radio/mm-wave spectroscopy allow to determine the composition of the gas
phase. Broad-band visible photometry, polarimetry, and infrared spectroscopy
are used to infer the composition and physical properties of the solid
particles.

####  3.1.1 Coma gases

Gases produced by the sublimation of ices inside the nucleus may undergo
several processes modifying their composition before they reach the coma, as
discussed in section 2.3.5.2. Once in the coma, these molecules collide with
each other, with electrons and solar wind ions. All these processes and their
resulting spectral emission need to be studied in the laboratory and
computationally to understand fully and correctly the light emitted by comae.
This requires the determination of physical parameters such as frequencies and
strengths of lines, collisional cross-sections, photodissociation rates etc.
for many molecules and their isotopologues, which are reported in databases.
These laboratory experiments and databases on gas coma properties are reported
in the chapters by Bodewits et al. and Biver et al. in this volume. In the
following paragraphs, we will focus on experiments on solid particles in the
coma.

Figure 12: Light scattering properties of cometary dust analogues in
suspension. (a) PROGRA2-Vis instrument (top) picture of the setup under
microgravity, (bottom) scheme of laboratory setup (_Hadamcik et al._ , 2009).
(b) Comparison between phase functions of comet 67P (Rosetta/OSIRIS data) and
measurements of IDP analogues (aggregates of sub-$\mu$m grains of carbonaceous
compounds and minerals, such as those shown in Fig. 4 and 5) (_Levasseur-
Regourd et al._ , 2019).

####  3.1.2 Coma particles’ light scattering properties

Dust in the coma can be studied from a distance by analysing thermally emitted
light at long infrared wavelengths and solar scattered light in the near-UV to
near-IR spectral range (see the chapter by Kolokolova et al. in this volume).
In the first case, the spectral energy distribution (SED) of the emitted light
is the primary source of information on the grains properties. At shorter
wavelengths, the analysis of the angular distribution of scattered light can
provide additional information on the physical characteristics of the dust
beside the spectral dimension. The study of the light polarization ideally
complements total light analyses for that purpose.

The interpretation of infrared SEDs relies on laboratory measurements of the
thermal emissivity of fine powdered materials relevant for comets, such as
minerals, carbonaceous compounds and ices, essential to infer the composition,
temperature, size distribution and porosity of cometary dusts (_Lisse_ , 2007;
_Wooden_ , 2008). The numerous challenges related to the selection and
procurement of suitable analogue materials discussed in the context of the
nucleus are also relevant here.

Analyses of the scattering of light by dust particles in the coma can provide
quantitative information on a number of properties of the dust, but the
inversion of observational data into physical characterization of the
particles is a complicated process which relies on scattering models and
parameterizations of the particles which should be tested (see the chapter by
Kolokolova et al. in this volume). As unpolarised Sunlight gets partially
polarized when scattered by particles in the coma, it carries information on
the complex refractive index, i.e. the composition, as well as on the size,
shape and structure of the dust particles, complementary to SED observations
(_Kolokolova et al._ , 2007). The variations of polarization with wavelength
and phase angle, as comets orbit the Sun, provide information on these
properties (_Kiselev et al._ , 2015; _Hines and Levasseur-Regourd_ , 2016) and
are therefore extensively studied in the laboratory to compare with the
observations (_Levasseur-Regourd et al._ , 2015). Light scattering properties
of particles randomly oriented in a gas stream are measured at the Cosmic Dust
Laboratory (CoDuLab) of the Instituto de Astrofisica de Andalucia (IAA) in
Granada (_Hovenier and Muñoz_ , 2009; _Muñoz et al._ , 2010, 2011), where the
whole Mueller scattering matrixes (_Muñoz et al._ , 2012) have been obtained
for a variety of analogues. Phase functions of millimeter-sized irregular dust
grains have been compared to numerical models with the aim to improve the
interpretation of comets and protoplanetary disk observations (_Muñoz et al._
, 2017; _Escobar-Cerezo et al._ , 2017). The PROGRA2 instruments have been
developed in France since 1998, in order to compare linear polarization phase
functions of small bodies surfaces and cometary comae with those measured on a
wide set of samples (_Levasseur-Regourd et al._ , 1998; _Worms et al._ ,
1999). Measurements of interest for comae may be obtained in the laboratory
for particles smaller than 10 µm through an air-draught technique, while more
systematic measurements are obtained under microgravity conditions (0 $\pm$
0.05 g) during parabolic flight campaigns organized by CNES or ESA space
agencies (_Hadamcik et al._ , 2011) (Figure 12). The PROGRA2-Vis instrument
can provide measurements between 5° ad 165° phase angles at 543.5 nm and 632.8
nm, while the PROGRA2-IR instrument operates in the IR, at 1.5 $\mu$m
(_Levasseur-Regourd et al._ , 2015). The polarimetric phase curves of cometary
analogues made of porous aggregates of sub-micrometer-sized Mg-silicates, Fe-
silicates and carbon black grains mixed with compact Mg-silicates grains
appear similar to observations of comae (_Hadamcik et al._ , 2007). Aggregates
of sub-micrometer-sized monomers provide the best fits for higher polarization
observed in cometary jets, while a mixture of porous aggregates and compact
grains is needed to fit whole comae observations (_Hadamcik et al._ , 2006).
The influence of the size of individual dust grains (from nm to $\mu$m) and
agglomerates (from $\mu$m to cm) on the maximum polarization of phase curves
has been studied (_Hadamcik et al._ , 2009), allowing the interpretation of
polarimetric images of the coma of 103P/Hartley 2 in term of progressive
sublimation of ice, leading to particle fragmentations with increasing
distance from the nucleus (_Hadamcik et al._ , 2013). Finally, a light
scattering unit, derived from PROGRA2-Vis, had been developed as a tentative
precursor experiment for aggregation of microspheres in microgravity
conditions, and flown on the ESA sounding rocket flight MASER-8 (_Levasseur-
Regourd_ , 2003).

###  3.2 Experiments on the processes transforming coma particles

The dust particles ejected in the coma are subjected to different processes
(photolysis, heating, etc.), which can modify their composition and generate
additional gaseous products. As a consequence, the distribution of some
gaseous species in comae correspond not only to their direct sublimation from
the nucleus, but also to their production from larger molecules or dust
grains. Such additional sources of gas in the coma are called “extended
sources” or “distributed sources” (_Cottin and Fray_ , 2008). Distributed
sources are observed for molecules and radicals such as $\mathrm{H_{2}CO}$,
$\mathrm{CO}$, $\mathrm{HNC}$, $\mathrm{CN}$, $\mathrm{OCS}$, $\mathrm{HF}$,
$\mathrm{HCl}$, $\mathrm{C_{2}}$, $\mathrm{C_{3}}$ and even glycine (see the
chapter by Biver et al. in this volume).

The absorption of solar radiation by molecules in the dust can cause their
photo-degradation by UV photons, and it also induces the warming of the dust.
Volatile and semi-volatile species still present in the particles can undergo
photolysis or sublimation, and even refractory compounds can decompose into
gases due to irradiation or heating. Indeed, the sub-micrometer-sized
particles made of absorptive materials can reach temperatures higher than a
black-body, up to 500 K or more for 0.2 $\mu$m grains (_Kolokolova et al._ ,
2004). In addition to solar radiation, dust particles could also be irradiated
by energetic particles from the cometary plasma and solar wind (_Mendis and
Horányi_ , 2013).

Figure 13: $\mathrm{H_{2}CO}$ production rate as a function of heliocentric
distance for comet C/1995 O1 Hale-Bopp as observed (open squares), and as
computed from experimental data on POM (black circles), assuming a mass
fraction in the grains of 3.1% and $\mathrm{H_{2}CO}$ production at the
surface of the nucleus equal to 3% of $\mathrm{HCN}$ production (_Fray et al._
, 2006).

Laboratory experiments are performed to identify the nature of the solid
precursors responsible for these distributed sources, and retrieve qualitative
and quantitative data on the processes by which they are transformed in gases.
Experiments investigating photo-degradation and thermal-degradation of
compounds relevant for comets enable the determination of absorption cross
sections, quantum yields of photo-degradation, Arrhenius constants and
activation energies of thermal-degradation, or vapor pressures of sublimation,
which serve as inputs into numerical models of gas distributions observed in
comae (_Cottin and Fray_ , 2008; _Hadraoui et al._ , 2019). Photolysis of
solid compounds stable at room temperature can be performed in a temperature-
controlled (300 K) reactor illuminated with a UV lamp, maintained under vacuum
($\mathrm{10^{-^{4}}}$ mbar) and connected to a system analyzing the gaseous
products, such as an infrared spectrometer or a mass spectrometer possibly
coupled with a gas chromatograph (_Cottin and Fray_ , 2008; _Fray et al._ ,
2004b). Thermal degradation of the same kind of compounds can be performed in
a heated reactor or a pyrolyser connected to similar analytic systems. To
study the degradation of compounds formed after irradiation and heating of
cometary ices, high vacuum chambers such as the ones described in section
2.1.2.1 and Figure 2 are used to produce these compounds and degrade them in
situ via UV and/or controlled heating from 20 to 800 K (_Briani et al._ ,
2013). Several experiments have studied the photo-degradation and/or thermal-
degradation of refractory organic compounds such as polyoxymethylene (POM,
$\mathrm{[(-CH_{2}O-)_{n}]}$) (_Fray et al._ , 2004a, 2006) (Figure 13) and
hexamethylenetetramine (HMT, $\mathrm{[(CH_{2})_{6}N_{4}]}$) (_Briani et al._
, 2013; _Fray et al._ , 2004b) produced from ice chemistry (see section
2.1.2.2), HCN-polymers (_Fray et al._ , 2004b), and
$\mathrm{C_{3}O_{2}}$-polymers which have been proposed as a source of
$\mathrm{CO}$ (see references in _Cottin and Fray_ (2008)). However, to date
the presence of these compounds in cometary dust is uncertain. The Rosetta
mission has shown the presence of high-molecular-weight organic matter sharing
similarities with meteoritic IOM (_Fray et al._ , 2016; _Raponi et al._ ,
2020) and ammonium salts (_Altwegg et al._ , 2020; _Poch et al._ , 2020) in
the dust of comet 67P. Therefore, future experiments should investigate the
photo- and thermal-degradation of these types of compounds. The thermal
decomposition of ammonium salts ($\mathrm{NH_{4}^{+}Cl^{-}}$ and
$\mathrm{NH_{4}^{+}HCO_{2}^{-}}$) and the detectability of their products
after ionization in the Rosetta mass spectrometer ROSINA was studied in the
laboratory, enabling their identification (_Hänni et al._ , 2019). Moreover,
$\mathrm{NH_{4}^{+}}$ salts thermal degradation at relatively high temperature
could explain the apparent depletion of comae in nitrogen, the increase of
$\mathrm{NH_{3}}$ in comets closer to the Sun (_Altwegg et al._ , 2020; _Dello
Russo et al._ , 2016), and possibly several distributed sources (_Hänni et
al._ , 2020). To confirm this hypothesis, future experiments of photo/thermal-
degradation on pure and mixed ammonium salts should be performed.

The dust in comae may be subjected to other processes not yet investigated in
experiments. In particular, the solar wind interaction with the coma,
responsible for the cometary ionosphere, could induce radiolysis of dust
particles by energetic particles or charging processes, causing erosion and
disruption of dust particles (_Mendis and Horányi_ , 2013).

###  3.3 Link with circumstellar disks

Our knowledge of circumstellar disks has evolved considerably in the last
decades thanks to fast progress in observations at optical and radio
wavelengths. These data provide new and important observational constraints to
better understand planetary formation and complement knowledge gained in our
solar system by studying primordial objects such as comets. Indeed,
circumstellar disks are made of objects whose physico-chemical properties
could be similar to cometesimals or comets depending on the disk age, and
studies of circumstellar disks and comets share the same scientific questions
on the origin and evolution of matter around stars. For these reasons,
experiments on comets are also useful to better interpret observations of
circumstellar disks (see the chapters by Aikawa et al. and Fitzsimmons et al.
in this volume). _Levasseur-Regourd et al._ (2020) show that the properties of
cometary dust, in particular their high porosity, are compatible with modeling
of light scattering in protoplanetary and debris disks. For example, _Hunziker
et al._ (2021) extract the polarimetric properties of dust particles in the
protoplanetary disc HD 142527 and conclude that large ($>$ 1 $\mu$m) and
porous aggregates are present. Future laboratory efforts to further
characterize light scattering properties of analogue samples relevant for
circumstellar disks will be necessary to better constrain the physical models
on which these interpretations are based. While the initial steps can largely
be based on similar experiments related to comets, some specificity of disks
will also need to be taken into account.

##  4 PERSPECTIVES FOR FUTURE EXPERIMENTS

Laboratory experiments provide essential reference data to understand what
comets are made of, how they formed, how they evolve, and what causes their
activity. Experiments extend to all the cometary materials (ice, dust, gas)
and all the processes they undergo from their formation/processing in pre-
cometary environments to their incorporation, and possible transformation in
comet nuclei and comae. In this chapter, we have provided an overview of the
diversity of laboratory experiments supporting the scientific investigations
of comets.

Over the last two decades, cometary missions (Stardust sample-return, Deep
Impact, Rosetta) and astronomical observations have provided new constraints
on comet structure and composition. These data should drive the preparation of
future experiments, indicating specific structures, compounds and conditions
of interest to study with “simple” or “complex” samples. In particular,
experiments performed on “complex cometary analogues” need to be continued
with samples more representative of the current knowledge on both the physical
structure and the chemical composition of cometary materials. For example,
experiments with mixtures of ices and dust are essential to study the
chemistry (formation, transformation) and the spectroscopy of cometary
materials. The dust comprises not only silicates and other minerals, but also
a large fraction of high-molecular-weight organic matter, as well as semi-
volatile components such as lower molecular weight organic molecules and
salts. These components appear to be arranged in the form of porous or compact
aggregates of sub-micrometer-sized grains. Cometary analogues consisting of
such realistic mixtures, in terms of structure and composition, will provide a
better understanding of various physical processes such as coagulation,
accretion, thermal evolution, outgassing, light scattering etc. Furthermore,
the realization of these experiments in the most realistic conditions (low
temperatures, vacuum, microgravity) will also be beneficial. Closer
collaborations between cometary physicists and chemists should be encouraged
to perform such experiments.

Large-scale cometary laboratory experiments can also be used to explore and
test new ideas of cometary processes still unidentified, such as the effects
of cosmic ray irradiation in thick sections of cometary analogues of various
porosity, the processes related to the diffusion of gas through the nucleus
material (transformations, isotopic fractionation), the role of super- and
hyper-volatiles in the ejection of dust/ice particles, or the photo/thermal
decomposition and interaction with plasma of grains in comae.

Future experiments, either refining already known cometary processes or
revealing new ones, will be complementary to theoretical models simulating
these processes. Many open questions about comets would only receive
reasonable answers via the interplay of models and experiments. For example,
to understand comet formation processes it is essential to have good scaling
laws to extrapolate results from experiments to large objects. Moreover,
models of (pre-)cometary ice chemistry using networks of reactions (whose
parameters are determined by theories and/or experiments) could allow to
answer how, when and where some cometary materials were formed. Furthermore,
models of comet thermal evolution and outgassing would benefit from
measurements of the thermal conductivity of refractory organics, salts, and
gas-laden amorphous ice, as well as measurements of the solid-gas equilibrium
of ices and clathrate hydrates at low pressure and temperature. Finally,
future experiments could also benefit from new technologies or methods of
physical or chemical measurements, providing better characterization of the
samples and of their processing.

The next cometary space missions (see the chapter by Snodgrass et al. in this
volume) will also drive the realization of future experiments. Firstly,
experiments are needed to prepare and interpret these observations. In
particular, one of the challenges of observing a dynamically-new comet, as
planned by the Comet Interceptor mission, will be to disentangle the origins
of the observed compounds or structures (already formed in cometesimals, or
produced later). Secondly and reciprocally, new observations will provide
knowledge to take into account in future experiments. A long term challenge of
cometary science is to plan and execute future analyses of cometary nucleus
material, either in situ or via sample return. A potential future sample
return of cometary nucleus to Earth would require various experimental and
theoretical simulations to define how to best sample, preserve, and analyze
the cometary material. Future large-scale experiments could play a fundamental
role in refining our knowledge of the depth profile of a cometary nucleus
(composition and interrelationship of volatiles and refractories, physical
structure, thermal and mechanical properties), crucial for all steps of the
mission, from sampling to interpreting the results (_Thomas et al._ , 2019).
In return, such analyses of cometary material will provide excellent data to
improve experimental and theoretical models of comets.

Astronomical observatories (JWST, ELT, ALMA etc.) will also provide
observations of a multitude of comae and nuclei, and allow comparisons with
pre- and proto-stellar environments, proto-planetary or debris disks, but also
TNOs and asteroids of our own solar system. Cosmo-materials and cosmochemistry
studies could provide as well interesting insights related to comets.
Laboratory experiments will be instrumental in understanding the evolutionary
links between these environments/objects and comets.

Acknowledgments.
The authors dedicate this chapter to the memory of Prof. Anny-Chantal
Levasseur-Regourd (1945-2022). ACLR was a renowned specialist of comets,
especially of the optical properties of cometary and interplanetary dusts she
studied via observations, laboratory and numerical simulations. The first
version of this chapter benefited from her thorough reading and advice. Her
inexhaustible enthusiasm will continue to inspire us. The work of O.P. related
to comets was supported by the Center for Space and Habitability of the
University of Bern, the National Centre of Competence in Research (NCCR)
PlanetS supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation, the Centre
National d’Etudes Spatiales (CNES), the French Agence Nationale de la
Recherche (program Classy, ANR-17-CE31-0004) and the European Research Council
(under the SOLARYS grant ERC-CoG2017-771691). O.P. acknowledges Bernard
Schmitt for discussions about cometary physics, and Mathieu Choukroun for
discussions on the chapter’s structure. The authors are grateful to Joseph A.
Nuth and Perry A Gerakines for their reviews of this chapter.

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