| (0.024) | (0.012) | (0.009) | (0.011) | (0.010)
| 206,589 | 43,307 | 206,639 | 201,571 | 200,322
| 0.000 | 0.021 | 0.002 | 0.000 | 0.000
degree | -0.100∗∗∗ | 0.022∗∗ | 0.027∗∗∗ | 0.102∗∗∗ | 0.090∗∗∗
| (0.023) | (0.011) | (0.008) | (0.010) | (0.009)
| 209,106 | 43,773 | 209,164 | 204,032 | 202,752
| 0.000 | 0.045 | 0.001 | 0.000 | 0.000
attendance | -0.189∗∗∗ | 0.030∗∗ | 0.036∗∗∗ | 0.135∗∗∗ | 0.125∗∗∗
| (0.030) | (0.015) | (0.011) | (0.013) | (0.012)
| 209,522 | 43,901 | 209,566 | 204,416 | 203,132
| 0.000 | 0.041 | 0.004 | 0.000 | 0.000
pray | -0.100∗∗∗ | 0.022∗∗ | 0.021∗∗∗ | 0.088∗∗∗ | 0.080∗∗∗
| (0.020) | (0.010) | (0.007) | (0.009) | (0.008)
| 207,701 | 43,547 | 207,743 | 202,632 | 201,377
| 0.000 | 0.030 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000

  * •

Notes: Robust standard errors clustered at the level of instruments are in
parentheses, followed by sample size and Anderson-Rubin Wald F statistic (AR
test). All specifications include the full set of control variables and fixed
effects. * $p<0.10$; **$p<0.05$; ***$p<0.01$.

The results are presented in Table 12. Unemployed is negatively, securejob is
positively related to the religiosity measures. It can be said that
religiosity and employment stability are associated. The variables referring
to stress are positively and significantly correlated with religiosity
measures, suggesting that religious people do not necessarily feel stressed.
The IV results for following rules (Table D6) are positively and significantly
correlated with all religiosity measures. Thus, rule orientation relates
positively to religiosity. Overall, there are signals that religiosity and the
fear of uncertainty are related, but further evidence is needed.

###  6.3 Roles Reinforced by Religion

Roles reinforced by religion can be read through various concepts. Yet, we
consider two of them: individualism-collectivism and conventional gender
roles212121Masculinity-femininity is one of the five dimensions of Hofstede’s
model, and it is a combination of conventional gender roles and the degree of
orientation to material achievement ([70]). However, there is no consensus in
the literature that masculinity (or femininity) favours innovation. We,
therefore, simplify this dimension and take only conventional gender roles
into account..

In Hofstede’s work, individualism-collectivism is one of the five dimensions
on which national cultures differ and has been widely used in the empirical
literature related to culture ([64]). In individualist societies, the
interests of individuals come before the interests of the group. On the other
hand, in collectivist societies, the group’s interests come first. Individuals
work for the group, not for themselves. Therefore, complying with the group’s
rules and staying loyal to the group are crucial behaviours in collectivist
societies that require one to follow the established rules and traditions,
leaving limited space for reformist and creative endeavours. Nevertheless,
creativity, which is one of the main ingredients of innovation, is said to be
the act of an individual, at times in contradiction with the norms and values
of the group ([3]; [70]).

Individualism may facilitate innovation by fostering a tendency to accept
novelty ([65]), giving courage to individuals to defend new ideas in the face
of resistance, enabling the emergence of champion roles ([62]). Collectivism,
on the other hand, may damage innovation by fostering the ideas that are
acceptable to all interested parties only ([70]).

[70] show that individualism positively influences economic creativity, which
facilitates innovation implementation. [17] show that higher levels of
individualism foster corporate innovation by generating more and higher impact
patents and by being more efficient in converting R&D into innovative output.
[TaylorWilson] find that most measures of individualism have a strong and
positive effect on national innovation rates. They also find that certain
types of collectivism, such as patriotism and nationalism, may also foster
innovation at the country level, while other types of collectivism, such as
familism and localism, harm national innovation rates.

[30] examine the effect of individualism and collectivism on the long-run
economic growth. They find that individualism has a strong and positive effect
on economic growth, mainly because higher degrees of individualism lead to
more innovation, given that innovation is associated with higher personal and
social rewards in an individualistic culture. Individualist countries, in
general, are more prosperous than collectivist societies ([36]).

Religion is likely to favour collectivist culture since following rules and
staying loyal to the group, church, and god are inherent to religion. One
cannot modify religion to best self-interest, as an individualistic approach
would require. Some denominations are said to be more individualistic than
others, such as Protestantism, yet we do not compare denominations and only
discriminate between being religious and irreligious.

We examine the relationship between individualism-collectivism and religiosity
based on the approaches above. We define four indicators from the ESS data
that are somewhat related to individualism and collectivism. Devote (important
to devote himself to people close to him), family (family should be priority
in life), success (important: being successful and recognised achievements),
lookafter (everyone should look after himself). Lookafter is related to
personal freedom and self-care, success is related to personal achievement,
which both are stronger in individualistic cultures than they are in
collectivist cultures ([30]). Devote and family refer to we consciousness and
superiority of group over individual, thus expected to be stronger in
collectivist cultures.

Table 13: IV Estimates: Individualism-Collectivism

| (1) | (2) | (3) | (4)
---|---|---|---|---
| devote | success | lookafter | family
religiosity | 0.035∗∗∗ | 0.043∗∗∗ | -0.035 | 0.120∗∗∗
| (0.007) | (0.012) | (0.021) | (0.016)
| 201,446 | 201,068 | 21,621 | 21,699
| 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.101 | 0.000
degree | 0.032∗∗∗ | 0.037∗∗∗ | -0.039∗ | 0.112∗∗∗
| (0.007) | (0.011) | (0.020) | (0.015)
| 203,904 | 203,497 | 21,798 | 21,874
| 0.000 | 0.001 | 0.054 | 0.000
attendance | 0.045∗∗∗ | 0.058∗∗∗ | -0.040 | 0.147∗∗∗
| (0.008) | (0.014) | (0.027) | (0.019)
| 204,293 | 203,871 | 21,858 | 21,937
| 0.000 | 0.001 | 0.135 | 0.000
pray | 0.028∗∗∗ | 0.033∗∗∗ | -0.030∗ | 0.097∗∗∗
| (0.006) | (0.010) | (0.017) | (0.014)
| 202,510 | 202,119 | 21,715 | 21,793
| 0.000 | 0.001 | 0.085 | 0.000

  * •

Notes: Robust standard errors clustered at the level of instruments are in
parentheses, followed by sample size and Anderson-Rubin Wald F statistic (AR
test). All specifications include the full set of control variables and fixed
effects. * $p<0.10$; **$p<0.05$; ***$p<0.01$.

Table 13 presents the results. Devote and family are positively and
significantly related to the religiosity measures, suggesting that higher
religiosity favours collectivist culture. On the other hand, success and
lookafter show contrasting results, leaving the question open whether
religiosity and individualism negatively relate.

When it comes to gender differences and traditional roles, there is a vast
literature and a lot to say, yet we only discuss the matter non-exhaustively
for the sake of clarity.

Higher degrees of religiosity may cause individuals to be more submissive,
obedient, and passive regardless of gender. Women are said to be more inclined
toward those characteristics than men, mainly because of two reasons. Firstly,
religions can foster gender differences since many major denominations impose
strict rules on women, such as wifely submission, veiling, et cetera.
Therefore, women are taught to be homemakers, fulfil childcare duties, and be
committed to men and family, rather than being encouraged to work outside the
home. Secondly, women are generally more religious than men because women have
lower labour force participation rates and greater responsibility for
housework and childcare, leading them to greater (time-wise) involvement in
religion222222See [49], [67] for gender differences and religiosity. ([48]).

Being taught to be submissive and obedient is expected to restrain novelty,
creativity, and innovative endeavours, thus a negative channel from religion
to innovation for both genders, yet expected to be more influential for women.
Conventional gender roles empowered by religion are a significant drawback for
innovation and the economy, allegedly a major reason for the lower female
labour supply. If nothing, half of a given population is being treated
differently regarding access to education, liberty, and social and legal
rights means that up to $50\%$ of the capacity to create and produce cannot be
properly used.

Table 14: IV Estimates: Gender Roles

| (1) | (2) | (3)
---|---|---|---
| lgbt | womenwork | menwork
religiosity | -0.196∗∗∗ | 0.187∗∗∗ | 0.136∗∗∗
| (0.011) | (0.018) | (0.020)
| 200,719 | 79,002 | 106,126
| 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000
degree | -0.176∗∗∗ | 0.175∗∗∗ | 0.128∗∗∗
| (0.011) | (0.016) | (0.019)
| 202,984 | 79,994 | 107,436
| 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000
attendance | -0.249∗∗∗ | 0.236∗∗∗ | 0.166∗∗∗
| (0.014) | (0.021) | (0.025)
| 203,336 | 80,200 | 107,666
| 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000
pray | -0.158∗∗∗ | 0.151∗∗∗ | 0.113∗∗∗
| (0.009) | (0.015) | (0.017)
| 201,706 | 79,491 | 106,709
| 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000

  * •

Notes: Robust standard errors clustered at the level of instruments are in
parentheses, followed by sample size and Anderson-Rubin Wald F statistic (AR
test). All specifications include the full set of control variables and fixed
effects. * $p<0.10$; **$p<0.05$; ***$p<0.01$.

We define three variables from the ESS that could reflect the strong
connection between traditional gender roles and religiosity. lgbt (gay men and
lesbians should be free), womenwork (a woman should be prepared to cut down on
her paid work for the sake of her family), menwork (when jobs are scarce, men
should have more right to a job than women). Table 14 displays the results.
lgbt is negatively and significantly correlated, while womenwork and menwork
are positively correlated with all measures of religiosity, supporting the
hypothesis that religiosity favours conventional gender roles.

##  7 Conclusion

Religion is a multi-dimensional and complex phenomenon whose effect is
embedded in social and economic behaviour. Hence, using religion in regression
without considering its multi-dimensionality and embeddedness would yield
spurious correlations. More formally, the potential sources of the endogeneity
of religion, including omitted variables, reverse causality, and measurement
error should be considered to reach an accountable and causal effect of
religion on economic outcomes; otherwise, estimates will be unreliable.

The present study provides the first attempt to tackle the inherent
endogeneity of religion with respect to innovation. We use different measures
of religiosity, adopt an individual-level approach to innovation, use multi-
way fixed effects, and employ the instrumental variables method. The results
show that higher religiosity negatively affects positive innovation attitudes
and positively affects negative innovation attitudes, implying that being
religious is not a catalyser for innovation-related traits and is possibly an
obstacle. This finding is in line with the literature ([12],
[*]Benabouetal2015). Using OLS estimates, [13] find that religiosity is
positively related to creativity, which they describe as “puzzling”. We
contribute to this literature by uncovering that the positive relationship
between religiosity and creativity is driven by endogeneity. We find a
negative relationship between religiosity and creativity once we rule out
endogeneity by applying the IV method.

As possible channels from religion to innovation, we empirically examine and
discuss three approaches: time allocation, the fear of uncertainty, and roles
reinforced by religion, such as traditional roles and gender roles.

Although the instrumental variables method is seen as effective in dealing
with endogeneity and the diagnostic tests suggest non-weak instruments, the
results should be approached with caution since we use observational survey
data. As [38] points out, nothing less than a genuine experiment that is
probably unattainable will demonstrate the true causal effect of religion. In
this study, we aim to approximate the causal effect of religion on innovation,
yet further research is needed. First, the negative effect of religion on
innovation should be tested with different instruments and sophisticated
estimation methods. Second, different data sources, especially not self-
reported attendance data, can be used to rule out the potential self-report
bias fundamentally. Third, the causal channels from religion to innovation and
their underlying mechanisms should more deeply be examined since we discuss
them non-exhaustively.

## Appendix

### A. Variables Index and Data Summary

Innovation Variables

All the innovation variables below are based on self-reported assessments on
the following statements, where the options are; very much like me (1), like
me (2), somewhat like me (3), a little like me (4), not like me (5), not like
me at all (6). All variables are recoded as to be increasing in a scale from 0
(not like me at all) to 1 (very much like me) for the sake of easier
interpretation.

We distinguish innovation attitudes as positive innovation attitudes (PIA) and
negative innovation attitudes (NIA). PIA include creativity, being different,
being free, and being adventurous, while NIA include following rules and
following traditions.

adventurous: being adventurous, based on the statement “He looks for
adventures and likes to take risks. He wants to have an exciting life.”

creative: creativity, based on the statement “Thinking up new ideas and being
creative is important to him. He likes to do things in his own original way.”

different: being different, based on the statement “He likes surprises and is
always looking for new things to do. He thinks it is important to do lots of
different things in life.”.

free: being free, based on the statement “It is important to him to make his
own decisions about what he does. He likes to be free and not depend on
others.”

innegav: average negative innovation attitudes. Computed as the simple mean of
rules, traditions.

inposav: average positive innovation attitudes. Computed as the simple mean of
creative, different, free, adventurous..

innosum: summary innovation attitudes. Computed as the sum of positive
innovation attitudes minus the sum of negative innovation attitudes: insum=
(creative \+ different \+ free \+ adventurous) - (traditions \+ rules).
Rescaled to be between 0 (low propensity to innovate) and 1 (high propensity
to innovate).

rules: following rules, based on the statement “He believes that people should
do what they’re told. He thinks people should follow rules at all times, even
when no-one is watching.”

traditions: following traditions, based on the statement “Tradition is
important to him. He tries to follow the customs handed down by his religion
or his family.”

Religion Variables attendance: frequency of attendance to religious
activities, based on the question “Apart from special occasions such as
weddings and funerals, about how often do you attend religious services
nowadays?” where the options are; every day (1), more than once a week (2),
once a week (3), at least once a month (4), only on special holy days (5),
less often (6), never (7). The variable is rescaled to be between 0 (never)
and 1 (every day) to ease the interpretation.

belonging: religious affiliation, belonging to a religion or denomination, a
dummy variable based on the question “Do you consider yourself as belonging to
any particular religion or denomination?” 0 is no, and 1 is yes.

belongingp: past belonging to a religion or domination, a dummy variable based
on the question “Have you ever considered yourself as belonging to any
particular religion or denomination?” 0 is no, and 1 is yes.

degree: the degree of being religious, based on the question “Regardless of
whether you belong to a particular religion, how religious would you say you
are?” where 0 is not religious at all, 10 is very religious. The variable is
rescaled to be between 0 (not religious at all) and 1 (very religious) to ease
the interpretation.

denomination: belonging to a particular denomination, based on the question
“If you consider yourself as belonging to any particular religion or
denomination, which one is it?” where the options are; Roman Catholic (1),
Protestant (2), Eastern Orthodox (3), Other Christian denominations (4),
Jewish (5), Islamic (6), Eastern religions (7), Other non-Christian religions
(8), not declare which religion (9), not belong to a religion (10).

denominationp: past belonging to a particular denomination, based on the
question “If you have ever considered yourself as belonging to any particular
religion or denomination, which one was it?” where the options are the same as
those of denomination.

pray: frequency of praying, based on the question “Apart from when you are at
religious services, how often, if at all, do you pray?” where the options are
the same as those of attendance. The variable is rescaled to be between 0
(never) and 1 (every day) to ease the interpretation.

religiosity: religiosity index, computed as the principal component of degree,
attendance, and pray. Rescaled to be between 0 not religious on average, and 1
very religious on average.

Instrumental Variables

iv_attendance: instrumental variable for attendance. Frequency of attendance
to religious activities of individual $i$, instrumented by the average
frequency of attendance to religious activities of people who have the same
age, gender, and religious affiliation with $i$ and live in a country with the
same dominant denomination as the country of $i$. Takes values between 0 (low
frequency of attendance to religious activities) and 1 (high frequency of
attendance to religious activities).

iv_degree: instrumental variable for degree. The degree of religiosity of
individual $i$, instrumented by the average degree of religiosity of people
who have the same age, gender, and religious affiliation with $i$ and live in
a country with the same dominant denomination as the country of $i$. Takes
values between 0 (not religious) and 1 (very religious).

iv_pray: instrumental variable for pray. Frequency of praying of individual
$i$, instrumented by the average frequency of praying of people who have the
same age, gender, and religious affiliation with $i$ and live in a country
that has the same dominant denomination as the country of $i$. Takes values
between 0 (low frequency of pray) and 1 (high frequency of pray).

iv_religiosity: instrumental variable for religiosity. religiosity index of
individual $i$, instrumented by the average of religiosity index of people who
have the same age, gender and religious affiliation with $i$ and live in a
country with the same dominant denomination as the country of $i$. Takes
values between 0 (low religiosity) and 1 (high religiosity).

Control Variables

age: age of respondent.

age2: square of age of respondent.

bornc: born-in country of respondent. A standard dummy variable, 0 is no which
means that the respondent was born in a different country than the country
where she takes the survey; and 1 is yes, meaning that the respondent was born
in the same country where she takes the survey.

child: whether respondent lives with children at home or not. A standard dummy
variable with 0 is no which means that the respondent does not live with
children, and 1 isyes meaning that the respondent lives with children.

education: completed years of education of respondent, based on the question
“About how many years of education have you completed, whether full-time or
part-time? Please report these in full-time equivalents and include compulsory
years of schooling.”

fathere: completed level of education of respondent’s father. The same
classification problem, as of mothere, stand for fathere as well. The variable
is, therefore, constructed by grouping two variables (escedf, edulvlfa) from
ESS data. The values are the same as those of mothere.

gender: a standard dummy variable for the gender of respondent, 0 is male, and
1 is female.

health: subjective general health of respondent where the values are: very bad
(1), bad (2), fair (3), good (4), very good (5).

mothere: completed level of education of respondent’s mother. The variable is
constructed by grouping two variables (escedm, edulvlma) from ESS data. The
variable edulvlma is classified by ISCED 1997 and only exists for ESS rounds
1,2,3,4; while escedm is classified by ISCED 2011 and only exists for ESS
rounds 4,5,6,7,8. mothere thus a grouped version232323For detailed information
about ISCED classifications please refer to the guide International Standard
Classification of Education (ISCED) by Eurostat. The related link:
https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/pdfscache/44322.pdf of
these two variables and the values are: less than lower secondary education
completed (1), lower secondary education completed (2), upper secondary
education completed (3), post-secondary non-tertiary education completed (4),
tertiary education completed (5).

paidwork: paid work status of respondent, based on the question “Have paid
work in last seven days?” where 0 is not marked which means respondent does
not have a paid job, and 1 is marked meaning that respondent has a paid job.
The variable is controlled with the help of the variable crpdwk (control for
paid work).

partner: whether respondent lives with a husband/wife/partner at home or not.
A standard dummy variable with 0 is no which means that the respondent does
not live with a partner, and 1 isyes meaning that the respondent lives with a
partner.

pwbefore: whether respondent has ever had a paid job or not. A standard dummy
variable with 0 is no which means that respondent has never had a paid job
before; 1 is yes meaning that respondent has had a paid job before.

Fixed Effects

country: country of the respondent. The ESS has observations for 36 European
countries, but we drop Israel since it is not located in continental Europe.

denomination: please refer to Religion Variables.

essround: survey dummies for eight rounds (2002, 2004, 2006, 2008, 2010, 2012,
2014, 2016) of the ESS.

income1 $\&$ income2: both variables stand for net income of household from
all sources. income1 only exists for the ESS rounds 1,2,3; while income2
exists for the ESS rounds 4,5,6,7,8 due to a change of classification. But
they cannot be grouped because income1 takes values with (12) ranges, while
income2 with (10) deciles. Thus we use them separately.

occupation: occupation of respondent. Constructed by grouping the two
occupation variables with different classifications (iscoco and isco08) from
the ESS data. iscoco exists for the ESS rounds 1,2,3,4,5 and takes values of
International Standard Classification of Occupations 1988 (ISCO-88); while
isco08 only exists for the ESS rounds 6,7,8 and takes values of International
Standard Classification of Occupations 2008 (ISCO-08). The values of
occupation are relabeled in accordance with ISCO-08242424The correspondences
between the classifications of ISCO-88 and ISCO-08 are taken from the guide:
International Standard Classification of Occupations: ISCO-08. (2012) Volume
I: Structure Group Definitions and Correspondence Tables by International
Labour Organization. classification. Occupation variable includes 582
different values (between 0 and 9999) that refer to different occupation
labels. We consider only the main categories, which are 9, as fixed effects;
armed forces occupations (0-1000), managers (1000-2000), professionals
(2000-3000), technicians, and associate prof. (3000-4000), clerical support
workers (4000-5000), services and sales workers (5000-6000), skilled
agricultural, forestry, and fishery workers (6000-7000), plant and machine
operators and assemblers (7000-8000), elementary occupations (8000-9000), no
answer (9000-9999).

Other Variables

devote: Based on the statement “It is important to him to be loyal to his
friends. He wants to devote himself to people close to him.” Takes the same
values as safe.

family: Based on the statement “A person’s family ought to be his or her main
priority in life.” Takes the same values as lookafter.

government: Based on the statement “It is important to him that the government
ensures his safety against all threats. He wants the state to be strong so it
can defend its citizens.” Takes the same values as safe.

lgbt: Based on the statement “Gay men and lesbians should be free to live
their own life as they wish.” Takes the same values as lookafter.

lookafter: Based on the statement “Society would be better off if everyone
just looked after themselves.” where the options are  agree strongly (1),
agree (2), neither agree or disagree (3), disagree (4), disagree strongly (5).
Recoded as to be increasing in a scale from 0 (disagree strongly) to 1 (agree
strongly) for the sake of easier interpretation.

menwork: Based on the statement “When jobs are scarce men should have more
right to a job than women.” Takes the same values as lookafter.

safe: Based on the statement “It is important to him to live in secure
surroundings. He avoids anything that might endanger his safety.” where the
options are very much like me (1), like me (2), somewhat like me (3), a little
like me (4), not like me (5), not like me at all (6). Recoded as to be
increasing in a scale from 0 (not like me at all) to 1 (very much like me) for
the sake of easier interpretation.

securejob: Based on the statement “How important do you think each of the
following would be if you were choosing a job: a secure job” where the options
are not important at all (1), not important (2), neither important nor
unimportant (3), important (4), very important (5). Recoded as to be
increasing in a scale from 0 (not important at all) to 1 (very important) for
the sake of easier interpretation.

success: Based on the statement “Being very successful is important to him. He
hopes people will recognize his achievements.” Takes the same values as safe.

trust: Based on the statement “Using this card, generally speaking, would you
say that most people can be trusted, or that you cannot be too careful in
dealing with people? Please tell me on a score of 0 to 10, where 0 means you
cannot be too careful and 10 means that most people can be trusted.”
Normalized to be between 0 (cannot be too careful) and 1 (most people can be
trusted)

unemployed: A dummy based on the question “Have you ever been unemployed and
seeking work for a period of more than three months?” 0 is no, and 1 is yes.

womenwork: Based on the statement “A woman should be prepared to cut down on
her paid work for the sake of her family.” Takes the same values as lookafter.

_Table A1. The ESS Data, Countries and Dominant Denominations_

Country | Ess 1 | Ess 2 | Ess 3 | Ess 4 | Ess 5 | Ess 6 | Ess 7 | Ess 8
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---
Albania (AL) |  |  |  |  |  | $\bullet$ |  |
Muslim (57%) |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Austria (AT) | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ |  |  |  | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$
Catholic (62%) |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Belgium (BE) | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$
Not belong (56%) |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Bulgaria (BG) |  |  | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ |  |
Orthodox (51%) |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Croatia (HR) |  |  |  | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ |  |  |
Catholic (76%) |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Cyprus (CY) |  |  | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ |  |
Orthodox (75%) |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Czech Republic (CZ) | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ |  | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$
Not belong (78%) |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Denmark (DK) | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$
Protestant (52%) |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Estonia (EE) |  | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$
Not belong (74%) |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Finland (FI) | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$
Protestant (55%) |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
France (FR) | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$
Not belong (51%) |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Germany (DE) | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$
Not belong (38%) |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Great Britain (GE) | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$
Not belong (53%) |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Greece (GR) | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ |  | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ |  |  |
Orthodox (89%) |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Hungary (HU) | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$
Not belong (45%) |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Iceland (IS) |  | $\bullet$ |  |  |  | $\bullet$ |  | $\bullet$
Not belong (57%) |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Ireland (IE) | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$
Catholic (72%) |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Italy (IT) | $\bullet$ |  |  |  |  | $\bullet$ |  | $\bullet$
Catholic (71%) |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Kosovo (XK) |  |  |  |  |  | $\bullet$ |  |
Muslim (88%) |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Lithuania (LT) |  |  |  |  | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$
Catholic (79%) |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Latvia (LV) |  |  |  | $\bullet$ |  |  |  |
Not belong (53%) |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Luxemburg (LU) | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ |  |  |  |  |  |
Catholic (53%) |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Netherlands (NL) | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$
Not belong (61%) |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Norway (NO) | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$
Not belong (47%) |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Poland (PL) | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$
Catholic (90%) |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Portugal (PT) | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$
Catholic (80%) |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Romania (RO) |  |  |  | $\bullet$ |  |  |  |
Orthodox (81%) |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Russia (RU) |  |  | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ |  | $\bullet$
Orthodox (46%) |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Slovakia(SK) |  | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ |  |
Catholic (63%) |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Slovenia (SI) | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$
Catholic 50% |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Spain (ES) | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$
Catholic (65%) |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Sweden (SE) | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$
Not belong (68%) |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Switzerland (CH) | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$
Not belong (34%) |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Turkey(TR) |  | $\bullet$ |  | $\bullet$ |  |  |  |
Muslim (96%) |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Ukraine(UA) |  | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ | $\bullet$ |  |
Orthodox (58%) |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |

  * •

Notes: Surveyed countries across the ESS waves are reported. First column
displays countries and their alphabetical codes. Dominant denomination and its
percentage among respondents are presented below each country.

_Table A2. Summary Statistics_

| obs. | mean | sd | min | max
---|---|---|---|---|---
creative | 284,142 | 0.68 | 0.24 | 0 | 1
different | 284,142 | 0.60 | 0.27 | 0 | 1
free | 284,142 | 0.76 | 0.22 | 0 | 1
adventurous | 284,142 | 0.42 | 0.29 | 0 | 1
traditions | 284,142 | 0.67 | 0.27 | 0 | 1
rules | 284,142 | 0.58 | 0.27 | 0 | 1
inposav | 284,142 | 0.62 | 0.18 | 0 | 1
innegav | 284,142 | 0.62 | 0.22 | 0 | 1
innosum | 284,142 | 0.54 | 0.14 | 0 | 1
belonging | 284,142 | 0.62 | 0.48 | 0 | 1
belonginge | 107,060 | 0.25 | 0.43 | 0 | 1
denomination | 284,142 | 5.11 | 4.06 | 1 | 10
denominatione | 25,829 | 1.66 | 1.12 | 1 | 8
religiosity | 284,142 | 0.37 | 0.27 | 0 | 1
iv_religiosity | 284,142 | 0.47 | 0.23 | 0 | 1
degree | 284,142 | 0.48 | 0.30 | 0 | 1
iv_degree | 284,142 | 0.48 | 0.18 | 0 | 1
attendance | 284,142 | 0.27 | 0.25 | 0 | 1
iv_attendance | 284,142 | 0.35 | 0.19 | 0 | 1
pray | 284,142 | 0.40 | 0.41 | 0 | 1
iv_pray | 284,142 | 0.40 | 0.24 | 0 | 1
age | 284,142 | 47.63 | 18.29 | 15 | 114
age2 | 284,142 | 2603 | 1818 | 225 | 12996
education | 282,293 | 12.42 | 4.09 | 0 | 56
gender | 284,087 | 0.53 | 0.50 | 0 | 1
health | 284,142 | 3.78 | 0.91 | 1 | 5
paidwork | 284,142 | 0.55 | 0.50 | 0 | 1
pwbefore | 284,142 | 0.90 | 0.29 | 0 | 1
child | 283,749 | 0.38 | 0.49 | 0 | 1
partner | 284,142 | 0.53 | 0.50 | 0 | 1
bornc | 283,964 | 0.92 | 0.27 | 0 | 1
fathere | 284,142 | 2.55 | 1.44 | 1 | 5
mothere | 284,142 | 2.37 | 1.37 | 1 | 5
essround | 284,142 | 4.58 | 2.17 | 1 | 8
occupation | 253,195 | 4.74 | 2.50 | 0 | 9
income1 | 68.04 | 6.17 | 2.65 | 1 | 12
income2 | 150,443 | 5.30 | 2.78 | 1 | 10
lgbt | 273,645 | 0.69 | 0.30 | 0 | 1
womenwork | 114,915 | 0.55 | 0.29 | 0 | 1
menwork | 148,614 | 0.35 | 0.31 | 0 | 1
devote | 283,564 | 0.81 | 0.18 | 0 | 1
success | 283,209 | 0.57 | 0.27 | 0 | 1
lookafter | 32,966 | 0.36 | 0.28 | 0 | 1
family | 33,114 | 0.80 | 0.19 | 0 | 1
unemployed | 283,170 | 0.26 | 0.44 | 0 | 1
trust | 283,516 | 0.50 | 0.25 | 0 | 1
safe | 283,522 | 0.74 | 0.24 | 0 | 1
securejob | 62,677 | 0.84 | 0.20 | 0 | 1
government | 282,017 | 4.69 | 1.18 | 1 | 6
$N$ | 284,142 |  |  |  |

  * •

Notes: Summary statistics for all variables are reported. All are weighted by
gweight.

_A3. Means by Country_

| religiosity | degree | attendance | pray | creative | different | free | advent. | trad. | rules | inposav | innegav | innosum
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---
AL | 0.49 | 0.73 | 0.24 | 0.50 | 0.70 | 0.69 | 0.76 | 0.42 | 0.77 | 0.67 | 0.64 | 0.72 | 0.53
AT | 0.41 | 0.49 | 0.30 | 0.43 | 0.71 | 0.60 | 0.79 | 0.44 | 0.65 | 0.52 | 0.64 | 0.59 | 0.56
BE | 0.32 | 0.47 | 0.17 | 0.30 | 0.67 | 0.63 | 0.77 | 0.43 | 0.66 | 0.56 | 0.62 | 0.61 | 0.55
BG | 0.34 | 0.43 | 0.27 | 0.32 | 0.59 | 0.60 | 0.71 | 0.47 | 0.76 | 0.67 | 0.59 | 0.71 | 0.49
CH | 0.40 | 0.51 | 0.25 | 0.45 | 0.74 | 0.64 | 0.84 | 0.42 | 0.63 | 0.50 | 0.66 | 0.57 | 0.59
CY | 0.60 | 0.69 | 0.44 | 0.70 | 0.78 | 0.63 | 0.80 | 0.47 | 0.81 | 0.55 | 0.67 | 0.68 | 0.55
CZ | 0.18 | 0.24 | 0.14 | 0.15 | 0.68 | 0.58 | 0.73 | 0.41 | 0.64 | 0.63 | 0.60 | 0.64 | 0.52
DE | 0.34 | 0.44 | 0.23 | 0.36 | 0.70 | 0.60 | 0.80 | 0.35 | 0.62 | 0.51 | 0.61 | 0.57 | 0.55
DK | 0.27 | 0.41 | 0.19 | 0.22 | 0.73 | 0.58 | 0.77 | 0.48 | 0.66 | 0.61 | 0.64 | 0.63 | 0.55
EE | 0.24 | 0.35 | 0.19 | 0.19 | 0.60 | 0.59 | 0.75 | 0.41 | 0.59 | 0.53 | 0.59 | 0.56 | 0.54
ES | 0.36 | 0.44 | 0.25 | 0.39 | 0.71 | 0.61 | 0.78 | 0.40 | 0.66 | 0.58 | 0.62 | 0.62 | 0.54
FI | 0.37 | 0.51 | 0.21 | 0.38 | 0.67 | 0.63 | 0.76 | 0.43 | 0.59 | 0.60 | 0.62 | 0.60 | 0.55
FR | 0.28 | 0.41 | 0.17 | 0.26 | 0.68 | 0.61 | 0.69 | 0.36 | 0.54 | 0.43 | 0.59 | 0.49 | 0.56
GB | 0.31 | 0.40 | 0.20 | 0.33 | 0.69 | 0.62 | 0.76 | 0.46 | 0.62 | 0.53 | 0.63 | 0.58 | 0.56
GR | 0.60 | 0.68 | 0.42 | 0.70 | 0.74 | 0.65 | 0.79 | 0.48 | 0.81 | 0.64 | 0.67 | 0.73 | 0.54
HR | 0.55 | 0.62 | 0.42 | 0.62 | 0.64 | 0.51 | 0.72 | 0.33 | 0.74 | 0.55 | 0.55 | 0.64 | 0.49
HU | 0.31 | 0.41 | 0.20 | 0.33 | 0.71 | 0.65 | 0.79 | 0.42 | 0.70 | 0.51 | 0.64 | 0.61 | 0.56
IE | 0.52 | 0.52 | 0.43 | 0.63 | 0.71 | 0.64 | 0.77 | 0.49 | 0.67 | 0.57 | 0.65 | 0.62 | 0.56
IS | 0.36 | 0.53 | 0.18 | 0.36 | 0.66 | 0.58 | 0.76 | 0.50 | 0.52 | 0.49 | 0.62 | 0.51 | 0.58
IT | 0.50 | 0.59 | 0.37 | 0.54 | 0.69 | 0.66 | 0.75 | 0.39 | 0.75 | 0.65 | 0.62 | 0.70 | 0.52
LT | 0.43 | 0.54 | 0.35 | 0.40 | 0.58 | 0.52 | 0.69 | 0.45 | 0.67 | 0.52 | 0.56 | 0.60 | 0.51
LU | 0.33 | 0.43 | 0.25 | 0.31 | 0.70 | 0.66 | 0.74 | 0.40 | 0.64 | 0.60 | 0.62 | 0.62 | 0.54
LV | 0.31 | 0.38 | 0.23 | 0.31 | 0.68 | 0.68 | 0.82 | 0.52 | 0.71 | 0.53 | 0.67 | 0.62 | 0.58
NL | 0.33 | 0.46 | 0.19 | 0.33 | 0.71 | 0.63 | 0.79 | 0.47 | 0.63 | 0.60 | 0.65 | 0.62 | 0.56
NO | 0.28 | 0.38 | 0.19 | 0.25 | 0.69 | 0.54 | 0.70 | 0.45 | 0.61 | 0.64 | 0.60 | 0.63 | 0.52
PL | 0.62 | 0.64 | 0.53 | 0.71 | 0.63 | 0.62 | 0.77 | 0.41 | 0.77 | 0.71 | 0.61 | 0.74 | 0.50
PT | 0.48 | 0.54 | 0.34 | 0.56 | 0.65 | 0.57 | 0.70 | 0.40 | 0.64 | 0.55 | 0.58 | 0.59 | 0.52
RO | 0.58 | 0.68 | 0.39 | 0.67 | 0.66 | 0.61 | 0.67 | 0.43 | 0.74 | 0.70 | 0.59 | 0.72 | 0.49
RU | 0.32 | 0.44 | 0.21 | 0.31 | 0.63 | 0.55 | 0.73 | 0.44 | 0.70 | 0.58 | 0.59 | 0.64 | 0.51
SE | 0.24 | 0.33 | 0.18 | 0.20 | 0.70 | 0.57 | 0.73 | 0.43 | 0.57 | 0.52 | 0.61 | 0.54 | 0.56
SI | 0.36 | 0.47 | 0.29 | 0.32 | 0.71 | 0.70 | 0.81 | 0.46 | 0.69 | 0.58 | 0.67 | 0.64 | 0.57
SK | 0.49 | 0.59 | 0.37 | 0.52 | 0.67 | 0.62 | 0.73 | 0.40 | 0.71 | 0.67 | 0.60 | 0.69 | 0.51
TR | 0.66 | 0.70 | 0.40 | 0.87 | 0.71 | 0.68 | 0.76 | 0.48 | 0.81 | 0.75 | 0.65 | 0.78 | 0.52
UA | 0.43 | 0.50 | 0.32 | 0.49 | 0.55 | 0.53 | 0.69 | 0.37 | 0.69 | 0.61 | 0.53 | 0.65 | 0.48
XK | 0.56 | 0.73 | 0.33 | 0.62 | 0.82 | 0.77 | 0.83 | 0.52 | 0.85 | 0.73 | 0.73 | 0.79 | 0.57
Total | 0.37 | 0.48 | 0.27 | 0.40 | 0.68 | 0.60 | 0.76 | 0.42 | 0.67 | 0.58 | 0.62 | 0.62 | 0.54

  * •

Notes: Country means of dependent and independent variables are reported. All
are weighted by gweight. See Appendix A for definitions.

### B. First Stage Results

_Table B1. Religiosity and Innovation Attitudes: First Stage Results of Table
4_

| (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9)
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---
| religiosity | religiosity | religiosity | degree | degree | attendance | attendance | pray | pray
iv_religiosity | 0.582*** | 0.596*** | 0.600*** |  |  |  |  |  |
| (0.043) | (0.043) | (0.047) |  |  |  |  |  |
iv_degree |  |  |  | 0.644*** | 0.648*** |  |  |  |
|  |  |  | (0.070) | (0.073) |  |  |  |
iv_attendance |  |  |  |  |  | 0.775*** | 0.784*** |  |
|  |  |  |  |  | (0.065) | (0.068) |  |
iv_pray |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 0.719*** | 0.707***
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  | (0.052) | (0.056)
gender | 0.007 | 0.005 | 0.004 | 0.013 | 0.012 | -0.005 | -0.007 |  0.022∗∗∗ |  0.022∗∗
| (0.004) | (0.004) | (0.004) | (0.005) | (0.005) | (0.004) | (0.004) | (0.007) | (0.008)
age | -0.000 |  -0.002∗∗∗ |  -0.002∗∗∗ |  -0.002∗∗∗ |  -0.002∗∗∗ |  -0.001∗∗ |  -0.002∗∗∗ |  -0.002∗∗∗ |  -0.003∗∗∗
| (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.001) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.001) | (0.001)
age2 | 0.000** |  0.000∗∗∗ |  0.000∗∗∗ |  0.000∗∗∗ |  0.000∗∗∗ |  0.000∗∗ |  0.000∗∗ |  0.000∗∗∗ |  0.000∗∗∗
| (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000)
education | -0.000 | 0.000 | -0.000 |  -0.001∗∗∗ |  -0.002∗∗∗ | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.001
| (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.001) | (0.001)
paidwork |  | -0.003 | -0.002 | -0.002 | 0.000 | -0.001 | -0.001 | -0.007 | -0.005
|  | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.004) | (0.004)
pwbefore |  | -0.276** |  -0.384∗∗∗ | -0.280 |  -0.450∗∗∗ | -0.315 |  -0.424∗∗∗ |  -0.218∗∗∗ |  -0.241∗∗∗
|  | (0.133) | (0.085) | (0.204) | (0.132) | (0.131) | (0.084) | (0.062) | (0.064)
partner |  |  0.018∗∗∗ |  0.017∗∗∗ |  0.016∗∗∗ |  0.015∗∗∗ |  0.024∗∗∗ |  0.023∗∗∗ | 0.011 | 0.010
|  | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.004) | (0.004)
health |  | 0.003*** | 0.002** |  0.003∗ | 0.002 |  0.009∗∗∗ |  0.009∗∗∗ |  -0.006∗∗∗ |  -0.008∗∗∗
|  | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.002) | (0.002)
child |  |  0.015∗∗∗ |  0.015∗∗∗ |  0.013∗∗∗ |  0.014∗∗∗ |  0.011∗∗∗ |  0.010∗∗∗ |  0.023∗∗∗ |  0.023∗∗∗
|  | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.003) | (0.003)
bornc |  |  |  -0.069∗∗∗ |  |  -0.061∗∗∗ |  |  -0.049∗∗∗ |  |  -0.108∗∗∗
|  |  | (0.004) |  | (0.004) |  | (0.005) |  | (0.007)
fathere |  |  | 0.000 |  | -0.001 |  | 0.001 |  | 0.002
|  |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001)
mothere |  |  | -0.001 |  | 0.001 |  | 0.000 |  |  -0.005∗∗
|  |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001)
N | 234,528 | 228,327 | 202,300 | 231,306 | 204,788 | 231,733 | 205,176 | 229,606 | 203,384

  * •

Notes: The first stage results are reported. Robust standard errors clustered
at the level of instruments are in parentheses. All regressions include the
following fixed effects: country, survey year, country-survey year, religious
denomination, occupation, and income level. * $p<0.10$; **$p<0.05$;
***$p<0.01$.

_Table B2. Religiosity and Innovation Attitudes: First Stage Results of Table
5_

| (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9)
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---
| religiosity | religiosity | religiosity | degree | degree | attendance | attendance | pray | pray
iv_religiosity | 0.581*** | 0.595*** | 0.600*** |  |  |  |  |  |
| (0.043) | (0.043) | (0.047) |  |  |  |  |  |
iv_degree |  |  |  | 0.644*** | 0.648*** |  |  |  |
|  |  |  | (0.070) | (0.073) |  |  |  |
iv_attendance |  |  |  |  |  | 0.775*** | 0.784*** |  |
|  |  |  |  |  | (0.065) | (0.068) |  |
iv_pray |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 0.718*** | 0.707***
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  | (0.052) | (0.056)
gender | 0.007 | 0.005 | 0.004 | 0.013 | 0.012 | -0.005 | -0.007 |  0.022∗∗ |  0.022∗∗
| (0.004) | (0.004) | (0.004) | (0.005) | (0.005) | (0.004) | (0.004) | (0.007) | (0.008)
age | -0.000 |  -0.002∗∗∗ |  -0.002∗∗∗ |  -0.002∗∗∗ |  -0.002∗∗∗ |  -0.001∗∗ |  -0.002∗∗∗ |  -0.002∗∗∗ |  -0.003∗∗∗
| (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.001) | (0.001)
age2 | 0.000 |  0.000∗∗∗ |  0.000∗∗∗ |  0.000∗∗∗ |  0.000∗∗∗ |  0.000∗∗ |  0.000∗∗ |  0.000∗∗∗ |  0.000∗∗∗
| (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000)
education | -0.000 | 0.000 | -0.000 |  -0.001∗∗∗ |  -0.002∗∗∗ | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.001
| (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.001) | (0.001)
paidwork |  | -0.003 | -0.003 | -0.002 | 0.000 | -0.001 | -0.001 | -0.007 | -0.005
|  | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.004) | (0.004)
pwbefore |  | -0.276** |  -0.384∗∗∗ | -0.280 |  -0.450∗∗∗ | -0.314 |  -0.424∗∗∗ |  -0.218∗∗∗ |  -0.241∗∗∗
|  | (0.133) | (0.085) | (0.204) | (0.132) | (0.131) | (0.084) | (0.062) | (0.064)
partner |  |  0.018∗∗∗ |  0.016∗∗∗ |  0.017∗∗∗ |  0.014∗∗∗ |  0.024∗∗∗ |  0.023∗∗∗ | 0.011 | 0.010
|  | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.004) | (0.004)
health |  | 0.002 | 0.003*** |  0.002∗∗ | 0.002 |  0.009∗∗∗ |  0.009∗∗∗ |  -0.006∗∗∗ |  -0.008∗∗∗
|  | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.002) | (0.002)
child |  |  0.015∗∗∗ |  0.016∗∗∗ |  0.015∗∗∗ |  0.014∗∗∗ |  0.012∗∗∗ |  0.010∗∗∗ |  0.023∗∗∗ |  0.023∗∗∗
|  | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.003) | (0.003)
bornc |  |  |  -0.069∗∗∗ |  |  -0.069∗∗∗ |  |  -0.049∗∗∗ |  |  -0.108∗∗∗
|  |  | (0.004) |  | (0.004) |  | (0.005) |  | (0.007)
fathere |  |  | 0.000 |  | -0.001 |  | 0.001 |  | 0.002
|  |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001)
mothere |  |  | -0.001 |  | -0.001 |  | 0.000 |  |  -0.005∗∗
|  |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001)
N | 234,387 | 228,192 | 202,191 | 231,156 | 204,668 | 231,582 | 205,055 | 229,462 | 203,268

  * •

Notes: The first stage results are reported. Robust standard errors clustered
at the level of instruments are in parentheses. All regressions include the
following fixed effects: country, survey year, country-survey year, religious
denomination, occupation, and income level. * $p<0.10$; **$p<0.05$;
***$p<0.01$.

### C. Detailed OLS Results

_Table C1. OLS Estimates: Religiosity and Creativity_

creative | (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9)
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---
religiosity | 0.035∗∗∗ | 0.035∗∗∗ | 0.033∗∗∗ |  |  |  |  |  |
| (0.005) | (0.005) | (0.005) |  |  |  |  |  |
degree |  |  |  | 0.032∗∗∗ | 0.031∗∗∗ |  |  |  |
|  |  |  | (0.004) | (0.004) |  |  |  |
attendance |  |  |  |  |  | 0.005 | 0.002 |  |
|  |  |  |  |  | (0.005) | (0.005) |  |
pray |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 0.025∗∗∗ | 0.024∗∗∗
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  | (0.004) | (0.004)
gender | -0.015∗∗∗ | -0.014∗∗∗ | -0.015∗∗∗ | -0.013∗∗∗ | -0.015∗∗∗ | -0.011∗∗∗ | -0.013∗∗∗ | -0.014∗∗∗ | -0.016∗∗∗
| (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003)
age | -0.001 | -0.000 | 0.001 | -0.000 | 0.001 | -0.000 | 0.001 | -0.000 | 0.001
| (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001)
age2 | -0.000 | -0.000∗ | -0.000∗∗∗ | -0.000 | -0.000∗∗∗ | -0.000 | -0.000∗∗ | -0.000∗ | -0.000∗∗∗
| (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000)
education | 0.005∗∗∗ | 0.005∗∗∗ | 0.004∗∗∗ | 0.005∗∗∗ | 0.004∗∗∗ | 0.005∗∗∗ | 0.004∗∗∗ | 0.005∗∗∗ | 0.004∗∗∗
| (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000)
paidwork |  | -0.000 | -0.000 | -0.000 | 0.000 | -0.000 | -0.000 | -0.000 | -0.000
|  | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003)
pwbefore |  | -0.252∗∗ | -0.193∗ | -0.253∗∗ | -0.192∗ | -0.261∗∗∗ | -0.205∗ | -0.257∗∗ | -0.200∗
|  | (0.103) | (0.106) | (0.105) | (0.108) | (0.101) | (0.105) | (0.101) | (0.104)
partner |  | 0.004∗ | 0.005∗ | 0.005∗ | 0.005∗∗ | 0.005∗ | 0.005∗∗ | 0.005∗ | 0.005∗∗
|  | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.002) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003)
health |  | 0.014∗∗∗ | 0.014∗∗∗ | 0.014∗∗∗ | 0.014∗∗∗ | 0.014∗∗∗ | 0.014∗∗∗ | 0.014∗∗∗ | 0.014∗∗∗
|  | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.001) | (0.002) | (0.001)
child |  | -0.010∗∗∗ | -0.013∗∗∗ | -0.010∗∗∗ | -0.013∗∗∗ | -0.010∗∗∗ | -0.012∗∗∗ | -0.011∗∗∗ | -0.013∗∗∗
|  | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002)
bornc |  |  | -0.011∗∗ |  | -0.011∗∗∗ |  | -0.013∗∗∗ |  | -0.011∗∗
|  |  | (0.004) |  | (0.004) |  | (0.004) |  | (0.004)
fathere |  |  | 0.007∗∗∗ |  | 0.008∗∗∗ |  | 0.008∗∗∗ |  | 0.007∗∗∗
|  |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001)
mothere |  |  | 0.004∗∗∗ |  | 0.004∗∗∗ |  | 0.004∗∗∗ |  | 0.004∗∗∗
|  |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001)
cons | 0.654∗∗∗ | 0.843∗∗∗ | 0.757∗∗∗ | 0.839∗∗∗ | 0.750∗∗∗ | 0.859∗∗∗ | 0.779∗∗∗ | 0.848∗∗∗ | 0.764∗∗∗
| (0.013) | (0.104) | (0.107) | (0.106) | (0.109) | (0.101) | (0.106) | (0.101) | (0.106)
$N$ | 233,137 | 226,965 | 201,219 | 229,884 | 203,663 | 230,311 | 204,054 | 228,212 | 202,280
Adj. $R^{2}$ | 0.076 | 0.079 | 0.081 | 0.080 | 0.082 | 0.080 | 0.082 | 0.079 | 0.081

  * •

Notes: Robust standard errors clustered at the level of instruments are in
parentheses. All regressions include the full set of fixed effects. *
$p<0.10$; **$p<0.05$; ***$p<0.01$.

_Table C2. OLS Estimates: Religiosity and Being Different_

different | (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9)
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---
religiosity | 0.034∗∗∗ | 0.036∗∗∗ | 0.032∗∗∗ |  |  |  |  |  |
| (0.006) | (0.006) | (0.006) |  |  |  |  |  |
degree |  |  |  | 0.032∗∗∗ | 0.029∗∗∗ |  |  |  |
|  |  |  | (0.004) | (0.005) |  |  |  |
attendance |  |  |  |  |  | 0.015∗∗∗ | 0.013∗∗ |  |
|  |  |  |  |  | (0.005) | (0.006) |  |
pray |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 0.021∗∗∗ | 0.018∗∗∗
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  | (0.004) | (0.004)
gender | 0.002 | 0.006∗ | 0.007∗∗ | 0.006∗ | 0.007∗∗ | 0.008∗∗ | 0.008∗∗∗ | 0.006∗ | 0.007∗∗
| (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003)
age | -0.006∗∗∗ | -0.004∗∗∗ | -0.004∗∗∗ | -0.004∗∗∗ | -0.004∗∗∗ | -0.004∗∗∗ | -0.004∗∗∗ | -0.004∗∗∗ | -0.004∗∗∗
| (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001)
age2 | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗
| (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000)
education | 0.003∗∗∗ | 0.002∗∗∗ | 0.002∗∗∗ | 0.002∗∗∗ | 0.002∗∗∗ | 0.002∗∗∗ | 0.002∗∗∗ | 0.002∗∗∗ | 0.002∗∗∗
| (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000)
paidwork |  | -0.002 | -0.000 | -0.002 | -0.000 | -0.002 | -0.000 | -0.002 | 0.000
|  | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003)
pwbefore |  | -0.124 | -0.181∗ | -0.126 | -0.181∗ | -0.132 | -0.189∗ | -0.130 | -0.189∗
|  | (0.094) | (0.106) | (0.094) | (0.108) | (0.095) | (0.106) | (0.095) | (0.105)
partner |  | -0.004 | -0.004 | -0.005 | -0.004 | -0.005 | -0.004 | -0.004 | -0.003
|  | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003)
health |  | 0.022∗∗∗ | 0.023∗∗∗ | 0.023∗∗∗ | 0.023∗∗∗ | 0.023∗∗∗ | 0.023∗∗∗ | 0.023∗∗∗ | 0.023∗∗∗
|  | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002)
child |  | -0.020∗∗∗ | -0.022∗∗∗ | -0.020∗∗∗ | -0.022∗∗∗ | -0.019∗∗∗ | -0.021∗∗∗ | -0.020∗∗∗ | -0.022∗∗∗
|  | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003)
bornc |  |  | -0.016∗∗∗ |  | -0.016∗∗∗ |  | -0.018∗∗∗ |  | -0.017∗∗∗
|  |  | (0.004) |  | (0.004) |  | (0.004) |  | (0.004)
fathere |  |  | 0.005∗∗∗ |  | 0.005∗∗∗ |  | 0.005∗∗∗ |  | 0.005∗∗∗
|  |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001)
mothere |  |  | 0.002∗ |  | 0.003∗∗ |  | 0.003∗∗ |  | 0.002∗
|  |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001)
cons | 0.763∗∗∗ | 0.773∗∗∗ | 0.822∗∗∗ | 0.768∗∗∗ | 0.814∗∗∗ | 0.784∗∗∗ | 0.835∗∗∗ | 0.781∗∗∗ | 0.833∗∗∗
| (0.014) | (0.095) | (0.107) | (0.095) | (0.109) | (0.096) | (0.107) | (0.095) | (0.106)
$N$ | 233,367 | 227,211 | 201,405 | 230,121 | 203,840 | 230,543 | 204,225 | 228,456 | 202,464
Adj. $R^{2}$ | 0.074 | 0.079 | 0.081 | 0.080 | 0.082 | 0.080 | 0.081 | 0.080 | 0.081

  * •

Notes: Robust standard errors clustered at the level of instruments are in
parentheses. All regressions include the full set of fixed effects. *
$p<0.10$; **$p<0.05$; ***$p<0.01$.

_Table C3. OLS Estimates: Religiosity and Being Free_

free | (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9)
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---
religiosity | -0.044∗∗∗ | -0.038∗∗∗ | -0.041∗∗∗ |  |  |  |  |  |
| (0.005) | (0.005) | (0.005) |  |  |  |  |  |
degree |  |  |  | -0.024∗∗∗ | -0.024∗∗∗ |  |  |  |
|  |  |  | (0.004) | (0.004) |  |  |  |
attendance |  |  |  |  |  | -0.048∗∗∗ | -0.050∗∗∗ |  |
|  |  |  |  |  | (0.004) | (0.005) |  |
pray |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | -0.008∗∗∗ | -0.010∗∗∗
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  | (0.003) | (0.003)
gender | -0.009∗∗∗ | -0.011∗∗∗ | -0.011∗∗∗ | -0.012∗∗∗ | -0.013∗∗∗ | -0.012∗∗∗ | -0.013∗∗∗ | -0.012∗∗∗ | -0.013∗∗∗
| (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003)
age | -0.003∗∗∗ | 0.000 | 0.001∗ | 0.001 | 0.001∗ | 0.000 | 0.001∗ | 0.001 | 0.001∗∗
| (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001)
age2 | 0.000∗∗∗ | -0.000 | -0.000 | -0.000 | -0.000 | -0.000 | -0.000 | -0.000 | -0.000
| (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000)
education | 0.005∗∗∗ | 0.004∗∗∗ | 0.004∗∗∗ | 0.004∗∗∗ | 0.003∗∗∗ | 0.004∗∗∗ | 0.004∗∗∗ | 0.004∗∗∗ | 0.004∗∗∗
| (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000)
paidwork |  | -0.003 | 0.000 | -0.002 | 0.001 | -0.002 | 0.000 | -0.002 | 0.000
|  | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003)
pwbefore |  | 0.044 | 0.143 | 0.046 | 0.145 | 0.037 | 0.134 | 0.053 | 0.155
|  | (0.144) | (0.130) | (0.145) | (0.129) | (0.143) | (0.129) | (0.146) | (0.128)
partner |  | -0.041∗∗∗ | -0.040∗∗∗ | -0.042∗∗∗ | -0.040∗∗∗ | -0.041∗∗∗ | -0.040∗∗∗ | -0.042∗∗∗ | -0.040∗∗∗
|  | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003)
health |  | 0.010∗∗∗ | 0.010∗∗∗ | 0.011∗∗∗ | 0.011∗∗∗ | 0.011∗∗∗ | 0.011∗∗∗ | 0.011∗∗∗ | 0.011∗∗∗
|  | (0.001) | (0.002) | (0.001) | (0.002) | (0.001) | (0.002) | (0.001) | (0.002)
child |  | -0.017∗∗∗ | -0.017∗∗∗ | -0.017∗∗∗ | -0.017∗∗∗ | -0.017∗∗∗ | -0.017∗∗∗ | -0.017∗∗∗ | -0.018∗∗∗
|  | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003)
bornc |  |  | -0.005 |  | -0.004 |  | -0.005 |  | -0.003
|  |  | (0.004) |  | (0.004) |  | (0.004) |  | (0.004)
fathere |  |  | 0.003∗∗∗ |  | 0.003∗∗∗ |  | 0.003∗∗∗ |  | 0.003∗∗∗
|  |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001)
mothere |  |  | 0.005∗∗∗ |  | 0.005∗∗∗ |  | 0.005∗∗∗ |  | 0.005∗∗∗
|  |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001)
cons | 0.791∗∗∗ | 0.667∗∗∗ | 0.543∗∗∗ | 0.662∗∗∗ | 0.535∗∗∗ | 0.669∗∗∗ | 0.546∗∗∗ | 0.648∗∗∗ | 0.517∗∗∗
| (0.012) | (0.145) | (0.131) | (0.146) | (0.130) | (0.144) | (0.130) | (0.147) | (0.129)
$N$ | 233,529 | 227,361 | 201,521 | 230,303 | 203,980 | 230,708 | 204,350 | 228,610 | 202,580
Adj. $R^{2}$ | 0.063 | 0.073 | 0.075 | 0.072 | 0.075 | 0.073 | 0.076 | 0.072 | 0.074

  * •

Notes: Robust standard errors clustered at the level of instruments are in
parentheses. All regressions include the full set of fixed effects. *
$p<0.10$; **$p<0.05$; ***$p<0.01$.

_Table C4. OLS Estimates: Religiosity and Being Adventurous_

adventurous | (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9)
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---
religiosity | -0.017∗∗∗ | -0.011∗ | -0.010 |  |  |  |  |  |
| (0.006) | (0.006) | (0.006) |  |  |  |  |  |
degree |  |  |  | -0.002 | -0.003 |  |  |  |
|  |  |  | (0.005) | (0.005) |  |  |  |
attendance |  |  |  |  |  | -0.013∗∗ | -0.011∗ |  |
|  |  |  |  |  | (0.006) | (0.006) |  |
pray |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | -0.006∗ | -0.006
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  | (0.003) | (0.004)
gender | -0.075∗∗∗ | -0.072∗∗∗ | -0.071∗∗∗ | -0.072∗∗∗ | -0.071∗∗∗ | -0.072∗∗∗ | -0.072∗∗∗ | -0.072∗∗∗ | -0.071∗∗∗
| (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003)
age | -0.012∗∗∗ | -0.008∗∗∗ | -0.007∗∗∗ | -0.008∗∗∗ | -0.007∗∗∗ | -0.008∗∗∗ | -0.007∗∗∗ | -0.008∗∗∗ | -0.008∗∗∗
| (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000)
age2 | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗
| (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000)
education | 0.002∗∗∗ | 0.002∗∗∗ | 0.001∗ | 0.002∗∗∗ | 0.001∗∗ | 0.002∗∗∗ | 0.001∗∗ | 0.002∗∗∗ | 0.001∗
| (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000)
paidwork |  | 0.002 | 0.004 | 0.003 | 0.004 | 0.002 | 0.004 | 0.002 | 0.004
|  | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003)
pwbefore |  | -0.124 | -0.045 | -0.124 | -0.045 | -0.127 | -0.048 | -0.122 | -0.042
|  | (0.117) | (0.117) | (0.118) | (0.116) | (0.118) | (0.116) | (0.118) | (0.115)
partner |  | -0.037∗∗∗ | -0.035∗∗∗ | -0.037∗∗∗ | -0.035∗∗∗ | -0.037∗∗∗ | -0.035∗∗∗ | -0.037∗∗∗ | -0.035∗∗∗
|  | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003)
health |  | 0.020∗∗∗ | 0.019∗∗∗ | 0.021∗∗∗ | 0.019∗∗∗ | 0.021∗∗∗ | 0.019∗∗∗ | 0.021∗∗∗ | 0.019∗∗∗
|  | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001)
child |  | -0.028∗∗∗ | -0.029∗∗∗ | -0.029∗∗∗ | -0.028∗∗∗ | -0.028∗∗∗ | -0.028∗∗∗ | -0.028∗∗∗ | -0.028∗∗∗
|  | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003)
bornc |  |  | -0.007∗ |  | -0.007∗ |  | -0.007∗ |  | -0.007∗
|  |  | (0.004) |  | (0.004) |  | (0.004) |  | (0.004)
fathere |  |  | 0.006∗∗∗ |  | 0.006∗∗∗ |  | 0.006∗∗∗ |  | 0.006∗∗∗
|  |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001)
mothere |  |  | 0.006∗∗∗ |  | 0.006∗∗∗ |  | 0.006∗∗∗ |  | 0.006∗∗∗
|  |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001)
cons | 0.797∗∗∗ | 0.791∗∗∗ | 0.678∗∗∗ | 0.785∗∗∗ | 0.673∗∗∗ | 0.789∗∗∗ | 0.676∗∗∗ | 0.786∗∗∗ | 0.672∗∗∗
| (0.013) | (0.119) | (0.119) | (0.119) | (0.118) | (0.119) | (0.118) | (0.119) | (0.117)
$N$ | 233,274 | 227,128 | 201,318 | 230,048 | 203,764 | 230,469 | 204,149 | 228,378 | 202,380
Adj. $R^{2}$ | 0.163 | 0.173 | 0.175 | 0.172 | 0.174 | 0.172 | 0.174 | 0.172 | 0.174

  * •

Notes: Robust standard errors clustered at the level of instruments are in
parentheses. All regressions include the full set of fixed effects. *
$p<0.10$; **$p<0.05$; ***$p<0.01$..

_Table C5. OLS Estimates: Religiosity and Following Traditions_

traditions | (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9)
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---
religiosity | 0.278∗∗∗ | 0.274∗∗∗ | 0.274∗∗∗ |  |  |  |  |  |
| (0.006) | (0.006) | (0.006) |  |  |  |  |  |
degree |  |  |  | 0.214∗∗∗ | 0.212∗∗∗ |  |  |  |
|  |  |  | (0.006) | (0.006) |  |  |  |
attendance |  |  |  |  |  | 0.191∗∗∗ | 0.191∗∗∗ |  |
|  |  |  |  |  | (0.006) | (0.006) |  |
pray |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 0.120∗∗∗ | 0.120∗∗∗
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  | (0.003) | (0.003)
gender | 0.001 | 0.002 | 0.002 | 0.006∗∗ | 0.006∗ | 0.014∗∗∗ | 0.013∗∗∗ | 0.005 | 0.004
| (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003)
age | 0.002∗∗∗ | 0.001∗ | 0.001 | 0.001∗ | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.000 | 0.001 | 0.000
| (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.001) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.001) | (0.001)
age2 | -0.000 | 0.000∗ | 0.000∗ | 0.000∗∗ | 0.000∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗ | 0.000∗∗
| (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000)
education | -0.003∗∗∗ | -0.002∗∗∗ | -0.003∗∗∗ | -0.002∗∗∗ | -0.002∗∗∗ | -0.003∗∗∗ | -0.003∗∗∗ | -0.003∗∗∗ | -0.003∗∗∗
| (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000)
paidwork |  | -0.001 | 0.002 | -0.001 | 0.001 | -0.002 | 0.001 | -0.001 | 0.001
|  | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003)
pwbefore |  | -0.184∗∗∗ | -0.142∗∗∗ | -0.200∗∗∗ | -0.154∗∗∗ | -0.201∗∗∗ | -0.166∗∗∗ | -0.233∗∗∗ | -0.218∗∗∗
|  | (0.038) | (0.022) | (0.042) | (0.020) | (0.030) | (0.022) | (0.028) | (0.034)
partner |  | 0.027∗∗∗ | 0.024∗∗∗ | 0.029∗∗∗ | 0.026∗∗∗ | 0.027∗∗∗ | 0.024∗∗∗ | 0.031∗∗∗ | 0.027∗∗∗
|  | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002)
health |  | 0.004∗∗∗ | 0.004∗∗∗ | 0.004∗∗∗ | 0.004∗∗∗ | 0.003∗∗∗ | 0.003∗∗ | 0.006∗∗∗ | 0.005∗∗∗
|  | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001)
child |  | 0.002 | 0.001 | 0.004 | 0.003 | 0.005∗ | 0.004 | 0.004∗ | 0.003
|  | (0.002) | (0.003) | (0.002) | (0.003) | (0.002) | (0.003) | (0.002) | (0.002)
bornc |  |  | -0.019∗∗∗ |  | -0.026∗∗∗ |  | -0.029∗∗∗ |  | -0.025∗∗∗
|  |  | (0.004) |  | (0.004) |  | (0.004) |  | (0.004)
fathere |  |  | -0.000 |  | 0.000 |  | -0.000 |  | -0.000
|  |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001)
mothere |  |  | -0.004∗∗∗ |  | -0.004∗∗∗ |  | -0.004∗∗∗ |  | -0.004∗∗∗
|  |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001)
cons | 0.490∗∗∗ | 0.676∗∗∗ | 0.678∗∗∗ | 0.682∗∗∗ | 0.687∗∗∗ | 0.738∗∗∗ | 0.759∗∗∗ | 0.771∗∗∗ | 0.807∗∗∗
| (0.012) | (0.040) | (0.024) | (0.044) | (0.023) | (0.032) | (0.023) | (0.028) | (0.033)
$N$ | 233,556 | 227,390 | 201,539 | 230,321 | 203,994 | 230,747 | 204,378 | 228,640 | 202,599
Adj. $R^{2}$ | 0.229 | 0.230 | 0.232 | 0.225 | 0.226 | 0.212 | 0.214 | 0.213 | 0.214

  * •

Notes: Robust standard errors clustered at the level of instruments are in
parentheses. All regressions include the full set of fixed effects. *
$p<0.10$; **$p<0.05$; ***$p<0.01$.

_Table C6. OLS Estimates: Religiosity and Following Rules_

rules | (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9)
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---
religiosity | 0.081∗∗∗ | 0.079∗∗∗ | 0.075∗∗∗ |  |  |  |  |  |
| (0.006) | (0.006) | (0.006) |  |  |  |  |  |
degree |  |  |  | 0.051∗∗∗ | 0.048∗∗∗ |  |  |  |
|  |  |  | (0.006) | (0.006) |  |  |  |
attendance |  |  |  |  |  | 0.068∗∗∗ | 0.066∗∗∗ |  |
|  |  |  |  |  | (0.006) | (0.006) |  |
pray |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 0.033∗∗∗ | 0.031∗∗∗
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  | (0.004) | (0.004)
gender | -0.019∗∗∗ | -0.018∗∗∗ | -0.017∗∗∗ | -0.015∗∗∗ | -0.015∗∗∗ | -0.014∗∗∗ | -0.014∗∗∗ | -0.016∗∗∗ | -0.016∗∗∗
| (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003)
age | 0.000 | -0.001∗∗ | -0.002∗∗∗ | -0.001∗∗ | -0.002∗∗∗ | -0.001∗∗ | -0.002∗∗∗ | -0.001∗∗ | -0.002∗∗∗
| (0.000) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001)
age2 | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗
| (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000)
education | -0.004∗∗∗ | -0.004∗∗∗ | -0.004∗∗∗ | -0.004∗∗∗ | -0.003∗∗∗ | -0.004∗∗∗ | -0.004∗∗∗ | -0.004∗∗∗ | -0.004∗∗∗
| (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000)
paidwork |  | 0.006∗∗ | 0.007∗∗ | 0.006∗∗ | 0.007∗∗ | 0.006∗∗ | 0.007∗∗ | 0.006∗∗ | 0.007∗∗
|  | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003)
pwbefore |  | -0.302∗∗∗ | -0.273∗∗∗ | -0.310∗∗∗ | -0.280∗∗∗ | -0.304∗∗∗ | -0.274∗∗∗ | -0.317∗∗∗ | -0.295∗∗∗
|  | (0.046) | (0.057) | (0.047) | (0.058) | (0.047) | (0.058) | (0.045) | (0.057)
partner |  | 0.023∗∗∗ | 0.022∗∗∗ | 0.023∗∗∗ | 0.022∗∗∗ | 0.022∗∗∗ | 0.021∗∗∗ | 0.024∗∗∗ | 0.023∗∗∗
|  | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.003)
health |  | 0.003∗∗ | 0.003∗∗ | 0.003∗∗ | 0.004∗∗ | 0.003∗ | 0.003∗∗ | 0.004∗∗ | 0.004∗∗∗
|  | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001)
child |  | 0.003 | -0.000 | 0.004 | 0.000 | 0.004 | 0.001 | 0.004 | 0.000
|  | (0.002) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.002) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003)
bornc |  |  | -0.043∗∗∗ |  | -0.045∗∗∗ |  | -0.045∗∗∗ |  | -0.045∗∗∗
|  |  | (0.005) |  | (0.005) |  | (0.005) |  | (0.005)
fathere |  |  | -0.001 |  | -0.001 |  | -0.001 |  | -0.002
|  |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001)
mothere |  |  | -0.004∗∗∗ |  | -0.004∗∗∗ |  | -0.004∗∗∗ |  | -0.004∗∗∗
|  |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001)
cons | 0.529∗∗∗ | 0.833∗∗∗ | 0.870∗∗∗ | 0.844∗∗∗ | 0.884∗∗∗ | 0.844∗∗∗ | 0.884∗∗∗ | 0.862∗∗∗ | 0.907∗∗∗
| (0.012) | (0.047) | (0.058) | (0.048) | (0.060) | (0.048) | (0.059) | (0.046) | (0.059)
$N$ | 232,561 | 226,405 | 200,723 | 229,292 | 203,139 | 229,694 | 203,509 | 227,635 | 201,768
Adj. $R^{2}$ | 0.130 | 0.132 | 0.138 | 0.130 | 0.135 | 0.131 | 0.137 | 0.130 | 0.136

  * •

Notes: Robust standard errors clustered at the level of instruments are in
parentheses. All regressions include the full set of fixed effects. *
$p<0.10$; **$p<0.05$; ***$p<0.01$.

_Table C7. Summary Statistics for Religious Belonging_

| obs | mean | std dev | min | max
---|---|---|---|---|---
|  | Believers |  |  |
religiosity | 221,530 | 0.51 | 0.24 | 0 | 1
degree | 220,275 | 0.61 | 0.23 | 0 | 1
attendance | 220,549 | 0.36 | 0.25 | 0 | 1
pray | 216,972 | 0.57 | 0 .39 | 0 | 1
|  | Never-believers |  |  |
religiosity | 107,004 | 0.14 | 0.16 | 0 | 1
degree | 105,964 | 0.22 | 0.24 | 0 | 1
attendance | 106,424 | 0.08 | 0.14 | 0 | 1
pray | 105,700 | 0.10 | 0.23 | 0 | 1
|  | Once-believers |  |  |
religiosity | 32,922 | 0.18 | 0.19 | 0 | 1
degree | 32,744 | 0.29 | 0.26 | 0 | 1
attendance | 32,872 | 0.10 | 0.15 | 0 | 1
pray | 32,641 | 0.16 | 0.29 | 0 | 1

_Table C8. Disaggregate OLS Results for Religious Belonging_

| Believers |  | Never-believers |  | Once-believers
---|---|---|---|---|---
| (inposav) | (innegav) |  | (inposav) | (innegav) |  | (inposav) | (innegav)
religiosity | -0.009** | 0.177*** |  | 0.049*** | 0.194*** |  | 0.046*** | 0.176***
| (0.004) | (0.005) |  | (0.009) | (0.014) |  | (0.010) | (0.014)
| 121,761 | 121,710 |  | 59,187 | 59,137 |  | 20,968 | 20,961
| 0.155 | 0.185 |  | 0.137 | 0.164 |  | 0.130 | 0.152
degree | 0.000 | 0.154*** |  | 0.020*** | 0.102*** |  | 0.021*** | 0.103***
| (0.004) | (0.005) |  | (0.006) | (0.009) |  | (0.007) | (0.010)
| 123,543 | 123,486 |  | 59,758 | 59,703 |  | 21,075 | 21,068
| 0.156 | 0.178 |  | 0.137 | 0.160 |  | 0.129 | 0.149
attendance | -0.019*** | 0.123*** |  | 0.033*** | 0.178*** |  | 0.024** | 0.177***
| (0.004) | (0.006) |  | (0.011) | (0.014) |  | (0.012) | (0.018)
| 123,722 | 123,662 |  | 59,906 | 59,854 |  | 21,129 | 21,122
| 0.156 | 0.170 |  | 0.138 | 0.159 |  | 0.128 | 0.147
pray | 0.000 | 0.081*** |  | 0.038*** | 0.075*** |  | 0.030*** | 0.055***
| (0.003) | (0.003) |  | (0.007) | (0.009) |  | (0.006) | (0.009)
| 122,329 | 122,273 |  | 59,611 | 59,559 |  | 21,043 | 21,036
| 0.155 | 0.171 |  | 0.138 | 0.153 |  | 0.130 | 0.141

  * •

Notes: OLS estimates for alternative measures of religiosity are reported.
Robust standard errors clustered at the level of instruments are in
parentheses. All regressions include the full set of fixed effects. *
$p<0.10$; **$p<0.05$; ***$p<0.01$.

### D. Detailed IV Results

_Table D1. IV Estimates: Religiosity and Creativity_

creative | (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9)
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---
religiosity | -0.142 | -0.105 | -0.173∗ |  |  |  |  |  |
| (0.094) | (0.088) | (0.090) |  |  |  |  |  |
degree |  |  |  | -0.070 | -0.171 |  |  |  |
|  |  |  | (0.132) | (0.133) |  |  |  |
attendance |  |  |  |  |  | -0.126∗ | -0.174∗∗ |  |
|  |  |  |  |  | (0.074) | (0.074) |  |
pray |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | -0.023 | -0.071
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  | (0.056) | (0.057)
gender | -0.005 | -0.005 | -0.003 | -0.007 | -0.003 | -0.008∗∗ | -0.009∗∗∗ | -0.009 | -0.005
| (0.006) | (0.005) | (0.005) | (0.007) | (0.007) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.006) | (0.006)
age | -0.001 | -0.000 | 0.000 | -0.000 | 0.000 | -0.000 | 0.000 | -0.000 | 0.001
| (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001)
age2 | -0.000 | -0.000 | -0.000 | -0.000 | -0.000 | -0.000 | -0.000 | -0.000 | -0.000∗∗
| (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000)
education | 0.005∗∗∗ | 0.005∗∗∗ | 0.004∗∗∗ | 0.005∗∗∗ | 0.004∗∗∗ | 0.005∗∗∗ | 0.004∗∗∗ | 0.005∗∗∗ | 0.004∗∗∗
| (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000)
paidwork |  | -0.001 | -0.001 | -0.001 | -0.000 | -0.001 | -0.001 | -0.001 | -0.001
|  | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003)
pwbefore |  | -0.291∗∗∗ | -0.273∗∗∗ | -0.281∗∗∗ | -0.283∗∗∗ | -0.301∗∗∗ | -0.281∗∗∗ | -0.267∗∗∗ | -0.224∗∗
|  | (0.094) | (0.103) | (0.098) | (0.109) | (0.091) | (0.101) | (0.101) | (0.106)
partner |  | 0.007∗∗ | 0.008∗∗∗ | 0.006∗ | 0.008∗∗ | 0.007∗∗ | 0.009∗∗∗ | 0.005∗∗ | 0.006∗∗
|  | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003)
health |  | 0.014∗∗∗ | 0.014∗∗∗ | 0.014∗∗∗ | 0.014∗∗∗ | 0.015∗∗∗ | 0.015∗∗∗ | 0.014∗∗∗ | 0.014∗∗∗
|  | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.001)
child |  | -0.008∗∗∗ | -0.009∗∗∗ | -0.009∗∗∗ | -0.010∗∗∗ | -0.008∗∗∗ | -0.010∗∗∗ | -0.010∗∗∗ | -0.011∗∗∗
|  | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.002) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003)
bornc |  |  | -0.025∗∗∗ |  | -0.023∗∗ |  | -0.022∗∗∗ |  | -0.021∗∗∗
|  |  | (0.008) |  | (0.009) |  | (0.006) |  | (0.007)
fathere |  |  | 0.007∗∗∗ |  | 0.007∗∗∗ |  | 0.008∗∗∗ |  | 0.008∗∗∗
|  |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001)
mothere |  |  | 0.004∗∗∗ |  | 0.004∗∗∗ |  | 0.004∗∗∗ |  | 0.004∗∗∗
|  |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001)
N | 233,137 | 226,965 | 201,219 | 229,884 | 203,663 | 230,311 | 204,054 | 228,212 | 202,280
idp | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000
cdf | 2,325 | 2,363 | 2,141 | 825 | 749 | 2,707 | 2,499 | 2,017 | 1,731
widstat | 186 | 192 | 159 | 79 | 74 | 141 | 130 | 195 | 162

  * •

Notes: Robust standard errors clustered at the instruments level are in
parentheses. All regressions include the full set of fixed effects. *$p<0.10$;
**$p<0.05$; ***$p<0.01$.

_Table D2. IV Estimates: Religiosity and Being Different_

different | (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9)
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---
religiosity | -0.123 | -0.097 | -0.131 |  |  |  |  |  |
| (0.090) | (0.083) | (0.081) |  |  |  |  |  |
degree |  |  |  | 0.000 | -0.069 |  |  |  |
|  |  |  | (0.108) | (0.113) |  |  |  |
attendance |  |  |  |  |  | -0.106 | -0.124∗ |  |
|  |  |  |  |  | (0.068) | (0.066) |  |
pray |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | -0.070 | -0.102∗∗
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  | (0.052) | (0.051)
gender | 0.012∗ | 0.014∗∗ | 0.016∗∗∗ | 0.008 | 0.013∗ | 0.011∗∗∗ | 0.012∗∗∗ | 0.016∗∗ | 0.021∗∗∗
| (0.006) | (0.006) | (0.006) | (0.007) | (0.007) | (0.004) | (0.004) | (0.007) | (0.006)
age | -0.006∗∗∗ | -0.005∗∗∗ | -0.004∗∗∗ | -0.004∗∗∗ | -0.004∗∗∗ | -0.005∗∗∗ | -0.004∗∗∗ | -0.005∗∗∗ | -0.004∗∗∗
| (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001)
age2 | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗
| (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000)
education | 0.003∗∗∗ | 0.002∗∗∗ | 0.001∗∗∗ | 0.002∗∗∗ | 0.002∗∗∗ | 0.002∗∗∗ | 0.002∗∗∗ | 0.002∗∗∗ | 0.002∗∗∗
| (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000)
paidwork |  | -0.003 | -0.001 | -0.002 | -0.000 | -0.003 | -0.001 | -0.003 | -0.001
|  | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003)
pwbefore |  | -0.162 | -0.245∗∗ | -0.135 | -0.225∗∗ | -0.169∗ | -0.248∗∗ | -0.150 | -0.220∗∗
|  | (0.102) | (0.106) | (0.100) | (0.112) | (0.103) | (0.105) | (0.099) | (0.109)
partner |  | -0.002 | -0.001 | -0.004 | -0.002 | -0.002 | -0.001 | -0.003 | -0.002
|  | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.004) | (0.004) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003)
health |  | 0.023∗∗∗ | 0.023∗∗∗ | 0.023∗∗∗ | 0.023∗∗∗ | 0.024∗∗∗ | 0.024∗∗∗ | 0.022∗∗∗ | 0.022∗∗∗
|  | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002)
child |  | -0.018∗∗∗ | -0.020∗∗∗ | -0.019∗∗∗ | -0.020∗∗∗ | -0.018∗∗∗ | -0.020∗∗∗ | -0.018∗∗∗ | -0.019∗∗∗
|  | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003)
bornc |  |  | -0.027∗∗∗ |  | -0.022∗∗ |  | -0.024∗∗∗ |  | -0.029∗∗∗
|  |  | (0.008) |  | (0.009) |  | (0.006) |  | (0.008)
fathere |  |  | 0.005∗∗∗ |  | 0.005∗∗∗ |  | 0.005∗∗∗ |  | 0.005∗∗∗
|  |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001)
mothere |  |  | 0.002∗ |  | 0.003∗∗ |  | 0.003∗∗ |  | 0.002
|  |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001)
N | 233,367 | 227,211 | 201,405 | 230,121 | 203,840 | 230,543 | 204,225 | 228,456 | 202,464
idp | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000
cdf | 2,329 | 2,363 | 2,135 | 833 | 753 | 2,693 | 2,485 | 2,015 | 1,729
widstat | 185 | 191 | 157 | 81 | 74 | 142 | 130 | 193 | 161

  * •

Notes: Robust standard errors clustered at the instruments level are in
parentheses. All regressions include the full set of fixed effects. *$p<0.10$;
**$p<0.05$; ***$p<0.01$.

_Table D3. IV Estimates: Religiosity and Being Free_

free | (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9)
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---
religiosity | -0.304∗∗∗ | -0.332∗∗∗ | -0.366∗∗∗ |  |  |  |  |  |
| (0.071) | (0.071) | (0.068) |  |  |  |  |  |
degree |  |  |  | -0.289∗∗ | -0.342∗∗∗ |  |  |  |
|  |  |  | (0.122) | (0.120) |  |  |  |
attendance |  |  |  |  |  | -0.325∗∗∗ | -0.338∗∗∗ |  |
|  |  |  |  |  | (0.060) | (0.060) |  |
pray |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | -0.177∗∗∗ | -0.208∗∗∗
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  | (0.046) | (0.045)
gender | 0.006 | 0.007 | 0.008∗ | 0.004 | 0.006 | -0.005 | -0.006∗ | 0.007 | 0.009∗
| (0.005) | (0.005) | (0.005) | (0.007) | (0.007) | (0.003) | (0.004) | (0.006) | (0.005)
age | -0.003∗∗∗ | -0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.001 | 0.000 | 0.001
| (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001)
age2 | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | -0.000 | 0.000 | -0.000
| (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000)
education | 0.004∗∗∗ | 0.004∗∗∗ | 0.003∗∗∗ | 0.004∗∗∗ | 0.003∗∗∗ | 0.004∗∗∗ | 0.004∗∗∗ | 0.004∗∗∗ | 0.004∗∗∗
| (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000)
paidwork |  | -0.004 | -0.001 | -0.003 | 0.000 | -0.003 | -0.001 | -0.004 | -0.001
|  | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003)
pwbefore |  | -0.038 | 0.015 | -0.029 | 0.002 | -0.049 | 0.011 | 0.014 | 0.104
|  | (0.131) | (0.148) | (0.135) | (0.167) | (0.131) | (0.146) | (0.140) | (0.126)
partner |  | -0.037∗∗∗ | -0.035∗∗∗ | -0.037∗∗∗ | -0.036∗∗∗ | -0.035∗∗∗ | -0.034∗∗∗ | -0.040∗∗∗ | -0.039∗∗∗
|  | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.004) | (0.004) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003)
health |  | 0.011∗∗∗ | 0.011∗∗∗ | 0.012∗∗∗ | 0.011∗∗∗ | 0.014∗∗∗ | 0.014∗∗∗ | 0.009∗∗∗ | 0.009∗∗∗
|  | (0.001) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.002)
child |  | -0.012∗∗∗ | -0.012∗∗∗ | -0.013∗∗∗ | -0.013∗∗∗ | -0.013∗∗∗ | -0.013∗∗∗ | -0.013∗∗∗ | -0.013∗∗∗
|  | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003)
bornc |  |  | -0.027∗∗∗ |  | -0.023∗∗∗ |  | -0.019∗∗∗ |  | -0.024∗∗∗
|  |  | (0.006) |  | (0.009) |  | (0.005) |  | (0.006)
fathere |  |  | 0.003∗∗∗ |  | 0.003∗∗∗ |  | 0.003∗∗∗ |  | 0.004∗∗∗
|  |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001)
mothere |  |  | 0.004∗∗∗ |  | 0.005∗∗∗ |  | 0.005∗∗∗ |  | 0.004∗∗∗
|  |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001)
N | 233,529 | 227,361 | 201,521 | 230,303 | 203,980 | 230,708 | 204,350 | 228,610 | 202,580
idp | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000
cdf | 2,333 | 2,374 | 2,148 | 836 | 761 | 2,729 | 2,522 | 2,018 | 1,731
widstat | 187 | 193 | 159 | 84 | 78 | 143 | 130 | 192 | 159

  * •

Notes: Robust standard errors clustered at the instruments level are in
parentheses. All regressions include the full set of fixed effects. *$p<0.10$;
**$p<0.05$; ***$p<0.01$.

_Table D4. IV Estimates: Religiosity and Being Adventurous_

adventurous | (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9)
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---
religiosity | 0.004 | -0.013 | -0.074 |  |  |  |  |  |
| (0.071) | (0.062) | (0.061) |  |  |  |  |  |
degree |  |  |  | 0.051 | -0.048 |  |  |  |
|  |  |  | (0.085) | (0.085) |  |  |  |
attendance |  |  |  |  |  | -0.021 | -0.057 |  |
|  |  |  |  |  | (0.057) | (0.056) |  |
pray |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | -0.019 | -0.066
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  | (0.041) | (0.041)
gender | -0.076∗∗∗ | -0.072∗∗∗ | -0.068∗∗∗ | -0.075∗∗∗ | -0.069∗∗∗ | -0.072∗∗∗ | -0.071∗∗∗ | -0.071∗∗∗ | -0.065∗∗∗
| (0.005) | (0.005) | (0.005) | (0.006) | (0.006) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.006) | (0.006)
age | -0.012∗∗∗ | -0.008∗∗∗ | -0.008∗∗∗ | -0.008∗∗∗ | -0.008∗∗∗ | -0.008∗∗∗ | -0.008∗∗∗ | -0.008∗∗∗ | -0.008∗∗∗
| (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000)
age2 | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗
| (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000)
education | 0.002∗∗∗ | 0.002∗∗∗ | 0.001 | 0.002∗∗∗ | 0.001 | 0.002∗∗∗ | 0.001∗∗ | 0.002∗∗∗ | 0.001∗
| (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000)
paidwork |  | 0.002 | 0.003 | 0.003 | 0.004 | 0.002 | 0.004 | 0.002 | 0.003
|  | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003)
pwbefore |  | -0.124 | -0.071 | -0.109 | -0.065 | -0.130 | -0.068 | -0.125 | -0.058
|  | (0.118) | (0.122) | (0.124) | (0.127) | (0.118) | (0.120) | (0.117) | (0.115)
partner |  | -0.037∗∗∗ | -0.034∗∗∗ | -0.038∗∗∗ | -0.035∗∗∗ | -0.037∗∗∗ | -0.034∗∗∗ | -0.037∗∗∗ | -0.035∗∗∗
|  | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003)
health |  | 0.020∗∗∗ | 0.019∗∗∗ | 0.020∗∗∗ | 0.019∗∗∗ | 0.021∗∗∗ | 0.020∗∗∗ | 0.021∗∗∗ | 0.019∗∗∗
|  | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001)
child |  | -0.028∗∗∗ | -0.028∗∗∗ | -0.029∗∗∗ | -0.028∗∗∗ | -0.028∗∗∗ | -0.028∗∗∗ | -0.028∗∗∗ | -0.027∗∗∗
|  | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003)
bornc |  |  | -0.011∗ |  | -0.009 |  | -0.009∗ |  | -0.013∗∗
|  |  | (0.006) |  | (0.006) |  | (0.005) |  | (0.006)
fathere |  |  | 0.006∗∗∗ |  | 0.006∗∗∗ |  | 0.006∗∗∗ |  | 0.006∗∗∗
|  |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001)
mothere |  |  | 0.006∗∗∗ |  | 0.006∗∗∗ |  | 0.006∗∗∗ |  | 0.006∗∗∗
|  |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001)
N | 233,274 | 227,128 | 201,318 | 230,048 | 203,764 | 230,469 | 204,149 | 228,378 | 202,380
idp | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000
cdf | 2,323 | 2,367 | 2,141 | 846 | 765 | 2,706 | 2,500 | 2,011 | 1,726
widstat | 187 | 194 | 160 | 82 | 77 | 143 | 131 | 192 | 159

  * •

Notes: Robust standard errors clustered at the instruments level are in
parentheses. All regressions include the full set of fixed effects. *$p<0.10$;
**$p<0.05$; ***$p<0.01$.

_Table D5. IV Estimates: Religiosity and Following Traditions_

traditions | (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9)
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---
religiosity | 0.120∗∗ | 0.162∗∗∗ | 0.192∗∗∗ |  |  |  |  |  |
| (0.059) | (0.055) | (0.060) |  |  |  |  |  |
degree |  |  |  | 0.215∗∗∗ | 0.260∗∗∗ |  |  |  |
|  |  |  | (0.074) | (0.084) |  |  |  |
attendance |  |  |  |  |  | 0.175∗∗∗ | 0.187∗∗∗ |  |
|  |  |  |  |  | (0.047) | (0.050) |  |
pray |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 0.089∗∗ | 0.111∗∗
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  | (0.041) | (0.045)
gender | 0.010∗∗ | 0.009∗ | 0.007 | 0.006 | 0.003 | 0.014∗∗∗ | 0.013∗∗∗ | 0.008 | 0.005
| (0.005) | (0.005) | (0.005) | (0.005) | (0.006) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.006) | (0.006)
age | 0.002∗∗∗ | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.001∗ | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.000 | 0.001 | 0.000
| (0.000) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.000) | (0.001) | (0.000) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001)
age2 | -0.000 | 0.000∗∗ | 0.000∗∗ | 0.000∗∗ | 0.000∗ | 0.000∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗ | 0.000∗∗
| (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000)
education | -0.003∗∗∗ | -0.003∗∗∗ | -0.003∗∗∗ | -0.002∗∗∗ | -0.002∗∗∗ | -0.003∗∗∗ | -0.003∗∗∗ | -0.003∗∗∗ | -0.003∗∗∗
| (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000)
paidwork |  | -0.001 | 0.001 | -0.001 | 0.001 | -0.002 | 0.001 | -0.001 | 0.001
|  | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003)
pwbefore |  | -0.215∗∗∗ | -0.174∗∗∗ | -0.200∗∗∗ | -0.132∗∗∗ | -0.206∗∗∗ | -0.168∗∗∗ | -0.240∗∗∗ | -0.220∗∗∗
|  | (0.032) | (0.033) | (0.047) | (0.043) | (0.032) | (0.031) | (0.030) | (0.036)
partner |  | 0.029∗∗∗ | 0.025∗∗∗ | 0.029∗∗∗ | 0.025∗∗∗ | 0.028∗∗∗ | 0.024∗∗∗ | 0.031∗∗∗ | 0.027∗∗∗
|  | (0.002) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.002) | (0.002)
health |  | 0.004∗∗∗ | 0.004∗∗∗ | 0.004∗∗∗ | 0.004∗∗∗ | 0.003∗∗∗ | 0.003∗∗ | 0.006∗∗∗ | 0.005∗∗∗
|  | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001)
child |  | 0.004 | 0.003 | 0.004 | 0.002 | 0.005∗∗ | 0.004 | 0.005∗ | 0.003
|  | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.002) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003)
bornc |  |  | -0.025∗∗∗ |  | -0.023∗∗∗ |  | -0.029∗∗∗ |  | -0.026∗∗∗
|  |  | (0.006) |  | (0.007) |  | (0.005) |  | (0.006)
fathere |  |  | -0.000 |  | 0.000 |  | -0.000 |  | -0.000
|  |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001)
mothere |  |  | -0.004∗∗∗ |  | -0.004∗∗∗ |  | -0.004∗∗∗ |  | -0.004∗∗∗
|  |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001)
N | 233,556 | 227,390 | 201,539 | 230,321 | 203,994 | 230,747 | 204,378 | 228,640 | 202,599
idp | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000
cdf | 2,322 | 2,364 | 2,140 | 847 | 768 | 2,705 | 2,502 | 2,000 | 1,718
widstat | 188 | 196 | 162 | 84 | 79 | 143 | 131 | 192 | 160

  * •

Notes: Robust standard errors clustered at the instruments level are in
parentheses. All regressions include the full set of fixed effects. *$p<0.10$;
**$p<0.05$; ***$p<0.01$.

_Table D6. IV Estimates: Religiosity and Following Rules_

rules | (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9)
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---
religiosity | 0.164∗∗ | 0.199∗∗∗ | 0.225∗∗∗ |  |  |  |  |  |
| (0.066) | (0.064) | (0.070) |  |  |  |  |  |
degree |  |  |  | 0.158∗ | 0.176∗ |  |  |  |
|  |  |  | (0.090) | (0.098) |  |  |  |
attendance |  |  |  |  |  | 0.240∗∗∗ | 0.244∗∗∗ |  |
|  |  |  |  |  | (0.059) | (0.063) |  |
pray |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 0.090∗∗ | 0.123∗∗
|  |  |  |  |  |  |  | (0.045) | (0.049)
gender | -0.024∗∗∗ | -0.025∗∗∗ | -0.025∗∗∗ | -0.022∗∗∗ | -0.023∗∗∗ | -0.018∗∗∗ | -0.018∗∗∗ | -0.023∗∗∗ | -0.026∗∗∗
| (0.005) | (0.005) | (0.005) | (0.006) | (0.007) | (0.003) | (0.004) | (0.006) | (0.006)
age | 0.000 | -0.001∗ | -0.001∗∗ | -0.001∗ | -0.001∗∗ | -0.001 | -0.001∗∗ | -0.001∗∗ | -0.001∗∗
| (0.000) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001)
age2 | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗ | 0.000∗∗∗
| (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000)
education | -0.004∗∗∗ | -0.004∗∗∗ | -0.003∗∗∗ | -0.003∗∗∗ | -0.003∗∗∗ | -0.004∗∗∗ | -0.004∗∗∗ | -0.004∗∗∗ | -0.004∗∗∗
| (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000)
paidwork |  | 0.007∗∗ | 0.008∗∗∗ | 0.006∗∗ | 0.007∗∗ | 0.007∗∗ | 0.008∗∗ | 0.006∗∗ | 0.008∗∗
|  | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003)
pwbefore |  | -0.268∗∗∗ | -0.215∗∗∗ | -0.280∗∗∗ | -0.223∗∗∗ | -0.250∗∗∗ | -0.198∗∗∗ | -0.304∗∗∗ | -0.271∗∗∗
|  | (0.055) | (0.061) | (0.064) | (0.075) | (0.060) | (0.063) | (0.044) | (0.054)
partner |  | 0.021∗∗∗ | 0.020∗∗∗ | 0.021∗∗∗ | 0.020∗∗∗ | 0.019∗∗∗ | 0.017∗∗∗ | 0.023∗∗∗ | 0.022∗∗∗
|  | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.002) | (0.003)
health |  | 0.003∗ | 0.003∗∗ | 0.003∗ | 0.003∗∗ | 0.001 | 0.002 | 0.004∗∗∗ | 0.005∗∗∗
|  | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.001) | (0.002) | (0.002) | (0.001) | (0.002)
child |  | 0.001 | -0.003 | 0.002 | -0.001 | 0.002 | -0.002 | 0.002 | -0.002
|  | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003) | (0.003)
bornc |  |  | -0.033∗∗∗ |  | -0.037∗∗∗ |  | -0.036∗∗∗ |  | -0.035∗∗∗
|  |  | (0.006) |  | (0.007) |  | (0.005) |  | (0.007)
fathere |  |  | -0.001 |  | -0.001 |  | -0.002 |  | -0.002
|  |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001)
mothere |  |  | -0.004∗∗∗ |  | -0.004∗∗∗ |  | -0.004∗∗∗ |  | -0.004∗∗∗
|  |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001) |  | (0.001)
N | 232,561 | 226,405 | 200,723 | 229,292 | 203,139 | 229,694 | 203,509 | 227,635 | 201,768
idp | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000
cdf | 2,313 | 2,356 | 2,140 | 811 | 747 | 2,723 | 2,515 | 2,007 | 1,727
widstat | 188 | 195 | 160 | 80 | 75 | 143 | 130 | 194 | 164

  * •

Notes: Robust standard errors clustered at the instruments level are in
parentheses. All regressions include the full set of fixed effects. *$p<0.10$;
**$p<0.05$; ***$p<0.01$.

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