2022

[1]Jones Yeboah

These authors contributed equally to this work.

These authors contributed equally to this work. These authors contributed
equally to this work.

[1]School of Information Technology, University of Cincinnati, 2600 Clifton
Avenue, Cincinnati, 45221, Ohio, USA

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Accepted to be published in: The 2022 International Conference on Security and
Management (SAM’22) Las Vegas, USA, July 25 - 28;
https://sam.udmercy.edu/sam22/

# Evaluation of User Perception on Biometric Fingerprint System

<EMAIL_ADDRESS>Victor Adewopo<EMAIL_ADDRESS>Sylvia Azumah
<EMAIL_ADDRESS>Izunna Okpala<EMAIL_ADDRESS>*

###### Abstract

Biometric systems involve security assurance to make our system highly secured
and robust. Nowadays, biometric technology has been fixed into new systems
with the aim of enforcing strong privacy and security. Several innovative
system have been introduced, and most of them have biometrics installed to
protect military bases, banking machines, and other sophisticated systems,
such as online tracking systems. Businesses can now focus on their core
functions and feel confident about their data security. Despite the benefits
and enhancements in security that biometrics offer, there are also some
vulnerabilities. This study aimed to investigate the biometric vulnerabilities
in a healthcare facility and propose possible countermeasures for biometric
system vulnerabilities.

###### keywords:

biometric, security, vulnerabilities, patient, health, privacy, detection,
fingerprint

##  1 Introduction

A biometric device is installed in many systems, ranging from simple mobile
application systems to sophisticated organization systems. In general,
biometric systems are designed to identify and verify an individual’s identity
through the use of their physical characteristics (including their face, iris,
fingerprint, DNA, or hand geometry) and behavioral characteristics (including
their speech, gait, or signature) al2019automated . It also offers a reliable
identity management system that can prevent identity theft and restrict access
to various resources. An important aspect of any identity management system is
the identification of the individual accurately jain2011introduction . The
biometric behaviors ensure the connection between a person and their unique
identity since the process requires user authentication. Although most systems
proved that they are reliable, there are gaps in the security of some
biometric systems, and more effort is required for quality service to be
provided. This work presents the vulnerabilities and the enormous benefits
that come with new state-of-the-art security technologies. Khushk et al.
iqbal2005overview  explain that “biometrics can be defined as an automated
method of verifying or recognizing the identity of an individual person based
on a physiological or behavioral characteristic. There can be changes to
passwords easily, but a biometric identification of an individual is typically
permanent jain2006biometrics .

Security of biometrics is very crucial and the application of biometric
technologies is more prevalent in three main areas: smartphones, wearables,
and online shopping. Smartphones have biometrics built in to increase the
security and safety of the data by using fingerprint recognition, voice
recognition, and face recognition. Using wearable devices, it is possible to
identify the behavioral and biological characteristics of individuals. It is
now possible to secure online systems by deploying biometrics for access
control within online systems by utilizing fingerprints, iris, and facial
recognition instead of credentials tiwari2015review ;
sabhanayagam2018comprehensive . Biometric systems are designed to ensure that
only genuine users can authenticate, while impostor users cannot
jain2012biometric  which also introduces the privacy requirements on
biometrics, due to the particular nature of biometrics carrying much
information about the person that cannot be easily revoked when compromised.
It is important to emphasize that security and privacy requirements are not
the same, and they need a different approach. The following research questions
were postulated to address the strengths and weaknesses of biometric
vulnerabilities.

  * •

RQ1: What are the critical vulnerability issues in biometrics?

  * •

RQ2: What are the solutions required to mitigate the vulnerabilities detected
in biometrics?

  * •

RQ3: How can we evaluate issues related to biometric system vulnerabilities?

##  2 Background Literature

The concept of biometric technology stems from the need for originality in
human verification. This creates an extra layer of information security.
According to an article by Clodfelter in 2010 CLODFELTER2010181 , the benefit
of biometric technology goes beyond security. It cuts across security and
decision making CLODFELTER2010181 . Data captured through a biometric system
can be used to make informed decisions in an organization udebuanadecision ;
CLODFELTER2010181 . One of the earliest biometric technology that has been
lumped together under the umbrella of digital forensics is the fingerprint
recognition system rashid2008security . With the proliferation of a myriad of
tech devices, the need for better security has emerged, coupled with the fact
that the usage of the data from many sources has become a lightning rod for
privacy and human rights concerns bertino2016data .

Based on the rising concerns for security, different technologies are being
developed and deployed to secure and ease the concerns of organizations and
users. Some of these technologies include smart cards, antivirus software,
biometrics, firewalls, password-protected accounts, and intrusion
detection/prevention systems, to name a few. These rising concerns about
security also move technology away from people in terms of “ease of use” of
operations. Thus, there is a need to integrate the required functionality of
authentication and control to safeguard the data and information and “ease of
use”. According to Chellappa, Wilson, and Sirohey chellappa1995human ,
biometric technology is one of the innovations that is being claimed to
achieve this objective. Khushk and Iqbal iqbal2005overview  explains that
“biometrics can be defined as an automated method of verifying or recognizing
the identity of a living person based upon a physiological or behavioral
characteristic; that is, it’s based upon something we are or something we do”.
Unlike passwords, biometric identification of an individual for the most part
is permanent and cannot be easily changed. Several applications have found a
natural fit in biometric deployments and that is why biometric security is of
paramount importance. The public acceptance of biometric systems depends on
the system’s identity management and authentication mechanisms that ensure the
security of the modules and at the same time, protects the privacy of the
users. In biometric systems, security usually revolves around assuring that
only real users can authenticate and the templates stored in the database will
also be protected against unauthorized access. The last statement also
introduces the privacy requirements of biometrics, due in part to the fact
that biometrics carry much information about the person. This data cannot be
easily retrieved if compromised, it is important to note that security and
privacy requirements are two different things. An accurate system must
minimize both False Acceptance Rate and False Rejection Rate, thus achieving
the maximum performance possible kalunga2016development .

###  2.1 Biometric Traits

The distinguishing quality or characteristics of an individual embedded in a
biometric system known as biometric traits can be divided into the behavioral
and physiological traits hossain2011human . The behavioral traits encompass
the basic human functions as it engages in different activities while the
physiological traits involve the physical characteristics of an individual
vielhauer2005biometric ; hossain2011human . Faundez-Zanuy et. al
faundez2006biometric  explains that a good biometric trait must accomplish the
following set of properties such as 1) Universality: Every person should have
the characteristics. 2) Distinctiveness: This refers to as uniqueness
yun2002123 . The distinctive character of any two individuals should be enough
to distinguish them from each other. 3) Permanence: The characteristic should
be stable enough (concerning the matching criterion) overtime, and under
different environmental conditions. 4) Collectability: Characteristics should
be acquirable and quantitatively measured. 5) Acceptability: People should be
willing to accept the biometric system. 6) Performance: There is
identification accuracy, and the required time for a successful recognition
must be reasonably good. 7) Circumvention: This is the ability of fraudulent
people to fool the biometric system and make it negligible. Faundez-Zanuy et.
al faundez2006biometric  identified that biometric traits can be split into
two main categories: Physiological Biometrics: It is based on direct
measurements of a part of the human body like a fingerprint. Behavioral
Biometrics: It indirectly measures some characteristics of the human body like
signature and key stroking recognition.

###  2.2 Types of Authenticators

O’Gorman et al o2003comparing  classified authenticators into three
distinctive categories: 1)Knowledge-Based Authenticators: It is characterized
by obscurity or secrecy. An example of this type is the memorized password.
This type can also include information that is not a secret (obscure). This
can be loosely defined as an insecure password for most people. Using lastname
or common words is a good use case in this category. In this case, a security
drawback of a passcode is that each time it is shared for authentication, it
becomes less secure o2003comparing . 2) Object-Based Authenticators: It’s
characterized by physical possession. Physical keys are sometimes called metal
keys. The main security drawback of a metal key is that once misplaced, it
permits random intruders who find such keys to access the house. This is why
many digital tokens also combine another factor, i.e. an associated password,
to protect a stolen or lost token. There is a different advantage of a
physical object used as an authenticator; in case it has been lost, the owner
sees evidence of this and can act accordingly o2003comparing . 3)ID-Based
Authenticators: These are also characterized by uniqueness to one person. A
passport, university diploma, credit card, driver’s license, etc., all belong
in this category. So does a biometric, such as a voiceprint, eye scan,
fingerprint, or signature. For both ID documents and biometrics, the central
security defense is that they are difficult to copy or forge o2003comparing .

##  3 Issues and Challenges

In selecting a specific biometric technology, the potential challenges that
should be considered include user group size, place of use, nature of use,
ease of use, user training required, error incidence (age, environment, and
health condition), security requirement needed, user acceptance level, long
term stability including technology maturity and the cost associated
yun2002123 .

###  3.1 Vulnerabilities On Biometrics

Abdulmonamm et al alaswad2014vulnerabilities , noted that biometric attacks
fall under these three (3) attacks. 1) Processing and Transmission Attacks:
System processing is done locally or remotely, it is crucial for such
transmission to be fully secured to avoid external attacks from intercepting
or reading transmission. Encryption is mostly enforced on such systems to
guarantee full encryption. However, some devices can prove otherwise. It is
imperative for deployers to understand the data risk when exposed on transit.
2) Input Level Attacks: This attack is perpetrated to affect system
performance and effectiveness. The most common vulnerability is spoofing, but
bypassing has also been used in some cases. Overloading can also occur when a
user attempts to bypass a system by overpowering it with the objective of
generating errors or breaking down the input device. However, some system
failures can also be attributed to human error alaswad2014vulnerabilities . 3)
Back-end Attacks: The main goal of the attacker is to have unauthorized
control of storage databases. Back-end attack is mostly caused by targeting
the template storage database. An attacker can introduce themselves into the
system without following the laydown procedure for enrollment if they can
discover ways of introducing templates directly into the storage database
jain2015attacks . A criminal offense is committed when a technical device is
used to gain unauthorized access to a system. The Electronic Communications
Privacy Act (ECPA) was passed to address such offenses enacted to protect
electronic communications in storage and transit adewopo2021exploring ;
adewopo2022deep .

###  3.2 Mitigating the vulnerabilities of biometrics

Abdulmonam et al alaswad2014vulnerabilities , propose a technique to mitigate
processing and transmission level attacks by identifying and using several
encryption techniques that are important aspects of biometric security. A
multi-factor authentication system was introduced that uses biometrics as well
as smart cards and PINs or multiple biometrics to reduce the possibility of
unauthorized access. The designers of biometric technologies should explore
random or cued challenges when time permits. This is to ensure that there is a
very strong authentication method to ensure the submission of genuine data by
introducing multiple authentication methods alaswad2014vulnerabilities .

To mitigate input level attacks, systems must be built robustly and their
basic functions should not malfunction even if they are overwhelmed. An
enforced fallback process needs to be in place when a system is not
functioning properly and backup measures are necessary to ensure that security
systems can recover from failures alaswad2014vulnerabilities . Approximately
70% percent of IoT devices can be hacked and securing these devices is
important as they improve the quality of life of people through the
advancement of technology Sylvia . Another method to mitigate back-end attacks
involves enforcing data integrity, constraints, and other security features
that can make it difficult for an intruder to get into the system. DDoS
attacks can be thwarted with traffic monitoring and traffic analysis.

##  4 Methods

We collected data from stakeholders (Staff and Patients) using the survey
method of data collection. Survey and interview seem to be one of the most
appropriate methodologies discussed in cirqueira2020scenario  to scope
information about a design. Considering the research is presenting new ideas
on biometrics usage in Ghana, the study was evaluated as a descriptive study
and after careful consideration, we determined that qualitative analysis is
the best approach for gaining a comprehensive understanding of the biometric
system.

####  4.0.1 Research Design

This work check how biometric system adoption is being used by customers and
staff at Acacia Medical Centre located in the capital city of Ghana, Accra.
The center we chose for our study is able to provide us with an in-depth
analysis of the challenges associated with the use of biometric systems. We
randomly selected staff and patients of the medical center by sampling 20
staff members and 100 patients. Data collection procedures were observed
during interviews with biometric company representatives, hospital
administrators, IT security personnel, and biometric technical personnel. The
participants’ consent was sought before video recording the data during the
interviews for further analysis.

###  4.1 Empirical Findings of Interview

We interviewed representatives of the biometric systems providers and experts
to learn more about the state of biometric systems in the healthcare industry
and to gain a better understanding of the factors influencing the adoption and
deployment of biometric systems in this field. As part of our research, we
selected five interviewees to share their experiences, opinions, and domain
knowledge about the implementation of biometrics in the Ghanaian healthcare
sector. The selection was made based on our aim to interview different
stakeholder representatives, who could provide us with information about
different perspectives on biometrics in healthcare. Among the themes that
emerged from the interview were users’ perspectives on the current picture of
biometric technology adoption and the security of biometric systems in the
healthcare industry.

###  4.2 Analysis

Interview Analysis When implementing biometrics, the interviewee stressed the
importance of three attributes: cost, privacy, and security. The participants
believe physical biometrics are more secure and perform better when these
three factors are taken into consideration, but depending on system
performance, costs may be higher. Another interviewee said biometrics could
improve security and privacy in healthcare. Additionally, it ensures the
patient’s identity and removes duplicate data. In response, organizations are
demanding strong authentication and focusing on biometrics for the benefit of
staff, and healthcare providers. As the interviewee explained the cost of the
biometric solution versus the card system, a fingerprint and smart card
combination was suggested for securing fingerprint devices and other
mechanisms for data protection. According to a third interviewee, biometrics
needs to be implemented. These devices are easy to use and extremely secure as
users carry identification cards around with them. Further, healthcare
organizations have access to a lot of sensitive patient data, so it is
imperative that this data is protected. Therefore, there are many biometric
authentication devices available on the market that can secure data in the
most efficient way. The fourth interviewee discussed how she views biometrics
in healthcare. If they are not properly identified, elderly people can still
be identified when they are sick and need acute care. In the ambulance,
emergency room, and at home, biometrics can be used to establish patients’
identities. Biometrics are more secure than passwords when dealing with
medical records. Using biometrics to secure the entrances to special buildings
and rooms for both medical staff and patients is most feasible for entry
clearance points. In a fifth interviewee’s workplace, physical keys are still
used at certain locations, but they also use plastic cards with magnetic
stripes and PIN codes. We need a new method of authentication. Currently, we
are focused on all the national initiatives in this area, so the ”new”
techniques are coming, but they don’t involve biometrics. This could be
because we do not yet understand the biometric technique and the user
community needs to be aware.

####  4.2.1 BIOMETRIC PERFORMANCE MEASURES

In order to examine and compare the performance of biometric technologies,
there are four (4) key measures identified below that are usually used to test
such systems. 1)False Acceptance Rate (FAR): Fault acceptance rates are also
called Type I errors. FAR indicates the percent of impostors whose accounts
are incorrectly approved as genuine conrad2017chapter . This number should be
as low as possible because most biometric systems aim to attain accurate
identity authentication. 2)False Rejection Rate (FRR): The FRR is also known
as “Type II error”. FRR is a measure of the percentage of genuine users that
are incorrectly rejected. This number should be kept as low as possible to
avoid causing inconvenience to the legitimate userEberz ;
kalunga2016development . As a general rule, this error is more acceptable
since a second attempt can be made. 3)Equal Error Rate (EER), FAR, and FRR are
related: A stringent requirement for FAR (as low as possible) will
inadvertently increase the FRR. The point where the FRR is equal to FAR is
given by this measure. Lowering the rate of EER will increase the performance
of the system as it indicates a good balance in the sensitivity of the
systemSalloum . 4)Crossover Error Rate (CER): The CER is a metric used to
compare biometric technologies. Basically, this is the error rate at which FRR
equals FAR. FRRs and FERs are used to determine biometric accuracy and the
system’s capability of allowing limited access to authorized users Sivaram .
The measures can differ widely depending on how sensitive the mechanism is set
up to match the biometric. In such cases, it could be necessary to measure the
hand geometry more precisely and the user’s template more sensitively
(increase sensitivity). In addition to reducing false-acceptance rates, false-
rejection rates can also be increased. This makes it essential to understand
how vendors calculate FARs and FRRs kalunga2016development ; Sivaram . As a
result of their interdependence, plotting them against each other provides
meaningful insights. Several types of sensitivity settings are shown on the
plot of a hypothetical system. With a lower CER, accuracy is higher. It is
also noteworthy that biometrics performed physically are usually more accurate
than behavioral.

###  4.3 Results

The results and discussions are based on the collated data from the patients
and staff at the Acacia Medical Centre. About one hundred and twenty
questionnaires were filled out by staff and patients of Acacia Medical Centre,
Acacia Health Insurance, and Technology departments. We have approximately
sixty percent (60%) of male participants, while we have forty percent (40%) of
female participants. 30% of the participants are between the ages of 20 and 30
years. There were 60% of employees between 31 and 40 years old, 10% between 41
and 45 years old, and no information was available on those over 46 years old.
Approximately 60% of our participants have obtained a graduate degree and
above 70% indicated they have four to six years of work experience which
indicates that most participants are highly educated and experienced. Based on
our study, we found staff members to be enthusiastic about adopting a
biometric system due to its enormous benefits. According to this study, 14.5%
of the participants identified that Acacia Medical Centre had been the victim
of enrollment attacks. In addition, ten (10) respondents representing 14.5% of
the sample population stated that they experienced a back-end attack. Input
level attacks have also been reported by fifteen (15) respondents,
representing 22 %. Among the respondents, 18 participants experienced
processing and transmission-level attacks and 23% experienced other security
issues.

The study identified areas like 24/7 Availability of Biometrics Services,
Information Security, and Efficient and Effective Customer Support as critical
to the effective use of Biometrics. Except for internal and external customer
education, where 22 percent are represented, we found a high percentage of 26
percent for all of the critical areas. In our study, we found that even though
there has been a significant impact after the introduction of biometrics,
staff were able to point out certain obstacles they encounter when using the
biometric system. There were extremely high implementation costs, comprising
36%, while infrastructure was lacking. Additionally, 18% of the participants
expressed security concerns, while only 10% were concerned about the ever-
changing technology trend. When patients face any challenges in using the
biometric system, they are more likely to report them directly to the health
center rather than using other options. There was also an increased level of
satisfaction: 60 % gave good reviews while 40 % were unimpressed. It was
observed that most patients were willing to recommend biometrics to friends.

###  4.4 Discussion

This study was conducted to investigate the interest of Ghanaians in
biometrics and was based on a case study of the medical center. Acacia Medical
Centre was selected for our study based on the availability of biometrics
system infrastructure in the healthcare facility. The key study areas focused
on identifying critical vulnerabilities for biometric systems and providing
solutions.

Vulnerable points:  The first phase involves getting the client’s biometric
information. Databases are created during enrollment that has an invariant
format that identifies distinct individuals. This format is retrieved from the
database and compared to the new template to verify the client. The process is
similar to setting up a password as users need to create a password and then
enter their previous password to gain access.

Attacks:  In E-authentication, biometrics are used to bind an individual to
their identity. There were several potential vulnerabilities identified,
including fictitious data, conspiracy with employees, impersonation, and sales
of PII in deep web forums vic . As part of Acacia Medical Centre’s commitment
to modernizing the hospital’s services, this study demonstrates Acacia Medical
Centre’s readiness to continuously improve it is biometric services. As a
result of its enormous benefits, the medical center adopted biometric
technology. Authentication with fingerprint scanners is reliable, whereas Iris
and Retina scans are more secure since it requires copying an individual’s
retinal pattern. In 2018, Search Security stated that keystroke dynamics could
be used to authenticate users based on the number of words they type
qvintus2018evaluating . In addition to illustrating some of the challenges
that healthcare facilities are facing in Ghana, the study also revealed some
of the resistance they experience to embracing technology-driven innovation.
Biometric systems have a variety of benefits, such as reliability, cost-
effectiveness, high-level identification, ease of use, scalability, and
versatility. In part, illiteracy and lack of interest in technological
advancement are responsible for higher execution costs. Our research revealed
that Acacia medical center was very concerned about security and had put in
place a variety of security measures. Only a small proportion of customers
experienced biometric security problems as a result. Moreover, our study
showed that the support services and contingency plans implemented in case of
a crisis helped create trust among patients through a rapid response when
issues arise, which led to more than half of the clients expressing their
intention to tell their friends about the advantages of their biometric
system.

##  5 Conclusion

Biometrics offer solutions and an effective way to the establishment of who a
person is. The purpose of this scheme is to make it difficult for perpetrators
to cause damage to a rightful user by verifying a user’s behavior. The best
way to resolve biometric issues is through administrative channels to prevent
a public uproar. Biometrics are not foolproof, contrary to mainstream opinion.
In the transition from simple data to advanced data, biometric frameworks
might be better able to analyze advanced data. With a fingerprint reader,
fingerprints can be lifted from an ordinary object, even though it is
difficult to accomplish. It is possible to create fingerprints under gum or
putty in addition to making copies. In addition, they explore voice and facial
recognition, where duplicates and photographs can be made to trick biometric
systems. Integrating biometric units with Active Directory (AD), LDAP is a
practical method for protecting and securing the verification information.
LDAP and AD offer encrypted storage for biometric accreditations, as well as
credentials such as client IDs and passwords.

In the health facility, there was a conspiracy among employees, which affected
operations, including providing services to patients who were not entitled to
certain health benefits. Biometrics will curtail such practices. We
recommended separating roles for key parties involved in the approval and
credentials processes, performing high inspections, maintaining strong
firewalls, and defining access levels. In addition, all confidential records
are kept on a central database server at the hospital. As a result, hackers
can cause huge damage if they gain access to the database by exposing millions
of users to security threats. Providing customers with the ability to store
their data on their devices is essential to Acacia medical center.
Additionally, ’salting’ techniques can be used to create features that are not
linkable in order to guarantee differentiation from other variants. This is
achieved by adding a randomly generated implementation of a hashing algorithm
to scramble the data.

###  5.1 Future Work

In this study, we identified and discussed issues and challenges related to
implementing biometrics in the healthcare sector in Ghana. Performing an
extensive stakeholder analysis in this area would be a worthwhile research
project in the future, since there are varying perspectives on cost and
benefit analyses for biometrics technology. Furthermore, we suggest that it
would be beneficial to conduct an extensive study to examine the needs and
requirements of the various actors (patients, healthcare professionals, and
healthcare providers) who are the stakeholders in the usage of biometric
systems.

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