R&D to pursue lower thresholds with smaller detectors for next-generation
particle detectors. The CRESST-III result [360] sets the best current
constraints down to $\sim$200 MeV on sub-GeV DM scattering elastically off
nuclei.

Semiconducting crystals read out by TES-based phonon sensors have recently
demonstrated to have single electron resolution in silicon by the SuperCDMS
(Si HVeV) and EDELWEISS (Ge) collaborations, showing RMS noise equivalent to
0.03 [362] and 0.53 [359] electron-holes pairs, respectively. As the band gaps
in Si and Ge are similar, these experiments demonstrate similar reach for
DM–electron scattering and absorption processes as skipper-CCD experiments.
Several experiments have near-term plans to expand to using novel substrates
for phonon detection, which allows for sensitivity to sub-MeV DM candidates
due to the low energy-thresholds. SPICE, part of the TESSERACT program, is
building on TES-based phonon sensor work in conjunction with SuperCDMS and
MINER to expand to $\mathrm{SiO_{2}}$ (quartz) and sapphire substrates [367],
which have good cross-section reach in comparison to other polar crystals as
well as strong directionality [368]. Diamond and silicon carbide are also
useful as substrates for single charge detection [369, 370, 371]. CRESST has
demonstrated a diamond detector with 70 eV resolution [372] on a CVD
substrate, and is also planning near-term R&D to achieve sub-GeV reach in
diamond. While these materials have higher band gaps, which limit the mass
reach of ionization-based searches to $\geq$5 MeV, they also ensure deeper
impurity traps, making detectors made from these materials less susceptible to
absorption of infrared photons, which are known to cause excess charge
backgrounds. Their high dielectric strength will allow kV-scale voltage
biases, which translates to charge resolution of better than 10-3 e-. Work on
phonon-mediated charge readout as well as direct single-charge readout have
been proposed. More details are discussed in [338, 373]. A further alternative
is the use of hydrogen-rich crystals coupled to TES readout to search for very
low energy H-recoils from dark matter interactions [374].

While NTDs and TES-based sensors have dominated phonon-readout for the last
decade, new superconducting technologies are poised to broaden options of
phonon readout, including Kinetic Inductance Detectors (KIDs) and Magnetic
Microcalorimeters (MMCs). KIDs are superconducting thin-film absorbers
constructed as an LC resonator in which the breaking of Cooper pairs changes
their surface impedance — an effect that can be measured and related to the
initial deposition energy via an RF tone. Current energy resolutions of $<$20
eV have been demonstrated, with a roadmap down to the eV-scale [375]. MMCs use
thin metallic-magnetic films deposited on the surface of semiconducting or
scintillating crystals for fast collection and sensing of athermal phonons
with timescales on the order of microseconds, which enables phonon-pulse shape
discrimination to reduce low energy backgrounds from electron-recoils in NR
searches [376]. Near-term advances to optimize for energy resolution are
anticipated to achieve O(eV) energy thresholds, and tests are planned for
sapphire and diamond, specifically targeting sub-GeV DM searches.

In addition to sensors designed to measure excitations to internal bulk phonon
modes, a complementary approach is to monitor the center-of-mass motion of a
composite object [377]. Optical or electrical readout of such mechanical
sensors, in either the classical or quantum regime, offers a novel approach to
detecting particle dark matter on a wide range of mass scales, including both
heavy [378] and light [379] candidates. These sensors are naturally
directionally dependent because they monitor changes to three-momentum of the
mechanical system, and can reach energy thresholds well below the eV scale
[379].

A complementary approach is to employ quantum detectors being developed for
Quantum Information Science (QIS), such as those based on superconducting
charge qubit circuitry, as extremely low-energy (meV) phonon-sensitive
threshold-detectors. Detection of dark matter would take place by way of
phonons produced in a substrate breaking a Cooper pair, leading to
quasiparticle tunneling into the sensors (alternatively photons in a cavity
can be measured non-destructively as a shift in the resonator frequency
spectrum, as for the case of dark photon/axion DM [380]). This presence of
excess quasiparticles can be measured by multiple strategies, including
monitoring changes to qubit decoherence time for weakly charge-sensitive
qubits [381] or shifts in frequency when coupled to a readout resonator as is
the case for Quantum Capacitance Detectors [382]. These type of sensors
present an interesting possibility, especially when paired with higher
threshold phonon sensors, of developing a novel, multiplexed low-threshold
device.

#### Single Photon Detectors

A particularly fruitful area of collaboration between HEP, astrophysics, and
photonics has been in the domain of single photon counting. In the optical and
NIR regime, many of the technologies discussed here are closely tied to
developments aimed at survey science. This synergy has also motivated the use
of other optical imaging technologies not only as secondary readout, but as
the primary DM scattering target as well. The requirement for high fill factor
and quantum efficiency for future UVOIR focal planes will naturally make many
technologies suitable for DM detection provided the dark counts can be
effectively minimized.

One example of this synergy is the use of superconducting nanowire single-
photon detectors (SNSPDs) directly as the active target to probe DM that
scatters off electrons in the SNSPDs and bosonic DM that is absorbed in the
SNSPDs [383, 384]. Using different materials, energy thresholds of 0.8 eV and
0.25 eV have been demonstrated, which would extend the mass reach of of DM
detectors beyond the current $\sim$1 MeV limits, and may be reduced further
through subsequent R&D. A benefit of this approach is that for larger energy
deposits, above the eV-scale, these devices may also have sensitivity to
directionality, opening a new window on background discrimination. As noted
above, a key challenge to overcome as this technology matures will be
fabricating them at a scale that is useful for DM experiments. Existing
experiments rely on established WSi nanowire technology for DM detection at
optical and near-IR wavelengths.

#### Scintillating Detectors

Many crystals scintillate at optical to UV wavelengths, and a number of
crystal scintillators have been proposed as DM detection targets. The majority
of these have not been demonstrated with low backgrounds at the single photon
level or with photon efficiency adequate to detect single scintillation
events. For example, CRESST has used scintillation from calcium tungstate
crystals for ER/NR discrimination, but the low light yield from events at low
energy precludes the use of this detection mode below 100 eV [366]. Thus,
materials which primarily scintillate as a means of energy relaxation are
needed, both to allow them to be used as primary detectors and to ensure high
single photon detection efficiency correlates to thresholds at the
scintillation photon energy.

Organic scintillators are promising targets for sub-GeV DM detection with
electron scattering [385, 386]. Aromatic organic compounds are naturally
anisotropic due to planar carbon rings, with the lowest-energy electronic
wavefunctions well-approximated by linear combinations of 2pz orbitals. The
typical energy of the lowest excited state is a few eV, comparable to the 1 eV
bandgap of silicon detectors. Such detectors have strong synergy with the
skipper-CCD program, because a large-mass organic scintillator target can be
coupled to a few CCDs with appropriate light focusing; the energy of the
scintillation photon lies between the 1- and 2-electron bins, providing some
protection against dark rate backgrounds.

The TESSERACT project mentioned above builds a program around coupling TES-
based phonon detectors to novel detector materials, including scintillators
like superfluid helium, gallium arsenide and sapphire. HeRALD (Helium Roton
Apparatus for Light Dark Matter) is part of the TESSERACT program and proposes
to instrument a vessel of superfluid 4He for scintillation, triplet excimer,
phonon, and roton detection [349, 350], such that the ratios of signals may be
used for discrimination. The TESs can be used to detect scintillation photons
and the quenching of triplet excimers. Alternatively, ionizing the ejected
atom and then accelerating them with an electric field, the ejected ions can
be calorimetrically detected by the release of the heat of adsorption,
providing access to meV scale energy depositions.

Crystal scintillators have also been identified as excellent target materials
for probing DM-electron interactions, with gallium arsenide (GaAs) perhaps
being the most promising [387, 388]. TESSERACT is developing GaAs as their
primary target for electromagnetically-interacting DM due to the fact that it
has a bandgap at 1.42 eV, giving it a similar intrinsic reach to Si, and has
the added benefits of intrinsic radio-purity and the capability to grow it
commercially in large crystals. The phonon detectors will then be sensitive to
the 1.33 eV scintillation photons produced by interactions in the crystal,
while coincident detection of phonon signals enables discrimination of
electronic recoil signals from nuclear recoil and heat-only backgrounds. GaAs
also seems to have little to no afterglow [389, 390].

####  4.4.4 Directional Detection

Because of our motion through a roughly stationary galactic halo, signals of
DM interacting in an Earth-bound experiment are expected to be directional in
a highly characteristic way. This smoking-gun signature should underlie the
signal of whichever DM candidate is eventually discovered – the only problem
is that, at present, very few direct detection experiments are designed with
the ability to measure it. A large-scale recoil imaging detector not only
provides an opportunity to discover direct evidence for DM interactions, but
also represents a way to conclusively confirm the nature of a detected signal
as truly that of DM [285]. A corollary to this statement is that directional
detection presents the optimal way to subtract known sources of background
that could mimic such a signal such as the neutrino fog. Directional detection
can be achieved either by imaging the nuclear recoil trajectory directly, or
by inferring the direction from a proxy variable.

The most mature technique in this area is a low-density gas TPC, capable of
direct recoil imaging, and a central goal of the CYGNUS collaboration is
working towards a competitive large-scale gas TPC for a directional DM search.
To realize directional DM discovery into the neutrino fog there are a few
critical performance benchmarks that must be attained. The most important of
these are (1) angular resolution better than 30∘, (2) correct head/tail
recognition at a probability better than 75%, (3) electron backgrounds
rejected by a factor of O($10^{5}$), and (4) all of those limits achieved down
at sub-10-keVr energies and in as high-density a gas as possible. These goals
appear feasible already down to nuclear recoil energies of 8 keVr in 1
atmosphere of 755:5 He:SF6 [391], by exploiting negative ion drift, and
limiting the maximum drift length in a 10 m3 CYGNUS TPC module to around 50
cm. In the short term, CYGNUS is building 1 m3 prototypes in order to optimize
the configuration of such a 10 m3 module. Scaling up such an experiment to the
1000 $m^{3}$ scale needed to probe into the neutrino fog is a daunting task,
but could be possible with several common modules inside common shielding.
Lastly, as described in [392], recoil imaging crosscuts through multiple
frontiers in HEP.

Other approaches to directional detection include anisotropic light yield in
crystals, and anisotropic ionization detection due to columnar recombination
in liquid or gas. These have been demonstrated at energies higher than those
relevant for DM searches, but new approaches involving magnetic fields and
liquid above the normal boiling point are being investigated to reach dark
matter recoil energies [393].

##  5 Summary and Conclusions

Particle DM is well-motivated and encompasses a wealth of scenarios that can
explain the observed properties of DM, with characteristic mass scales from 1
eV to the Planck scale. Cosmic Frontier searches for particle DM uniquely
allow the observation of DM in its astrophysical environment, ensuring that
detection of a new particle can be connected to the DM puzzle. We have
outlined an ensemble of upcoming and proposed direct and indirect searches for
DM that will significantly improve our sensitivity to DM signals across a
broad range of scenarios. Advances in calibration, modeling, and theoretical
understanding of signals, backgrounds, and uncertainties, will be essential to
take advantage of such improvements and permit a convincing discovery. A
diverse and multi-scale experimental program, combined with support for
complementary measurements, analyses, and R&D, offers the clearest path toward
a convincing detection of particle DM.

##  Appendix A Tables of active, planned and concept Direct Detection
experiments

Name |  Technology |  Target |  Active Mass |  Experiment Location |  Start Ops |  End Ops
---|---|---|---|---|---|---
Currently Running or Under Construction
LZ |  TPC |  LXe |  7,000 kg |  SURF |  2021 |  2026
PandaX-4T |  TPC |  LXe |  4,000 kg |  CJPL |  2021 |  2025
XENONnT |  TPC |  LXe |  7,000 kg |  LGNS |  2021 |  2025
DEAP-3600 |  Scintillator |  LAr |  3,300 kg |  SNOLAB |  2016 |  2025
Darkside-20k |  TPC |  LAr |  50 t |  LNGS |  2027 |  2035
DAMA/LIBRA |  Scintillator |  NaI |  250 kg |  LNGS |  2003 |
ANAIS-112 |  Scintillator |  NaI |  112 kg |  Canfranc |  2017 |  2022
SABRE PoP |  Scintillator |  NaI |  5 kg |  LNGS |  2021 |  2022
COSINE-200 |  Scintillator |  NaI |  200 kg |  YangYang |  2022 |  2025
CDEX-10 |  Ionization (77K) |  Ge |  10 kg |  CJPL |  2016 |
EDELWEISS III (High Field) |  Cryo Ionization / HV |  Ge |  33 g |  LSM |  2019 |
SuperCDMS CUTE |  Cryo Ionization / HV |  Ge/Si |  5 kg/1 kg |  SNOLAB |  2020 |  2022
SuperCDMS SNOLAB |  Cryo Ionization / HV |  Ge/Si |  11 kg/3 kg |  SNOLAB |  2023 |  2028
CRESST-III (HW Tests) |  Bolometer Scintillation |  CaWO4 |  |  LNGS |  2020 |
PICO-40 |  Bubble Chamber |  C3F8 |  35 kg |  SNOLAB |  2020 |
NEWS-G |  Gas Drift |  CH4 |  |  SNOLAB |  2020 |  2025
DAMIC-M prototype |  CCD Skipper |  Si |  18 g |  LSM |  2022 |  2023
DAMIC-M |  CCD Skipper |  Si |  1 kg |  LSM |  2024 |  2025
SENSEI |  CCD Skipper |  Si |  2 g |  Fermilab |  2019 |  2020
SENSEI |  CCD Skipper |  Si |  100 g |  SNOLAB |  2021 |  2023

Name |  Technology |  Target |  Active Mass |  Experiment Location |  Start Ops |  End Ops
---|---|---|---|---|---|---
Planned
SABRE (North) |  Scintillator |  NaI |  50 kg |  LNGS |  2022 |  2027
SABRE (South) |  Scintillator |  NaI |  50 kg |  SUPL |  2022 |  2027
COSINE-200 South Pole |  Scintillator |  NaI |  200 kg |  South Pole |  2023 |
COSINUS |  Bolometer Scintillator |  NaI |  |  LNGS |  2023 |
Darwin / XLZD (US LXe G3) |  TPC |  LXe |  50,000 kg |  undetermined |  2028 |  2033
ARGO |  TPC or Scintillator |  LAr |  300 t |  SNOLAB |  2030 |  2035
CDEX-100 / 1T |  Ionization (77K) |  Ge |  100-1000 kg |  CJPL |  202X |
PICO-500 |  Bubble Chamber |  C3F8 |  430 kg |  SNOLAB |  2021 |
Concept or R&D
Oscura |  CCD Skipper |  Si |  10 kg Si |  SNOLAB |  2025 |  2028
SBC |  Bubble Chamber |  LAr |  1 t |  SNOLAB |  2028 |
SNOWBALL |  Supercooled Liquid H2O |  |  |  |  |
DarkSide-LowMass |  TPC |  LAr |  1.5 t |  |  |
ALETHEIA |  TPC |  He |  |  China Inst. At. Energy |  |
TESSERACT |  Cryo TES |  LHe, SiO2, Al2O3, GaAs |  |  undetermined |  2026 |
CYGNO |  Gas Directional |  He + CF4 |  0.5 - 1 kg |  LNGS |  2024 |
CYGNUS |  Gas Directional |  He + SF6/CF4 |  |  Multiple sites |  |
Windchime |  Accelerometer array |  |  |  Multiple sites |  |
MAGNETO-$\chi$ |  Cryogenic MMC |  Diamond, Sapphire, etc. |  |  |  |

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