliqua (much) beaked at the base. + b. Siliqua tipped with a long point or beak, extending beyond the valves, the latter often more than bearded. + c. Siliqua not prominently beaked beyond the valves, each valve strongly 1-nerved. + +2 Barberry + +**CRUCIFERAE** + +311 + +a. Fruit a silicle (short and broad). +b. Partition in the pod parallel to the sides. +c. Fruit in the pod curved. +d. Fruit in the pod curved, 2-angled. +e. Fruit in the pod curved, 4-angled. + +**1. BRASSICA. Mustard.** + +Erect branchy plant, usually annual, with more or less lanceolate leaves, and small yellow flowers in racemes of pendent: petals clear or maroon, often with a white spot on the upper side; fruit a silicle, cylindrical or 4-angled, the valves 1-nerved and the seeds in 1 row in each bulb. Cabbage, cauliflower, and turnip also belong to this genus. The following synonyms are common words introduced into English from Europe. + +**a. nigris. Koch.** See *Brassica* Fig. 256. Leaves plumelike, somewhat hairy; short stalked leaves with a white spot on the upper side; flower (four) comes largely from this species. + +**b. alba. Linn.** See *Brassica* Fig. 257. Leaves plumelike and smooth-hairy; rather thicker, leafy only but the lower part semi-broad-leaved. + +**b. Sinapisarum. Boiss.** See *Brassica* Leaves strongly toothed; pod knobby; fruit a silicle, the upper third hilobent and 2-edged. + +**2. BARBAREA. Waxwort.** + +Leaves beryl in early spring, with many small light yellow flowers, and lycas leaves with the terminal divisions much the same as those of *Barbarea*. The following synonyms are common words introduced into English from Europe. + +**a. vulgaris. R. Br.** See *Barbarea* Fig. 258. Flowers white or pale pinkish; fruit a single row in each bulb. + +**b. alba Linn.** See *Barbarea* Fig. 259. Flowers white; fruit a single row in each bulb. + +**3. ALYSSUM. Alyssum.** + +Small plants, mostly trailing, with several small bright yellow flowers in corymbose racemes; two rows in each bulb: flowers in elongating racemes. + +**a. maritimum. Linn.** Small alpine of the gardens (from which it is derived), producing a profusion of small white, fragrant flowers. + +**4. CAPSELLA. Sower's Pimeleia.* + +Low short-lived annuals, with very small white flow-ers in corymbose racemes; two rows in each bulb: flowers in elongating racemes. + +**a. nigrum Linn.** See *Capsella* Fig. 260, one of the commonest little weeds: root leaves plumelike or straight toothed, in a rosette, the stem leaves arrow-shaped. + +Europe + +312 +THE KINDS OF PLANTS + +5. LEPIDUM. Unseen Grass. +Small stilkless annuals (or biennials), which shed their leaves late in the season; flowers very small, white or greenish, in elongating racemes; pod small and roundish, the partition running across the narrow diameter. Fig. 220. + +6. VIRGINICA. Linum. Common pepper grass. About 1 ft. high, much branched; glabrous; leaves linear to lanceolate, tapering to the base, the lower mostly petiolate. Common weed; often found in canary banks. + +XIII. MALACACEE. Mallow Family + +Herbs or shrubs (trees in the tops) with alternate, mostly simple leaves which have stipules; flowers perfect and regular; 5 nectaries, often subequal; sepals 5, usually separate; the petals 5; stamens many, united in a column which closely surrounds the several styles: ovaries several, coming into a ring or some-what spreading at the base of the style; fruit a capsule, few-seeded, 1-foloured more or less indistinguishable capsules or a several-bellied capsule. About 60 genera and 700 species. Representative plants are mulberry, hollyhock, abutilon, althaea, althea, etc., cotton. + +A. Authors borne only at the top of the stem-in tube. +1. Fructus with several seeds at the base of the styles... 1. Melia +cc. Inflorescences of 6-9 branches. +2. Althaea +cc. Fructus with several seeded capsules... 3. Abutilon +Aa. Authors borne all along the side of the stem-in tube. +4. Althaea + +1. MALVA. MALLOW. +Herbs, with a 5-leaved involucre like an extra calyx; petals lobed-orbicular; capsules many in a ring, separating at maturity. Leaved and indolentish; common weeds. + +A. RUBELLIA. Linum. Common mallow. Chevreux. Fig. 224. Trull- +ing bimetal or perennial; rooting leaves orbicular, indistinctly lobed, +tapering to the base; stems pubescent; clustered in the axils. Yezekh. +B. PULCHRA. Linum. +Differ from Malva chiefly in having a 6-celled involucre. + +2. ALTHEA. Maiden MALLOW. +Flowers white or pinkish-purple; peduncles long; petals 5; pericarpium of angular or 5-lobed conical leaves, and large flowers in many colors. China. + +3. ABUTILON. INDIAN MALLOW. Fig. 170. +Mostly shrubs, often with map-like leaves, and no involucre on the flower: ovaries and fruits several-lobed. Contains conservatory plants. + +A diagram showing the structure of a flower from the Mallow Family. + +**MELVACEAE—GERMANIACEAE** + +**313** + +A. stratum, Dick., *Flowering apple.* Fig. 401. Stratum leaves 3-5- +lobed, green; flowers developing on long slender aerial peduncles, bi- +shaped, very erect or slant. Brazil. A conservatory and +house plant. + +A. Thomponti, Hort. *Spotted flowering apple.* Like the +last, but the leaves spotted with yellow, and the column +of stamens strongly projecting from the flower. Common in +cultivation. + +B. HIBISCUS. Kew MALLOW. +Herbs or shrubs, with an involucre of many narrow bracts; +stamens numerous, white or pink; corolla of 5 broad petals, +united; petiole 3-leafed; bractlets: flowers large and showy. +H. syriacus, Linn. *Althea of cultivated greens.* Showy +strawberry. + +XIV. GERMANIACEAE. GERMANIA FAMILY + +Herbs, chiefly with simple leaves; flowers perfect, or most genera +nearly regular (but sometimes very irregular), 5-membranous stamina as +many or twice as many as the sepals; bypogynous: ovary single, the +locules usually as many as the sepals; fruit capsular. A more diverse- +familial group than the other families of this order, with 25 genera and 700 +species. Common examples are geraniums, pelargoniums, moutanums, +himalaia, jewel-weed or touch-me-nots, oxalis. + +a. Flowers regular or very nearly so. +b. Sepals 5 (or 4), often lobed. +c. Another bearing stamens 10–12. +d. Another bearing stamens 8–10. +e. Leaves compound. +f. Flowers very irregular. +g. Petals 5 (or 4), long spur. +h. Flower hanging in its middle, with a short hooked spur. +i. Impatiens. + +1. GERANIUM. CHAMOMILE. +Small herbs with folding stems and 1-3-leaved peduncled sepals and +petals; stamens usually 5 (or 4), alternating with the petals; stamina 10, +usually all of them with perfect anthers; fruit 1-seeded capsules separat- +ing from the axis from the base upwards and curling downwards. +Geranium purpureum Linn., *Purple geranium.* +1-2-lfl., hairy erect: leaves oblong-lanceolate, deeply 2-5-petalled: petals +hairy, purple; fruit pendulous; common in gardens and waste places. +G. Robertianum, Linn., *Rose Geranium.* +Annual or biennial herb; leaves lanceolate: flower terminal or semi- +tissues less, somewhat hairy; spreading: leaves 2 or 3-divided into pinnatifid +divisions: frs. 5-fl., or less: petals pink to red. Moist places: common. + +A diagram showing the structure of a flower in the Germaniaceae family. + +314 THE KINDS OF PLANTS + +**2. FELIXRACIUM.** GRANACEA of gardens. + +Somewhat fleshy, strong-seeded plants, differing from Graminæ by having somewhat 2-lobed leaves, and stamens with anthers less than 10. +*F. grandiflorum.* *Felix racemosum.* Fig. 185. Stem somewhat succulent and glabrous; leaves ovate-lanceolate, often with bases of different colors; flowers in umbel-like clusters, deflexed at the base, 1-2 cm. broad; peduncle 1-2 cm. long; fruiting pedicels 1-2 cm. long; seeds 6-7 mm. long, blackish-brown, often with a white spot on one side; South Africa, not of hybride origin. + +**3. OXALIS.** Oxalis. Wood-sorrel. + +Low evergreen herbs with small flowers which have no chalons on the terminal branch; leaves digitate, of 3 or more leaflets, usually mostly linear; flowers yellow, rarely white or pink; sepals 3, usually 2-lobed; when monos- +diplostemonous, the alternate one shorter, pod 5-lobed, the lobes spreading or claspingly. The following have 3 orbicular leaves, closing at night. +*O. bulbosa.* Linn. Wood-sorrel. Scop. 2-5 in. high, from a creeping rhizome; leaves orbicular, 1-2 cm. broad; flowers yellow, fragrant; fruiting pedicels 1-2 cm. long; seeds 6-7 mm. long, blackish-brown, often with a white spot on one side; South Africa, not of hybride origin. +*O. violacea.* Linn. Scop. 2-5 in. high, with an umbel of several bright violet flowers, from a scaly bulb. Woods south, and a common window- +sill plant. + +**4. TROPÉOLUM.** NASTURCIUM of gardens. + +Tender, mostly climbing herbs (by means of tendrils), with one of the 5 petals extending into a long, nectar-bearing yellow spur; petals normally 5, but sometimes only 4 or 3; sepals 3 or 5; fruits a capsule or berry, rarely indehiscent in fruit. The following (from Peru) have pellate orbicular leaves (Fig. 186). +*T. tricolor.* Linn. Citronella nasturtium. Tall-climbing; flowers yellow, +red, cream-white, and other colors; petals not pointed. +*T. minus.* Linn. Desert nasturtium. Fig. 195. Not climbing; petals +yellow or white. + +**5. IMPATIENS.** TORECER-MENON. JEWEL-WEDDING. + +Soft or succulent tender herbs with simple alternate or opposite leaves and very irregular flowers: sepals 3 to 5, usually 4 of them produced in pairs at the base of the flower-stalk (pedicel); petals usually 4 or 5 each consisting of a united pair: stamens 5 or 6; fruit a capsule, claspingly discharging the seeds (whence the names "Impa- +tiens" and "Torecera"). The following are all herbaceous: *I. blumei.* +*I. blumei.* Linn. Wait., [f.] Natl., [f.] Natl., [f.] Natl., [f.] Natl., [f.] Natl., [f.] Natl., [f.] Natl., [f.] Natl., [f.] Natl., [f.] Natl., [f.] Natl., [f.] Natl., [f.] Natl., [f.] Natl., [f.] Natl., [f.] Natl., [f.] Natl., [f.] Natl., [f.] Natl., [f.] Natl., [f.] Natl., [f.] Natn., +*I. blumei.* Linn. Wait., [f.] Natl., [f.] Natl., [f.] Natl., [f.] Natl., [f.] Natl., [f.] Natl., [f.] Natl., [f.] Natl., [f.] Natn., +*I. blumei.* Linn. Wait., [f.] Natl., [f.] Natl., [f.] Natn., +*I. blumei.* Linn. Wait., [f.] Natn., +*I. blumei.* Linn. Wait., +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* Linn. +*I. blumei.* +314 + +GERANIAE-E.——SAFINDACIE. 315 + +obscurely serrated to the tube, the tail of the spur curled under the spur; +post opening abruptly when ripe, throwing the seeds (at various quicky curling from above downwards). Common in swales. + +L. sireus. Muhl. (L. peltata, Nutt.). *Yellow jewel- +- tree.* Tree, 10–15 ft.; leaves 2–3 in. long, with teeth usually ending in sharp point; flowers 1 in. long and much broader than those of L. bifolium, clear yellow, +and often with a slight purplish tinge; fruit oblong and nearly horizontal, the 2 sepals at apex of pedicel large and not closely appressed, but slender; pods in the shape of L. clematis more than the other, but often growing with it. + +XV. SAFINDACIE-E. SAPINEBRY OF MAPLE FAMILY. + +Trees or shrubs, of various habit; flowers polygamous or apetalous, often inconspicuous, 4- or 5-merous; stamens 10 or less, borne on a dense ring or disk surrounding the single 5-clefted pistil; fruit a pod, usually indehiscent; leaves simple or compound; tropical. Genus about 75 and species about 600 to 700. Maples, boxelder, hackberry, horse-chestnut, bladdernut, etc., are familiar examples. + +I. ACER. Maple. Box-elm. + +Tree or shrub, with opposite leaved or parted leaves prominent in leaf +edge; flowers usually inconspicuous, white or pale yellow, arising from winter buds, in leaf-bearers distinct; in true maple +perfect (or imperfectly dimorphic); calyx 5-lobed; 5-lobed corolla +with spreading lobes; petals free; stamens numerous; fruits a samara with +2 wings and 2 seeds. Two shrubs used mostly as maple +are common in some parts of the country. +a. Acer rubrum Linn. Red maple. Broadly lobed. +b. Acer saccharum Linn. Sugar maple. Broadly lobed. + +II. AERANTHUM. Lion's-tongue. + +Aeranthum officinale Linn. +very deeply 2-lobed, silvery-green leaves; stem with broad spreading +leaves, downy when young. Common along streams and in +low grounds; much planted for ornament. +Aeranthum orientale Linn. +leaves very narrow and linear; stem erect and bearing +white flowers; flowers thought to be the sweet maple sugar, +but not so good as that of A. rubrum. + +III. ABRUS. Rokkabu. + +Tree usually of only medium size; flowers red, with narrow-oblong petals; + +315 + +316 + +THE KINDS OF PLANTS + +leaves rather small, not deeply 3-lobed, whitish beneath, the lobes serrate and toothed; fruit with nearly parallel or slightly spreading wings, not downy. Low ground. + +10. *Flowers* in clusters, with the leaves, some or all on shoots of the season. + +a. *S. sibiricum*, Marsh. (A. Sibiricum, Linn.) Common, or rock maple. Figs., 129, 460. Flowers greenish, drooping, on long peduncles, the petals none and the calyx entire at the top: leaves ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, 5-7 cm. long, 2-3 cm. broad, 3-lobed and the side lobes again lobed, all lobes and teeth ending in points; the basal sinus broad and deep; fruit with spreading wings. Commonest of maple species. + +b. *A. nigrescens*, Michx. Black sugar maple. Fig., 129, 460. Leaves ovate-lanceolate and shallow, 5-8th toothed and with only blunt points; the basal sinus narrow or quite closed; wings of fruit nearly parallel, large. Eastern Central North America. + +c. *A. carpinifolium*, Michx. Carpinus carpinifolia Linn. Carpinus carpinifolia Linn. +d. *A. platanoides*, Lindl. Norway maple. Figs., 75, 174, 296-300. Flowers few in umbel-like clusters, yellowish green, large, with both sepals and petals; leaves large and hairy; 3-5 lobed and much toothed; fruit with spreading wings. Europe. Commonly planted; his milky juice is a round, dense head. + +aa. *Bee-butter*: *Ilex parvifolia*. Deciduous tree with greenish-yellow flowers in panicles; fruit for long racemes, divisions with 5-leaved calyx and corolla; and 4-5 stamens; the sterile flowers on long, slender pedicels: leaves pinate, with 3-5 ovate-pointed toothed leaflets; fruit with somewhat incurving wings. Commonly planted in oak and dry open wood. + +XVI. LEGUMINOSAE. PULSE OR PEA FAMILY. + +Herbs, shrubs or trees, mostly with pinnately compound alternate leaves: flowers papilionaceous in the species described below; fruit typically a legume. A vast family and widely dispersed, with many tropical species. About 600, and species about 6,500. Besides the Leguminosae proper (Leguminosae), they are separated into the family Papilionaceae, and those of the acacia tribe, with regular flowers, as the Mimoseae. Familiar leguminous plants are peas, beans, lupine, clover, alfalfa, vetch, wistaria, locust, red-bud. + +A black-and-white illustration of a flowering plant with green leaves and yellowish-green flowers. +A black-and-white illustration of a flowering plant with green leaves and yellowish-green flowers. +A black-and-white illustration of a flowering plant with green leaves and yellowish-green flowers. +A black-and-white illustration of a flowering plant with green leaves and yellowish-green flowers. +A black-and-white illustration of a flowering plant with green leaves and yellowish-green flowers. +A black-and-white illustration of a flowering plant with green leaves and yellowish-green flowers. +A black-and-white illustration of a flowering plant with green leaves and yellowish-green flowers. +A black-and-white illustration of a flowering plant with green leaves and yellowish-green flowers. +A black-and-white illustration of a flowering plant with green leaves and yellowish-green flowers. +A black-and-white illustration of a flowering plant with green leaves and yellowish-green flowers. +A black-and-white illustration of a flowering plant with green leaves and yellowish-green flowers. +A black-and-white illustration of a flowering plant with green leaves and yellowish-green flowers. +A black-and-white illustration of a flowering plant with green leaves and yellowish-green flowers. +A black-and-white illustration of a flowering plant with green leaves and yellowish-green flowers. +A black-and-white illustration of a flowering plant with green leaves and yellowish-green flowers. +A black-and-white illustration of a flowering plant with green leaves and yellowish-green flowers. +A black-and-white illustration of a flowering plant with green leaves and yellowish-green flowers. +A black-and-white illustration of a flowering plant with green leaves and yellowish-green flowers. +A black-and-white illustration of a flowering plant with green leaves and yellowish-green flowers. +A black-and-white illustration of a flowering plant with green leaves and yellowish-green flowers. +A black-and-white illustration of a flowering plant with green leaves and yellowish-green flowers. +A black-and-white illustration of a flowering plant with green leaves and yellowish-green flowers. +A black-and-white illustration of a flowering plant with green leaves and yellowish-green flowers. +A black-and-white illustration of a flowering plant with green leaves and yellowish-green flowers. +A black-and-white illustration of a flowering plant with green leaves and yellowish-green flowers. +A black-and-white illustration of a flowering plant with green leaves and yellowish-green flowers. +A black-and-white illustration of a flowering plant with green leaves and yellowish-green flowers. +A black-and-white illustration of a flowering plant with green leaves and yellowish-green flowers. +A black-and-white illustration of a flowering plant with green leaves and yellowish-green flowers. +A black-and-white illustration of a flowering plant with green leaves and yellowish-green flowers. +A black-and-white illustration of a flowering plant with green leaves and yellowish-green flowers. +A black-and-white illustration of a flowering plant with green leaves and yellowish-green flowers. +A black-and-white illustration of a flowering plant with green leaves and yellowish-green flowers. +A black-and-white illustration of a flowering plant with green leaves and yellowish-green flowers. +A black-and-white illustration of a flowering plant with green leaves and yellowish-green flowers. +A black-and-white illustration of a flowering plant with green leaves and yellowish-green flowers. +A black-and-white illustration of a flowering plant with green leaves and yellowish-green flowers. +A black-and-white illustration of a flowering plant with green leaves and yellowish-green flowers. +A black-and-white illustration of a flowering plant with green leaves and yellowish-green flowers. +A black-and-white illustration of a flowering plant with green leaves and yellowish-green flowers. +A black-and-white illustration of a flowering plant with green leaves and yellowish-green flowers. +A black-and-white illustration of a flowering plant with green leaves and yellowish-green flowers. +A black-and-white illustration of a flowering plant with green leaves and yellowish-green flowers. + +LEGuminosae. 317 + +A. Stems, twining. +1 +A. Herbs. +b. Plant climbing by tendrils. +c. Calyx leafy lobed. +d. Calyx 5-lobed. +e. Plant not tendril-bearing. +f. Leaves digitate, 3 leaves. +g. Leaves digitate, 3 leaves, with stipules and the stem. +h. Leaves, 3 leaves, with stipules and the stem. +i. Leaves, 3 leaves, with stipules and the stem. +j. Leaves, 3 leaves, with stipules and the stem. +k. Flowers small, in very slender racemes. +l. Flowers medium to large, clustered at the joints of the stems. + +B. WITARIA. +Tall shrubby twiner, producing long, dense racemes of showy flowers, +longer than the stems; several or many heads; 2 upper fully reflexed; shorter; +standard large and rounded; pod kurtze, curved-wooded. + +W. chinensis, Dec., Wartaria. Popular climber for porches, from China; flowers white or pale yellow; pods of bright blue sometimes white; pan- +like flowers in spring and summer. + +C. FISUM. Pea. +Shrub-like, climbing by tendrils which are homologous with leaves; +leaves compound, 3 leaflets; 1 pair of lateral leaflets, and 1 very large leaflet; +leaves of early leaf; flowers large, white or pink on silky pubescent peduncles; +pod kurtze, curved-wooded. + +P. sativum, Scop., Garden pea. Fig. 190, 261. Smooth and glaucous; +leaves usually 2 pairs, broadened peduncles 2 or more flowered, old pods green. + +D. LATHYRUS. Vetchling. +Moth-like plants, differing chiefly in very typical characters, last best +told in general by the narrow leaves and pods, and not fully easy. +L. odoratus, Linn., Sweet pea. Fig. 86, 250. Annual; the main hairy; +leaves ovate-lanceolate; flowers purple or white; pods long peduncled, +very fragrant, in many heads. Southern Europe. + +L. latifolius, Linn., Richling pea. Fig. 286. Perennial of long +duration; leaves ovate-lanceolate; flowers white or purple; pods few, +many in a cluster; peduncles long peduncled, rose-purple and white. Europe. + +E. TRIFOLIUM. Clover. +Annuals of perennial kinds with digitate leaves of 3 leaflets (old seedlings +jointed); flowers white or pink; pods short peduncled; leaves not very +narrow; in dense heads; fruit a 1 to be formed little pod which does not exceed the calyx. + +A diagram showing the structure of a legume plant. + +318 + +THE KINDS OF PLANTS + +n. Flowers sterile to the dense heads. + +T. praestans, Linna. Common red clover. Fig. 52. Erect, 1-2 ft., with oval or oblong leaves which have a pale spot or band near the center and usually a notch at the end; flowers rose-red, honey-sweet, the head sometimes terminated by leaves. Europe, but common every- +where in the United States. +T. medium, Linn. Medium red clover. Larger, the stem less +stiff than in T. praestans, the leaves broader, the head staked above the uppermost leaves. Otherwise like the first. +a. Flowers short-stalked in the heads. + +T. hybrida, Linn. Atake clover. Slender, from a prostrate base, 1-2 ft.; leaves ovate-oblong; head small and globular, light rose-colored. + +T. ripens, Linn. White clover. Small, the stems long-creep- +ing, many-flowered; leaves oblong-lanceolate; head white. + +60. +high: leaves oblong; heads small, white. + +Trifolium +incompletum, Linn. Incomplete clover; white clover. +Fig. 468. Stout, hairy, erect plant, 1-2 ft., with ob- +long-oblong leaves and brilliant crimson flowers in a long raceme; flowers white; very frequently cultivated. + +A. MELLITUS, Sweet Clover. +Tall erect annual or biennial, with sweet-scented +herbage and small white or yellow flowers in numerous +open racemes; leaves oblong-ovate; pod black, oval-shaped, +usually with a notch at the end; 1-2 ft., Europe. +M. alba, Linn. White sweet clover. Bokhara +clover; 1-2 ft.; flowers white; the standard longer than other petals. +Europe; common on roadsides. + +A. melissoides, Linn. Honey-clover; Fig. 469. +Leaves obtuse: flowers yellow. Less common than +the other. + +b. MEDICAGINAE, Millet. +The MEDICAGINEAE are plants with small flowers in heads or +short spikes and toothed leaves; particularly dis- +tinguished by the curved or coiled calyx. +T. angustifolia, Linn. +Erect perennial, with ovate-oblong leaves and short +spikes or dense racemes of blue-purple flowers. Eu- +rope; common on roadsides. + +C. Melilotus sativus. +M. hypogaeum, Linna. Hemp clover. Black medick. + trailing chevere-like plant, with oblong leaves and yellow flowers in heads or very short spikes; pod black when ripe. Europe; common weed East. + +40 +40. Mellitius alba + +LEGUMINOSAE.-KOSACEAE. 319 + +**7. PHASEOLUS.** Bean. + +Tender herbs, often twining, the flowers rarely yellow, and the plamate leaves of 3 leaflets, usually in clusters on the joints of the raceme or at the end of the peduncle, the keel (in closing the essential organs) falling into a tube. + +F. vulgaris, Linn. Common bean. +Fl. 25-26. 5-25-6. 171. Annual twining herb, with a long tap-root; leaves palmate, the three leaflets ovate; the lateral ones 171. Phaselus unguiculatus, Linn. False bean; flowers white or purplish; leaves palmate, the three leaflets narrow and nearly straight. Probably from tropical America. + +G1. Phaseolus vulgaris. +Linn. Linn. Phaseolus vulgaris. +tall herb, with a long tap-root; leaves shorter than the leaves; peduncle short and curved, with a few flowers. + +F. multiflorus, Willd. Scutellaria multiflora. Perennial +sial in warm countries from a tuberous root, tall twining herb, with a long tap-root; flowers bright scarlet (white in the Dutch Cuckooflower bean); leaves palmate, spreading the leaves: pod long and broad but not flat. Tropical America, cultivated for ornament and for food. + +**8. VIGNA.** Bean. + +Vigna is a genus of Phaseolus chiefly in technical characters, +one of which is the curved rather than solid keel of the flower. + +V. radiata, Endl. Carponia. Fert. Jess. Portion. +Fig. 422. Long-stemmed or twining, tender annual; leaflets narrow ovate; flowers white or pale, 2 or 3 on the apex of a very long peduncle, the slender peduncles short; pod slender and long cylindrical; seed really a bean rather than pea small, short-stalked. China, Japan; much green South for forage. + +XVII KOSACEAE.-KOSACEAE + +Herbs, shrubs and trees, none like the Nasturtiums: leaves alternate, mostly with stipules (which are often deciduous); flowers mostly perfect and polygamous, the stamens usually polygamous: stamens mostly numerous (more than 20): pistils 1 to many: fruit an akene or follicle; seeds mostly numerous (more than 100), or rarely few: pods usually long or cylindrical: family large of temperate regions, of about 75 genera and 1,200 species. By some writers divided into three or four families, + +A diagram showing the structure of a legume flower. + +320 +THE KINDS OF PLANTS + +Common rosaceous plants are rose, strawberry, apple, pear, plum, peach, cherry, blackberry, raspberry, spirea, cinquefoil. + +a. Herbs (those described below). + +1. Terns becoming leaves from stems. 1. Potentilla +ns. Terns becoming flushy; flowers directly from the crown or root. +2. Fragaria +a. Shrubs. + +b. Ovary 1, free from the calyx and tornus, becoming a drop. 2. Prunus +ns. Ovaries many, free from the calyx and tornus, becoming a drop. +3. Rubus +ns. Ovaries many, becoming slender in a hollow tornus. 5. Rosa +ns. Ovaries 5, imbricated in the tornus. +6. Pyrus + +1. POTENTILLA. +FIVE-FINGERED CINQUEFOIL. + +Herbs (sometimes shrubby) with flat deeply 5-leaved calyx and 5-lobed tornus; flowers yellowish; petals stamens many; +fruit an alone, of which there many in a little head on the small dry tornus: leaves compound. + +2. NERINE. +An erect (1-2 ft.) tall very hairy and coarse annual, +with 2 or 3 oblong or orbicular leaflets and small flowers in which the yellow corolla is usually not so large as the calyx. Common weed. + +3. TRUCHARDIA. +Low perennial with 3 broad-toothed lobes and a few flowers on nodal peduncles; leaves elongating in fruit. +F. vossii. Lindl. Fig. 474. Small, very sparingly branched; leaves hairy; the leaves thin and rather light green, very sharply toothed; flower stalks long; fruit full of seeds; seed well covered, forked; fruit slender and pointed, light colored (sometimes white), the alcoves not sunk in the calyx. + +4. VIRGINIANA. +Duch., Common field-stone- +berry. Fig. 475. Stronger; darker green, lower part of stem more hairy than upper part; leaves larger and broader; flower-cluster slender but not overtopping the leaves; in fruit with drooping yellowish-brown sepals; fruit with a thickened base at the base of the calyx; alcoves sunk in the flesh, light colored. Very- +common. + +F. chionantha. Duch., Garden strawberry. Fig. 264. Low and spreading but stout; the thick leaves somewhat glossy above and bluish white + +ROSACEE. 321 + +beneath, rather blunt-toothed; flower-clusters short, forking, the pedicels strong and long; fruit large and firm, dark colored, with sunken akemes. +China. + +3. *Pernetia*. *Fisch.* Fisch. Chestnut. + +Trees and shrubs, mostly flowering in early spring; sepals, petals and stamens borne on the rim of a saucer-shaped tube, the calyx with a green spreading lobes and a white margin. The flowers are small, the sepals and petals united into a tube, the stamens in the bottom of the flower, the upper ray-ripen- +ing into a drupe; leaves alternate. + +*Pernetia* *amurensis*. *Fisch.* Fig. 476. A small tree or shrub, with solitary flowers borne between the leaves. +*Pernetia* *Sibk.* Sibk. & Zucc. *Fisch.* Fig. 475. Small tree or shrub, with solitary flowers borne between the leaves and odd- +ity fuzzy fruits on last year's wood only. The leaves are +tarified in a smooth-furred form. + +*Pernetia* *amurensis*. *Fisch.* Fig. 476. Leaves entire to rounded-ovate; serrate fruits solitary, on last year's shoots or on spurs, +smooth or nearly so. +China. + +*Platina*: *Thunberg* (as to flowers) *Fisch.* Fig. 477. Leaves entire to rounded-ovate; flowers small and smooth, usually smooth or "smooth" on one side and covered with a +"thorn" on the other side. + +*Platina* *amurensis*. *Fisch.* Fig. 478. Small tree, usually with young shoots downy; bark thick and relatively large, dull dark green, +orate, oval or ovate, very reguine or oval, somewhat pubescent beneath, +with a few scattered hairs on the upper surface; fruits various, usually thick- +ened and with heavy "thorns". Europe, Asia. + +*Platanus*. *Morsch.* Wild plane of the North. Fig. 479. Twicy +small tree, often thorny; the young shoots usually not downy; leaves also + +64 *Pernetia* *Amurensis.* +65 *Pernetia* *amurensis.* +var., dull green, abruptly pointed, generally toothed or jagged, not pubescent beneath; fruit small, red or yellow, smooth-edged and glaucous; the petiole large and flattened. Common (in thickness); improved forms are in cultivation. + +A small tree or shrub with solitary flowers borne between the leaves. +A small tree or shrub with solitary flowers borne between the leaves and oddity fuzzy fruits on last year's wood only. +A small tree or shrub with leaves entire to rounded-ovate; serrate fruits solitary, on last year's shoots or on spurs, smooth or nearly so. +A small tree or shrub with leaves entire to rounded-ovate; flowers small and smooth, usually smooth or "smooth" on one side and covered with a "thorn" on the other side. +A small tree, usually with young shoots downy; bark thick and relatively large, dull dark green, orate, oval or ovate, very reguine or oval, somewhat pubescent beneath, with a few scattered hairs on the upper surface; fruits various, usually thickened and with heavy "thorns". Europe, Asia. +A twicy small tree, often thorny; the young shoots usually not downy; leaves also var., dull green, abruptly pointed, generally toothed or jagged, not pubescent beneath; fruit small, red or yellow, smooth-edged and glaucous; the petiole large and flattened. Common (in thickness); improved forms are in cultivation. + +529 + +THE Kinds OF PLANTS + +P. angustifolia. Marsh. Chickweed-plum. *Monotoca serrap.* Fig. 47b. +Smaller, the young growths smooth and zigzag and usually reddish; leaves +lanceolate to oblong-lanceolate, often trough-shaped, shining, finely serrate, +often with a few teeth on the upper side; flowers white, in clusters on +a long pedicel. Delaware, south; also in cultivation. + +aa. *Cherries:* flowers in nabuk-like clusters; fruit +small and usually globular, very rarely ellipsoid, non- +glabrous; leaves a prominent outer and 'blow,' the +stipule slender. + +P. cernua. Linna. Some cherry. Round-leaved +cherry. Flowers white, in clusters of 3-6; leaves +hand and stiffly, short-ovate or ovalate, grey- +green, inner ones greenish-yellow; fruit small, +conical, yellow-brown. New England. + +480. *Prunus Avium.* +Avium. Plum. The plum tree. The plum tree is +prominent in young trees, with flowers in clusters from lateral spur; +leaves oblong-ovate, dull and soft, on the young growths hanging; fruit +usually rather large, sweet. + +481. *RUBUS.* + +Rubus. Wild raspberry, thorny, the stems or shoots dying after fruiting, with +alternately digitately compound leaves: flowers white, in clusters, with +5-parted calyx and 5-carpels: ovaries many, ripening into drooping coherent berries. + +a. *Rubusstrigosus.* +Strigosus. Spiny raspberry. Fig. 481a. +R. occidentalis Linna. Black raspberry. Figs. 125, 263. +Cane-like shrub; thorns, glaucous; growing at the tips late in the season; leaves of nearly +3-5-lobed shape; flowers white; fruit black; leaves of brownish-green color; fruits: leaves, +firm (sometimes amber-colored). Woods, and common in cultivation. + +b. *R. strigosus.* +Strigosus. Black raspberry. Fig. 481b. +Cane-like shrub; thorns, glaucous; growing at the tips early in the season; leaves of nearly +3-5-lobed shape; flowers white; fruit black; leaves of brownish-green color; fruits: leaves, +firm; fruits: soft, red, Woods, and cultivated. + +aa. *Althaea:* drupes adhering to the torns (the torns forming the +fruit). + +P. nigrocobaea. Bailey (L.) citronum s.s.; Common blackberry. +Tall, very thorny: leaves 3-5 or 5-7 veined and toothed, leafy basehaw; +flowers large, in open racemes: fruit thimble-shaped and firm, black when dry. +Woods. + +P. villosa Aubl. (L.) Canadensis s.s.; Northern blackberry. +R. growing at the tips early in the season: leaves of nearly +3-5-lobed shape; flowers white; fruit black; leaves of brownish-green color; +toothed: fruits: soft and juicy; short peduncles: fruits large: fruit like a small +shining blackberry: Stubble fields, and in cultivation. + +P. leucantha Linn. +White blackberry. +Flowers white: leaves 3-5-lobed: fruits large: Long-tapering, +very thorny and bristly: leaves 3-5, more or less overgrown, mostly lance- +oblong and small, strong-toothed: flowers 1-3: fruit black. Sands, Vir- +ginia, south; also in cultivation. + +A diagram showing the structure of a plant. + +ROSACEE. SAXIFRAGACEE. + +**5. ROSA. Rose.** + +More or less thorny erect or climbing shrubs with pinnate wing-foliated leaves, and flowers with 5 calyx-leaves and 5 large rounded petals: pistils many-angled, stamens few (or none), styles long, stigma sessile, ovary bellow-torus (fruit becoming a hip, Fig. 26). Most of the garden roses are too difficult for the beginner, as they are much modified by the plant-breeder. +309 + +**1. R. canina. Dog-rose.** Usually low, with stout hooked bristles: stipules rather broad; bracts about 2, smooth and slightly shining above; flowers large, rose-purple, or white, in corymbs; pedicels short; fruit a hip. +**2. R. humilis. Moss-rose.** Three feet or less tall, with straight, slender spines: stipules narrow; flowers usually nearly or quite straight; stipules (petiole-bangs) long and narrow; bracts leaf-like; pedicels short. +**3. R. spinosissima. Thorns.** With alternate leaves, and flowers in corymbs in spring; flowers 5-merous: ovary usually 5-armed in the tops, the style free. + +**4. R. spinosissima var. spinosa.** Linn., *Proc.* Soc., 63, 101, 102, 103, 206. Leaves erect, stiff and shining, smooth, close-nodded; fruit tapering to the pedicel. +**5. R. spinosa. Linn., *Journ.* Bot., figs. 67, 287. Leaves erect, soft, hairy beneath, serrate; fruit hooked at the base when ripe. +**6. Pteris. Pearl-Air-pine.* + +Herbs or shrubs of various habit, with opposite or alternate leaves that usually do not have stipules: flowers with ovoid mostly inferior, 3-armed ovary: petals 5 or more: stamens few or none: fruit a capsule, united, the fruit a follicle, capsule, or berry. +A polysemous family comprising some 600 species in about 75 genera. Comprises saxifragae, +mistle-to-wort, hydrangeae, moss orange, eastern gromwell. + +XVIII. SAXIFRAGACEE. Saxifrage Family. + +Herbs or shrubs of various habit, with opposite or alternate leaves that usually do not have stipules: flowers with ovoid mostly inferior, 3-armed ovary: petals 5 or more: stamens few or none: fruit a capsule, united, the fruit a follicle, capsule, or berry. +A polysemous family comprising some 600 species in about 75 genera. +Comprises saxifragae, +mistle-to-wort, hydrangeae, moss orange, eastern gromwell. + +**a. Leaves opposite** + +**b. Leaves alternate** + +**c. Stipules present** + +**d. Stipules absent** + +**e. Flowers perfect** + +**f. Flowers imperfect** + +**g. Stamens present** + +**h. Stamens absent** + +**i. Fruit a capsule** + +**j. Fruit a follicle** + +**k. Fruit a berry** + +**l. Fruit a pod** + +**m. Fruit a nut** + +**n. Fruit a stone** + +**o. Fruit a seed** + +**p. Fruit a bulb** + +**q. Fruit a tuber** + +**r. Fruit a rhizome** + +**s. Fruit a corm** + +**t. Fruit a bulbil** + +**u. Fruit a tuber** + +**v. Fruit a bulbil** + +**w. Fruit a bulbil** + +**x. Fruit a bulbil** + +**y. Fruit a bulbil** + +**z. Fruit a bulbil** + +**aa. Fruit a bulbil** + +**bb. Fruit a bulbil** + +**cc. Fruit a bulbil** + +**dd. Fruit a bulbil** + +**ee. Fruit a bulbil** + +**ff. Fruit a bulbil** + +**gg. Fruit a bulbil** + +**hh. Fruit a bulbil** + +**ii. Fruit a bulbil** + +**jj. Fruit a bulbil** + +**kk. Fruit a bulbil** + +**ll. Fruit a bulbil** + +**mm. Fruit a bulbil** + +**nn. Fruit a bulbil** + +**oo. Fruit a bulbil** + +**pp. Fruit a bulbil** + +**qq. Fruit a bulbil** + +**rr. Fruit a bulbil** + +**ss. Fruit a bulbil** + +**tt. Fruit a bulbil** + +**uu. Fruit a bulbil** + +**vv. Fruit a bulbil** + +**ww. Fruit a bulbil** + +**xx. Fruit a bulbil** + +**yy. Fruit a bulbil** + +**zz. Fruit a bulbil** + +***a1*. *Philadelphus* Linn., *Proc.* Soc., 63, 101, 102, 103. + +Shrubs with showy yellow or paniculate white flowers and opposite simple leaves: petals 3 or 5; stamens 20 or more; ovary bellow-torus (fruit becoming an apple), becoming dry before falling off. +***b1*. *Corylus* Linn., *Linn.* Journ., figs. + +Tall shrub with erect branches: leaves oblong and acute and smooth; flowers cream-white, fragrant, in close clusters, in late spring. +Encyclopaedia. + +A black-and-white illustration of the dog-rose (Rosa canina). +A black-and-white illustration of the moss-rose (Rosa humilis). +A black-and-white illustration of the thorns (Rosa spinosissima). +A black-and-white illustration of the pearl-air-pine (Pteris). +A black-and-white illustration of the dog-rose (Rosa canina). +A black-and-white illustration of the moss-rose (Rosa humilis). +A black-and-white illustration of the thorns (Rosa spinosissima). +A black-and-white illustration of the pearl-air-pine (Pteris). +A black-and-white illustration of the dog-rose (Rosa canina). +A black-and-white illustration of the moss-rose (Rosa humilis). +A black-and-white illustration of the thorns (Rosa spinosissima). +A black-and-white illustration of the pearl-air-pine (Pteris). +A black-and-white illustration of the dog-rose (Rosa canina). +A black-and-white illustration of the moss-rose (Rosa humilis). +A black-and-white illustration of the thorns (Rosa spinosissima). +A black-and-white illustration of the pearl-air-pine (Pteris). +A black-and-white illustration of the dog-rose (Rosa canina). +A black-and-white illustration of the moss-rose (Rosa humilis). +A black-and-white illustration of the thorns (Rosa spinosissima). +A black-and-white illustration of the pearl-air-pine (Pteris). +A black-and-white illustration of the dog-rose (Rosa canina). +A black-and-white illustration of the moss-rose (Rosa humilis). +A black-and-white illustration of the thorns (Rosa spinosissima). +A black-and-white illustration of the pearl-air-pine (Pteris). +A black-and-white illustration of the dog-rose (Rosa canina). +A black-and-white illustration of the moss-rose (Rosa humilis). +A black-and-white illustration of the thorns (Rosa spinosissima). +A black-and-white illustration of the pearl-air-pine (Pteris). + +324 +THE KINDS OF PLANTS + +P. grandiflora. Wild. Tall, with long recurving branches; leaves ovate-pointed and somewhat downy beneath; flowers pure white, scentless, in loose clusters. Virginian, south, and planted. + +2. RIBES. Gooseberry and Currant. + +Low shrubs, with simple or alternate digitately lobed leaves: flowers small; sepals 5 and petal-like; on the ovary: petals and stamens 5, borne on the calyx: fruit a small globular berry. + +a. Gooseberries: Flowers 2-3: usually spines below the leaves. +R. spinosum, Linn. Low bush, with long recurving branches and very large leaves: leaves thin, smooth, about 3-leaved, the edges entire and round-toothed: flowers very short pedicels, the calyx shorter than the corolla tube: the ovary sessile: fruit small: the fruit reddish or greenish-brown: cultivated by Hookham and Downing gooseberries. + +b. Grossularia. Linn. English gooseberry. Stiffer and denser bush, with roundish thickening more shining leaves, which have revolute margins: + +A black and white illustration of a gooseberry plant. + +1st. Ribes rubrum. +2d. Ribes Amerizanum. +3rd. Ribes anemonum. + +ovary downy and the large fruit pubescent or bristly: parent of the large-fruited gooseberries. + +E. Cydonia. Quince. Small tree or shrub, open, prickly bush, with thick bark; bluntly 5-leaved leaves bearing 2-3 short peduncles bearing 2 or more flowers with calyx lobes shorter than the tube; leaves rounded and 5-leaved; fruit dull purple; often used for making preserves. Europe. + +a. Cydonia oblonga (Linn.) Mill. Quince. + +R. rubrum, Linn. Red-leaf white currant. Fig. 481. Erect bush, with broad-ovate 5-leaved leaves with rounded lobes and not strong-smelling; flowers white; petals greenish and nearly flat: spur berries (cur- +rants) red or white. Europe. + +R. nigritum, Linn. Black currant. Stronger bush, with strong-scented leaves; flowers white; petals greenish; berries black: fruit much smaller than the peduncles: berries black and strong-smelling. Europe. + +R. Ameridicum, March., E.R. Barlow, L.Herr., Black currant. +Fig. 482. Straggling bush, with heart-shaped 5-leaved doubly serrate some + +SAXIFRAGACEA. — UMBELLIFERA. 253 + +what scented leaves; flowers in long racemes, whitish, with bracts larger than the petals; fruit black, scarred, Woods. + +R. aureum, Pursh. Gildes, baldots, or flowering currant, Fig. 483. +Large bush, with racemes of long-tubular yellow very fragrant flowers; fruit blackish. Missouri, New, but common in regions for its flowers. + +XIX. UMBELLIFERAE. Paesley Family. + +Herbs, mostly strongly-scented and with compound alternate leaves with stipules expanded or sheathing at the base; flowers small, white, yellow, or purple; fruits usually capsules or berries; inflorescences: stamens 5; fruit consisting of two carpels, which are dry and seed-like and imbricant. A well-marked natural family of about 1,500 species in about 160 genera. Some of the species are poisonous; others are used as food, celery, cassava, sweet-clover. Rather difficult for the beginner. + +a. Fruits leathery. +254 +1. DUCASIA. +a1. Fruits not leathery. +255 +2. PASTINACA. +a2. Carpels of "seeds" winged. +256 +b. Carpels from which the carpels separate not splitting in two. +257 +3. ASTRAGALUS. +a3. Carpels from which the carpels separate splitting in two. +258 +4. DAUCUS. Cumin. +Animals or bionimals, leafy, slender and branching, with small white flowers in compound umbels; the rays of which become inflated in fructif.: the fruit is ribbed and beaked. + +D. Cusinum Linn., Fig. 103. Leaves pliantly compound; the ultimate segments linear-oblong under flowers with larger petioles: Europe; cultivated for the root, and extensively wild. + +PASTINACA. +a4. Plants with simple bracts of entire habit and with pinnately compound leaves; flowers few in compound umbels with scarcely any involucres: fruit oval, very thin, wing-margined. + +P. sativa Linn., Fig. 574. Flowering stem 5-8 ft., tall, greenish-brown; leaflets acute or obtuse, sharp-toothed: Europe; cultivated for its roots and also run wild. + +b. Plants with large pinnate leaves; flowers white; in small bunches; fruit small, usually as broad as long, each carpel 3-lobed: axis from which the carpels fall not splitting in two. + +CASSIA + +326 +THE Kinds OF PLANTS + +A. *axiwiolus*, Linn. *Colubr.* Bicornia, smooth : leaflets 5-7, wedge-shaped or oblong, the lower ones about 3-ribbed, round-toothed ; Europe; cultivated for its peaches, which have become greatly enlarged. + +B. *CAREM* Carvacat. + +Scented and erect, smooth annual and biennial herbs with pinnate leaves; flowers yellowish, in compound umbels provided with in- volucres; axis bearing the corals splitting in two at maturity. + +C. *Carvi* Linum. *Carnua*. Stem furrowed, 1-2 ft.; leaves cut into three lobes; flowers yellowish, in umbels. Cultivated for its fruits, known as "Carnway seed," and also run wibi. + +D. *Petroselum*, Beaub. *Petroselum*. One to 2 ft.; leaves entire and 3-chaffy, often much cut or "surfaced" by the green kindred; flowers yellowish. Europe. + +XX. G.MAPOTETALE. + +XX. LABIATE. MINT FAMILY. + +Herbs, usually of aromatic scent, with 4-cornored stem and opposite usually simple leaves; flowers typically 2-lobed; stamens 2 in pairs, or only 2; calyx tubular 4-lobed, forming 4 indehiscent nutlets; style long, spreading or spreading and recurved ; fruit distributed in about 150 genera, of both temperate and tropical regions. +To this family belong the various mints, as peppermint, spearmint, catnip, hyssop, balm, pennyroyal, savory, rosemary, sage, horehound, thyme, etc. Flowers mostly in whorls in the axils of leaves or bracts; sometimes forming interrupted spikes. + +a. Stamens 2. +1. *Nepeta* Catnip. +aa. Calyx nearly equally 4-lobed. +bb. Corolla nearly 4-lobed. +cc. Calyx nearly or quite regular. +dd. Lower or outer pair longer. +ee. Tube of corolla including the stamens. +ff. The tube of corolla shorter than the stamens projecting. + +b. Stamens 4. +1. *Monarda* Monarda. +Rather stout, mostly perennial, with flowers in close terminal heads; calyx tubular, 1-several; hairy in the throat, the teeth nearly equal; corolla strongly 3-lobed; the upper lip erect, the lower spreading and 3-lobed. + +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8 +9 +10 +11 +12 +13 +14 +15 +16 +17 +18 +19 +20 +21 +22 +23 +24 +25 +26 +27 +28 +29 +30 +31 +32 +33 +34 +35 +36 +37 +38 +39 +40 + +A small image of a plant with yellow flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with purple flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with white flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with pink flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with blue flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with red flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with orange flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with purple flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with white flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with pink flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with blue flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with red flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with orange flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with purple flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with white flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with pink flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with blue flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with red flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with orange flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with purple flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with white flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with pink flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with blue flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with red flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with orange flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with purple flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with white flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with pink flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with blue flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with red flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with orange flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with purple flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with white flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with pink flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with blue flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with red flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with orange flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with purple flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with white flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with pink flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with blue flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with red flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with orange flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with purple flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with white flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with pink flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with blue flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with red flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with orange flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with purple flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with white flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with pink flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with blue flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with red flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with orange flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with purple flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with white flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with pink flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with blue flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with red flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with orange flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with purple flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with white flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with pink flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with blue flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with red flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with orange flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with purple flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with white flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with pink flowers and green leaves. + +A small image of a plant with blue flowers and green leaves. + +/img + +LARIX. 327 + +**M. fastuosa, Linn.** Two to 5 ft., in clumps; leaves ovate-lanceolate; +flowers in a sheaf-like flat-topped panicle, only slightly curved; cones about 1 in. +long, purple, common in dry places. + +**2. SALVIA.** Saccr. + +Anemone or perennis, mostly with large and showy flowers; calyx and corolla regular, the upper lip of corolla large and usually rounded, rather or nearly so, on the lower lip spreading and 3-lobed; stamens 2, short, the anther separated by a traverse bar. + +**a. diffusa, Linn.** Perennial. Large-flowered. Erect low perennial, with grey +palmetted foliage; leaves oblong-linear, ovate, very thin; flowers blue, in spiked umbels. Europe, used for seasoning. + +**b. splendens, Schott.** Tender perennial from Brazil, but much cultivated +for its bright violetish dark leaves, calyx, and corolla; leaves. + +**3. MENTHA.** Mint. + +Low perennials; calyx with 5 similar teeth; corolla nearly or quite regular; 6-8 stamens; 4 equal; flowers +blue or white. + +**a. officinalis, Linn.** Perennial. Straggling, 1-2 ft. +tall, the plant darkened (except purplish); leaves ovate- +oblong-obovate, entire or crenate-serrate; flowers blue, +purple, in thick spikes 1 to 3 in long. Europe. Cultivated + +**b. piperita, Linn.** Spearmint. Specious. + +4st. Erect or smooth, 1-2 ft.; green; leaves lanceolate +and sharply serrated; flowers white or bluish in long, in- +florescence. Europe and Asia Minor. + +**c. Canadensis, Linn.** Wild mint. One to 2 ft., pubescent +or glabrous; leaves linear-lanceolate, in whorls at the +base of the leaves. Low grass. + +**4. BRUNELLA.** Heal-seal. + +Low, usually unbranched perennials without axillary stems; calyx about equal; +corolla regular; stamens 4-5; petals under the upper lip +divided into two parts (the upper one broader than the lower one 3-lobed), stamens 1-4 pairs, ascending under the upper lip. + +**a. vulgaris, Linn.** Scarlet-bell. These to 1 ft., tall, with erect or arching +stem; leaves ovate-oblong-obovate or elliptic-lanceolate, +sharply serrated or entire; flowers red-purple or white in a +dense cluster, either entire or cleft. Common in grassy places. + +**5. NEPETA.** Catmint. + +Low perennial herbaceous perennials; calyx only slightly conical; +calyx 2-lobed; the upper lip erect and somewhat convex; the lower 3-lobed; +stamens 4-5 pairs under the upper lip; the outer pair under the shorter. + +**a. Caerulea, Linn.** Blue catmint. Fig. 109: 2-3 ft. +Europe. + +328 +A small illustration of a plant with narrow leaves and small flowers. + +328 +THE KINDS OF PLANTS + +6. MARRUBIUM. Horehound. + erect perennials, with white-woolly aspect; calyx nearly equally 5-toothed, the teeth very sharp; corolla 2-lipped, the upper lip erect and notched, the lower one spreading and 3-lobed: stamens 4, included in the corolla. + +M. vulgare, Linn. Common horehound. Leaves broad-ovate and erect; flowers small, white, in dense whorls. Europe, but common. + +7. LEUCURUS. Morelwood. + erect perennials, with white-woolly aspect; calyx about equally 5-toothed, the teeth becoming spine-like; corolla 2-lipped, the upper lip somewhat arched and entire, the lower spreading and 3-lobed; stamens 4, ascending under the upper lip. + +L. carlaticus, Linn. Common morelwood. Tails: leaves rounded and lobed: petals purple, the upper lip blurred: flowers in axillary whorls. Introduced from Europe. Common. + +XXII. CONVOLVULACEAE. Convolvulus Family. + +Herbs, mostly twining, with alternate simple or compound leaves: flowers regular, 5-mernors, the tubular or trumpet-shaped corolla mostly twisted in the bud, the stamina 5 and borne on the corolla: ovary commonly 1, mostly 2-loculed; with 2 ovaries in each locule, becoming a globose capsule in fruit (which is sometimes 4-lobed by the loss of one of its lobes), usually glabrous: sepals 3 or rarely 39 and 40 generic, and nearly 1,000 species. Common convolvulaceous plants are morning-glory, Cypress vine, sweet potato, bindweed, tobacco. + +A. Plants with normal foliage. +Illustration of a plant with normal foliage. + +A1. Plants leafless, parasitic. +Illustration of a plant with leafless, parasitic foliage. + +A2. Plants leafy or glabrous-clothed. +Illustration of a plant with leafy or glabrous-clothed foliage. + +A3. Plants leafy or densely clothed. +Illustration of a plant with densely clothed foliage. + +1. Iponema. Moringa-clove. + Mostly twining, with showy flowers on axillary peduncles: corolla with a long tube and a flaring limb: pistil 1, with one style, and the stigma 2-lobed: fruit a capsule, with 4-seeded ridges. + +a. Leaves compound, with three-leaf divisions. +Illustration of a plant with compound leaves divided into three leaflets. + +b. Leaves simple or trifoliate. +Illustration of a plant with simple or trifoliate leaves. + +B. Quassia amara. Bitterwood. + Mostly twining: leaves simple: fruit a capsule: flowers solitary, red, small, narrow-linear, with pro- +jecting style and stamens. Tropical America, but run wild South America. + +C. Leucaena leucocephala. +Illustration of a plant with simple or deeply lobed leaves. + +D. Bina-Nox. Linn. White moonflower. Fig. 486. Tall: leaves heart-shaped, or angled or lobed: flowers 1 to few. + +E. Iponema quassuephila + +CONVOYCLACCE.E. - SOLANACEE. 326 + +white, opening once at night, with a slender tube and a large limb 4-6 in. +narrow. Trop. Amer. Perennial. + +I. purpurea. Both. Meruelo-guerg. Fig. 217. Leaves broadly cordate-ovate, entire; flowers 2-4, bare and funnel- +shaped; corolla white, to streaked and white. Trop. Amer. Annual. + +II. hederaea, Juss. Leaves heart-shaped, +3-5 cm long, with a roughened margin; calyx of +L. purpurea. Trop. Amer. Annual. + +III. Batatia, Patz. Sweet potato. Creeping +herb, with tuberous roots; leaves ovate-lanceolate; +flowers (schism sepal) 3 or 4, light purple. +Tropical America. + +IV. Ipanema, Rauh. Tree. Leaves broad, +growing for its foliage and root-mat. + +2. CURCUTA. Dendrum. +Paradise flowers without foliage (leaves reduced to scales); flowers in clusters, the calyx and corolla alike, yellowish-green; fruit a berry-like capsule. +C. granulif., Willd. (Fig. 87), is the common- +est species, twining its slender egg-shaped stems over cover-stones; leaves are corolla half-shaped, SC curcuita +the tube longer than the limb and spreading lobes. + +XXII. SOLANACEE. NIGHTSHADE FAMILY. + +Herbs or shrubs, with alternate often compound leaves; flowers perfect and regular, 5-merous, mostly rotate or open-bell-shaped in form and placed in the leaf; stamens 5 or fewer circum- around the periphery of the flower; petals usually 5 but sometimes expanded (the latter sometimes 4-bellied by a false partition), the sepals borne on a central column. Some 76 genera and 1,300 species. +Common representatives are nightshade, potato, tomato, brack tomato, tobacco, jimson weed, petunia. + +a. Fruit a fleshy berry. +n. Stamens with anthers equaling or exceeding the fili. +c. Anthers separate, opening at top... . Solanum +cc. Anthers united, opening lengthwise... Lycopersicon + +b. Fruit a dry capsule. +n. Stamens with anthers shorter than filaments... Cucurbitaceae +cc. Fruit not prickly, small... + +A. Petunia + +m. Only one flower on each stem. +cc. Pod not prickly, large... +A. Batata + +cc. Pod not prickly, small... +S. Nicotiana + +330 +THE KINDS OF PLANTS + +1. SOLANUM. NIGHTSHADE. +Perennial or annual: calyx and corolla 5-lobed, the latter rotate: stamens 5, exerted, the anthers separate and opening by a pore in the top: berry 2-seeded. +a. Plants not prickly. + +2. TUBEROUM. Potato. Folia, Fig. 42, p. 25, 219. Leaf, diffuse-growing plant, with tuberous roots; leaves alternate, simple, ovate-lanceolate, the leaflets differing in size and shape: flowers bluish-brown: berries blue, yellowish-blue: seeds numerous, small, roundish. +b. Plants prickly. + +3. Solanum. Linn. Tomatina. Folia, Fig. 261. Stem annual with large leaves, ovate, somewhat broad-petioled leaves: flowers large, purplish: the calyx prickly: fruit a very large purple or white berry (often weighing several pounds). Common. + +4. LYCOPECERIUM. Tomato. +Differs from Solanum chiefly in having the tuberous rhizomes at their tips by a membrane and opening by lengthwise slits. + +5. Cucurbita. Pumpkin. +Cucurbita maxima. (Cucurbita moschata.) Fig. 166. +Tall, hairy, spreading-ascending herb, with pinnate leaves: the leaflets acute and unequal-sided and of different sizes: flowers white or pale yellow: fruit a long cylindrical succulent fruit a large red or yellow berry. South America. + +6. CAPSICUM. Red Pepper. +Erythra, brachycaulus, smooth herba: stamens with slender filaments: anthers erect: calyx short-cylindrical or conical. +a. Capsicum annuum: alfalfa, the latter opening by lengthwise slits : fruit globular, long or irregular, fruited. +b. Capsicum baccatum: pepper. + +7. CASSIA, Linn. Cassia. +Stem annual or perennial: leaves alternate: corolla regular: fruit a pod with ovate entire leaves: flowers white, with very short toothed or truncate calyx: fruit very various in the cultivated varieties. Trop., Amer. + +8. PETUNIA. Petunia. +Chimney-hairy diffuse-herb: calyx lobes leaf-like: corolla regular: stamens in the tube: corolla funnelform: usually, the stamens not projecting: fruit a pod with ovate entire leaves: flowers white. +a. Petunia hybrida var. White petunia. Fig. 48. +b. Petunia syringifolia. + +A diagram showing the structure of a potato plant. +A diagram showing the structure of a tomato plant. +A diagram showing the structure of a pumpkin plant. +A diagram showing the structure of a red pepper plant. +A diagram showing the structure of a cacao tree. +A diagram showing the structure of a cassia plant. +A diagram showing the structure of a petunia plant. + +SOLANACEAE—SCROPHULARIACEAE 331 + +P. violacea, Linn., Fig. 98. Wearer and more diffuse; corolla purple or rose, the tube short and broad; leaves entire or coarsely serrate or quite scabrous. +The garden petunia is nearly hybrid of the two species. + +5. BATERA. JAMESTONIA-WEED OR JAMESON-WEED. +Very strong bushy herba, with large, long-stemmed, erect, simple or compound branches; sepals 2-parted; fruit a globular usually prickly capsule, opening by 4 valves. + +6. B. ciliata, Linn. Annual, 3-5 ft.; the stem green; leaves entire, ovate or elliptic; corolla white; Tropea: common in gardens. + +D. Tattus. Limn. Stem and corolla purple. + +7. N. NOCTIANA. Tomato. +Tomato: the plant hairy; leaves usually pinnate-lobate; the tube usually large, without spines, but the calyx often large, contained within the persistent calyx. + +8. T. Solanum, Linn. Potato: edible-meat, 1-4 ft.; the stem green; leaves entire or coarsely pinnate-foliolate; Tropea: common in gardens. + +9. Nectria stipa. +N. stipa, Linn. & Otto (N. officinalis of botanists). +Staple: the plant hairy; leaves entire or coarsely pinnate-foliolate; Tropea: common in gardens. + +Fig. 91. Stubble but tall and hairy: leaves entire or coarsely pinnate-foliolate; Tropea: common in gardens. + +XXIII. SCROPHULARIACEAE—FAMILY + +Hawthorn (trees in warm countries), of various habits: flowers perfect, irregular, usually imperfectly 5-membered corolla, usually 2-lipped and persistent; stamens 4 in 2 pairs, inserted on the corolla, with sometimes a filament of a fifth very single, 2-lobed, rising into a second- or many-seeded capsule. About 300 species and 2000 varieties: shrubs, trees, figs, fennel, fennel-flax, foxglove, mullein, pentstemon, monkey-flower or monk-plant. + +a. Corolla shallow and nearly regular: 1. Verbascum. +b. Corolla very irregular: corolla persistent: 2. Scrophularia. + +1. Verbascum thapsus. +Thapsus: the leaves at the base +2. Scrophularia nodosa. +Linn. +m. Phoebe spuria. +Spuria: the leaves at the base +n. Rhinanthus minor. +Minor: the leaves at the base +o. Rhinanthus major. +Major: the leaves at the base + +332 +THE KINGS OF PLANTS + +I. VERBASCUM. MULEX. +Tall biennial, with alternate decurrent leaves: calyx and corolla 5-parted, the latter hollow and nearly or quite rotate: stamens 5, some or all of the filaments woody. + +**V. Trifidum**, Linn. Common mullein. Figs. 22, 133. Two to 5 ft., stout and usually unbranched, white-woolly: leaves oblong and acute, felt-like: flowers yellow, in a very dense cyme. Worn from Europe. + +**V. officinale**, Linn. Common mullein. Fig. 22, 134. Stout, branching, green and nearly smooth: leaves oblong, serrate, oftenInternally lobed, somewhat chasping: flowers yellow or cream-colored, in a loose raceme. Worn from Europe. + +II. LINARIÁ. TOAD-FLEX. +Love herb, of various habit: +80 +Linaria vulgaris. +Linaria purpurea. +Linaria amethystina. +Larger than *Verbacum*; capitate opening by apical pore. + +**L. vulgaris**, Mill. Toad-flex. *Dactylo* +end-ago. Figs. 25, 92. Common perennial worn from Europe; 2–5 ft., with linear leaves and long slender stems. + +**L. amethystina**, Mill. Kneelower leaf. Fig. 405. Trailing: leaves ovate-oblong, 5–7 mm.; stem erect or ascending; flowers blue-bluish. Europe; very common in greenhouses and sometimes wild. + +III. ANTIRRHINUM. Snapdragon. +From Linnaria differs chiefly in having no spur, but only a swelling at the base of the corolla. + +**A. majus**, Linn. +Snapdragon. Fig. 238. Erect bimodal or perennial: leaves oblong, smooth; outer flowers erect or ascending; 2 in., long, purple or white; in a raceme with dense axis. Europe. + +IV. DIGITALIS. FOXGLOVE. +Stem simple and stout: leaves alternate: flow- +ers in dense racemes; corolla tubular and a very short stem-like lobed limb, the throat wholly open. + +**B. purpurea**, Linn. Cosmos forsythia. Uni- +cumbent, bimodal and stout (2–4 ft.): leaves oblong, +nearly or quite entire: flowers white or pale yellow; +branching is long; erect raceme; 2 in., long, +white to purple and spotted white. Old garden plant from Europe. + +498 Minstro-leucum + +**SCORPHULARIACEAE—CAPRIFOLIACEAE** + +13 + +**5. MIMULUS. Monkey-flower.** + +Small herbs with opposite leaves, with usually showy solitary flowers on axillary pedicels; calyx 3-angled and 3-toothed; corolla tubular, the tube short, the limb 5-lobed. + +**M. ringens, Linn. Wild monkey-flower.** Erect perennial, with square- +stem and elongate or linearly-clasping serrate leaves; flowers blue or light purple. + +**M. luteus, Linn. Monkey-flower. Type-species.** Fig. 491. Annual, with ovate serrate leaves; flowers large, yellow, bloomed with black-red or brownish-purple berries, and commonly cultivated. To gardeners often known as *M. splendens*. + +**XXIV. CAPRIFOLIACEAE. Honeysuckle Family.** + +Erect or twining shrubs, or sometimes herbs, with opposite mostly simple leaves; flowers epigynous, 5-merous, regular or irregular, tubular or campanulate; calyx 5-parted; corolla tubular or campanulate and inserted on its tube; ovary 2-5-celled, ripening into a berry, drupe, or capsule. About 15 genera and 200 species. Characteristic plants are honeysuckle, elder, viburnum, snowberry, weigela, teazel. + +A. Corolla long-tubular. +1. *Lonicera*. Lonicera. +A. Corolla shallowly, nearly rotate. +2. *Lonicera*. Lonicera. +B. Leaves simple. +3. *Lonicera*. Lonicera. +C. Leaves deciduous. +4. *Lonicera*. Lonicera. + +**1. LONICERA. Honeysuckle.** + +Erect or twining shrubs, with tubular, funnel-shaped, more or less irregular flowers (often 2-fused); corolla bulging on one side near the base; stamina usually 2 together in a conspicuous flower. + +A. A keist. +B. A keist. +C. A keist. + +**L. elliptica, Michl.**, open. +Acanthoides: 3-leaf; leaves oval-oblong to oblong-elliptic; blade pointed, entire; flowers less than 1 in., long, soft yellowish-green; berries red; bloom in very early spring. + +**L. japonica**, Thunb. +*Lonicera japonica*, Fig. 85. Tall shrub (to 12 ft.), leaves suborbicular, not long pointed, entire; flowers pale or red (sometimes nearly white), 2-fused, all the blossoming in June; fruit some- +times in yuks.; spring. + +A drawing of a plant with small green leaves and a yellowish-green flower. + +354 +THE Kinds OF PLANTS + +an. Trailing. +L. Japonica, Thunb. (L. Helianthea of gardens). Fig. 105. Weak twiner, with oblong or ovate entire nearly evergreen leaves; flowers small, on short pedicels, opening white or bluish but changing to yellow. Japan; much cultivated. + +L. Peritrichum, Linn. Probably the commonest of the old-fashioned climbing hardy plants, with long slender stems, and large greenish-yellow, orbiculate, not joined by their bases, entire, dark green beneath and pale beneath; flowers large, reddish outside and yellow inside, very fragrant in a dense, bushy clump. + +V. VIBURNUM. Arrowwood. +Erect shrubs, with simple leaves and small whitish flowers in broad cymes; stamens 5; stigma 1-3; fruit a small 1-seeded drupe. + +V. Lantana, Linn. Black haw; Shrubbery. Fig. 72. Tall shrub (or tree) leaves ovate-oblong or elliptic, acuminate above, on long margined petioles; fruit ½ in., or more long, black. Common. + +V. serratum, Linn. Dockwood. Arrowwood. Six ft. or less; leaves 3-lobed and marginated; leaves grey-green; flower slender-stalked; fruit flat and small. Woods. + +V. nigrum, Linn. Blackberry; the berry of the field. + +V. opulus, Linn. Blackberry-leaved strawberry. Erect, 6 ft. or less; leaves 3-lobed and toothed; outer flowers sterile and large; fruit an achal red edible drupe. Swamp; to cultivation all the flowers have become sterile, resulting in a sterile plant. + +V. tenellumum, Thunb.; F. pilosum of gardens; Japanese snowball. +Leaves not lobed, shallow-toothed, thickshik, plicate; heads of star-like flowers solitary on short stalks. + +V. BAMBUSUS. Bamboo. +Strong shrubs, with plume-shaped and sharp-serrate leaves; flowers in dense cylindrical cymes; leaflets very small or none; corolla yellowish-white or greenish-yellow; stamens 5; stigma 1-3. +S. TUBEROSA, Linn. Red chile. +Pits and berries red; flowers in spring in pyramidal clusters: berries indehiscent, downy beneath. +S. CANTUARIA, Linn. White chile. +White chile; pits white berries black-perick; in late summer, edible flower-bunches convex or nearly flat; corolla leaflets obtuse smooth. + +XXV. COMPOSITE OR SCNFLOWER FAMILY. + +Mostly herbs, many of them very large, very various in foliage: flowers small, densely packed into an involucrate head, 5-mernous; the corolla of the outer ones often developed into long rays: stamens + +COMPOSITE. +725 +363 + +5, the authors united around the 2 styles: fruit dry and 1-seeded, +inhibichn, usually crowned with a peripus which represents a +elyx. The largest of all phengomous families, comprising about +one-third of all flowering plants. There are 10,000 and 11,000 +species of these composites are sunflower, aster, dandelion, +benson, dahila, erythromma, marigold, compass plant, thistle, +dandelion, lettuce. + +a. Head with all the flowers strap-shaped (with my) and +peripus with a single disk-flower. +1. Flowers yellow. +a. Flowers blue or pink. +2. Coriaria. +b. Heads with many perfect disk-flowers. +3. Heads with the outer strap-shaped and +inner ones perfect disk-flowers. +4. Heads with strap-shaped flowers may become strap-shaped (head "double"). +5. Fruit a complete closed and bur-like involucre. +6. Fruit a complete open and bur-like involucre. +7. Fruit imperfect. +8. Head with large and short-ovate corolla. +9. Involucre-bur small, not sharp-cusp. +10. Involucre-bur large and hard-wooded involucre +although the involucre may be spiny on its +Aretium and itsum. +11. Papaverous. +a. Leaves opposite, simple. +b. Leaves finely divided. +c. Petals long-stalked or broad-based. +d. Achenes curved or horseshoe-shaped. +e. Achene roundish. +f. Toreae very slightly convex. +g. Toreae rounded. +h. Papaverous a short stem. +i. Papaverous a short stem. +j. Plant very prickly. + +II. Cucurbitaceae +a. Plant not prickly. +b. Involucre not a bur-like involucre. +c. Toreae very long-stalked or bracts unequal to +the flowers. + +III. Toreae +a. Bur's present. + +IV. Asteraceae +a. Involucre-bur the heads very small (C., Wild-daisy) +but Culbertsonia +b. Involucre-bur the heads large (C.) +c. Species in several rows, more or less leafy + +V. Caprifoliaceae +a. Hay's present + +356 +THE KINDS OF PLANTS + +1. TARAXACUM. Dandelion. +Stems hard, the 1-branched scape short, broad and hollow; flowers all perfect and yellow; petals few, glabrous, the papules resting on a long bract. +2 **T. officinale**, Weber (T. divi-locus, Linn.; *Cosmos douglasii*, Figs. 8, 25). Perennial, introduced from the Old World; leaves long, pinnate or lyrate-pinnatifid, opening in sun. + +2. CICHORIUM. Chrysanthemum. +Tall branching perennial, with deep, hard bark; roots perfect and strap-shaped; fruit rigidly grooved, with sessile pedicels of many small, chiefly white flowers. +3 **C. intybus**, Linn. *Cynara scolymus*, rich wild along roadsides (from Europe); 2-3 ft., leaves oblong or oblanceolate, 1-2 in. long, with 2-3 nerves; flowers bright blue or pink; 2-3 together in the axils of long nearly branched branches. + +3. KARTELLIA. Kartele. + coarse homely annual weeds with large alter- +nate leaves, flowers monocarpous; in small involucres: +sterile involucres composed of several scales, in +short cyme-like panicles; fertile involucres +forming a closed bud, clustered in the leaf axils, becoming spiny bract. +4 **X. canadense**, Linn. *Cynara scolymus*, Fig. 496. One to 2 ft., branches +long, bearing 1-2 flowers each; leaves broad-oblongalate, +1 in. long, with 2 bracts. +5 **X. spinosa**, Linn. *Cynara scolymus*. Perennial with +large leaves; the base of each leaf has 1 or 2 bracts; 1 ft. long, +with 1-4. Tropical America. + +4. AMBROSIA. Ragweed. +Homely strong-scenting weeds, monoecious: sterile +involucres composed of several scales at the bases of the branches, the scales united into a cup; fertile involucres clustered in +the axils of leaves or bracts, containing 1 pistil, with +1-4 stamens; flowers perfect or imperfect. +6 **A. artemisiifolia**, Linn. *Cynara scolymus*, Fig. +497. One to 2 ft., very bradyd: leaves opposite or al- +ternate, thin, once- or twice-pinnatifid; fruit or bur +glabrous; flowers perfect or imperfect. +7 **A. trifida**, Linn. Great ragweed. Three to 12 ft., +with opposite 3-lobed serrate leaves; fruit or bur ob- +longalate with 5 or 6 teethlets. Sweden. + +5. AGERATUM. Ageratum. +Small diffuse mostly hairy herbs, with opposite simple leaves: heads +small, blue, white or rose; leaves, the blades are cup-shaped and composed of narrow lanceolate lamina filiforms: papules of a few rough ridges. + +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. +A page from a botanical book showing illustrations and descriptions of various plants. + +COMPOSITE + +527 + +**A. oxyoides**, Linn. (L. *Mucuna* of gardener). Annual perennial herb, with erect-stalked serrate leaves; cultivated from tropical America for its small and numerous clustered soft heads. + +**6. ACHILLEA. Yarrow** + +Low perennial herbs, with broad small, ovate-lobed leaves; cultivated from Europe and Asia. + +**7. CALENDULA. Pot Marigold** + +Erect, glabrous-growing plant, with terminal large yellow or orange heads; flowers 1-3 cm across; petals usually greenish-yellow; sepals flat; calyx: papery none. + +**8. CERATOPHYLLUM. Celandine Poppy** + +Stem simple slender, but branching at the tip into a large rambling dense multiflora cluster; leaves very dark green, twice-placentaloid in very fine divisions; rays 4-5; Fields everywhere. + +**9. CHYSANTHEMUM. Chrysanthemum** + +Erect herb, annual or perennial, with alternate leafy or divided leaves; flowers yellow, white, or pink; petals usually many lobed, flat or convex: papery none. + +**10. CLEOME. Cleome** + +A genus of many species of plants. + +**C. spinosa**, Linn. (N. *Cleome*, Sabina). Greenish-Arrested-Swainson. +Tall and mostly erect, with leafed, firm and long-petioled alternate leaves; flowers exceedingly variable. + +**11. CLEISTENES. Cleistenes** + +A genus of one species of plants. + +**C. leucostigma**, Linn. (N. *Cleistenes*, Sabina). White-leafed-Swainson. +Flg 363. Perenn- +ial, with many simple stems from each root, erect to 1-2 m., and bearing al- +ternate, simple, sessile leaves; flowers white or pale yellow, solitary on short +stems, with long white rays and yellow disks. Fields everywhere in the East, and spreading West. + +**12. EUPHORBIACEAE. Euphorbiaceae** + +A large family of plants, with alternate leaves and showy +yellow-rayed terminal heads: ray florets, neutral: sepals of in- +dividuals in about 2 rows, body and spreading: tornus large or con- +torted: calyx: papery none; petals: papery none: stamens: prominent papery. + +**A. hirta**, Linn. *Hemp-leaf* *Senna*. *Oregano* drug in the East. +Flg 364. Perennial herb, with erect stems from a thick rhizome, +late, nearly entire, 3-mered: ray florets as long as the involucre or +slightly longer than the involucre: calyx: papery none: stamens: +prominent papery. + +**B. latifolia**, Linn. Two to 7 ft., perennial, smooth, toothed; +leaves: lanceolate, with 5-7-dentate lobes; the upper ones 3-5 cm. +petaled: rays 1-2 in.; long: body: branching cymeloid. Low places: background. + +V + +338 +THE KINDS OF PLANTS + +10. HELIANTHUS. SUNFLOWER. +Stem, often erect, perennial or annual, with simple alternate or opposite leaves and large yellow-rayed heads; no florets neutral; scales of involucres linear-lanceolate, acute, or acuminate, with a short emarginate each leaf; acute - 4-angled ; papillae of two kinds (sometimes 2 other smaller ones), which fall as soon as the fruit is ripe. + +a. **A.** **A.** **A.** **A.** **A.** **A.** **A.** **A.** **A.** **A.** **A.** **A.** **A.** **A.** **A.** **A.** **A.** **A.** **A.** **A.** **A.** **A.** **A.** **A.** **A.** **A.** **A.** **A.** **A.** **A.** **A.** **A.** **A.** **A.** **A.** **A.** **A.** **A.** + +338 + +b. H. annuus, Linn. +Crown-like flower-heads; Tall, rough, stem annual, with mostly alternate stalked ovate to oval-shaped large leaves; scales of involucres acute-acuminate, elliptic; Minnesota to Texas and west, but everywhere in gardens. +c. H. giganteus, Linn. +Crown-like flower-heads; Stem tall, rough, with mostly alternate leaves oblong-oblanceolate, entire or serrate, smooth and rigid; thickened at base; heads mostly solitary, with 5-20 rays. +Prairies, Michigan, west. + +d. H. helianthus, Linn. +Crown-like flower-heads; Stem tall, rough; leaves mostly alternate, intermixed-pointed, finely serrate or quite entire, mostly sessile; scales linear-lanceolate-hastate; rays pale yellow, 15-26; Low grounds. +e. H. helianthus variegatus, Nutt. +Crown-like flower-heads; Stem tall, rough; leaves mostly opposite, acute-oblongate, 3-mered, serrate, serrate, rough and thickened; rays 8-12, 1 in., long. +f. H. helianthus subspicatus, Nutt. +Crown-like flower-heads; Stem tall, rough; leaves oblong-elliptic to linear-elliptic below ground; 5-8 ft.; leaves acute to oblong-ovate; toothed, long-petioled; scales not extending the disk; rays 12-20 feet. +Penn., west, and cultivated. + +11. TANACETUM. +Tall-stemmed plants with finely divided leaves and strong odor; involucres of overlapping dry scales; torus convex: leaves small, nearly or quite rayless; the flowers all sepal-bearing: calyxes angled or lobed, bearing a short claw on the upper side. + +g. V. vulgare, Linn. +Common thyme from Europe, but rare wild about old houses 2-4 ft.; leaves 5-lobed to 7-lobed: stems yellowish: purple crown-leaved. + +h. CYNOPHALLUM. +Perennial or biennial herb, with pinnatifid very prickly leaves: flowers usually terminal and usually all different scales of the involucres prickly: torus broadly cupped: papillae of two kinds (sometimes 2 other smaller ones), which fall as soon as the fruit is ripe. + +i. C. lanceolatum, Hoffm. +Cynophallum calcaratum: Figs., 25-26: 78: Narrow-blossom: leaves pinnatifid, decurrent, wholly besetted: heads large, deep blue-purple: papillae of two kinds (sometimes 2 other smaller ones), which fall as soon as the fruit is ripe. + +j. C. arenarium, Hoffm. +Cynophallum arenarium: Lower perennial and pediflorous: leaves smooth or nearly so at base: flowers rose-purple in small imperfectly compound cymes only the outer scale prickly: Europe. + +k. ARCTIUM. +Biennial herb. + +l. A. biennis Linn. +Coarse biennials or perennials, strong-scented, with large dock-like simple leaves: head becoming a bur with hooked bristles: the florets all tubular and perfect: torus broadly papillose of short, rough, deciduous bristles. + +A diagram showing the structure of Helianthus annuus. +A diagram showing the structure of Helianthus helianthus. +A diagram showing the structure of Helianthus helianthus variegatus. +A diagram showing the structure of Helianthus helianthus subspicatus. +A diagram showing the structure of Tanacetum vulgare. +A diagram showing the structure of Cynophallum lanceolatum. +A diagram showing the structure of Cynophallum arenarium. + +COMPOSITE + +330 + +**A. Lepis, Lin. Common brook-foil, Fig. 298.** Common weed from Europe, with a deep, hard root, and leaves 1-2 ft. high; leaves broad ovate, somewhat woolly beneath; entire or undulate. + +**11. CENTAUREA.** STAR-THISTLE, CENTAUREA. + +Alternate-leaved herbs, the following annuals, with single heads of flowers, and the leaves alternate on the stem; the stems of the forest all tubular but the outer ones usually much larger and sterile; seeds of involucre overlapping; torn briefly; stamens oblong, with broadly or chaffy papulae. Cultivated. + +A drawing of Centaurea cyanus, showing its characteristic flower head. +299. Centaurea Cyanus. The left half is an order or ray flower; the other three are stamens. + +**C. Cyanus, Lin.** **Cyanus-buttercup,** Fig. 299. Grey herb; leaves linear and mostly entire; heads blue, rose or white. Europe. +**C. maculata, Linn.** **Sooty buttercup,** One-2-D, smooth leaves pinnatifid; papulae chaffy or woolly; in dry and boggy places, chiefly in large Asia. + +**15. SOLIDAGO. GOSNELLIA.** + +Perennial herbs with narrow, scaly leaves; heads yellow, orange, white, few-flowered, usually numerous in the cluster; the ray-florets 1-4s; and pappilose scales of pedicels short, usually not green and leaf-like; bracts of involucre spreading or reflexed; calyx tubular or campanulate; soft bristles. Of goldenrods there are many species. They are characteristic plants of the American autumn. They are too critical for the beginner. + +**16. ASTER.** Averr 227. + +Perennial herbs with broad or broad-linear leaves; heads several to many white, blue or purple papulae in a single sheath; the rays few-flowered, some of involucre overlapping; leaves of less green and rarely entire; papulae chaffy or woolly. In woods and meadows, both North and South America. The species are numerous in the autumn fields of this country. This genus is expensive, and it is difficult to draw specific lines. The beginner will find them too general. + +A drawing of Solidago virgaurea (Goldenrod), showing its characteristic flower head. + +340 + +THE KINDS OF PLANTS + +17. ERIGERON. FLEABANE. + +Annual, biennial or perennial erect herbs, with simple, sessile leaves: heads few to many-flowered; rays numerous in several rows and pistillate; scales of involucres linear-lanceolate, acute, or obtuse, green-tipped; +- form flat or convex; naked; papules of soft bristles. +E. canadense, Linn. *Borealis.* *Bot. Brit.* Fig. 586. +Tall, erect, woody-stemmed, with long petioles; leaves linear and mostly entire or the root-leaves lobed; heads small and very few-flowered; ray-stalks short; rays very short. +E. annuus, Pers. Usually annual, 2-5 ft., with spreading hairs; leaves closely and sharply toothed; the lowest ovate and the upper lanceolate; involucres 1-2 cm.; scales white or tinged with purple, not twice the length of the involucres. +E. strictus, Muhl. Usually annual, with appressed hairs or glandular hairs; heads few-flowered; rays yellow and numerous, twice the length of the involucres. +18. CALLISTEPHUS. CHINA ASTER. + +Annual or biennial herb, with terminal heads bearing nu- +merous white, rose or purple rays; scales in several rows or series, +usually leafy; form flat or nearly so; naked; papules of +bristles. +C. hirtus, Cass. *Comosus.* China aster, one of the commonest of garden annuals, in many forms; leaves sessile and coarsely toothed. China. +19. EUPATORIUM. BORAGE. + +Annual or perennial herb: simple leaves: heads small and raysless, clustered, +all the florets perfect; scales not twice as long as the heads; +heads small or low-convex, naked; stamens 4-5 times as long as the corolla. +E. purpureum, Linn. Joe Pye weed. Tall, with purplish stem and lan- +cetoid toothed leaves in whorls of 3-6; heads flesh-colored, in dense +corolla-tube. +E. perfoliatum, Linn. *Bocconet.* Throughout. Fig. 139. Two to 4 ft.; hairy; leaves opposite and sessile. Immediate flowers white in clusters. + +50 +50 + +INDEX AND GLOSSARY + +*Numbers in parentheses refer to paragraphs* + +**Aborted:** snowed out, (391). +*Abortion:* abortion, (386). +*Absorption:* by roots, 26. +*Abutilon sibiricum,* 315. Fig. 401. Theory, (379). +*Araceae,* 304, 305. Fig. 151. +*Acacia* *indica*: more than one in a (xii). (571). +*Accessory:* fruit; other parts grown in the same plant, (20). +*Acer,* 356. Fig., 664-7. +*Aceria:* *acaciae*, (208). +*Acacia* *Millerifolia*, 337. +*Acacia* *pilosa*, 337. +*Acclimatization:* adaptation to a climate at first exposure, (320). +*Aesculus:* *pavia*, (208). +*Amaranthus:* tuberous, (207). +*Anemone:* petaloid by wind, (207). +*Animal:* one of some animals, (197). +*Antennae:* antennae, (197). +*Antennules:* antennules, (197). +*Antennulae:* antennulae, (197). +*Antennula:* antennula, (197). +*Antennule:* antennule, (197). +*Antennular:* antennular, (197). +*Antennular:* antennular, (197). +*Antennular:* antennular, (197). +*Antennular:* antennular, (197). +*Antennular:* antennular, (197). +*Antennular:* antennular, (197). +*Antennular:* antennular, (197). +*Antennular:* antennular, (197). +*Antennular:* antennular, (197). +*Antennular:* antennular, (197). +*Antennular:* antennular, (197). +*Antennular:* antennular, (197). +*Antennular:* antennular, (197). +*Antennular:* antennular, (197). +*Antennular:* antennular, (197). +*Antennular:* antennular, (197). +*Antennular:* antennular, (197). +*Antennular:* antennular, (197). +*Antennular:* antennular, (197). +*Antennular:* antennular, (197). +*Antennular:* antennular, (197). +*Antennular:* antennular, (197). +*Antennular:* antennular, (197). +*Antennular:* antennular, (197). +*Antennular:* antennular, (197). +*Antennular:* antennular, (197). +*Antennular:* antennular, (197). +*Antennular:* antennular, (197). +*Antennular:* antennular, (197). +*Antennular:* antennular, (197). +*Antennular:* antennular, (197). +*Antennuloides:* antennuloides, (208). + +**Alternation of generations,** 174. 286. +Aloesum: *arborescens,* 286. 288. Fig. 505. +Alloxys: *matthaei,* 286. 288. Fig. 505. +Amaranthus: 363. +Amaranthus: *barbatus,* 363. +Amaranthus: *barbatus,* 363. +Amaranthus: *barbatus,* 363. +Amaranthus: *barbatus,* 363. +Amaranthus: *barbatus,* 363. +Amaranthus: *barbatus,* 363. +Amaranthus: *barbatus,* 363. +Amaranthus: *barbatus,* 363. +Amaranthus: *barbatus,* 363. +Amaranthus: *barbatus,* 363. +Amaranthus: *barbatus,* 363. +Amaranthus: *barbatus,* 363. +Amaranthus: *barbatus,* 363. +Amaranthus: *barbatus,* 363. +Amaranthus: *barbatus,* 363. +Amaranthus: *barbatus,* 363. +Amaranthus: *barbatus,* 363. +Amaranthus: *barbatus,* 363. +Amaranthus: *barbatus,* 363. +Amaranthus: *barbatus,* 363. +Amaranthus: *barbatus,* 363. +Amaranthus: *barbatus,* 363. +Amaranthus: *barbatus,* 363. +Amaranthus: *barbatus,* 363. +Amaranthus: *barbatus,* 363. +Amaranthus: *barbatus,* 363. +Amaranthus: *barbatus,* 363. +Amaranthus: *barbatus,* 363. +Amaranthus: *barbatus,* 363. +Amaranthus: *barbatus,* 363. +Amaranthus: *barbatus,* 363. +Amaranthus: *barbatus,* 363. +Amaranthus: *barbatus,* 363. +Amaranthus: *barbatus,* 363. +Amaranthus: *barbatus,* 363. +Amaranthus: *barbatus,* 363. +Amaranthus: *barbatus,* 363. +Amaranthus: *barbatus,* 363. +Amaranthus: *barbatus,* 363. + +**Ammonium:** ammonium salt; ammonium compound; ammonium solution; ammonium hydrate; ammonium chloride; ammonium nitrate; ammonium sulfate; ammonium hydroxide; ammonium acetate; ammonium borate; ammonium carbonate; ammonium phosphate; ammonium sulfite; ammonium bicarbonate; ammonium hydroxide; ammonium chloride; ammonium nitrate; ammonium sulfate; ammonium hydroxide; ammonium acetate; ammonium borate; ammonium carbonate; ammonium phosphate; ammonium sulfite; ammonium bicarbonate; ammonium hydroxide; ammonium chloride; ammonium nitrate; ammonium sulfate; ammonium hydroxide; ammonium acetate; ammonium borate; ammonium carbonate; ammonium phosphate; ammonium sulfite; ammonium bicarbonate; ammonium hydroxide; ammonium chloride; ammonium nitrate; ammonium sulfate; ammonium hydroxide; ammonium acetate; ammonium borate; ammonium carbonate;铵盐；铵化合物；铵溶液；铵氢氧化物；铵氯化物；铵硝酸盐；铵硫酸盐；铵氢氧化物；铵醋酸盐；铵硼酸盐；铵碳酸盐；铵磷酸盐；铵硫酸盐；铵氢氧化物；铵醋酸盐；铵硼酸盐；铵碳酸盐；铵磷酸盐；铵硫酸盐；铵氢氧化物；铵醋酸盐；铵硼���盐；铵碳酸盐；铵磷酸盐；铵硫酸盐；铵氢氧化物；铵醋酸盐；铵硼酸盐；铵碳酸盐；铵磷酸盐；铵硫酸盐；铵氢氧化物；铵醋酸盐；铵硼酸盐；铵碳酸盐；铵磷酸盐；铵硫酸盐；铵氢氧化物；铵醋酸盐；铵硼酸盐；铵碳酸盐；铵磷酸盐；铵硫酸盐；铵氢氧化物；铵醋酸盐；铵硼酸盐；铵碳酸盐；铵磷酸盐；铵硫酸盐；铵氢氧化物；铵醋酸盐；铵硼酸盐；铵碳酸盐；铵磷酸盐；铵硫酸盐；铵氢氧化物；铵醋酸盐；铵硼酸盐；铵碳酸盐；铵磷酸盐；铵硫酸盐；铵氢氧化物；铵醋酸盐；铵硼酸盐；铵碳酸盐。 + +**Ammonia:** ammonia gas or solution, (208). + +**Ammonia:** ammonia gas or solution, (208). + +**Ammonia:** ammonia gas or solution, (208). + +**Ammonia:** ammonia gas or solution, (208). + +**Ammonia:** ammonia gas or solution, (208). + +**Ammonia:** ammonia gas or solution, (208). + +**Ammonia:** ammonia gas or solution, (208). + +**Ammonia:** ammonia gas or solution, (208). + +**Ammonia:** ammonia gas or solution, (208). + +**Ammonia:** ammonia gas or solution, (208). + +**Ammonia:** ammonia gas or solution, (208). + +**Ammonia:** ammonia gas or solution, (208). + +**Ammonia:** ammonia gas or solution, (208). + +**Ammonia:** ammonia gas or solution, (208). + +**Ammonia:** ammonia gas or solution, (208). + +**Ammonia:** ammonia gas or solution, (208). + +**Ammonia:** ammonia gas or solution, (208). + +**Ammonia:** ammonia gas or solution, (208). + +**Ammonia:** ammonia gas or solution, (208). + +**Ammonia:** ammonia gas or solution, (208). + +**Ammonia:** ammonia gas or solution, (208). + +**Ammonia:** ammonia gas or solution, (208). + +**Ammonia:** ammonia gas or solution, (208). + +**Ammonia:** ammonia gas or solution, (208). + +**Ammonia:** ammonia gas or solution, (208). + +**Ammonia:** ammonia gas or solution, (208). + +**Ammonia:** ammonia gas or solution, (208). + +**Ammonia:** ammonia gas or solution, (208). + +**Ammonia:** ammonia gas or solution, (208). + +**Ammonia:** ammonia gas or solution, (208). + +**Ammonia:** ammonia gas or solution, (208). + +**Ammonia:** ammonia gas or solution, (208). + +**Ammonia:** ammonia gas or solution, (208). + +**Ammonia:** ammonia gas or solution, (208). + +**Ammonia:** ammonia gas or solution, (208). + +**Ammonia:** ammonia gas or solution, (208). + +**Ammonia:** ammonia gas or solution, (208). + +**Ammonia:** ammonia gas or solution, (208). + +**Ammonia:** ammonia gas or solution, (208). + +**Ammonia:** ammonia gas or solution, (208). + +**Ammonia:** ammonia gas or solution, (208). + +**Ammonia:** ammonia gas or solution, (208). + +**Ammonia:** ammonia gas or solution, (208). + +**Ammonia:** ammonia gas or solution, (208). + +**Ammonia:** ammonia gas or solution, + +(\textit{continued}) + +342 INDEX AND GLOSSARY + +Ash, branching, 50; fruit, 148, 150; leaf, 147; Fig. 127; phytohisto, 49. +Asil in plants: 21. +Aster, genus: 260, 264; Figs. 11–15, 109. +Asper, (genus) *crassifolius*, 01. +Aspidium, 173; Figs. 36, 363. +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; +Aspidium: Filix-sperma, 26; + +INDEX AND GLOSSARY 343 + +Cabbage, 15: fruit, 152; head, 36; flat, 30; shank, 25; water, 271. +Cauliflower, 286. +Cabbage, 286. +Calabium, 72; enalas, 260; 258. +Calabium, 72; enalas, 260; 258. +Calabium, 72; enalas, 260; 258. +Calabium, 72; enalas, 260; 258. +Calabium, 72; enalas, 260; 258. +Calabium, 72; enalas, 260; 258. +Calabium, 72; enalas, 260; 258. +Calabium, 72; enalas, 260; 258. +Calabium, 72; enalas, 260; 258. +Calabium, 72; enalas, 260; 258. +Calabium, 72; enalas, 260; 258. +Calabium, 72; enalas, 260; 258. +Calabium, 72; enalas, 260; 258. +Calabium, 72; enalas, 260; 258. +Calabium, 72; enalas, 260; 258. +Calabium, 72; enalas, 260; 258. +Calabium, 72; enalas, 260; 258. +Calabium, 72; enalas, 260; 258. +Calabium, 72; enalas, 260; 258. +Calabium, 72; enalas, 260; 258. +Calabium, 72; enalas, 260; 258. +Calabium, 72; enalas, 260; 258. +Calabium, 72; enalas, 260; 258. +Calabium, 72; enalas, 260; 258. +Calabium, 72; enalas, 260; 258. +Calabium, 72; enalas, 260; 258. +Calabium, 72; enalas, 260; 258. +Calabium, 72; enalas, 260; 258. +Calabium, 72; enalas, 260; 258. +Calabium, 72; enalas, 260; 258. +Calabium, 73: fruit (1), flat (3). +Cauliflower: stem of the cabbage (1). +Cauliflower: the growing or sowing time +young plant (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). +Cauliflower: the flower bud (1). + +344 INDEX AND GLOSSARY + +Coffee, 26; tree, 90. +Colchus anthel, 159. +Colchus, 27; plant, 28; section, 28; subsection, 28; variety, 28; window, 108; root pressure, 107. +Collumbia, 291. +Collumbium, flowering a. 299. +Collumbinae, 254. +Collumbus, 254. +Collumbus, 251. +Columbinae, 254. +Columba, 251. +Columbae, 254. +Columbae, 251. +Columbae, 254. +Columbae, 251. +Columbae, 254. +Columbae, 251. +Columbae, 254. +Columbae, 251. +Columbae, 254. +Columbae, 251. +Columbae, 254. +Columbae, 251. +Columbae, 254. +Columbae, 251. +Columbae, 254. +Columbae, 251. +Columbae, 254. +Columbae, 251. +Columbae, 254. +Columbae, 251. +Columbae, 254. +Columbae, 251. +Columbae, 254. +Columbae, 251. +Columbae, 254. +Columbae, 251. +Columbae, 254. +Columbae, 251. +Columbae, 254. +Columbiae, 299. + +Corolla: flower (plural), flower (singular), flower (plural), flower (singular). +Corolla: flower (plural), flower (singular), flower (plural), flower (singular). +Corolla: flower (plural), flower (singular), flower (plural), flower (singular). +Corolla: flower (plural), flower (singular), flower (plural), flower (singular). +Corolla: flower (plural), flower (singular), flower (plural), flower (singular). +Corolla: flower (plural), flower (singular), flower (plural), flower (singular). +Corolla: flower (plural), flower (singular), flower (plural), flower (singular). +Corolla: flower (plural), flower (singular), flower (plural), flower (singular). +Corolla: flower (plural), flower (singular), flower (plural), flower (singular). +Corolla: flower (plural), flower (singular), flower (plural), flower (singular). +Corolla: flower (plural), flower (singular), flower (plural), flower (singular). +Corolla: flower (plural), flower (singular), flower (plural), flower (singular). +Corolla: flower (plural), flower (singular), flower (plural), flower (singular). +Corolla: flower (plural), flower (singular), flower (plural), flower (singular). +Corolla: flower (plural), flower (singular), flower (plural), flower (singular). +Corolla: flower (plural), flower (singular), flower (plural), flower (singular). +Corolla: flower (plural), flower (singular), flower (plural), flower (singular). +Corolla: flower (plural), flower (singular), flower (plural), flower (singular). +Corolla: flower (plural), flower (singular), flower (plural), flower (singular). +Corolla: flower (plural), flower (singular), flower (plural), flower (singular). +Corolla: flower (plural), flower (singular), flower (plural), flower (singular). +Corolla: flower (plural), flower (singular), flower (plural), flower (singular). +Corolla: flower (plural), flower (singular), flower (plural), flower (singular). +Corolla: flower (plural), flow + +INDEX AND GLOSSARY + +345 + +Datura, 213; Fig. 346 +Datura (Crotalaria), 32; Fig. 184. +Daughter leaf, 298 +Daphne, 207; Fig. 473; Fig. 492. +Dehiscence: falling out. +Decomposing, 91 +Deciduous, 19 +Decurrent: running down to the stem (100). +Decumbent: spreading of seed pod or fruit. +Decumbent: spreading of plant. +Delicate: fragile. +Delphostemum: trunk or leader lost by the branches (65). +Delphinium, 217; Fig. 246 +Dentate: toothed (leaf). +Dentate-leaved, 298 +Dermatophytes, 250 +Desert plant, 298 +Desert organ, Fig. 344 +Desert plant: a plant adapted to growth under the arid climate at the apex (240). +Desert plant: a plant adapted to growth under the arid climate at the apex (240). +Desert plant: a plant adapted to growth under the arid climate at the apex (240) +Desert plant: a plant adapted to growth under the arid climate at the apex (240) +Desert plant: a plant adapted to growth under the arid climate at the apex (240) +Desert plant: a plant adapted to growth under the arid climate at the apex (240) +Desert plant: a plant adapted to growth under the arid climate at the apex (240) +Desert plant: a plant adapted to growth under the arid climate at the apex (240) +Desert plant: a plant adapted to growth under the arid climate at the apex (240) +Desert plant: a plant adapted to growth under the arid climate at the apex (240) +Desert plant: a plant adapted to growth under the arid climate at the apex (240) +Desert plant: a plant adapted to growth under the arid climate at the apex (240) +Desert plant: a plant adapted to growth under the arid climate at the apex (240) +Desert plant: a plant adapted to growth under the arid climate at the apex (240) +Desert plant: a plant adapted to growth under the arid climate at the apex (240) +Desert plant: a plant adapted to growth under the arid climate at the apex (240) +Desert plant: a plant adapted to growth under the arid climate at the apex (240) +Desert plant: a plant adapted to growth under the arid climate at the apex (240) +Desert plant: a plant adapted to growth under the arid climate at the apex (240) +Desert plant: a plant adapted to growth under the arid climate at the apex (240) +Desert plant: a plant adapted to growth under the arid climate at the apex (240) +Desert plant: a plant adapted to growth under the arid climate at the apex (240) +Desert plant: a plant adapted to growth under the arid climate at the apex (240) +Desert plant: a plant adapted to growth under the arid climate at the apex (240) +Desert plant: a plant adapted to growth under the arid climate at the apex (240) +Desert plant: a plant adapted to growth under the arid climate at the apex (240) +Desert plant: a plant adapted to growth under the arid climate at the apex (240) +Desert plant: a plant adapted to growth under the arid climate at the apex (240) +Desert plant: a plant adapted to growth under the arid climate at the apex (240) +Desert plant: a plant adapted to growth under the arid climate at the apex (240) +Desert plant: a plant adapted to growth under the arid climate at the apex (240) +Desert plant: a plant adapted to growth under the arid climate at the apex (240) +Desert plant: a plant adapted to growth under the arid climate at the apex (240) +Desert plant: a plant adapted to growth under the arid climate at the apex (240) +Desert plant: a plant adapted to growth under the arid climate at the apex (240) +Desert plant: a plant adapted to growth under the arid climate at the apex (240) +Desert plant: a plant adapted to growth under the arid climate at the apex (240) +Desert plant: a plant adapted to growth under the arid climate at the apex (240) +Desert plant: a plant adapted to growth under the arid climate at the apex (240) +Desert plant: a plant adapted to growth under the arid climate at the apex (240) +Desert plant: a plant adapted to growth under the arid climate at the apex (240) +Desert plant: a plant adapted to growth under the arid climate at the apex (240) +Desert plant: a +Broughton's one-drupa in fruit made up of segments of opposite leaves. [1] +Bryophytes, 171; Fig. 58; Fig. 365; Fig. 636; Fig. 637; Fig. 638; Fig. 639; Fig. 658; Fig. 659; Fig. 661; Fig. 663; Fig. 665; Fig. 667; Fig. 671; Fig. 673; Fig. 675; Fig. 677; Fig. 679; Fig. 681; Fig. 683; Fig. 685; Fig. 687; Fig. 689; Fig. 691; Fig. 693; Fig. 695; Fig. 697; Fig. 715; Fig. 717; Fig. 719; Fig. 721; Fig. 723; Fig. 725; Fig. 727; Fig. 731; Fig. 733; Fig. 735; Fig. 737; Fig. 739; Fig. 751; Fig. 753; Fig. 755; Fig. 757; Fig. 759; Fig. 761; Fig. 763; Fig. 765; Fig. 767; Fig. 769; Fig. 771; Fig. 773; Fig. 775; Fig. 777; Fig. 781; Fig. 783; Fig. 785; Fig. 787; Fig. 815; +Bryophytes, Figs., pgs., etc. +Bryophytes, Figs., pgs., etc. +Bryophytes, Figs., pgs., etc. +Bryophytes, Figs., pgs., etc. +Bryophytes, Figs., pgs., etc. +Bryophytes, Figs., pgs., etc. +Bryophytes, Figs., pgs., etc. +Bryophytes, Figs., pgs., etc. +Bryophytes, Figs., pgs., etc. +Bryophytes, Figs., pgs., etc. +Bryophytes, Figs., pgs., etc. +Bryophytes, Figs., pgs., etc. +Bryophytes, Figs., pgs., etc. +Bryophytes, Figs., pgs., etc. +Bryophytes, Figs., pgs., etc. +Bryophytes, Figs., pgs., etc. +Bryophytes, Figs., pgs., etc. +Bryophytes, Figs., pgs., etc. +Bryophytes, Figs., pgs., etc. +Bryophytes, Figs., pgs., etc. +Bryophytes, Figs., pgs., etc. +Bryophytes, Figs., pgs., etc. +Bryophytes, Figs., pgs., etc. +Bryophytes, Figs., pgs., etc. +Bryophytes, Figs., pgs., etc. +Bryophytes, Figs., pgs., etc. +Bryophytes, Figs., pgs., etc. +Bryophytes, Figs., pgs., etc. +Bryophytes, Figs., pgs., etc. +Bryophytes, Figs., pgs., etc. +Bryophytes, Figs., pgs., etc. +Bryophytes, Figs., pgs., +Bryophyte species - common and rare +Bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - bladderwort - blad + +346 INDEX AND GLOSSARY + +Evergreen: remaining green, (303). +Evergreening: peat, 317, Fig. 256. +Evolution: 189, 200, 201, 202. +Exceed: by roots, 77. +Excurrent: the trunk or branch outlined in reverse, (295). +Excessive: 189, 200, 201, 202. +Exogenous stems, 396. +Exophytic: 189, 200, 201, 202. +Exopore: 757. +Exposure: 757. +Exposure: 757. +Fagopyrum: 257, Fig. 434. +Fagus americana: 297, s. sylvestris: 290. +Fallow deer: 189, 200, 201, 202. +Fattigueni testes: 40, Fig. 97. +Fattigueni testes: 40, Fig. 97. +Fattigueni testes: 40, Fig. 97. +Fattigueni testes: 40, Fig. 97. +Fattigueni testes: 40, Fig. 97. +Fattigueni testes: 40, Fig. 97. +Fattigueni testes: 40, Fig. 97. +Fattigueni testes: 40, Fig. 97. +Fattigueni testes: 40, Fig. 97. +Fattigueni testes: 40, Fig. 97. +Fattigueni testes: 40, Fig. 97. +Fattigueni testes: 40, Fig. 97. +Fattigueni testes: 40, Fig. 97. +Fattigueni testes: 40, Fig. 97. +Fattigueni testes: 40, Fig. 97. +Fattigueni testes: 40, Fig. 97. +Fattigueni testes: 40, Fig. 97. +Fattigueni testes: 40, Fig. 97. +Fattigueni testes: 40, Fig. 97. +Fattigueni testes: 40, Fig. 97. +Fattigueni testes: 40, Fig. 97. +Fattigueni testes: 40, Fig. 97. +Fattigueni testes: 40, Fig. 97. +Fattigueni testes: 40, Fig. 97. +Fattigueni testes: 40, Fig. 97. +Fattigueni testes: 40, Fig. 97. +Fattigueni testes: 40, Fig. 97. +Fattigueni testes: 40, Fig. 97. +Fattigueni testes: 40, Fig. 97. +Fattigueni testes: 40, Fig. 97. +Fattigueni testes: 40, Fig. 97. +Fattigueni testes: 40, Fig. 97. +Fattigueni testes: 40, Fig. 97. +Fattigueni testes: 40, Fig. 97. +Fattigueni testes: 40, Fig. 97. +Fattigueni testes: 40, Fig. 97. +Fattigueni testes: 40, Fig. 97. +Fattigueni testes: 40, Fig. 97. +Fattigueni testes: 40, Fig. 97. +Fattigueni testes: 40, Fig. 97. +Fattigueni testes: 40, Fig. 97. +Fattigueni testes: 40, Fig. + +INDEX AND GLOSSARY 317 + +Gaster, rubescensia, 250. +Graff, a branch or leaf made to grow on another plant, 267, 306, 31-31. +Graffia, a genus of plants, 289. +Grapple grapes, 25, 291; grapes, 34, 271; fruits, 131. +Grass, a tree, flowers, 166; pepper, 32; grasses, 10. +Graves, Gravestones, 271. +Grasses, framework, 62; physiology, 254. +Grasshopper, a grasshopper, 250. +Grenadier tree, 111; thorn, 30. +Greenville in window, 80. +Greenwood in window, 80. +Gilbert's quince, 30; Fig. 24. +Gilmore's quince, 30; Fig. 24. +Glycine, a plant, 250. +Glycineum seed (not in an essay), applied to plants, sprouts, etc., 250. +Habit: The habits, appearance, general characteristics of a plant. + +Halimut: particular place in which a plant grows. + +Halm: a place where a plant grows. + +Harkberry, 361. +Harknesset, 288. +Hartman's quince, 30; Fig. 24. +Haize: haize (not in an essay), applied to plants, sprouts, etc., 250. +Hardwood cutting, 27. +Harlanda: 96. +Harlow's quince, Fig. 24. +Harlow's tree, Fig. 25; grafts, 29. +Harlow's tree (not in an essay), applied to plants, sprouts, etc., 250. +Head: short dense shoot (Fig. 25); flat (Fig. 26); flat (Fig. 26); flat (Fig. 26). +Heliotrope, 29. +Heliotropium: turning towards the light (Fig. 29). +Herb: a plant that does not make seeds (Fig. 30). +Herberk: on Fig. 45. +Herbaceous: herbaceous (not in an essay), applied to plants, sprouts, etc., 250. +Heap: 361. +Heirloom root: 361. +Heirloom seedling: heirloom seedling (not in an essay), applied to plants, sprouts, etc., 250. +Herbarium: a book of plants (Fig. 31). +Herb: herb (not in an essay), applied to plants, sprouts, etc., 250. +Herbaceous: herbaceous (not in an essay), applied to plants, sprouts, etc., 250. +Herb: herb (not in an essay), applied to plants, sprouts, etc., 250. +Herbaceous plant: herbaceous plant (not in an essay), applied to plants, sprouts, +etc., 250; herbaceous plant (not in an essay), applied to plants, +sprouts, etc., 250; herbaceous plant (not in an essay), applied to +plants, sprouts, etc., 250; herbaceous plant (not in an essay), +applied to plants, +etc., 318; herbaceous plant (not in an essay), +applied to plants, +etc., 318; herbaceous plant (not in an essay), +applied to plants, +etc., 318; herbaceous plant (not in an essay), +applied to plants, +etc., 318; herbaceous plant (not in an essay), +applied to plants, +etc., 318; herbaceous plant (not in an essay), +applied to plants, +etc., 318; herbaceous plant (not in an essay), +applied to plants, +etc., 318; herbaceous plant (not in an essay), +applied to plants, +etc., 318; herbaceous plant (not in an essay), +applied to plants, +etc., 318; herbaceous plant (not in an essay), +applied to plants, +etc., 318; herbaceous plant (not in an essay), +applied to plants, +etc., 318; herbaceous plant (not in an essay), +applied to plants, +etc., 318; herbaceous plant (not in an essay), +applied to plants, +etc., 318; herbaceous plant (not in an essay), +applied to plants, +etc., 318; herbaceous plant (not in an essay), +applied to plants, +etc., 318; herbaceous plant (not in an essay), +applied to plants, +etc., 318; herbaceous plant (not in an essay), +applied to plants, +etc., 318; herbaceous plant (not in an essay), +applied to plants, +etc., 318; herbaceous plant (not in an essay), +applied to plants, +etc., 318; herbaceous plant (not in an essay), +applied to plants, +etc., 318; herbaceous plant (not in an essay), +applied to plants, +etc., 318; herbaceous plant (not in an essay), +applied to plants, +etc., 318; herbaceous plant (not in an essay), +applied to plants, +etc., 318; herbaceous plant (not in an essay), +applied to plants, +etc., 318; herbaceous plant (not in an essay), +applied to plants, +etc., 318; herbaceous plant (not in an essay), +applied to plants, +etc., 318; herbaceous plant (not in an essay), +applied to plants, +etc., 318; herbaceous plant (not in an essay), +applied to plants, +etc., 318; herbaceous plant (not in an essay), +applied to plants, +etc., 318; herbaceous plant (not in an essay), +applied to plants, +etc., 318; herbaceous plant (not in an essay), +applied to plants, +etc., 318; herbaceous plant (not in an essay), +applied to plants, +etc., 318; herbaceous plant (not in an essay), +applied to plants, +etc., 318; herbaceous plant (not in an essay), +applied to plants, +etc., 318; herbaceous plant (not in an essay), +applied to plants, +etc., 318; herbaceous plant (not in an essay), +applied to plants, +etc., 318; herba- +ceous +plant +(Not +in +an +essay) +(Not +in +an +essay) +(Not +in +an +essay) +(Not +in +an +essay) +(Not +in +an +essay) +(Not +in +an +essay) +(Not +in +an +essay) +(Not +in +an +essay) +(Not +in +an +essay) +(Not +in +an +essay) +(Not +in +an +essay) +(Not +in +an +essay) +(Not +in +an +essay) +(Not +in +an +essay) +(Not +in +an +essay) +(Not +in +an +essay) +(Not +in +an +essay) +(Not +in +an +essay) +(Not +in +an +essay) +(Not +in +an +essay) +(Not +in +an +essay) +(Not +in +an +essay) +(Not +in +an +essay) +(Not + +TABULAR DATA TABLE STARTS HERE. + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
INDEX AND GLOSSARYA small image of a flower. +Fig. XX + +350 INDEX AND GLOSSARY + +Nerium, 246. +Nightshade, 236. +Ninna-bur grass, 131. +Nippon, 72. +Nitrogen, 72, 248. +Nodes, 108; the space between two joints is an internode. +Nirvania, plant, 258. +Nippon, 72, 248. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. +Nolana, 253. + +Palms: 60, Fig. 90; Palms: 91; Palms: 91; Palms: 91; Palms: 91; Palms: 91; Palms: 91; Palms: 91; Palms: 91; Palms: 91; Palms: 91; Palms: 91; Palms: 91; Palms: 91; Palms: 91; Palms: 91; Palms: 91; Palms: 91; Palms: 91; Palms: 91; Palms: 91; Palms: 91; Palms: 91; Palms: 91; Palms: 91; Palms: 91; Palms: 91; Palms: 91; Palms: 91; Palms: 91; Palms: 91-94; Palms: 94-97; Palms: 97-100; Palms: 100-104; Palms: 104-108; Palms: 108-110; Palms: 110-114; Palms: 114-118; Palms: 118-120; Palms: 120-140; Palms: 140-148; Palms: 148-160; Palms: 160-168; Palms: 168-176; Palms: 176-184; Palms: 184-188; Palms: 188-196; Palms: 196-200; Palms: 200-204; Palms: 204-208; Palms: 208-216; Palms: 216-240; + +Papaveraceae; flowers; Lk. + +INDEX AND GLOSSARY + +351 + +Pentach: floral envelope of like-like flowers (these formerly of monospermous bisexual plants), (323). + +Pentacolus: 301. + +Pericarpium: ripened ovary, (284). + +Petiolatum: 69. + +Petiole: stalk bearing the leaves around the corpus, (287). + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Persimmon, 94. + +Pentaclethrum: a genus of plants with a single leaf (a leaflet), (216). + +Period: flower bud of a leafy plant (216). + +Period: bud-stalk (101). + +Period: bud-stalk (101). + +Period: bud-stalk (101). + +Period: bud-stalk (101). + +Period: bud-stalk (101). + +Period: bud-stalk (101). + +Period: bud-stalk (101). + +Period: bud-stalk (101). + +Period: bud-stalk (101). + +Period: bud-stalk (101). + +Period: bud-stalk (101). + +Period: bud-stalk (101). + +Period: bud-stalk (101). + +Period: bud-stalk (101). + +Period: bud-stalk (101). + +Period: bud-stalk (101). + +Period: bud-stalk (101). + +Period: bud-stalk (101). + +Period: bud-stalk (101). + +Period: bud-stalk (101). + +Period: bud-stalk (101). + +Period: bud-stalk (101). + +Period: bud-stalk (101). + +Period: bud-stalk (101). + +Period: bud-stalk (101). + +Period: bud-stalk (101). + +Period: bud-stalk (101). + +Period: bud-stalk (101). + +Period: bud-stalk (101). + +Period: bud-stalk (101). + +Period: bud-stalk (101). + +Period: bud-stalk (101). + +Period: bud-stalk (101). + +Period: bud-stalk (101). + +Period: bud-stalk (101). + +Period: bud-stalk (101). + +Period: bud-stalk (101). + +Period: bud-stalk (101). + +Period: bud-stalk (101). + +Period: bud-stalk (101). + +Period: bud-stalk (101). + +Period: bud-stalk (101). + +Period: bud-stalk (101). + +Period: bud-stalk (287). + +552 +INDEX AND GLOSSARY + +Procinus, 389 +Proctoreum: anthera first growth, 1 +Proctoreum: pistillate first growth, 1 +Proctoreum: pistillate second growth, 1 +Proteaceae, 253, 254 +Proteaceae, 254 +Proteaceae, 254 +Proteaceae, 254 +Proteaceae, 254 +Proteaceae, 254 +Proteaceae, 254 +Proteaceae, 254 +Proteaceae, 254 +Proteaceae, 254 +Proteaceae, 254 +Proteaceae, 254 +Proteaceae, 254 +Proteaceae, 254 +Proteaceae, 254 +Proteaceae, 254 +Proteaceae, 254 +Proteaceae, 254 +Proteaceae, 254 +Proteaceae, 254 +Proteaceae, 254 +Proteaceae, 254 +Proteaceae, 254 +Proteaceae, 254 +Proteaceae, 254 +Proteaceae, 254 +Proteaceae, 254 +Proteaceae, 254 +Proteaceae, 254 +Proteaceae, 254 +Proteaceae, 254 +Proteaceae, 254 +Proteaceae, 254 +Proteaceae, 254 +Proteaceae, 254 +Pyrus, 331 + +Pyxis: pod spreading around the top (top), 369; pod spreading around the bottom (bottom), 370; pod spreading around the sides (sides), 370; pod spreading around the middle (middle), 370; pod spreading around the top and bottom (top and bottom), 370; pod spreading around the sides and middle (sides and middle), 370; pod spreading around the top and sides (top and sides), 370; pod spreading around the top and middle (top and middle), 370; pod spreading around the bottom and sides (bottom and sides), 370; pod spreading around the bottom and middle (bottom and middle), 370; pod spreading around the top and bottom and sides (top and bottom and sides), 370; pod spreading around the top and bottom and middle (top and bottom and middle), 370; pod spreading around the top and sides and middle (top and sides and middle), 370; pod spreading around the bottom and sides and middle (bottom and sides and middle), 370; pod spreading around the top and bottom and sides and middle (top and bottom and sides and middle), 370; pod spreading around the top and bottom and sides and middle (top and bottom and sides and middle), 370; pod spreading around the top and bottom and sides and middle (top and bottom and sides and middle), 370; pod spreading around the top and bottom and sides and middle (top and bottom and sides and middle), 370; pod spreading around the top and bottom and sides and middle (top and bottom and sides and middle), 370; pod spreading around the top and bottom and sides and middle (top and bottom and sides and middle), 370; pod spreading around the top and bottom and sides and middle (top and bottom and sides and middle), 370; pod spreading around the top and bottom and sides and middle (top and bottom and sides and middle), 370; pod spreading around the top and bottom and sides and middle (top + +INDEX AND GLOSSARY + +Solages, phytobatik, 40. +need, a reproductive body containing an embryo plant, 5. +Seed, a reproductive organ to 31; dispersal, 156; variations, 229. +Sedum, 231. +Sedum, a genus: severed by pollen from same flower; clone-fertilization, 280. +Sedum, a genus: seed-dispersal, 231. +Self-pollination: transfer of pollen from one flower to another of same flower; clone-fertilization, 280. +sepal, one of the epicalyx leaves of a calyx, 179. +Sepaloid: diphyleous along the petiole, 180. +Sepaloid: saw toothed, (194). +Scandent: not stilted, (193). +Scandent: a climbing plant, 213. +Scandens in trice, 201. +Scapose: with a scapose leaf, 204. +Shade: and plants, 234. +Shade: and plants, 234. +Shade-avoiding: shade-avoiding plants, 235. +Shade-avoiding: shade-avoiding plants, 235. +Shade-avoiding: shade-avoiding plants, 235. +Shade-avoiding: shade-avoiding plants, 235. +Shade-avoiding: shade-avoiding plants, 235. +Shade-avoiding: shade-avoiding plants, 235. +Shade-avoiding: shade-avoiding plants, 235. +Shade-avoiding: shade-avoiding plants, 235. +Shade-avoiding: shade-avoiding plants, 235. +Shade-avoiding: shade-avoiding plants, 235. +Shade-avoiding: shade-avoiding plants, 235. +Shade-avoiding: shade-avoiding plants, 235. +Shade-avoiding: shade-avoiding plants, 235. +Shade-avoiding: shade-avoiding plants, 235. +Shade-avoiding: shade-avoiding plants, 235. +Shade-avoiding: shade-avoiding plants, 235. +Shade-avoiding: shade-avoiding plants, 235. +Shade-avoiding: shade-avoiding plants, 235. +Shade-avoiding: shade-avoiding plants, 235. +Shade-avoiding: shade-avoiding plants, 235. +Shade-avoiding: shade-avoiding plants, 235. +Shade-avoiding: shade-avoiding plants, 235. +Shade-avoiding: shade-avoiding plants, 235. +Shade-avoiding: shade-avoiding plants, 235. +Shade-avoiding: shade-avoiding plants, 235. +Shade-avoiding: shade-avoiding plants, 235. +Shade-avoiding: shade-avoiding plants, 235. +Shade-avoiding: shade-avoiding plants, 235. +Shade-avoiding: shade-avoiding plants, 235. +Shade-avoiding: shade-avoiding plants, 235. +Shade-avoiding: shade-avoiding plants, 235. +Shade-avoiding: shade-avoiding plants, 235. +Shade-avoiding: shade-avoiding plants, 235. +Shade-avoiding: shade-avoiding plants, 235. +Shade-avoiding: shade-avoiding plants, 235. +Shade-avoiding: shade-avoiding plants, 235. +Shade-avoiding: shade-avoiding plants, 235. +Shade-avoiding: shade-avoiding plants, 235. +Shade-avoiding: shade-avoiding plants, 235. +Shade-avoiding: shade-avoiding plants, 235. +Shade-avoiding: shade-avoiding plants, 235. +Shade-avoiding: shade-avoiding plants, 235. +Shade Avoidance Syndrome (SAS), see SAS +Solitary flowers., 115. Solitary flowers., Solitary flowers., Solitary flowers., Solitary flowers., Solitary flowers., Solitary flowers., Solitary flowers., Solitary flowers., Solitary flowers., Solitary flowers., Solitary flowers., Solitary flowers., Solitary flowers., Solitary flowers., Solitary flowers., Solitary flowers., Solitary flowers., Solitary flowers., Solitary flowers., Solitary flowers., Solitary flowers., Solitary flowers., Solitary flowers., Solitary flowers., Solitary flowers., Solitary flowers., Solitary flowers., Solitary flowers., Solitary flowers., Solitary flowers., Solitary flowers., Solitary flowers., Solitary flowers., Solitary flowers., Solitary flowers., Solitary flowers., Solitary flowers., Solitary flowers., Solitary flowers., Solitary flowers., Solitary flowers., +Solitariae (L.) L. solitariae (L.) L. solitariae (L.) L. solitariae (L.) L. solitariae (L.) L. solitariae (L.) L. solitariae (L.) L. solitariae (L.) L. solitariae (L.) L. solitariae (L.) L. solitariae (L.) L. solitariae (L.) L. solitariae (L.) L. solitariae (L.) L. solitariae (L.) L. solitariae (L.) L. solitariae (L.) L. solitariae (L.) L. solitariae (L.) L. solitariae (L.) L. solitariae (L.) L. solitariae (L.) L. solitariae (L.) L. solitariae (L.) L. solitariae (L.) L. solitariae (L.) L. solitariae (L.) L. solitariae (L.) L. solitariae (L.) +Solitaire flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flower.: solitary flow + +354 INDEX AND GLOSSARY + +Stellate, 233. +Scem, how elongate, 17; stratum, 309. +system, 11; tuber, 31. +Sculpture, 268. +Scorpio flower: no stamens or glands. +Sclerophyllous: no leaves (250). +Sclerophyllous: part of the plant which receives water (250). +Sclerotium: stipule of a leaflet (360). +Stipule: a certain kind appendage to a leaf (360). +Stipula: a leaflet (360). +Stock: the part on which the stem is borne (360). +Strobilus: a shoot which bears the fruit and grows from the base (360). +Succulent: 258. +Stone frutic, 115. +Stone fruit, 115. +Stone fruit, 115. +Strawberry, 259. Figs. 474, plant, 35; figs., 206. +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). +Strawberry: the fruit of the plant (206). + +INDEX AND GLOSSARY + +353 + +Ternry, starch in, 31; Fig. 68. +Twigs, history of, 36; starch in, 72; Fig. 104. +Tunier, 86, 111. +Umbrella plant, 168, 149, 449, 650. +Unleth: cornshrub cluster with branches +of leaves and flowers forming a matting sheet +a common pest, (21). +Umbrella: (common name), (22). +Umbelliferous, 221. +Unguiculatum, 221. +Cauliflower, 221. +Cauliflower, 221. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. +Cucurbitaceae, 15. + +A hand-drawn illustration of a plant with long, narrow leaves and a tall, thin stem. +See page 50. + +Cyclopedia of American Horticulture + +COMPRESSIVE DIRECTIONS FOR THE CULTIVATION OF HORTICULTURAL CROPS AND ESSENTIAL DESCRIPTIONS OF ALL THE SPECIES OF FRUITS, VEGETABLES, FLOWERS AND ORNAMENTAL PLANTS KNOWN TO BE IN THE MARKET IN THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA. + +By L. H. BAILEY +Assisted by WILHELM MILLER and Many Expert Cultivators and Botanists + +Illustrated with over Two Thousand Original Engravings + +IN FOUR QUARTO VOLUMES +$3.00 PER COLUME + +VOLUMES I AND II +NOW READY + +Sold Only by Subscription + +This work will be found an invaluable acquisition to all SCHOOL AND COLLEGE LIBRARIES as a standard work of reference. + +THE CYCLOPEDIA AND ITS REVIEWERS + +"This Cyclopaedia is a book to keep at the elbow, for its contents seem to have been carefully selected and arranged according to the needs of the plant and the gardener. It is a work of great value, that anyone possessing Frederic Haller's "Gardening for Pleasure" will find this work of equal value." -Chesley Bonham + +"An excellent work on horticulture, which is well illustrated and may be accepted as the authority upon plants and plant-cultivation in America." -The Gardeners' Chronicle + +"The execution of this Cyclopaedia is marked by thoroughness, variety and completeness. The illustrations are excellent, and the matter is well presented." -The Gardeners' Chronicle + +"A work worthy of ranking with the best of the country Cyclopaedias." -The Nation + +In 1875, the first edition was published. In 1886, the second edition was published, which became so popular that it was reprinted several times. In 1890, the third edition was published, which included new material and updated information. In 1900, the fourth edition was published, which included even more updated information and new material. In 1910, the fifth edition was published, which included even more updated information and new material. In 1920, the sixth edition was published, which included even more updated information and new material. In 1930, the seventh edition was published, which included even more updated information and new material. In 1940, the eighth edition was published, which included even more updated information and new material. In 1950, the ninth edition was published, which included even more updated information and new material. In 1960, the tenth edition was published, which included even more updated information and new material. In 1970, the eleventh edition was published, which included even more updated information and new material. In 1980, the twelfth edition was published, which included even more updated information and new material. In 1990, the thirteenth edition was published, which included even more updated information and new material. In 2000, the fourteenth edition was published, which included even more updated information and new material. In 2010, the fifteenth edition was published, which included even more updated information and new material. In 2020, the sixteenth edition was published, which included even more updated information and new material. + +RECENT WORKS ON BOTANY + +Lessons With Plants +Suggestions for Seeing and Interpreting +Some of the Common forms of Vegetation + +By L. H. BAILEY +Professor of Horticulture in Cornell University + +SECOND EDITION - 491 PAGES - 448 ILLUSTRATIONS -- HALF LEATHER, 12mo, $3.00 + +Profusely illustrated with delineations from nature by W. S. Holdsworth, Assistant Professor of Botany in the Agricultural College of Michigan, carefully chosen and well executed. + +An exhaustive study of the common forms of vegetation--study-leaflets, "a part of the instruction given in the horticultural schools of horticulture in New York State. + +For teachers and students who wish rather than to proceed further. +"This book is based on sound physiological as well as botanical principles, +and should prove a success in the classroom and at home, it seems to me, if used with care and attention to its special features. The illustrations are very well done, and the text is clear and concise. This book should attract to attention. I am recommending the book wherever the question of teaching botany is discussed." + +"First Lessons With Plants" is a valuable addition to the literature on the subject and will serve as a helpful and reliable guide to young students of plant life." + +I have spent some time in most delightful examination of it, and the chapters dealing with the structure of leaves are especially interesting and most recently suggestive. A lesson of this kind which begins to do much to open up the study of plants to those who have not been interested in them before can only be termed as simple plant formation." Above all else it seems to be full of suggestions for work that can be done by the student himself. + +DAVID L. BARBELL, Dept. of Science, Bloomington, N. Y. + +First Lessons With Plants + +The first twenty chapters of the larger work described above + +117 PAGES - 116 ILLUSTRATIONS -- CLOTH, 12mo, 60 CENTS + +All of the illustrations of the original appear in these selected chapters, which are in no way abbreviated. + +A remarkably well-printed and illustrated book, extremely original and unusually useful for teachers and students. + +[API_EMPTY_RESPONSE] + +[API_EMPTY_RESPONSE] + +[API_EMPTY_RESPONSE] + +LIBRARY +FACULTY OF FORESTRY +UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO + +BIBLIOGRAPHICAL LIST 306.1 1991 + +QK +47 +B3 + +Bailey, Liberty Hyde +Botany + +JAN 7 1994 +AUG 1 7 1995 +AUG 3 1 1995 + +[9354] + +10 \ No newline at end of file