##  5 Other Potential Science Cases

###  5.1 Galactic Mid-Plane Survey

While the Gaia mission is creating groundbreaking advances in the exploration
of the structure and kinematics of the Galaxy as mentioned above, Gaia’s
contributions to understanding the large-scale dynamics of the youngest
populations of the disk (“Extreme Population I”) will necessarily be limited,
as even $1\deg$ of latitude is the scale height of these populations at a
distance of about 5 kpc. Yet it is within this $\lesssim 100$ pc from the
Galactic mid-plane where is the main acting fields of the primary agents of
disk dynamical evolution—e.g., Giant Molecular Clouds, the spiral arms, and
the densest parts of the Galactic bar. To gather a complete understanding of
processes such as secular orbital heating and radial migration that are driven
by these perturbations requires contiguous kinematic information spanning the
very youngest stars born in the Galactic midplane to their older siblings
(well studied by other surveys) that have long since been scattered to
dynamically hotter and/or radially migrated orbits.

Moreover, without accurate proper motions, even surveys like APOGEE, which is
providing the first global view of the detailed chemistry and radial
velocities of disk and bulge stars, are limited in their ability to place this
information within a firm dynamical context; many thousands of mid-plane stars
in the APOGEE database lack Gaia astrometry, so that 3D orbits are not
possible to be inferred. Only a NIR astrometry facility can remedy this
problem by supplying a similar global view of mid-plane stellar disk dynamics.
The importance of accessing this “optically hidden Milky Way” has motivated
discussions at ESA to follow-up Gaia with a NIR counterpart mission, GaiaNIR
(e.g., Hobbs et al., 2021), but this likely will not be realized for a few
decades.

JASMINE is well-suited to be a pathfinder for a proposed large flagship all-
sky astrometric survey mission in the NIR, like the GaiaNIR concept, and is
capable of having an immediate impact in the field of Galactic archaeology. In
addition to the GCS in section 2, to address the science objectives of the
inner disk dynamics summarised in section 2.6, tracing the dynamics and
chemistry of the stars in the Galactic disk mid-plane at the various azimuthal
angles of the disk is required. One potential targeting strategy is a small
campaigns of mosaicked JASMINE pointings, which are centered on the location
of APOGEE $b=0\deg$ fields, which are located every about $5~{}\deg$ in
longitude around the entire sky. Such a strategy will instantly pay dividends
through the value-added information on tens of thousands of stars with
spectroscopy from the APOGEE and APOGEE-2 surveys, and their SDSS-V extension,
Milky Way Mapper (see section 6.1.3), that will lack Gaia’s accurate
astrometric data, because of the extreme foreground obscuration. These data
will provide a systematic probe of the dynamics of the low latitude disk,

The required astrometric accuracy should not be as strict as the GCS. Although
APOGEE spectroscopy yields $\sim 0.1$ km s-1 accuracy radial velocities for
stars, we do not require such accuracy in the transverse velocities. This is
because we are primarily interested in measuring the velocity dispersions for
young Population I stars, which are of order 10–30 km s-1 per dimension. For
example, 200 $\mu$as yr-1 proper motions provided by JASMINE translates to a
transverse velocity error of $<5$ km s-1 for a star at 5 kpc (this is a bit
higher than the approximate median distance of the APOGEE midplane stars,
which are primarily red giants), and $<10$ km s-1 for stars at 10 kpc. This
relaxed requirement allows us to survey a large range of the Galactic
longitude, when JASMINE is not observing primary science targets.

####  5.1.1 Star forming region

A rigid adherence to the pointing strategy of the Galactic mid-plane survey is
not necessary, and other interesting science problems–e.g., astrometric and
photometric exploration of young stellar clusters and star forming regions
(which naturally lie at low latitude) can also benefit from judicious
placement of the JASMINE Galactic mid-plane Survey “pickets”. For example, the
APOGEE project has dedicated itself to intense spectroscopic probes of several
star forming regions (e.g., the Orion Complex, the Perseus Molecular Cloud,
and the Cygnus region), which may also be matched with JASMINE targeting.

Stars are mainly formed in Giant Molecular Clouds (GMCs). Moreover, star
forming regions strongly concentrate into very compact sections within GMCs.
Using the Two Micron All Sky Survey (2MASS) point source catalog, Carpenter
(2000) estimated the fraction of young stellar populations contained within
clusters to be 50$\%-100\%$ for nearby cluster-forming GMCs, such as Perseus,
Orion A, Orion B and MonR2. NIR surveys of young stellar populations using the
Spitzer Space Telescope have confirmed that clustered star formation is the
dominant mode of star formation in the Galaxy (e.g., Poulton et al., 2008;
Román-Zúñiga et al., 2008).

This traditional picture is now challenged by the recent Gaia data releases,
which are revealing more complex reality. Anders et al. (2021) claimed that
only about 16 % of the stars in the solar neighborhood formed in bound
clusters, comparing the star formation rate in the solar neighbourhood and the
populations of the young star clusters. From the more small-scale kinematics
of the OB associations, Ward et al. (2020) showed that the velocity fields of
the OB association is highly substructured (see also Wright & Mamajek, 2018),
which is not consistent with a monolithic scenario, where stars formed in the
core of bound clouds and expanded subsequently due to the outflow of the gas
caused by feedback. They discussed that these are consistent with a
hierarchical star formation model, where stars formed in large-scale
gravitationally unbound structures in molecular clouds.

Although the Gaia data is revolutionizing our understanding of star formation,
these optical observations are unavoidably missing the information deep in the
core of star forming regions where the dust extinction is too severe. The NIR
astrometric observations with JASMINE and APOGEE spectroscopic data can unveil
the whole picture of the star forming region hidden in the dust, which will
complement what the Gaia data revealed and provide a more complete picture of
these star forming regions.

####  5.1.2 Milky Way Neighborhood Dwarf Galaxies

The dwarf galaxy population around the Milky Way is diverse and new dwarfs are
continuously being discovered (e.g., Willman et al., 2005; Belokurov et al.,
2006; Zucker et al., 2006). The once troublesome “missing satellites problem”
that plagued the $\Lambda$CDM cosmology theoretical framework is now steadily
being refined and coming in line with observations of the dwarf galaxy
populations around more massive galaxies such as the Milky Way (Simon & Geha,
2007; Kim et al., 2018; Mao et al., 2021). The ESA F-class mission ARRAKIHS (a
planned 2030 lanuch) will further this inventory with unprecedented surface
brightness levels in the Euclid VIS (0.550-0.900 $\mu$m), Y (0.920-1.230
$\mu$m) and J (1.169-1.590 $\mu$m) bands images of nearby galaxies. One
remarkable discovery that came from the recent Gaia DR2 is that of the giant
dwarf galaxy Antlia 2 (Torrealba et al., 2019). The primary reason that this
giant dwarf galaxy lurking in the dark matter halo of the Milky Way went
undetected until now is that it lies only 11 degrees off the Galactic plane.
Where Gaia has run into the limit of visual-wavelength extinction, JASMINE can
go deeper into the Galactic mid-plane, as part of the Galactic mid-plane
survey, allowing for serendipitous dwarf galaxy and globular/stellar cluster
discoveries that cannot be made via any other method. With the anticipated
astrometric precision and stellar content, we will be able to detect over-
densities of stars that contain common proper motions indicative of low-
latitude dwarf galaxies and/or clusters that are in the optical Zone of
Avoidance, within a distance of about 10 kpc, as demonstrated for Gaia data in
Antoja et al. (2015) and Ciucǎ et al. (2018). So far, there is no dwarf galaxy
found within 20 kpc, and Draco 2 at about 22 kpc is the closest (e.g.,
McConnachie & Venn, 2020). Although the total field of view of the Galactic
mid-plane survey is very limited, finding any galaxy within 20 kpc will be a
significant discovery, and will be integral to studies of the survivability of
dwarf galaxies within the inner Galaxy, their contribution to the bulge, and
their impact on the Galactic disk (e.g., D’Onghia et al., 2010).

###  5.2 X-ray Binaries

Another interesting target for which the precise astrometry with a short
cadence observations of JASMINE can provide unique and impactful data is X-ray
binaries, including gamma-ray binaries (Aharonian et al., 2005). These are
ideal laboratories for the study of high-energy astrophysics and prime future
targets for multi-messenger astronomy, including continuous gravitational wave
observations (e.g., Middleton et al., 2020). Astrometric measurements of their
companion stars enables us to measure the physical scale of the orbital
parameters, and to unveil the mass of the compact object, whether it be a
white dwarf, neutron star or BH (Yamaguchi et al., 2018b, see also section
5.3.1). We listed below examples of X-ray binaries, which are particularly
interesting targets for JASMINE, when JASMINE cannot observe the GCS field.
This merely presents examples of potential targets, and is not an exhaustive
list.

$\gamma$ Cassiopeia ($\gamma$ Cas): $\gamma$ Cas is considered to be the first
star identified as Be star (B type star with emission lines) (Secchi, 1866).
However, now $\gamma$ Cas is known to be a rare kind of Be star, which is
characterised by a hard X-ray spectrum with a thermal X-ray emission, a high
temperature ($>10$ keV) and a lack of strong variability (e.g., Motch et al.,
2015; Nazé & Motch, 2018; Tsujimoto et al., 2018). Despite the proximity of
the object (d$\sim 168$ pc) (van Leeuwen, 2007) and several decades of
observational and theoretical studies, X-ray emission mechanism and the nature
of the lower mass secondary star are still debated (e.g., Smith, 2019; Langer
et al., 2020). While the $\sim$204 day binary period with close to the
circular orbit (Miroshnichenko et al., 2002; Nemravová et al., 2012) is known,
the mass of smaller mass secondary star is not well measured and it is still
debated if the secondary star is white dwarf or neutron star (Langer et al.,
2020). With a visual magnitude of $\sim 2$, $\gamma$ Cas is too bright for
Gaia. JASMINE can adjust the exposure time to observe such a bright object
with a short cadence. Such time-series astrometric information will provide
the precise orbital parameters and mass of the secondary star from astrometric
observations (Yamaguchi et al., 2018b), which will be a crucial to
understanding the long-debated properties of $\gamma$ Cas and the other
similar systems ($\gamma$ Cas analogs).

LSI +61 303 / HESS J0632+057: These are both gamma-ray binaries, in which the
source of gamma rays may be the impact of a relativistic pulsar wind on out-
flowing protons in the disk of a Be star, UV photons from a massive main
sequence star, or by the interaction of UV photons from such a star on the
accretion disk of an X-ray binary counterpart (Mirabel, 2012). Determining the
masses of these companions can be achieved with high astrometric precision
observations

X Per / V725 Tau: Like $\gamma$ Cas, these are X-ray binaries with rapidly
rotating B stars, and likely host neutron star companions. Neutron stars are
characterize by their equation of state, which requires knowing their masses
(e.g., Demorest et al., 2010), which can be done with precise determination of
orbital parameters (Miller, 2013).

Cygnus X-1: The tens of $\mu$as astrometric regime achievable with JASMINE
will make new studies of the orbit and jet physics of this quintessential BH
binary system possible, and the NIR astrometry of this source can be compared
to the exquisite radio positional information that exists from VLBI studies
(e.g., Miller-Jones, 2014).

###  5.3 Complementary Sciences with the Galactic Center Survey data

The JASMINE GCS data will provide the accurate astrometry and time-series
photometry for all the stars with $9.5<H_{\mathrm{w}}<14.5$ mag in the JASMINE
GCS field. The GCS data should be valuable for the wide range of scientific
studies, not just for the core science of JASMINE as shown in section 2. In
this section, we highlight some of these science cases. Note that the aim of
this section is not to provide the comprehensive list, but merely list the
potential science cases. We hope that many science cases that are not as
premeditated will be developed by the wider science community.

####  5.3.1 Hunting Inner Disk BHs

Massive stars are expected to become BHs upon their demise (e.g., Maeder,
1992). Therefore, it is expected that there are many stellar mass BHs floating
around in the Milky Way (e.g., Brown & Bethe, 1994). Stellar mass BHs are
found in the Galaxy as X-ray binaries (e.g., Özel et al., 2010), whose masses
are around 5 to 20 $M_{\odot}$. Several gravitational wave detections of
stellar mass BH binaries since the first detection of GW150914 by LIGO/VIRGO
collaborations (LIGO Scientific Collaboration and Virgo Collaboration, 2016)
revealed that there are indeed stellar mass BHs, up to $M_{\rm BH}\sim 150$ M⊙
(LIGO Scientific Collaboration and Virgo Collaboration, 2020). Two remaining
questions are what is the mass function of this BH population and how they are
spatially distributed in the Galaxy. These questions are also related to the
origin of SMBHs, as discussed in section 2.2.

One promising method to detect a large population of these stellar mass BHs is
finding a binary system of a BH and a companion star bright enough to allow
for its kinematics to be measured with astrometry and/or spectroscopic
observations. These system does not require the companion star be interacting
to the BH and be emit X-ray, i.e. non-interacting BH (Thompson et al., 2019).
Such non-interacting BHs are expected to be observed by precise astrometry
available with Gaia (e.g., Penoyre et al., 2021). Recently Shikauchi et al.
(2022) estimated that Gaia will detect $\sim 1.1-46$ non-interacting BH
binaries (see also Kawanaka et al., 2017; Yamaguchi et al., 2018a). In fact,
so far from Gaia DR3 and follow-up observations, two non-interacting BH
binaries, Gaia BH1 with a Sun-like star (El-Badry et al., 2023b) and Gaia BH2
with a red giant star (El-Badry et al., 2023a; Tanikawa et al., 2022), have
been found. JASMINE will offer similarly precise astrometry for stars in the
inner disk from the Sun to the Galactic center, where Gaia cannot observe due
to the high extinction. Therefore, JASMINE is expected to uncover the
population of BHs in the inner Galaxy. According to a similar model of
Shikauchi et al. (2022), in the JASMINE GCS region $100-1,000$ BH$-$star
binaries are expected to exist. Further study of how many of such binaries can
be detected by JASMINE is ongoing.

Another way of hunting BHs with JASMINE is microlensing. JASMINE will offer
the time-series photometry of the Galactic center region where the stellar
density is very high. We expect that JASMINE will find about 3 microlensing
events during the nominal operation of 3 years, which is an optimistic
estimate based on the VVV microlensing survey results (Navarro et al., 2020).
As suggested by Abrams & Takada (2020), the long timescale ($>100$ days)
microlensing events are expected to be dominated by a high mass ($>\sim 30$
M⊙) BH lens. Photometric microlensing itself does not give us the lens’ mass.
However, JASMINE can also detect astrometric microlensing from the centroid
shift of the source (e.g., Dominik & Sahu, 2000; Belokurov & Evans, 2002).
Astrometric microlensing enables us to measure the source mass if the mass and
distance to the lens are optimum for the measurement. Recently, the first
astrometric microlensing measurement has been reported for a microlensing
event found by the ground-based observation and followed up by the Hubble
Space Telescope for astrometry (Lam et al., 2022; Sahu et al., 2022). However,
the lens masses for the same event, OGLE-2011-BLG-0462/MOA-2011-BLG-191,
reported by the two teams are so far quite different. Sahu et al. (2022)
reported the lens mass of $7.1\pm 1.3$ M⊙, clearly indicating a BH, at
distance of $1.58\pm 0.18$ pc, while Lam et al. (2022) reported the lens mass
of $1.6-4.2$ M⊙, which could be a neutron star or BH, at a distance of
$0.69-1.37$ kpc. This tension could be due to systematic uncertainty from the
two independent measurements of photometry and astrometry. The astrometric
displacement of this event was $>$mas and large enough to be clearly detected
by JASMINE. JASMINE can provide both photometric and astrometric information,
which may help to reduce the systematic uncertainty of such microlensing
events. The chance of having such an event in the JASMINE GCS field in the
lifetime of JASMINE could be slim, but one event of precise measurement of the
high mass BH would still be an exciting outcome, because only few of such
events are expected even in the Gaia data (Rybicki et al., 2018).

####  5.3.2 Hunting IMBH in the Galactic center

A pressing mystery is the low number of confidently confirmed IMBHs
$M_{\mathrm{BH}}=100-10^{5}$ $M_{\odot}$ (Chilingarian et al., 2018). Many
candidates are, however, known (e.g., Graham et al., 2021b), and they may form
the low-mass ($M_{\rm bh}<10^{5}\,M_{\odot}$) extension to the quadratic
BH/bulge mass scaling relation for disk galaxies (Graham & Scott, 2015). The
Galactic center is an attractive area to explore for these long-sought after
IMBHs (see Greene et al., 2019, for a review), especially if brought in
through the capture of dwarf-mass galaxies. Furthermore, Portegies Zwart et
al. (2006) demonstrated that some massive star clusters formed in the central
100 pc undergo core collapse before the massive stars die, i.e. $\sim 3$ Myr,
which induces a runaway stellar merger and creates a IMBH. They estimated that
within 10 pc from the Galactic center about 50 IMBHs may exist. Some of them
could be still within the survived star clusters (e.g., Fujii et al., 2008),
like the star clusters near the Galactic center, the Arches (Figer et al.,
2002) and the Quintuplet (Figer et al., 1999). Detecting a star cluster in a
high stellar density region like the Galactic center only with photometric
data is difficult. However, the proper motion data from JASMINE will enable
the detection of star clusters in the Galactic center (see also section 2.3),
which can inform follow-up studies of their cluster centers with X-ray and/or
radio surveys (e.g., Oka et al., 2017; Tsuboi et al., 2017).

Interestingly, so far five IMBH candidates have been discovered as high-
velocity (velocity width $>50$ km s-1) compact ($<5$ pc) clouds in the
Galactic center (Takekawa et al., 2020). The advent of the Atacama Large
Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) enables the measurement of the detailed
velocity structure of the compact clouds less than 0.1 pc from the center,
which is consistent with Keplearian rotation around a massive object whose
inferred mass between $10^{4}$ and $10^{5}$ M⊙ (e.g., Tsuboi et al., 2019;
Takekawa et al., 2020). Although further studies are required to prove that
they are the true IMBHs, these observations may indicate that several IMBHs
exist in the Galactic center.

With JASMINE, IMBHs can be detected as a binary motion of bright stars around
an IMBH or astrometric microlensing, as discussed in the previous section, if
such systems exist or such an event occurs. For example, if a 1 M⊙ AGB star is
rotating around a 1,000 M⊙ BH with the orbital period of 3 years with zero
eccentricity at a distance of 8 kpc, the semi-major axis of the orbit
corresponds to 2.6 mas, which can be detected by JASMINE.

There will be an astrometric microlensing event if an IMBH crosses in front of
a distant star. Following Toki & Takada (2021), we can consider an event for a
source star at 8 kpc, and a lens object of an IMBH crossing at 7.5 kpc. The
Einstein time-scale of this event is 713 days, and the maximum displacement
due to the astrometric microlensing is 2.9 mas (Toki & Takada, 2021). This can
be detected by JASMINE, though such an event would be extremely rare.

####  5.3.3 Gravitational Waves

Gravitational waves (GWs) have been successfully detected by the Laser
Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO), Virgo and the Kamioka
Gravitational Wave Detector (KAGRA) collaborations. The sources for these
events are merging compact objects such as BHs and neutron stars. It is of
importance to detect gravitational waves from SMBHs binaries to study the
growth mechanism of SMBHs. These waves have much longer wavelengths than
detectable by ground-based detectors. Astrometry could be a valuable resource
to detect or constrain such low frequency gravitational wave (e.g., Klioner,
2018).

Here, we estimate strain sensitivity of the JASMINE GCS. It is well known that
the maximal magnitude of the astrometric effect of a gravitational wave is
$h/2$ for $h$ being the strain. The astrometric accuracy of single
observations of JASMINE being $\Delta\theta=4$ mas for stars with magnitude
$H_{w}<12.5$ mag and the uncertainty grows exponentially for fainter sources.
Given that each star will be observed around $N_{\rm obs}=68,000$ times,
considering a realistically expected distribution of stars in $H_{w}$
magnitudes of the GCS and using the theoretical formulation developed for
Gaia-like astrometry (Klioner, 2018), one can conclude that the full
sensitivity of JASMINE to the effects of a gravitational wave will be
$h=3\times 10^{-13}$. Here we assume that the instrument is ideally
calibrated, so that the full accuracy scales as $N_{\rm obs}^{-1/2}$ for each
source and the sensitivity is also accordingly computed from the combination
of the contributions from individual sources.

However, the astrometric effect of a gravitationa wave is proportional to the
sine of the angular separation $\chi$ between the directions of observations
and that towards the gravitational wave source (Book & Flanagan, 2011;
Klioner, 2018). Although JASMINE makes relative astrometry only, the variation
of the astrometric effect within the observed field on the sky can be
detected. Therefore, the sensitivity quoted above should be scaled by
$|\,\sin(\chi+f/2)-\sin(\chi-f/2)\,|=2\sin(f/2)\,|\,\cos\chi\,|$, where $f$ is
the extension of the observed field, being $f\approx 2^{\circ}$ for the
JASMINE GCS. Therefore, the theoretical sensitivity of JASMINE can be
estimated $h=8.6\times 10^{-12}\,|\,\cos\chi\,|$. Interestingly, the maximal
sensitivity is reached for the gravitational sources approximately in the
direction of observations or the opposite direction where
$|\,\cos\chi\,|\approx 1$. This theoretical sensitivity is valid for the
gravitational wave periods between the typical cadence of observations and the
duration of observations by JASMINE.

####  5.3.4 Ultra Light Dark Matter

The precise measurement of the kinematics of stars revealed by JASMINE would
enable us to reconstruct the mass distribution in the Galactic center (e.g.,
Genzel et al., 1996; Chatzopoulos et al., 2015, see also sections 2.1 and
2.3). It is believed that in the central 100 pc of the Galaxy baryons dominate
the mass profile, and the total mass measured from the dynamical model is
consistent with what is expected from the stellar density profile (e.g.,
Launhardt et al., 2002; Fritz et al., 2016). However, the Galactic center is
attracting interests in testing for the existence of a particular dark matter
candidate, namely Ultra Light Dark Matter (ULDM), including Axion-like ULDM
particles (e.g., Ferreira, 2021, for a review). Although ULDM behaves like
conventional cold dark matter on the large scales, ULDM is expected to produce
a soliton core in the galactic center in the de Broglie wavelength scale due
to Bose-Einstein condensation. Schive et al. (2014) suggested that ULDM
particle masses of $\sim 8\times 10^{-23}$ eV can explain the dynamical mass
profile of the Fornax dwarf galaxy (but see also Safarzadeh & Spergel, 2020).
Bar et al. (2018) suggested that the soliton core created from the dark matter
particle mass less than $10^{-19}$ eV can influence the gravitational
potential in the Galactic center significantly. De Martino et al. (2020)
showed that velocity dispersions observed in the Galactic center imply a
soliton core as massive as $\sim 10^{9}$ M⊙, expected from ULDM particles with
$~{}10^{-22}$ eV. Maleki et al. (2020) also demonstrated that a soliton core
corresponding to a particle mass of $\sim 2.5\times 10^{-21}$ eV explains the
rotation curve of the Milky Way in the central region. Li et al. (2020) showed
that such a massive soliton core as suggested above can influence the
kinematic properties of the nuclear gas disk on the scale of $\sim 200$ pc.

Recently, Toguz et al. (2022) demonstrated that the kinematics of stars in the
NSC can provide constraints on the particle mass range of ULDM. Toguz et al.
(2022) applied a simple isotropic dynamical model to the kinematics data of
the NSC stars in Fritz et al. (2016), and rejected the mass range of ULDM
between $10^{-20.4}$ eV and $10^{-18.5}$ eV. JASMINE will provide the precise
kinematics of the stars in the NSD (section 2.3) which is the dominant stellar
component from a few pc to $\sim 200$ pc. This size corresponds to the size of
the soliton core of $~{}10^{-19}-10^{-22}$ eV ULDM. Using the dynamical
modelling of these stellar structures, the precise astrometric information of
JASMINE may uncover indirect evidence of ULDM or provide stringent constraints
on the existence of ULDM whose particle mass between $10^{-22}$ eV and
$10^{-19}$ eV.

####  5.3.5 Identifying disrupted globular cluster population

Recent observational studies of the Galactic bulge by APOGEE have discovered
that a significant fraction of the bulge stars have unusually high [N/Fe]
(e.g., Schiavon et al., 2017). These N-rich stars are not found in the
Galactic disk, but they are ubiquitous in globular clusters. Accordingly, one
of the possible scenarios for the formation of the N-rich stars in the
Galactic bulge is that the stars originate from globular clusters that had
been completely destroyed by the strong tidal field of the Galactic bulge.
Interestingly, these N-rich stars have been discovered in elliptical galaxies
(e.g., Schiavon, 2007; van Dokkum et al., 2017), which suggests that N-rich
populations are common in galactic bulges and elliptical galaxies, i.e. not
just in the Galactic bulge, in line with the indistinguishable properties of
classical bulges and elliptical galaxies (e.g., Renzini, 1999; Kormendy et
al., 2009; Fisher & Drory, 2010).

Globular clusters can spiral into the central region of the Galactic bulge due
to dynamical friction (e.g., Tremaine et al., 1975), and they can be more
severely influenced by the tidal field of the bulge in the inner region.
Accordingly, if such a globular cluster destruction scenario for the N-rich
stars is correct, then stars from the destroyed globular clusters can be a
major population in the central region of the Galactic halo. In fact, using
APOGEE DR16, Horta et al. (2021a) estimated that N-rich stars contribute to
about 17 % of the total halo stars at 1.5 kpc from the Galactic center (see
also Fernández-Trincado et al., 2022). JASMINE will enable us to investigate
the 3D spatial distributions and kinematics of N-rich (globular cluster
origin) and N-normal halo stars in the central region through its superb
accuracy in its proper motion measurement. Because the globular cluster origin
stars could inherit unique kinematics different from the other halo stars,
such 3D dynamics of N-rich stars will contribute to our understanding of the
formation of the inner bulge. In APOGEE DR17 (Abdurro’uf et al., 2022), there
are 436 stars with the measured [N/Fe] and [Fe/H] in the JASMINE GCS field
with good quality stars, i.e. STARFLAG$=0$, ASPCAPFLAG$=0$, SNR$>70$, 3250
K$<T_{\rm eff}<$4500 K and $\log g<3$ (Kisku et al., 2021), and 6 stars of
them are N-rich stars ([N/Fe]$>0.5$, $-1.5<$[Fe/H]$<0.0$). All these stars are
bright enough for JASMINE to observe. Therefore, it is promising that JASMINE
will provide the proper motion of good number of N-rich stars in the Galactic
center field in the combination with future high-resolution high-quality
spectroscopic surveys of the Galactic center field, which will help to
discover more N-rich stars.

####  5.3.6 Relics of Ancient Mergers

An ancient galaxy merger of Gaia-Sausage-Enceladus discovered in the Gaia data
(section 1) leaves questions like ”where is the core of the remnant now?” and
”has the core of the progenitor galaxy reached to the Galactic center?”. To
assess the possibility of identifying such merger remnants in the JASMINE GCS,
we again use APOGEE DR17, but apply a slightly different quality cut, i.e.
STARFLAG$=0$, APPCAPFLAG$=0$, SNR$>70$, 3,500 K$<T_{\rm eff}<$5,500 K and
$\log g<3.6$, following Horta et al. (2022) who used APOGEE DR17 to chemically
characterise halo substructures of the likely accreted populations. We find
that there are 284 APOGEE high-quality star data within the JASMINE GCS field.
The Gaia-Sausage-Enceladus remnants occupies a distinct stellar abundance
distribution in the [$\alpha$/Fe]-[Fe/H] plane (e.g., Haywood et al., 2018b;
Helmi et al., 2018; Das et al., 2020). Out of this sample, we find 4 stars
within the abundances expected for the Gaia-Sausage-Enceladus remnants, i.e.
stars with [Fe/H]$<-1.1$ and [Mg/Fe]$<-0.28$. All these stars are brighter
than $H_{\mathrm{w}}=14.5$ mag.

Note, however, that the APOGEE DR17 sample is not a complete sample up to
$H_{\mathrm{w}}=14.5$ mag, but has a sample selection due to colours and/or
the specific scientific targets. The JASMINE GCS will obtain the precise
proper motion for about 1,000 times more stars than present in the APOGEE
data. Obtaining accurate proper motions and orbits of these potential remnant
stars of the Gaia-Sausage-Enceladus interaction in the inner Galactic disk
will allow studies to test the association with the already measured Gaia-
Sausage-Enceladus remnants, which have so far been found exclusively in the
solar neighbourhood.

Horta et al. (2021b) found the Inner Galactic Structure (IGS) which has a
similar chemical properties to the accreted components of the Galactic halo.
They suggest that this could be a relic of an ancient accretion of another
galaxy in the Milky Way earlier than the Gaia-Sausage-Enceladus merger and
could be a more massive progenitor than Gaia-Sausage-Enceladus. Further
studies with Gaia DR3 and ground-based spectroscopic data Belokurov & Kravtsov
(e.g., 2022); Rix et al. (e.g., 2022) argue that such centrally concentrated
metal poor stars are relics of the ancient Milky Way proto-Galaxy, which could
be mix of merger and in-situ populations from the early epoch of the Milky Way
formation. JASMINE can provide the proper motion of the stars in the Galactic
center where Gaia cannot observe, and will help to identify the inner
extension of the ancient populations.

####  5.3.7 Origin of Hyper-velocity Stars

Hills (1988) theoretically predicted that the SMBH at the Galactic center (Sgr
A$\ast$) ejects stars with extremely large velocities as a result of close
encounter and disruption of stellar binaries near the SMBH. Yu & Tremaine
(2003) expanded upon the possible ejection mechanisms. The discoveries of
young hyper-velocity stars (HVSs) in the halo (Brown et al., 2005; Zheng et
al., 2014; Huang et al., 2017; Brown, 2015; Massey et al., 2018; Koposov et
al., 2019) confirmed this prediction. Among these discoveries, the most
intriguing one is the A-type HVS dubbed S5-HVS1 (Koposov et al., 2019). Based
on the astrometric data from Gaia and a follow-up spectroscopic observation,
it turned out that this star was ejected from the Galactic center 4.8 Myr ago
with the ejection velocity of $\sim 1,800\;{\mathrm{km\;s^{-1}}}$. Some
numerical simulations suggests that the ejection rate of HVSs is around
$10^{-5}$–$10^{-4}~{}\mathrm{yr^{-1}}$ (Brown, 2015). This ejection rate
suggests that there are 1 to 10 HVSs within a sphere of radius $0.1$ kpc
centered at the Galactic center, given their typical velocity $\sim
1000\;{\mathrm{km\;s^{-1}}}$. Of course, what we can expect to observe with
JASMINE is a tiny fraction of them, because they need to be bright enough to
be detected by JASMINE. Given that the GCS area of JASMINE includes a square
region of $\pm 0.6^{\circ}$ around the Galactic center ($0.6^{\circ}$
corresponds to about 0.09 kpc at the projected distance of 8.275 kpc), it is
an enticing prospect to look for HVS candidates with JASMINE. If JASMINE
discovers an HVS within $r<0.1$ kpc from the Galactic center, this will be
very useful to understand the detailed mechanism of HVS ejection. For example,
a HVS with a velocity of $1,000\;{\mathrm{km\;s^{-1}}}$ at $r=0.1$ kpc can be
traced back to the Galactic center by integrating the orbit backward in time
for just $0.1$ Myr. This means that we can probe the environment near the SMBH
in the immediate past (just 0.1 Myr ago), such as the binary fraction near the
SMBH or the orbital distribution near the SMBH.

####  5.3.8 X-ray Sources and the Origin of the Galactic Ridge X-ray Emission

The apparently extended hard ($\geq$ 2 keV) X-ray emission along the Galactic
plane has been known as the Galactic Ridge X-ray Emission (GRXE) since the
early 1980s (e.g., Worrall et al., 1982). This emission extends tens of
degrees in Galactic longitude and a few degrees in Galactic latitude in
$|l|<45^{\circ}$ and $|b|<1.5^{\circ}$. The GRXE has an integrated X-ray
luminosity of $\sim$1$\times$1038 ${{\rm erg}\ {\rm s}^{-1}}$ in the $2-10$
keV range (Koyama et al., 1986; Valinia & Marshall, 1998) at a distance of the
Galactic center. The X-ray spectrum is described by a two-temperature thermal
plasma ($\sim$1 and 5–10 keV) with the K shell emission lines (e.g., Koyama et
al., 1996; Yamauchi et al., 2009); from neutral or lowly-ionized Fe at 6.4 keV
(Fe ${\rm{I}}$) as well as from highly-ionized Fe at 6.7 (Fe ${\rm{XXV}}$) and
7.0 keV (Fe ${\rm{XXVI}}$).

It has been under intensive debate whether GRXE is a truly diffuse emission of
a low surface brightness along the Galactic plane or a composition of discrete
faint unresolved X-ray sources such as cataclysmic variables (CVs) and X-ray
active stars (e.g., Yuasa et al., 2012; Hong, 2012; Revnivtsev et al., 2006).
Many X-ray observations were carried out on this topic. In a Galactic bulge
region ($l=0.^{\circ}08,b=-1.^{\circ}42$), $\sim$80% of the diffuse X-ray
emission was resolved into faint X-ray point sources using the deepest X-ray
observation with the Chandra X-ray Observatory having an excellent spatial
resolution of 0.5$\arcsec$. This indicates that the apparently diffuse
emission in the Galactic bulge is primarily made of faint discrete X-ray
sources (Revnivtsev et al., 2009). There are several candidates for such
population of faint X-ray sources, including magnetic CVs (e.g., Yuasa et al.,
2012; Hong, 2012), non-magnetic CVs (Nobukawa et al., 2016) and X-ray active
stars (e.g., Revnivtsev et al., 2006).

However, it is difficult to constrain the nature of these faint X-ray point
sources from X-ray observations alone, because most of these sources are
detected only with a limited number of X-ray photons (less than 10 photons)
even with the deepest observations. Thus, follow-up observations at longer
wavelengths are needed. Because of the large interstellar absorption toward
the Galactic plane, NIR observations are more suited than optical
observations. NIR identifications of X-ray point sources were performed along
the Galactic plane (e.g., Laycock et al., 2005; Morihana et al., 2016), which
provided clues to the nature of faint X-ray point source populations that make
up the GRXE. The distance of these sources is unknown. Thus, classification of
the sources is based on the X-ray to NIR flux ratio; high values suggest
sources containing a compact object such as CVs and low values suggest sources
otherwise such as stars. If the distance is obtained for many of these sources
with JASMINE, we can discuss their nature based on the absolute luminosity
both in X-ray and NIR bands and discriminate foreground contamination in the
line of sight. A more robust classification of X-ray sources and their 3D
distribution allow us to constrain the Galactic X-ray point source population
for the different locations and components of our Galaxy, providing a hint to
understanding the formation history of our Galaxy.

A large fraction of the observing fields of the GCS using JASMINE
($-0.6^{\circ}<b<0.6^{\circ}$ and $-1.4^{\circ}<l<0.7^{\circ}$ or
$-0.7^{\circ}<l<1.4^{\circ}$ in section 2), was observed with Chandra (the
Chandra Multiwavelength Plane Survey; $-0.4^{\circ}<b<0.4^{\circ}$ and
$-1.0^{\circ}<l<1.0^{\circ}$, Grindlay et al., 2005). A total of 9,017 X-ray
point sources were detected with a total exposure of 2.5 Ms (Muno et al.,
2009). NIR identifications for these X-ray point sources were also made
(Mauerhan et al., 2009). Based on this, we estimate that $\sim$600 X-ray
sources will be identified in NIR brighter than 12.5 mag in the
$H_{\mathrm{w}}$-band in the JASMINE GCS region. This is a significant
improvement compared to the Gaia DR3 optical identification and astrometric
distances for $\sim$100 sources Gaia Collaboration et al. (2022), which are
mostly foreground sources located within 2 kpc. This will be complemented with
JASMINE.

####  5.3.9 Observations of small solar system bodies

As solar system bodies are moving objects, they are good targets for
astrometry and time-series photometry. Precise astrometry improves the orbital
elements of small solar system bodies such as comets and asteroids. It
provides a solid foundation in several fields; Risks of minor bodies that
threaten the Earth (potentially hazardous asteroids) can be precisely
assessed; Non-gravitational effects such as the Yarkovsky effect can be
quantitatively measured; An asteroid family, asteroids derived from the same
parent body, can be identified. Astrometry of interstellar objects such as
1I/’Oumuamua and 2I/Borisov is essential to understand their origins. The
rotation periods and shapes of minor bodies are derived from time-series
photometry, leading to their internal structure estimates (bulk density). A
binary system can be identified if it shows an eclipse or mutual event. Time-
series photometry is also useful for tracking the brightness changes of active
asteroids. Since JASMINE is in a Sun-synchronous polar orbit, JASMINE’s
photometry will be complementary to ground-based observations. Finally, non-
targeted, serendipitous surveys provide opportunities to discover new minor
bodies.

The expected number of small solar system bodies via JASMINE is estimated as
follows. Here, we focus on asteroids, the most abundant objects among minor
bodies detectable by JASMINE. The spectral energy density of an asteroid is
generally dominated by two components: reflected sunlight in optical
wavelengths and thermal emission in infrared wavelengths. JASMINE’s
$H_{\mathrm{w}}$-band is located at transitional wavelengths between the two
components. Hence, unfortunately, the minor bodies are fainter in
$H_{\mathrm{w}}$-band, and it is more challenging to detect them with JASMINE.
To evaluate the observability of asteroids, we propagate the positions of
known asteroids and check if they cross the JASMINE GCS observing region. The
orbital elements of asteroids were retrieved from Lowell Minor Planet Services
operated by Lowell Observatory on 26 August 2022. Objects with large
uncertainties were removed. The total number of objects was 1,192,756, which
includes 1,148,593 Main Belt Asteroids, 28,829 Near Earth Asteroids, 11,458
Jupiter Trojans, and 3,876 Trans-Neptunian Objects. The topocentric
(geocentric) coordinates were calculated from 1 January 2028 to 31 December
2031. For the sake of simplicity, JASMINE’s observing region was defined as a
circle with a radius of 0.7 degrees centered at $(l,b)=(359.9,0.0)$ in
Galactic coordinates. The defined region differs from the current baseline of
JASMINE GCS, but the number of observable objects is not significantly
affected. With the distances, absolute magnitudes, and slope parameters, the
apparent magnitudes of the bodies in the $V$-band can be calculated (Bowell et
al., 1989). We then assume that the $V-H_{\mathrm{w}}$ color for the objects
is the same as the Sun, i.e. $(V-H_{\mathrm{w}})_{\solar}\sim 1.21$, and
convert the $V$-band to $H_{\mathrm{w}}$-band magnitude, assuming that all the
asteroids have flat reflection spectra.

Figure 21: The brightnesses of asteroids crossing the JASMINE GCS observation
field, which is approximated with a 0.7 deg radius circle region from
$(l,b)=(359.9,0.0)$ . The asteroids brighter than $17.0$ mag are shown in red.
The gray shaded regions show the seasons when the Galactic center is not
accessible by JASMINE. Figure 22: The cumulative distribution of the
$H_{\mathrm{w}}$ magnitude for asteroids observable throughout the JASMINE
operation period.

Figure 21 shows the brightnesses of asteroids crossing the JASMINE GCS region
at different epoch. Each segment shows an individual asteroid. Due to the
operation constraint of the satellite, JASMINE does not observe the Galactic
center in the gray-shaded seasons. The length of the segment represents the
observable duration, which depends on the relative motion to JASMINE. A
handful of asteroids can be observed at apparent magnitudes brighter than
$H_{\mathrm{w}}=14.5$ mag (sufficient for astrometry) and
$H_{\mathrm{w}}=17.0$ mag (for photometry). Figure 22 illustrates the
cumulative histogram of the $H_{\mathrm{w}}$ magnitude for observable
asteroids. The numbers of objects brighter than $H_{\mathrm{w}}=14.5$ and 17.0
mag are about 10 and 100, respectively, throughout the operation period. The
expected number of the potential targets for astrometry in the JASMINE GCS is
rather small. Thus, it is unlikely that there are serendipitous astrometric
measurements with JASMINE, while targeted observations for known objects to
provide additional astrometric information are preferred.

Taking advantage of accurate photometry, JASMINE may observe occultation
events by minor bodies. Occultation provides valuable information for shape
modeling and binary search. Since the brightness of a minor body does not
matter in an occultation observation, the number of potential targets
significantly increases. Detecting an occultation event is feasible with
accurate orbital elements and dedicated observation planning. Serendipitous
observations of occultation events may detect new objects that are unreachable
even by large telescopes with apertures of $\sim 10$ m; Schlichting et al.
(2009) claimed an occultation event by a Trans-Neptunian Object with a radius
of 500 m at 45 au in archival data by the Hubble Space Telescope’s Fine
Guidance Sensors. Arimatsu et al. (2019) detected an occultation event by a
Trans-Neptunian Object with a radius of 1.3 km using a coordinated observation
system of multiple low-cost commercial off-the-shelf 0.28 m aperture
telescopes, the Organized Autotelescopes for Serendipitous Event Survey
(OASES, Arimatsu et al., 2017). Occultation events sometimes reveal additional
features of satellites and rings. Rings around (2060) Chiron and (10199)
Chariklo were identified by ground-based occultation observations (e.g., Ortiz
et al., 2015; Braga-Ribas et al., 2014). Recently, the ring beyond the Roche
limit was discovered around (50000) Quaoar (Morgado et al., 2023). High
precision photometry with JASMINE has the potential to detect minor features
in light curves (Morgado et al., 2022). As for the serendipitous survey,
careful assessment of false detection is required. OASES adopted simultaneous
observations with multiple telescopes, to minimise the false detection rate.
JASMINE may be able to detect occultation events after all anomalous signals
are suppressed by careful calibration.

##  6 Synergies with the other projects

In this section, we summarize the Galactic stellar survey projects
complementary to JASMINE and planned to be operating in late-2020s. Although
there are many projects relevant to the JASMINE science cases, here, we only
list the projects and/or new instruments more relevant to the JASMINE’s main
survey targets of the GCS and the Exoplanet Survey, targeting M dwarfs.

###  6.1 Ground-Based Surveys

####  6.1.1 PRIME

The Prime Focus Infrared Microlensing Experiment (PRIME) is a wide field (1.56
deg2) 1.8 m telescope at the South African Astronomical Observatory, which is
planned to operate from 2023. PRIME is jointly managed by Japan, the USA and
South Africa. PRIME has $z,Y,J$ and $H$-band filters and several narrow-band
filters. PRIME will observe the Galactic center region around
$-3^{\circ}<l<3^{\circ}$ and $-2^{\circ}<b<2^{\circ}$, which covers the whole
area of the JASMINE GCS field. The prime target of PRIME is a microlensing
exoplanet search. Joint observations with JASMINE can help to constrain the
parameters of the exoplanet detection further with the additional accurate
astrometry information of the source stars that JASMINE can provide. The time-
series photometry of PRIME will also find many variable stars. As mentioned
above, the PRIME data will be used to provide the catalog of Miras observable
with JASMINE.

####  6.1.2 Vera C. Rubin Observatory/Legacy Survey of Space and Time (LSST)

The Vera C. Rubin Observatory is located on the Cerro Panchón ridge in Chile,
and will run the ten-year Legacy Survey of Space and Time (LSST) with an 8.4 m
(6.5 m effective) Simonyi Survey Telescope (Ivezić et al., 2019). The Rubin
Observatory LSST Camera will have a 3.5-degree field of view with about 32
gigapixels with 0.2 arcsec sampling pixel size. There will be six filters
($u,g,r,i,z$ and $y$) covering 320-1,050 nm. The survey is planed to begin in
2024, and the main survey will observe 18,000 deg2 region of the sky about 800
times in the planed duration of 10 years. The co-added map will reach to
$r\sim 27.5$ mag, and it is anticipated to detect about 20 billion of stars
and a similar number of galaxies. The main science drivers of LSST are probing
the properties of dark energy and dark matter, cataloging an inventory of the
solar system, exploring the transient optical sky and mapping the Milky Way.
The survey field covers the Galactic bulge and the Galactic center. The LSST
is capable of providing the astrometric measurements for fainter stars than
possible with Gaia. With the 10 year baseline, the expected uncertainties of
parallax and proper motions are respectively $\sigma_{\rm\pi}=0.6$ mas and
$\sigma_{\rm\mu}=0.2$ mas yr-1 for the stars brighter than $r=21$ mag, and
$\sigma_{\rm\pi}=2.9$ mas and $\sigma_{\rm\mu}=1.0$ mas yr-1 for the stars
brighter than $r=24$ mag. In addition, the time-series photometry of the LSST
will help to find many variable stars and microlensing events. The majority of
them will be too faint for JASMINE to follow up. However, if they are bright
enough and in the same field, JASMINE can provide more accurate astrometric
information.

####  6.1.3 SDSS-V

The Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS)-V (Kollmeier et al., 2017) is an ambitious
project to run all-sky multi-epoch spectroscopic survey, utilising telescopes
in both Northern and Southern hemispheres. The survey will provide optical and
IR spectra covering 2,500 deg2, ultra-wide field for more than 6 million
objects in five years ($2020-2025$). SDSS-V use the telescopes at Apache Point
Observatory (APO) in USA and and Las Campanas Observatory (LCO) in Chile. At
APO, 2.5 m Sloan telescope will be continuously used for SDSS-V full-time. At
LCO, more than 300 nights per year of telescope time of 2.5 m du Pont
telescope will be dedicated to this survey. The survey will also use the
smaller (1 m to 16 cm) telescopes at APO and LCO. The NIR APOGEE spectrograph
(300 fibers, $R=22,000$, $\lambda=1.5-1.7$ $\mu$m), the eBOSS optical
spectrograph (500 fibers, $R\sim 2,000$, $\lambda=0.36-1.0$ $\mu$m) and the
MaNGA multi-object IFU ($R\sim 4,000$, $\lambda=0.36-1.0$ $\mu$m) will be used
at both APO and LCO. SDSS-V will run three surveys, the Milky Way Mapper, the
Black Hole Mapper and the Local Volume Mapper. The most relevant survey to
JASMINE is the Milky Way Mapper, which plans to observe $4-5$ million stars in
the Milky Way, with the NIR APOGEE spectrograph and/or the optical BOSS
spectrograph. The Milky Way Mapper aims to understand the evolution of the
Milky Way, the physics of the stars and the interstellar medium as well as
multiple stars and exo-planetary systems. The Galactic Genesis Survey as a
part of the Milky Way Mapper targets the stars with $H<11$ mag and $G-H>3.5$
mag, which are likely to overlap with the bright target stars of the JASMINE
GCS fields, and will provide accurate radial velocity and abundance patterns.

####  6.1.4 Subaru/PFS

Subaru Prime Focus Spectrograph (PFS: Takada et al., 2014) is the next
generation instrument of the 8.2 m Subaru telescope at the summit of Maunakea,
Hawai’i in the US, operated by National Astronomical Observatory of Japan. PFS
is a joint instrument of the institutes in Japan, Taiwan, the USA, France,
Brazil, Germany and China. PFS has $\sim 1.38$ deg2 field of view, and about
2,400 science fibers. PFS consists of blue ($\lambda=0.38-0.65$ $\mu$m, $R\sim
2,300$), red (low resolution mode: $\lambda=0.63-0.97$ $\mu$m, $R\sim 3,000$;
medium resolution mode: $\lambda=0.71-0.885$ $\mu$m, $R\sim 5,000$) and NIR
($\lambda=0.94-1.26$ $\mu$m, $R\sim 4,300$) spectrographs. It is scheduled to
start operating in 2024. About 300 nights over 5 years of Subaru time will be
dedicated for the PFS survey for cosmology, galaxy evolution and Galactic
archaeology, though the Subaru Strategic Survey Program (SSSP). The GCS field
is not included in the PFS SSSP. However, the NIR spectrograph of PFS is
especially well-suited for spectroscopic follow up for the JASMINE GCS field
stars to obtain radial velocity and chemical abundances. We plan to apply for
a Subaru Intensive Program (5 nights per semester) to follow up the JASMINE
target stars.

####  6.1.5 ULTIMATE-Subaru

ULTIMATE-Subaru (Minowa et al., 2020) is another next generation NIR
instrument of Subaru, which is planned to be installed around 2028. ULTIMATE-
Subaru is a wide-field (14’$\times$14’) NIR imager and multi-objects
spectrograph with Ground-Layer Adaptive Optics (GLAO), which enables a spatial
resolution of FWHM$\sim$0.2” in the $K$-band. There is a planned Galactic
Center Survey of $\sim$6 deg2 region of the Galactic center, which covers the
whole JASMINE Galactic center field, $J$, $H$, $K$ and the narrow-band $K_{\rm
NB}$ filters with a high cadence of 4 days (1 months) for the high (low)
cadence field. JASMINE can provide the astrometric reference stars in NIR,
which would improve the astrometric accuracy of ULTIMATE-Subaru Galactic
center survey data. The ULTIMATE-Subaru Galactic center survey can observe
numerous stars fainter than the JASMINE magnitude limit. The combined data of
JASMINE and ULTIMATE-Subaru will provide the accurate astrometric information
of these faint stars. They would help to identify the star clusters in the
Galactic center region from the proper motion of stars, and increase the event
rate of the astrometric microlensing, which will enable the measurement of the
masses of lensed objects with high precision, and help to identify BHs and
exoplanets.

####  6.1.6 VLT/MOONS

The Multi Object Optical and Near-infrared Spectrograph (MOONS: Cirasuolo et
al., 2011) is a next generation instrument of the Very Large Telescope (VLT)
UT1 at the European Southern Observatory (ESO) on Cerro Paranal in the Atacama
Desert of Chile, and the planned first light is in 2023. MOONS is a multi-
object (about 1,000 fibers) NIR spectrograph with a field of view of 25 arcmin
diameter. There are three channels of spectrograph, covering $RI$, $YJ$ and
$H$-bands, with both low and high resolution modes. The low resolution mode
covers the wavelength range of $0.65-1.8$ $\mu$m with $R_{RI}>4,100$,
$R_{YJ}>4,300$ and $R_{H}>6,600$. High resolution modes cover 3 disconnected
wavelength ranges $\lambda_{RI}=0.76-0.89$ $\mu$m, $\lambda_{YJ}=0.93-1.35$
$\mu$m and $\lambda_{H}=1.52-1.64$ $\mu$m with the spectral resolution of
$R_{RI}>9,200$, $R_{YJ}>4,300$ (fixed with the low resolution mode) and
$R_{H}>18,300$, respectively. MOONS science targets cover Galactic
archaeology, the growth of galaxies and the first galaxies. Galactic
archaeology studies by MOONS plan to take spectra for the several million
stars observed by Gaia and the VISTA telescope, providing the crucial
complementary information of the accurate radial velocity and detailed
chemical abundances. The NIR coverage of MOONS is capable of recording the
spectra of stars in the heavily obscured Galactic center region. Even with the
high-resolution mode in the NIR $H$-band, a signal-to-noise ratio of more than
60 can be obtained with one hour of exposure for objects brighter than $H=15$
mag. MOONS is likely to be the most powerful instrument in 2020s, capable of
taking high-resolution spectra for all the target stars in the JASMINE GCS
field.

####  6.1.7 VISTA/4MOST

ESO’s 4-meter Multi-Object Spectroscopic Telescope (4MOST: de Jong et al.,
2019) will be installed on the VISTA telescope in Chile in 2024. 4MOST has
2,436 fibers and about a 4.2 deg2 field of view. There are two low-resolution
and one high-resolution spectrographs. The low-resolution spectrograph covers
the wavelength range of $\lambda=0.37-0.95$ $\mu$m with $R\sim 6,500$, while
the high-resolution spectrograph covers three wavelength passbands of
$\lambda=0.3926-0.4355$, $0.5160-0.5730$ and $0.6100-0.6760$ $\mu$m. The 4MOST
consortium will run 10 surveys using $70$ % of the available time in five
years, and planned to start in 2023, taking more than 20 million low-
resolution spectra and more than 3 million high-resolution spectra. 4MOST
Milky Way Disc And BuLgE Low (4MIDABLE-LR: Chiappini et al., 2019) and High-
Resolution (4MIDABLE-HR: Bensby et al., 2019) surveys will take the spectra of
about 15 million and 2 million stars in the Milky Way, respectively. Their
target includes the inner disk and bar/bulge region. Their survey focuses on
the stars for which Gaia provides precise astrometry, but are too faint for
Gaia’s radial velocity spectrograph to provide a radial velocity. Their
optical survey will not cover many stars in the JASMINE GCS region. However,
the combination of 4MIDABLE data and Gaia data will be a powerful resource to
unveil the global nature of the bar and spiral arms, and therefore highly
complementary to the JASMINE GCS.

####  6.1.8 Subaru/IRD

The InfraRed Doppler (IRD) spectrograph ($R\approx 70,000$,
$\lambda=0.950-1.73\,\mathrm{\mu m}$) on the Subaru telescope (Kotani et al.,
2018) is one of the most powerful instruments in the world to follow up
exoplanets around M dwarfs and young stars. Besides the “validation” of
transiting-planet candidates around mid-M dwarfs identified by JASMINE, high-
dispersion spectroscopy by IRD can play a key role in further
characterizations of those planets; precision radial velocity measurements by
IRD would enable us to constrain precise planet masses as well as orbital
eccentricities. Moreover, NIR transit spectroscopy by IRD would also allow us
to constrain the stellar obliquity (spin-orbit angle) and atmospheric
composition (e.g., He I and molecular species), which are supposed to reflect
the dynamical and chemical evolution of exoplanetary systems (e.g., Hirano et
al., 2020a). Since activity-induced radial-velocity variations of host stars
are suppressed in the NIR, IRD is also an ideal tool to confirm and
characterize planets around young active stars.

###  6.2 Space Missions

####  6.2.1 Gaia

ESA’s Gaia (Gaia Collaboration et al., 2016) was launched in December 2013.
The nominal mission lifetime was 5 years but the mission has been extended to
the second quarter of 2025. The Gaia mission is all-sky survey to provide the
precise astrometry for more than one billion stars brighter than $G\sim 21$
mag. Gaia uses a broad passband, the $G$-band that covers the wavelength range
of $\lambda\sim 0.33-1.05$ $\mu$m (Evans et al., 2018). In the final data
release after the end of the mission, the astrometric accuracy for the bright
stars with $G\lesssim 13$ mag is expected to reach about 7 $\mu$as. The
astrometric accuracy of about $149$ $\mu$as is expected to achieve for stars
brighter than $G=19$ mag666cosmos.esa.int/web/gaia/science-performance. Gaia
has three instruments, the Astrometric instrument (ASTRO), the
Spectrophotometer (BP/RP) and Radial Velocity Spectrograph (RVS). The ASTRO
provides the five astrometric parameters, stellar position, proper motion and
parallax. The Spectrophotometer consists of the BP and RP spectrophotometer.
BP and RP respectively provides a low-resolution ($R\sim 5-25$) spectra of the
wavelength ranges of $\lambda\sim 0.33-0.68$ $\mu$m and $\sim 0.64-1.05$
$\mu$m, which are used for chromaticity calibration for astrometric
measurement, and estimates of the stellar parameters and dust extinction. RVS
is an integral-field spectrograph with $R\sim 11,500$, covering
$\lambda=0.845-0.872$ $\mu$m (Cropper et al., 2018). The main aim of the RVS
is to provide the radial velocity for about 150 million stars brighter than
$G_{\rm RVS}=16$ mag, depending on the spectral type of stars, where $G_{\rm
RVS}$ is magnitude in the RVS passband. Gaia’s fourth data release is expected
to be in 2025, and all the catalog and data will be released, including all
epoch data for all sources based on 66 months of data of the nominal mission.
The final fifth data release based on about 11 years of the extended mission
is expected to be in 2030. Hence, late-2020s and early-2030s will be the truly
golden age of the Galactic archaeology. JASMINE is expected to be launched in
this golden age, and will provide the complementary data to the Gaia data,
especially for the Galactic center stars, which the optical astrometry
mission, Gaia, cannot observe.

####  6.2.2 Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope

The Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope (Roman Space Telescope) is a NASA
observatory to study dark energy, exoplanets and infrared astrophysics
(Spergel et al., 2015). The telescope has a primary mirror of 2.4 m diameter.
The nominal mission lifetime is six years. The Roman Space Telescope has the
Wide Field Instrument (WFI) and the Coronagraph Instrument (CGI). WFI is a
large area, 300 megapixel, NIR camera for imagaing and slitless spectroscopy
with a grism ($R=435-865$) and prism ($R=70-170$). The imaging mode utilises
several filters covering the wavelength range of $\lambda=0.48-2.0$ $\mu$m.
The most relevant survey of the Roman Space Telescope to JASMINE’s GCS is
their Microlensing Survey, which will repeatedly observe about 2.81 deg2 (with
10 fields) around $-0.5^{\circ}<l<1.8^{\circ}$ and
$-2.2^{\circ}<b<-1^{\circ}$. There will be six 72 day campaigns over six years
with cadence of every 15 minutes with a wide filter and 12 hours with a blue
filter. The Roman Space Telescope will detect billions of bulge stars and the
study to obtain the precise astrometry is ongoing (WFIRST Astrometry Working
Group et al., 2019). The current planned survey region of Microlensing Survey
of Roman Space Telescope does not cover the Galactic center where JASMINE’s
GCS targets, because the Microlensing Survey requires it to maximize the event
rate of microlensing and therefore target the region of less dust extinction
to obtain a higher number density of background stars. However, the Roman
Space Telescope is currently gathering the community input for the survey
strategies to maximize the science output. With strong community inputs, there
could be a possibility for the Roman Space Telescope to observe the JASMINE
GCS field. Then, JASMINE astrometry results would be valuable to calibrate
their astrometry for fainter stars observed by the Roman Space Telescope.

####  6.2.3 James Webb Space Telescope

The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is a NASA’s flagship space observatory
(6.5 m aperture), launched at the end of 2021 (Gardner et al., 2006). JWST has
two spectrographs in the NIR band, the NIR Spectrograph (NIRSpec) and the NIR
Imager and Slitless Spectrograph (NIRISS). NIRSpec is a medium resolution
spectrograph ($R=100-2,700$) with a wavelength coverage of 0.6–5 $\mu$m. The
saturation limit is $H\sim 10$ mag. NIRISS is a slitless spectrograph, whose
spectral resolution is about $R=700$. The saturation limit is $J\sim 8.5$ mag.
The mission lifetime of JWST is five year as designed, but 10 years as an
optimistic goal. If the lifetime of JWST overlaps the observation period of
JASMINE, these instruments will be the most powerful instruments to follow up
exoplanets found by JASMINE Exoplanet Survey, to characterize the exoplanets
atmosphere with detailed and precise transmission spectroscopy.

####  6.2.4 CHEOPS

The CHaraterising ExOPlanet Satellite (CHEOPS), launched in December 2019, is
an ESA space mission dedicated for precision photometry to determine the
radius of transiting exoplanets (Broeg et al., 2014). The mission lifetime is
assumed to be 3.5 years (nominal). CHEOPS is a PIT type of transiting
exoplanet exploration, similar to JASMINE. The telescope diameter (32 cm) is
similar to that of JASMINE. The passband of CHEOPS is visible (see figure 9)
while that of JASMINE is NIR. In this sense, JASMINE is complementary to
CHEOPS. However, considering the difference of the launch date, JASMINE should
be regarded as a successor of CHEOPS in terms of the space facility for
photometric follow-up of transiting planets found by the ground-based surveys.

####  6.2.5 TESS

The Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS) is an MIT/NASA-led all-sky
survey mission to find planets transiting bright nearby stars (Ricker et al.,
2014). TESS has four cameras, each with 10.5 cm diameter and $24\times
24\,\mathrm{deg}^{2}$ field of view ($\sim 2,000\,\mathrm{deg}^{2}$ in total)
and each camera has four 2k$\times$2k CCDs with a pixel scale of
$21^{\prime\prime}$. The detectors are sensitive from 0.6 to 1.0 $\mu$m.
During the 2 year prime mission since the launch in 2018, TESS is monitoring
the almost entire sky in 26 overlapping segments, and observe each segment for
27.4 days with 2 min cadence for the pre-selected 15,000 stars and 30 min
cadence for the full image. Extension of the mission has been approved and
TESS will keep tiling the whole sky at least till 2024. TESS has a capability
of finding Earth-sized transiting planets near the habitable zone of early- to
mid-M dwarfs, and such an example has indeed been reported (TOI-700d and e;
Gilbert et al., 2020, 2023). The larger telescope aperture and redder passband
of JASMINE will make it sensitive to similar planets around later-type M
dwarfs. Follow-up observations by JASMINE for planets detected by TESS may
lead to finding longer-period/smaller planets that were missed by TESS, as
well as to characterizing them even better through a finer sampling of the
transit light curve.

####  6.2.6 PLATO

PLAnetary Transits and Oscillations of stars (PLATO) is the third M-class (M3)
mission under development by ESA for a planned launch in 2026 (Rauer et al.,
2014). The primary science goal is the detection and characterization of
planets transiting bright solar-type stars, in particular terrestrial planets
in the HZ. This will be achieved by high-precision, continuous photometric
monitoring of a large number of bright stars using a collection of small and
wide-field optical telescopes. According to the PLATO definition study
report,777https://sci.esa.int/web/plato/-/59252-plato-definition-study-report-
red-book the payload is planned to consist of $>20$ cameras each with 12 cm
diameter and covering the wavelength range of 0.5-1.0 $\mu$m, which result in
a total field of view of $\sim 2,000\,\mathrm{deg}^{2}$. Although the specific
observing strategy is yet to be determined, PLATO is likely to cover a
significant fraction of the entire sky, as well as to monitor certain regions
for a duration long enough ($\sim$2 year Nascimbeni et al., 2022) to find
planets in the HZ of Sun-like stars. The duration of the nominal science
operations is 4 years and may well overlap with the operation period of
JASMINE. The main targets of PLATO are bright ($V\lesssim 13$ mag) Sun-like
stars, while JASMINE targets late-type stars fainter in the optical passband,
taking advantage of the NIR photometry. Therefore, the two missions are
complementary to each other. Similarly to TESS, PLATO observations might also
provide transiting planet target candidates around M dwarfs that can be
further characterized with NIR observations by JASMINE. PLATO also aims to
characterise the properties, including the precise age estimates in the 10 %
precision level, of the host stars from the time-series photometry using
asteroseismology. The age information of a large number of stars which PLATO
will observe will be a precious information for studies of Galactic
archaeology (Miglio et al., 2017). Hence, it will be also provide
complementary data to the JASMINE GCS and mid-plane survey.

####  6.2.7 ARIEL

Atmospheric Remote-sensing Infrared Exoplanet Large-survey (ARIEL, Tinetti et
al., 2018) is the first space telescope dedicated to the study of exoplanet
atmospheres, adopted as an ESA’s M4 mission, whose planned launch is in 2029.
The effective size of the primary mirror of ARIEL will be $\sim$1 m, which is
much smaller than JWST (6.5 m). However, ARIEL will be able to collect fluxes
in the wavelength range of 0.5-7.8 $\mu$m at one time, using five dichroic
mirrors, three NIR spectrometers and three optical photometric detectors. This
allows one to obtain an atmospheric spectrum with a very wide wavelength
coverage from a single planetary transit or eclipse observation.

ARIEL will observe a thousand exoplanets with a wide range of mass and
temperature, from hot Jupiters to warm/temperate Earths, in order to
understand the statistical properties of exoplanetary atmospheres and
planetary formation histories. While the current target list for ARIEL already
includes a large number of Jovian planets, it still lacks Neptune- and
smaller-sized planets that are suitable for atmospheric study, i.e., hosted by
nearby M dwarfs (Edwards et al. 2019). Although TESS has been increasing the
number of such targets, it may not be enough due to its limited telescope
aperture size (10 cm) and wavelength sensitivity (because of covering only the
optical). Small transiting planets around nearby M dwarfs that will be
discovered by JASMINE can thus be good targets for atmospheric
characterization by ARIEL. Given that JASMINE is planned to be launched ahead
of ARIEL, JASMINE can provide prime targets for ARIEL in a timely manner.

##  7 Summary and Conclusions

We summarize that the unique capability of the JASMINE mission will fill the
gap of left by other planned and ongoing projects of the Galactic stellar
surveys for Galactic archaeology and the habitable exoplanet searches in
late-2020s. JASMINE will be the first mission to provide the 10 $\mu$as-level
astrometry in the NIR band with the time-series photometry. JASMINE will offer
the precise astrometric information where the dust extinction is too strong
for the optical astrometry mission, Gaia, to detect any stars, such as the
Galactic center field and the Galactic mid-plane. The astrometric data of
stars hidden behind the dust in the Galactic center and Galactic mid-plane
will shed light on the formation epoch of the Galactic bar, the nature of the
spiral arms and the mechanism underlying radial migration in the inner
Galactic disk, which are likely to be remaining questions after Gaia. The
combination of time-series photometry and precise astrometry will provide a
vast opportunities of serendipitous discovery, including the possibilities of
detecting IMBH, astrometric microlensing of inner disk BHs and studying the
nature of star forming regions and X-ray sources. JASMINE will be also the
only space observatory in the late-2020s which can follow up exoplanet
transits detected by the ground-based telescope to find the planets in the
outer and habitable orbits around late-type stars, just as Spitzer space
observatory contributed to revolutionising the field.

Finally, we note that JASMINE will be a crucial science demonstration mission
for what the future NIR astrometry mission can offer. JASMINE will be a key
mission to bridge between the successful Gaia mission and the proposed Gaia’s
successor mission, GaiaNIR (e.g., Hobbs et al., 2021) to be launched in the
2040s. GaiaNIR will provide the all-sky global astrometry in NIR band,
including the Galactic disk, bar and bulge regions. Unprecedentedly high
proper motion for the stars also observed with Gaia will be obtained, taking
advantages of $\sim 20$ years of baseline between the Gaia and GaiaNIR
missions. Also, GaiaNIR will help maintaining and improving on the absolute
astrometric quality of the celestial reference frame, which otherwise degrades
with time. JASMINE will be an pioneering mission to open up the future
$\mu$as-level NIR astrometry, and become an important milestone to demonstrate
the power of NIR astrometry. About 20 years of time difference between JASMINE
and GaiaNIR will provide superb proper motion measurements for the stars
observed by JASMINE, including the NSD stars. With careful correction of
systematic errors, the combination of JASMINE and GaiaNIR will offer endeavour
to measure the acceleration of the stars and map the gravitational field in
the Galactic center.

We thank Megan Johnson and Stephen Williams for their contribution to the
early draft of this manuscript.

This work presents results from the European Space Agency (ESA) space mission
Gaia. Gaia data are being processed by the Gaia Data Processing and Analysis
Consortium (DPAC). Funding for the DPAC is provided by national institutions,
in particular the institutions participating in the Gaia MultiLateral
Agreement (MLA). The Gaia mission website is https://www.cosmos.esa.int/gaia.
The Gaia archive website is https://archives.esac.esa.int/gaia. This work is
also based on data products from observations made with ESO Telescopes at the
La Silla or Paranal Observatories under ESO programme ID 179.B-2002. Funding
for the Sloan Digital Sky Survey IV has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan
Foundation, the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science, and the
Participating Institutions.

SDSS-IV acknowledges support and resources from the Center for High
Performance Computing at the University of Utah. The SDSS website is
www.sdss4.org. SDSS-IV is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium for
the Participating Institutions of the SDSS Collaboration including the
Brazilian Participation Group, the Carnegie Institution for Science, Carnegie
Mellon University, Center for Astrophysics — Harvard & Smithsonian, the
Chilean Participation Group, the French Participation Group, Instituto de
Astrofísica de Canarias, The Johns Hopkins University, Kavli Institute for the
Physics and Mathematics of the Universe (IPMU) / University of Tokyo, the
Korean Participation Group, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Leibniz
Institut für Astrophysik Potsdam (AIP), Max-Planck-Institut für Astronomie
(MPIA Heidelberg), Max-Planck-Institut für Astrophysik (MPA Garching), Max-
Planck-Institut für Extraterrestrische Physik (MPE), National Astronomical
Observatories of China, New Mexico State University, New York University,
University of Notre Dame, Observatário Nacional / MCTI, The Ohio State
University, Pennsylvania State University, Shanghai Astronomical Observatory,
United Kingdom Participation Group, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México,
University of Arizona, University of Colorado Boulder, University of Oxford,
University of Portsmouth, University of Utah, University of Virginia,
University of Washington, University of Wisconsin, Vanderbilt University, and
Yale University.

This work is a part of MWGaiaDN, a Horizon Europe Marie Skłodowska-Curie
Actions Doctoral Network funded under grant agreement no. 101072454 and also
funded by UK Research and Innovation (EP/X031756/1). This work was partly
supported by the UK’s Science & Technology Facilities Council (STFC grant
ST/S000216/1, ST/W001136/1), JSPS KAKENHI (23H00133, 21J00106), JSPS
Postdoctoral Research Fellowship Program, the Spanish
MICIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033, ”ERDF A way of making Europe” by the
“European Union” through grants RTI2018-095076-B-C21 and PID2021-122842OB-C21,
the Institute of Cosmos Sciences University of Barcelona (ICCUB, Unidad de
Excelencia ’María de Maeztu’) through grant CEX2019-000918-M, NASA ADAP award
program Number (80NSSC21K063), the Swedish National Space Agency (SNSA Dnr
74/14 and SNSA Dnr 64/17), the Royal Society (URF\R1\191555) and the ERC
Consolidator Grant funding scheme (project ASTEROCHRONOMETRY
https://www.asterochronometry.eu/, G.A. n. 772293).

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