# Language Models Represent Beliefs of Self and Others

Wentao Zhu  Zhining Zhang  Yizhou Wang

###### Abstract

Understanding and attributing mental states, known as Theory of Mind (ToM),
emerges as a fundamental capability for human social reasoning. While Large
Language Models (LLMs) appear to possess certain ToM abilities, the mechanisms
underlying these capabilities remain elusive. In this study, we discover that
it is possible to linearly decode the belief status from the perspectives of
various agents through neural activations of language models, indicating the
existence of internal representations of self and others’ beliefs. By
manipulating these representations, we observe dramatic changes in the models’
ToM performance, underscoring their pivotal role in the social reasoning
process. Additionally, our findings extend to diverse social reasoning tasks
that involve different causal inference patterns, suggesting the potential
generalizability of these representations. ***Project page:
https://walter0807.github.io/RepBelief/

Machine Learning, ICML

Peking University

##  1 Introduction

Developing machine systems that can engage in sophisticated social reasoning
in a human-like manner represents one of the paramount goals in artificial
intelligence. At the core of such an endeavor is the necessity for these
systems to possess a _“Theory of Mind”_ (ToM) capability, which involves
recognizing and attributing mental states — such as beliefs, desires,
intentions, and emotions — to oneself and others, while acknowledging that
others may possess mental states distinct from one’s own (Leslie, 1987;
Wellman et al., 2001). This foundational capability is crucial not only for
the nuanced navigation of human social interactions but also for enabling
machines to engage in cooperative, adaptive, and sympathetic behaviors in
diverse social environments (Kleiman-Weiner et al., 2016; Rabinowitz et al.,
2018).

The recent advancements in Large Language Models (LLMs) appear to be a
promising approach towards this objective, as emerging research indicates that
LLMs exhibit reasonable ToM capabilities (Kosinski, 2023; Bubeck et al.,
2023). These studies suggest that LLMs could, to some extent, predict and
understand human intentions and beliefs, thereby demonstrating a foundational
level of social reasoning. Meanwhile, some other research underscores that
these capabilities tend to be superficial and fragile (Shapira et al., 2023;
Ullman, 2023; Ma et al., 2023; Verma et al., 2024). Critics argue that while
LLMs may mimic the outward appearance of understanding social contexts and
mental states, this performance may not stem from a deep, genuine
comprehension similar to human ToM. Instead, it may simply reflect the models’
ability to replicate patterns observed in their training data.

These observations highlight a critical gap in our understanding of LLM social
reasoning capabilities extending beyond mere black-box tests. Key questions
remain unanswered, such as whether LLMs develop an internal representation of
others’ mental states, and whether it is feasible to distinguish between the
mental states of others and those of the LLMs when the two have a conflict due
to reasons such as information mismatch. Addressing these questions not only
helps us gain a deeper insight on how LLMs understand others’ mental states
and perform social reasoning, but is also meaningful for the trustworthiness
and alignment of AI systems (Wang et al., 2023; Ngo et al., 2023; Ji et al.,
2023).

In this work, we undertake a preliminary exploration to understand the ToM
capabilities of LLMs by studying their internal representations, going beyond
merely analyzing the text responses they generate. Firstly, we seek to
identify if LLMs have internal representations of others’ beliefs and their
own (§ 3). If the answer is true, models potentially possess the ability to
recognize others’ mental states and differentiate them from their own prior to
generating a final response. Specifically, we prompt the model with a short
story in third-person narrative paired with a belief, which may or may not
hold true, and attempt to classify the belief’s validness from both the main
character’s perspective and the model’s (“God’s-eye view”), based on the
model’s intermediate activations. Furthermore, we explore the possibility of
modifying the internal representations to steer the model’s behavior towards
or away from reflecting others’ mental states (§ 4.2). Lastly, we assess how
our findings generalize across various social reasoning tasks with different
causal inference patterns (§ 4.3).

##  2 Related Work

###  2.1 Human Theory-of-Mind

Theory of Mind (ToM), recognized as a cornerstone of human social cognition,
facilitates individuals to infer the mental states of others, including their
beliefs, desires, and intentions. Research indicates that infants as young as
12 months exhibit the ability to ascribe mental states to others, showcasing
early development of ToM (Onishi & Baillargeon, 2005; Spelke & Kinzler, 2007).
The false-belief task (Baron-Cohen et al., 1985; Wellman et al., 2001) stands
as a critical experimental approach for evaluating ToM. In this task,
participants are required to predict a protagonist’s actions based on her
incorrect beliefs, which are separate from the participant’s own knowledge.
Cognitive scientists design meticulous experiments to dissect the nuances of
reasoning related to agents’ desires and beliefs, employing rigorous control
conditions to eliminate simplistic heuristic explanations (Goodman et al.,
2009; Baker et al., 2009, 2017; Jara-Ettinger et al., 2020). Furthermore,
neuroscientific studies seek to pinpoint the neural basis of social cognition,
particularly highlighting the roles of the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and
the temporoparietal junction (TPJ) (Frith & Frith, 2006; Döhnel et al., 2012;
Molenberghs et al., 2016). The significance of ToM extends beyond individual
interactions, influencing the spread of culture and the unity of social
groups. The cognitive mechanisms enabled by ToM play a crucial role in forming
and sustaining social norms, fostering cooperative behavior, and perpetuating
shared cultural practices (Tomasello et al., 2005; Henrich, 2016).

###  2.2 Machine Theory-of-Mind

Developing machine systems that exhibit human-like ToM ability has been a
long-standing endeavor in artificial intelligence research. Notably,
Rabinowitz et al. design a ToMnet that utilizes meta-learning to build models
of the agents it encounters based solely on observations of their behaviors.
Track et al. introduces the concept of Satisficing Theory of Mind. Shum et al.
explore the application of Bayesian inference to decipher group behaviors and
anticipate group dynamics. Wang et al. propose to integrate ToM reasoning
within multi-agent communication frameworks, enhancing the cooperative
capabilities. These studies primarily focus on deducing the mental states of
others explicitly and forming neural representations thereof. The remarkable
achievements of LLMs have spurred further exploration into the ToM
capabilities of these models. Research works in this field (Kosinski, 2023;
Shapira et al., 2023; Ullman, 2023) predominantly evaluates model performance
using various prompts related to false-belief tests, yielding diverse
outcomes. Additional studies (Moghaddam & Honey, 2023; Wilf et al., 2023)
advocate for enhancing the ToM performance of LLMs via strategic prompting. To
facilitate a more uniform assessment of machine ToM abilities, numerous
benchmarks have been established, including ToM-QA (Nematzadeh et al., 2018),
ToMi (Le et al., 2019), SocialIQA (Sap et al., 2019), BIB (Gandhi et al.,
2021), Agent (Shu et al., 2021), BigToM (Gandhi et al., 2023), ToMChallenges
(Ma et al., 2023), MMToM-QA (Jin et al., 2024), and T4D (Zhou et al., 2023).
Our research diverges from the prevailing focus by delving into the intrinsic
mechanisms of LLM ToM reasoning, specifically through the examination of
internal neural representations.

Figure 1:  Example case of belief representation probing. Left: a “True
Belief” story where the protagonist shares the same belief with oracle. Right:
a “False belief” story where the protagonist has different belief with oracle.
For both stories, we concatenate them with the two beliefs respectively and
directly feed to the model. The ground-truth belief label from the
protagonist’s perspective $y_{p}$ and the oracle’s perspective $y_{o}$ can be
decided accordingly.  Figure 2:  Probe accuracies based on the attention head
activations in all layers of Mistral-7B. (A) Belief status estimation for
_oracle_ using logistic regression (binary). (B) Belief status estimation for
_protagonist_ using logistic regression (binary). (C) Joint belief status
estimation for both agents using multinomial logistic regression (quaternary).
Figure 3: Illustration of linear separability of the belief representations.
We show visual explanations for typical representation spaces: In (A),
_oracle_ belief status can be precisely estimated with a linear model, while
_protagonist_ cannot. The red and blue lines represent linear decision
boundaries for _oracle_ and _protagonist_ , respectively; In (B), the belief
statuses of both _oracle_ and _protagonist_ can be accurately modeled using
linear models; (C) further shows the decision boundaries for joint belief
status estimation using multinomial linear regression model, with arrows
indicating the probing weight directions for each class.

##  3 Belief Representations in Language Models

We first explore if and how LLMs characterize the beliefs of different agents.
Previous works in neural network interpretability (Bau et al., 2020; Burns et
al., 2022; Moschella et al., 2022; Li et al., 2023a) suggest that there often
exist interpretable directions in the latent representation space of the
model. Therefore, some research works propose to linearly project the learned
representation to the target directions to uncover meaningful variables
(Mikolov et al., 2013; Goh et al., 2021; Elhage et al., 2022; Gurnee &
Tegmark, 2024; Park et al., 2023). Motivated by this insight, we start by
training linear classifier probes (Alain & Bengio, 2016; Belinkov, 2022) on
the latent representations of a language model to estimate the likelihood of a
belief from a certain agent’s perspective.

###  3.1 Setup

##### Model.

We employ Mistral-7B-Instruct (Jiang et al., 2023) which is an instruction
fine-tuned autoregressive language model with state-of-the-art performance. We
focus on the activations of self-attention heads that enable Transformer-based
language models to transfer information across various token positions
(Vaswani et al., 2017; Elhage et al., 2021; Todd et al., 2023).

##### Dataset.

We utilize the BigToM dataset (Gandhi et al., 2023) which is constructed with
a causal template and an example scenario including prior desires, actions,
beliefs, and a causal event that changes the state of the environment. The
protagonist could be aware or unaware of the causal event, which results in
different beliefs. In this section, we focus on the “Forward Belief” setting,
where the model infers the belief of the agent given the agent’s percepts of
the causal event. We train and evaluate the probes on a held-out subset
without access to the stories in the test set of the benchmark.

###  3.2 Probing

##### Feature Extraction.

Our goal is to decode the belief status of different agents from the
activations of attention heads, given a narrative and a corresponding belief
statement. Specifically, we focus on two agents, namely _protagonist_ , the
central figure of the narrative, and _oracle_ , which represents an omniscient
spectator’s perspective. By prompting the model with pairs of story and belief
without explicit directives, we capture the attention head activations at the
final token position, denoted as $\bm{X}\in\mathbb{R}^{L\times H\times D}$.
Here, $L$, $H$, and $D$ represent the number of layers, the number of
attention heads per layer, and the dimensionality of the attention head
features, respectively. Concurrently, we acquire the corresponding ground-
truth belief labels $y_{p}$ and $y_{o}$, as illustrated in Figure 1.

##### Binary Probing.

We first train individual linear probes for each attention head at every layer
to fit the belief labels $y_{p}$ and $y_{o}$ separately. For ease of
explanation, we denote the activation of a particular attention head as
$\bm{x}\in\mathbb{R}^{N\times D}$ where $N$ is the size of the dataset, and
the ground-truth belief labels as $\bm{y}\in\\{0,1\\}^{N}$. We employ a
logistic regression model to predict the probability of the belief being true:

$\small\hat{\bm{y}}=\sigma(\bm{x}\bm{W}+b),$ (1)

where $\sigma(\cdot)$ is the logistic sigmoid function,
$\bm{W}\in\mathbb{R}^{D}$ is the weight vector, $b\in\mathbb{R}$ is the bias.
The optimization of parameters $\bm{W}$ and $b$ is achieved through minimizing
the cross-entropy loss

$\small\mathcal{L}(\bm{W},b)=-\frac{1}{N}\left(\bm{y}^{T}\log(\hat{\bm{y}})+(\bm{1}-\bm{y})^{T}\log(\bm{1}-\hat{\bm{y}})\right).$
(2)

Figure 2 (A) and (B) display the validation accuracies of the linear probes.
It reveals that a large number of attention heads can accurately capture the
_oracle_ ’s belief status. These informative attention heads are distributed
across various layers, particularly excluding the initial layers, with those
in the middle layers demonstrating superior accuracy. It implies that the
language model indeed develops intermediate representations that reflect its
own belief status based on the full information provided. In contrast, the
majority of attention heads only reach baseline accuracy in predicting the
_protagonist_ ’s belief status, performing no better than random guess.
However, it is worth noting that a specific group of attention heads in the
middle layers exhibits remarkably better performance, achieving over 80%
validation accuracy. This phenomenon suggests that these attention heads
implicitly encode the belief status of other agents in a linearly-decodable
way.

##### Multinomial Probing.

We further explore the possibility of estimating the belief statuses of both
agents from the activations simultaneously. For this purpose, we combine the
belief labels of both agents into a four-dimensional variable representing
their joint belief statuses using one-hot encoding, where each dimension
corresponds to a unique combination of $y_{o}$ and $y_{p}$. For brevity, we
define this joint belief variable as $\bm{y}_{m}\in\\{0,1\\}^{N\times 4}$. A
multinomial logistic regression model is utilized to predict the joint belief
$\hat{\bm{y}_{m}}$. Specifically, the class probabilities are derived by
applying the softmax function to the linear transformations of $\bm{x}$:

$\hat{\bm{y}_{m}}=\text{softmax}(\bm{x}\bm{W}_{m}+\bm{b}_{m}),$ (3)

where $\bm{W}_{m}\in\mathbb{R}^{D\times 4}$ is the weight matrix for
multinomial logistic regression, and $\bm{b}_{m}\in\mathbb{R}^{4}$ is the bias
vector. These parameters can be optimized by minimizing the cross-entropy loss
of all classes

$\mathcal{L}(\bm{W}_{m},\bm{b}_{m})=-\frac{1}{N}\text{Tr}\left(\bm{y}_{m}^{T}\log(\hat{\bm{y}_{m}})\right).$
(4)

Figure 2 (C) illustrates the accuracies of multinomial probing on the
validation set, which demonstrates that it is possible to train linear probes
with decent accuracy in the quaternary classification task for specific
attention heads. In other words, there exist individual attention heads
(mostly in the middle layers) that could encode the belief statuses of both
agents not only independently but also in conjunction, such as indicating
whether _protagonist_ and _oracle_ share identical beliefs. This observation
underscores the nuanced capability of these attention heads to represent
complex relational information between agents’ beliefs.

##### Visualizing the Belief Representations.

In order to better understand the belief representations in the attention head
activation space, we further visualize the linear regressors. We perform
canonical-correlation analysis (CCA) to reduce the dimensionality of the
activations to two and plot the linear decision boundaries in the reduced
space. LABEL:{fig:cca} demonstrates two representative categories of the
attention heads. The first category predominantly encodes the belief of
_oracle_ , showing a bias toward this perspective. The second category, on the
other hand, more comprehensively captures the beliefs of both agents (B). We
further visualize the decision boundaries of multinomial probes in (C).
Although geometries in the high-dimensional space can be much more
complicated, the 2D visualizations offer some basic intuitions of linearly-
separable belief representations. Figure 2 reveals that, although a
significant portion of the attention heads fall into the first category, a
distinct subset aligns with the second category.

##  4 Manipulating the Belief Representations

Although the probing results support the presence of belief representations
for different agents within the attention head activation spaces, it remains
unclear if these representations contribute to the overall social reasoning
process. In this section, we aim to explore the functional roles of belief
representations by explicitly manipulating them. We design experiments to
address the following questions: Can we alter the social reasoning
capabilities of language models by manipulating their internal
representations? If so, how can this be achieved? And, how does the practice
impact different types of social reasoning tasks?

###  4.1 ToM Evaluation

We evaluate the ToM capabilities of language models using the BigToM (Gandhi
et al., 2023) benchmark. We focus on the 0-shot setting and do not explicitly
reveal the agent’s initial belief. We study three social reasoning tasks,
namely _Forward Belief_ , _Forward Action_ , and _Backward Belief_ , each
focuses on different causal inference patterns as shown in Figure 4.

  1. 1.

The _Forward Belief_ task entails deducing the agent’s beliefs given its
percepts of a causal event. This inference can be expressed as:
$P(\text{Belief}\mid\text{Percept})$.

  2. 2.

The _Forward Action_ task involves predicting the agent’s future action based
on the percepts. This process implicitly requires an initial inference of the
agent’s beliefs, followed by the deduction of the agent’s action considering
both percepts and desires:
$\sum_{\text{Belief}}P(\text{Action}\mid\text{Percept},\text{Desire},\text{Belief})$.

  3. 3.

The _Backward Belief_ task aims to infer the agent’s beliefs from the observed
actions. This task poses a significant challenge as it demands a joint
inference of unknown beliefs and percepts based on an observed action:
$\sum_{\text{Percept}}\sum_{\text{Belief}}P(\text{Action}\mid\text{Desire},\text{Percept},\text{Belief})$.

Figure 4: Different social reasoning tasks and the underlying causal graph.

All the tasks are presented as reading comprehension with a story in third-
person narrative, followed by a question and two options. We evaluate the
models based on their accuracy in responding to these questions, specifically
under two conditions for each narrative scenario: _True Belief_ (TB) and
_False Belief_ (FB). We also evaluate the percentage of scenarios where the
model correctly answers both TB and FB questions.

Table 1: Model performance comparison on the BigToM benchmark. TB = True Belief. FB = False Belief. Model | Forward Belief | Forward Action | Backward Belief
---|---|---|---
|  TB |  FB |  Both |  TB |  FB |  Both |  TB |  FB |  Both
LLaMA-65b |  0.68 |  0.62 |  0.51 |  0.82 |  0.47 |  0.45 |  0.56 |  0.53 |  0.40
text-davinci-003 |  0.82 |  0.82 |  0.65 |  0.96 |  0.27 |  0.25 |  0.54 |  0.59 |  0.24
Claude |  0.97 |  0.82 |  0.81 |  0.98 |  0.28 |  0.27 |  0.79 |  0.48 |  0.33
Claude-2 |  0.88 |  0.75 |  0.68 |  0.95 |  0.36 |  0.34 |  0.75 |  0.50 |  0.39
GPT-3.5 |  0.81 |  0.69 |  0.53 |  0.97 |  0.19 |  0.17 |  0.55 |  0.45 |  0.18
GPT-4 |  0.99 |  0.98 |  0.97 |  0.98 |  0.81 |  0.79 |  0.86 |  0.53 |  0.40
Mistral-7B (baseline) |  0.95 |  0.33 |  0.31 |  0.92 |  0.30 |  0.26 |  0.91 |  0.22 |  0.16
Mistral-7B (+ random) |  0.97 |  0.33 |  0.32 |  0.92 |  0.29 |  0.25 |  0.91 |  0.19 |  0.14
Mistral-7B (+ protagonist) |  0.96 |  0.30 |  0.29 |  0.91 |  0.30 |  0.25 |  0.90 |  0.22 |  0.15
Mistral-7B (- oracle) |  0.84 |  0.49 |  0.41 |  0.93 |  0.29 |  0.25 |  0.50 |  0.37 |  0.26
Mistral-7B (+ $\text{T}_{p}\text{F}_{o}$) |  0.85 |  0.66 |  0.58 |  0.88 |  0.41 |  0.31 |  0.61 |  0.44 |  0.41
DeepSeek-7B (baseline) |  0.73 |  0.47 |  0.37 |  0.77 |  0.48 |  0.31 |  0.64 |  0.50 |  0.29
DeepSeek-7B (+ random) |  0.72 |  0.49 |  0.40 |  0.76 |  0.47 |  0.30 |  0.65 |  0.49 |  0.26
DeepSeek-7B (+ protagonist) |  0.73 |  0.50 |  0.42 |  0.76 |  0.49 |  0.31 |  0.65 |  0.52 |  0.27
DeepSeek-7B (- oracle) |  0.65 |  0.46 |  0.44 |  0.73 |  0.57 |  0.34 |  0.65 |  0.48 |  0.28
DeepSeek-7B (+ $\text{T}_{p}\text{F}_{o}$) |  0.63 |  0.74 |  0.38 |  0.75 |  0.60 |  0.39 |  0.54 |  0.66 |  0.31
Figure 5: Impact of varying intervention strength $\alpha$ on the _Forward
Belief_ task using Mistral-7B. “Invalid” denotes the answer is not recognized
by the grading mechanism as the model fails to provide answer in the required
format, _e.g_., delivering uncertain responses. Figure 6: Pairwise comparisons
of multinomial probing results on Mistral-7B. Each point represents a specific
attention head. The point position denotes its probe accuracies in the two
tasks, and point color denotes the cosine similarity between the (+
$\text{T}_{p}\text{F}_{o}$) probe directions of the two tasks. Figure 7:
(Left) Question prompt of the _False Belief_ condition for the _Forward
Belief_ task. The story background is omitted for simplicity. (Right) Changes
of next-token probability with regard to different intervention strength
$\alpha$ on Mistral-7B.  Figure 8: Magnitudes of gradients on the token
embeddings with respect to the projection of attention head activations over
the corresponding joint belief directions. Each line represents a specific
attention head in Mistral-7B. We highlight the prominent segments and the
corresponding causal variables.

We conduct experiments on two language models, Mistral-7B-Instruct (Jiang et
al., 2023) and DeepSeek-LLM-7B-Chat (Bi et al., 2024). Both models are tested
using the most deterministic setting with a temperature of $0$ following
(Gandhi et al., 2023). As the baseline results in Table 1 show, both models
exhibit a distinct performance gap between _True Belief_ and _False Belief_
conditions when tested directly. It suggests that the models fail to recognize
that other agents may hold beliefs different from their own due to perception
differences. Specifically, in the classical _False Belief_ test, Mistral is
more biased towards the wrong answer, while DeepSeek’s choices are closer to
random guess. These tendencies might be attributed to the biased internal
belief representations as previously discovered in § 3.2. The probe accuracies
for DeepSeek are presented in Appendix B.

###  4.2 Activation Intervention

####  4.2.1 Strategy.

We apply inference-time intervention (Li et al., 2023b) to manipulate the
attention head activations. Specifically, it involves first selecting the
top-$K$ heads based on their probing accuracy on the validation set, then
steering their activations towards certain directions for $\alpha\times$ the
standard deviation for next token prediction autoregressively. We set $K$ and
$\alpha$ with grid search following previous works, and present the ablations
in Appendix D. Our primary focus is on identifying effective directions for
altering the model behavior purposefully. Specifically, we explore the usage
of the following directions:

  * •

Random directions within the activation spaces $\mathbb{R}^{D}$.

  * •

Weight directions for _oracle_ and _protagonist_ , respectively, derived from
binary probing. We focus on the direction to maximize the probability of
predicting _protagonist_ ’s belief as True (+ protagonist), and the direction
to minimize the probability of predicting _oracle_ ’s belief as True (-
oracle)

  * •

Weight directions for joint belief status prediction, derived from multinomial
probing. We focus on the direction which maximizes the probability of
recognizing _protagonist_ ’s belief as True and meanwhile distinguishes it
from _oracle_ ’s belief (+ $\text{T}_{p}\text{F}_{o}$).

For random directions, we use the top-$K$ informative heads identified with
multinomial probing. For different social reasoning tasks, we separately probe
the attention head activations by constructing the corresponding prompt
templates. For example, for the _Forward Action_ task, we utilize the story-
action pairs, while for the _Backward Belief_ task, we include the
_protagonist_ ’s next-step actions in the story. More details can be found in
Appendix A.

####  4.2.2 Results.

We evaluate different activation intervention strategies and present the
results in Table 1. For different tasks, we perform intervention based on
their respective probing results. The (+ random) results indicate that random
perturbations of attention heads have marginal impact on model performance,
which is in line with the findings in (Li et al., 2023b). Directly targeting
activations towards the _protagonist_ belief direction also fails to
significantly change the model performances, possibly due to overpowering
_oracle_ belief signals with heavily-biased belief representation. To
investigate this, we conduct intervention along the _oracle_ belief direction
reversely (- oracle), and discover a noteworthy change of model behaviors.
Furthermore, we explore a direction that could distinguish between the belief
of both agents, amplifying the _protagonist_ ’s belief likelihood and
weakening the _oracle_ ’s belief likelihood. This direction could be derived
from the corresponding dimension of the weight matrix in the multinomial
logistic regression probes. We find that intervention towards this direction
(+ $\text{T}_{p}\text{F}_{o}$) remarkably changes the model performance,
effectively improving the overall ToM reasoning capabilities.

Additionally, we seek to better understand the functionality of identified
belief directions through continuous interventions along these vectors. As
demonstrated in Figure 5, The (+ $\text{T}_{p}\text{F}_{o}$) direction
exhibits significant impacts on benchmark performance, underscoring its
pivotal role in ToM reasoning process. Specifically, steering towards this
direction consistently enhances ToM accuracy in _False Belief_ cases, while
slightly decreases the _True Belief_ accuracy (partially due to an increase of
invalid responses). At a finer level, we explore changes in model behavior by
examining the fluctuations in the probabilities of next-token predictions.
Figure 7 illustrates how steering head activations to the specific directions
could influence next-token predictions and invert the selection of choices.

###  4.3 Varying Social Reasoning Tasks

Furthermore, we investigate how various social reasoning tasks differ in terms
of their underlying representations and whether these representations could
generalize across different tasks or not.

Table 2: Cross-task intervention results on Mistral-7B. We perform activation intervention towards the joint belief directions identified in the _Forward Belief_ task and evaluate the other two tasks. Model | Forward Action | Backward Belief
---|---|---
|  TB |  FB |  Both |  TB |  FB |  Both
Mistral-7B |  0.92 |  0.30 |  0.26 |  0.91 |  0.22 |  0.16
\+ random |  0.93 |  0.31 |  0.26 |  0.90 |  0.22 |  0.16
\+ transferred |  0.90 |  0.40 |  0.33 |  0.73 |  0.38 |  0.22
DeepSeek-7B |  0.77 |  0.48 |  0.31 |  0.64 |  0.50 |  0.29
\+ random |  0.76 |  0.42 |  0.29 |  0.65 |  0.47 |  0.32
\+ transferred |  0.75 |  0.57 |  0.37 |  0.57 |  0.57 |  0.28

First of all, we explore the interrelationships among the identified ToM
representations across different tasks. The probing results of each task are
presented in Appendix B. Figure 6 illustrates a strong correlation between the
probing accuracies in different task scenarios, suggesting related
representational capabilities under various causal inference conditions.
Remarkably, the top-performing heads in one task tend to include the
predictive features in another task as well, and the directions they identify
exhibit high similarity. Considering that all three tasks implicitly or
explicitly involve belief inference, we propose that a subset of attention
head spaces might contain belief representations which potentially contribute
to a range of social reasoning tasks.

This hypothesis motivates us to conduct a generalization test across different
social reasoning tasks. We specifically intervene in the (+
$\text{T}_{p}\text{F}_{o}$) directions identified under _Forward Belief_
conditions when evaluating the other two tasks. Table 2 indicates that the
directions identified in one task do generalize to others, suggesting that
these directions might encapsulate a more universal function as belief
representations.

Moreover, we seek to understand why these directions could act as
generalizable belief representations. Specifically, we first prompt the model
with story narratives, then respectively project the attention head
activations onto the target (+ $\text{T}_{p}\text{F}_{o}$) directions of the
top probes. We then back-propagate the projection norm through the model and
calculate the gradient magnitudes in input token embeddings, which
approximately reflects the relevance of individual input tokens to the target
directions. Figure 8 reveals that the identified directions in attention head
activation spaces primarily focus on tokens denoting key causal variables,
including the protagonist’s desires and initial actions, the causal event that
changes the environmental states, and the protagonist’s percept status of the
causal event. These elements collectively facilitate a comprehensive inference
of both agents’ beliefs. These observations may shed light on the
generalization potential of these directions across various social reasoning
tasks. Despite the diverse causal inference patterns required by these tasks,
they share common underlying causal variables and all necessitate inference
regarding the agent’s belief status, whether explicitly or implicitly.

##  5 Discussions

In this study, we investigate the ToM capabilities in LLMs, specifically
examining their ability to internally represent and attribute beliefs. We
discover that LLMs can distinguish between different belief states of multiple
agent perspectives through their intermediate activations with simple linear
models. Additionally, we show that manipulation of these representations
significantly affects the model’s social reasoning performances. Finally, we
demonstrate the generalization of the internal belief representations in
diverse social reasoning task scenarios.

Our study contributes to the ongoing dialogue on the social reasoning
capabilities of LLMs, providing new insights into their ability to simulate
ToM through internal representations. Looking ahead, our study opens avenues
for further investigation, including the development and processing of belief
representations during training, their scalability in more complex LLMs like
mixture of expert (MoE) models (Jiang et al., 2024), and methods to enhance
machine ToM capabilities in alignment with human values. While our research
provides valuable insights, it comes with its limitations. The scope of our
exploration was confined to certain types of LLMs and specific social
reasoning tasks, which may not capture the full spectrum of ToM capabilities.
Future work should aim to address these gaps, broadening the understanding of
ToM in AI systems across various models and more complex contexts.

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##### Broader Impact Statement.

Our study on the Theory of Mind (ToM) capabilities in Large Language Models
(LLMs) illuminates the potential for more empathetic AI, enhancing human-
machine interactions in various sectors. Ethically, it necessitates careful
consideration to prevent misuse and bias propagation, ensuring AI’s societal
impact is positive. Responsible development and transparent deployment are
imperative to safeguard against unintended consequences and maintain trust in
AI advancements.

##  Appendix A Probing Prompts for Different Tasks

We develop corresponding prompt templates for different social reasoning tasks
by casting the choices to statements. For the _Forward Action_ task, we
utilize the story-action pairs as shown in Figure 9. For the _Backward Belief_
task, we include the _protagonist_ ’s next-step actions in the story and
present the story-belief pairs as shown in Figure 10.

Figure 9:  Example case of representation probing for the _Forward Action_
task. Left: a “True Belief” story where the protagonist shares the same belief
with oracle. Right: a “False belief” story where the protagonist has different
belief with oracle. For both stories, we concatenate them with the two actions
respectively and directly feed to the model. The ground-truth action label
from the protagonist’s perspective $y_{p}$ and the oracle’s perspective
$y_{o}$ can then be decided accordingly.  Figure 10:  Example case of
representation probing for the _Backward Belief_ task. Left: a “True Belief”
story where the protagonist shares the same belief with oracle. Right: a
“False belief” story where the protagonist has different belief with oracle.
For both stories, we concatenate them with the two beliefs respectively and
directly feed to the model. The ground-truth belief label from the
protagonist’s perspective $y_{p}$ and the oracle’s perspective $y_{o}$ can
then be decided accordingly.

##  Appendix B Additional Probing Results

We present the full probing results in all three tasks for both models using
logistic regression models in Figure 11 and Figure 12. The probing accuracies
vary across models and tasks. Generally, linear belief representations exist
in different models and tasks, and are biased towards representing _oracle_ ’s
belief.

Figure 11:  Probe accuracies on different tasks based on the attention head
activations in all layers of Mistral-7B. (A) Belief status estimation for
_oracle_ using logistic regression (binary). (B) Belief status estimation for
_protagonist_ using logistic regression (binary). (C) Joint belief status
estimation for both agents using multinomial logistic regression (quaternary).
Figure 12:  Probe accuracies on different tasks based on the attention head
activations in all layers of DeepSeek-7B. (A) Belief status estimation for
_oracle_ using logistic regression (binary). (B) Belief status estimation for
_protagonist_ using logistic regression (binary). (C) Joint belief status
estimation for both agents using multinomial logistic regression (quaternary).
Figure 13:  Non-linear probe accuracies on different tasks based on the
attention head activations in all layers of Mistral-7B. (A) Belief status
estimation for _oracle_ using binary classification. (B) Belief status
estimation for _protagonist_ using binary classification. (C) Joint belief
status estimation for both agents using quaternary classification.

Furthermore, we explore non-linear probing by fitting an MLP with one hidden
layer of $256$ channels. Figure 13 shows that the overall probing accuracy
increases, suggesting that while some activation heads can decode beliefs
linearly, more complex representational structures within certain activation
spaces also exist.

##  Appendix C Additional Token Gradient Heatmaps

Figure 14: Magnitudes of gradients on the token embeddings with respect to the
projection of attention head activations over the corresponding joint belief
directions. Each line represents a specific attention head in Mistral-7B.
Figure 15: Magnitudes of gradients on the token embeddings with respect to the
projection of attention head activations over the corresponding joint belief
directions. Each line represents a specific attention head in Mistral-7B.

We provide additional results of token gradients with regard to the belief
directions given different story prompts, which localizes the key causal
elements related to agent beliefs.

##  Appendix D Hyperparameter Analysis

Figure 16: Impact of varying intervention strength $\alpha$ on the _Forward
Belief_ task using Mistral-7B. “Invalid” denotes the answer is not recognized
by the grading mechanism as the model fails to provide answer in the required
format, _e.g_., delivering uncertain responses.

We provide intervention results with different $(K,\alpha)$ combinations in
LABEL:{fig:alphas_K}. $K=16$ yields the most steady performance and is used in
our experiments for the model.

##  Appendix E Detailed Comparison of LLM Responses

Below, we compare the performance of two models (Mistral-7B, DeepSeek-7B) on
the _Forward Belief_ reasoning task before and after intervention in two
settings (_False Belief_ , _True Belief_). Instances where the model’s
response changes from incorrect to correct, or from correct to incorrect, are
recorded in the tables below.

###  E.1 Mistral-7B on Forward Belief, False Belief

Changed to Correct Answer: 33/100

Story: Ravi is a farmer in a small Indian village, tending to his mango
orchard. Ravi wants to harvest ripe mangoes to sell at the local market. He
notices a mango tree with a heavy branch laden with ripe mangoes. A
mischievous monkey comes along and eats all the ripe mangoes on the branch
while Ravi is gathering his harvesting tools. Ravi does not see the monkey
eating the ripe mangoes. Question: Does Ravi believe the branch has ripe
mangoes or no ripe mangoes? Choose one of the following: a) Ravi believes the
branch has ripe mangoes. b) Ravi believes the branch has no ripe mangoes.
Correct Answer: a) Unintervened: b) Ravi believes the branch has no ripe
mangoes. Intervened: a. Ravi believes the branch has ripe mangoes.

Story: Aniket is a marine biologist studying coral reefs off the coast of
India. Aniket needs to collect samples of coral to analyze the effects of
climate change on the reef. Aniket spots a healthy-looking coral formation in
a specific area of the reef. A sudden wave surge stirs up sediment, covering
the once healthy coral formation and causing it to become damaged. Aniket does
not notice the wave surge or the sediment covering the coral. Question: Does
Aniket believe the coral formation is healthy or damaged? Choose one of the
following: a) Aniket believes the coral formation is damaged. b) Aniket
believes the coral formation is healthy. Correct Answer: b) Unintervened: a)
Aniket believes the coral formation is damaged. (The context states that the
cor Intervened: b) Aniket believes the coral formation is healthy. (at the
time of reading the

Story: Juan is a young chef in a small Mexican town. He wants to make a
delicious salsa for the upcoming town festival. Juan buys fresh tomatoes from
the market, which he believes are ripe and perfect for the salsa. While Juan
is away from his kitchen, a mischievous cat knocks over the bag of tomatoes,
crushing them and making them unsuitable for the salsa. Juan does not notice
the crushed tomatoes on the floor. Question: Does Juan believe the tomatoes
are ripe and perfect or crushed and unsuitable? Choose one of the following:
a) Juan believes the tomatoes are ripe and perfect. b) Juan believes the
tomatoes are crushed and unsuitable. Correct Answer: a) Unintervened: b) Juan
believes the tomatoes are ripe and perfect, but they are actually crushed and
un Intervened: a) Juan believes the tomatoes are ripe and perfect.

Story: Cheng is a teacher in a rural Chinese village. Cheng wants to use a
projector to show a documentary about Chinese history to his students. The
projector is plugged in and turned on, as Cheng has prepared it beforehand. As
the wind blows outside, the power goes out, causing the projector to turn off.
Cheng does not notice the power outage. Question: Does Cheng believe the
projector is ready to use or turned off? Choose one of the following: a) Cheng
believes the projector is turned off. b) Cheng believes the projector is ready
to use. Correct Answer: b) Unintervened: a) Cheng believes the projector is
ready to use. (However, it is actually turned Intervened: Cheng believes the
projector is ready to use. (before the power outage)

Story: Isabela is a baker in a small Argentinian town known for its delicious
pastries. Isabela wants to make a batch of alfajores, a traditional
Argentinian dessert, for her bakery’s customers. Isabela gets a bag of
powdered sugar from her pantry to dust the alfajores. Her assistant, who was
organizing the pantry earlier, accidentally placed a bag of flour in the
powdered sugar’s spot, and Isabela unknowingly grabs the bag of flour instead.
Isabela does not notice the flour. Question: Does Isabela believe the bag she
took from the pantry contains powdered sugar or flour? Choose one of the
following: a) Isabela believes the bag she took from the pantry contains
powdered sugar. b) Isabela believes the bag she took from the pantry contains
flour. Correct Answer: a) Unintervened: b) Isabela believes the bag she took
from the pantry contains flour. Intervened: a) Isabela believes the bag she
took from the pantry contains powdered sugar.

Story: Mei is a pearl diver in a small coastal village in Japan. Mei wants to
find a perfect pearl to give to her grandmother for her birthday. Mei spots an
oyster at the bottom of the sea that looks to be the right size and age to
contain a pearl. A curious octopus opens the oyster, revealing that there is
no pearl inside, and then swims away. Mei does not notice the octopus opening
the oyster. Question: Does Mei believe the oyster she spotted contains a pearl
or that it is empty? Choose one of the following: a) Mei believes the oyster
she spotted is empty. b) Mei believes the oyster she spotted contains a pearl.
Correct Answer: b) Unintervened: a) Mei believes the oyster she
spotted[PAD]it;s empty. Intervened: b) Mei believes the oyster she spotted
contains a pearl.

Story: Heiwa is a skilled fisherman in a coastal village in Japan. Heiwa wants
to catch a large number of fish to sell at the local market. The sea appears
calm and full of fish, making it an ideal time for fishing. Suddenly, a
massive school of fish moves away from the area, leaving very few fish near
Heiwa’s fishing spot. Heiwa does not notice the fish moving away. Question:
Does Heiwa believe the sea is calm and full of fish or that the fish have
moved away? Choose one of the following: a) Heiwa believes the sea is calm and
full of fish. b) Heiwa believes the fish have moved away. Correct Answer: a)
Unintervened: b) Heiwa believes the sea is calm and full of fish, but the fish
have moved Intervened: a) Heiwa believes the sea is calm and full of fish.

Story: Fatima is a potter in a small Moroccan village known for its vibrant
ceramics. Fatima wants to create a beautiful vase as a wedding gift for her
cousin. Fatima has left her kiln turned off overnight to cool down. A power
surge during the night causes the kiln to turn on unexpectedly, making it
dangerously hot. Fatima does not feel the heat emanating from the kiln.
Question: Does Fatima believe her kiln is off and cool or unexpectedly hot?
Choose one of the following: a) Fatima believes her kiln is unexpectedly hot.
b) Fatima believes her kiln is off and cool. Correct Answer: b) Unintervened:
a) Fatima believes her kiln is unexpectedly hot. Intervened: b) Fatima
believes her kiln is off and cool.

Story: Aiko is a florist in a small Japanese town. Aiko wants to create an
exquisite flower arrangement for a customer’s wedding. Aiko sees a vase filled
with fresh, colorful flowers in her shop. Overnight, a sudden drop in
temperature causes the flowers in the vase to wilt. Aiko does not notice the
wilted flowers in the vase. Question: Does Aiko believe the vase contains
fresh, colorful flowers or wilted flowers? Choose one of the following: a)
Aiko believes the vase contains fresh, colorful flowers. b) Aiko believes the
vase contains wilted flowers. Correct Answer: a) Unintervened: b) Aiko
believes the vase contains wilted flowers. (She did not notice the Intervened:
Aiko believes the vase contains fresh, colorful flowers. (At the time of
reading the

Story: Carlos is a farmer in a small village in the Andes. Carlos wants to
collect fresh eggs from his chickens to sell at the local market. The nest
appears to be full of eggs when Carlos checks it in the morning. A crafty fox
sneaks into the chicken coop and steals all the eggs from the nest. Carlos
does not see the fox stealing the eggs. Question: Does Carlos believe the nest
contains eggs or that the fox has stolen them? Choose one of the following: a)
Carlos believes the fox has stolen the eggs. b) Carlos believes the nest
contains eggs. Correct Answer: b) Unintervened: a) Carlos believes the nest
contains eggs. Intervened: b) Carlos believes the nest contains eggs. (at the
time of asking)

Story: Amara is an artist living in a bustling city in Nigeria. She wants to
create a beautiful painting for her friend’s birthday present. She finds a
smooth, flawless canvas in her art studio. Later, her mischievous little
brother accidentally spills black paint all over the canvas, leaving it
ruined. Amara does not discover the ruined canvas. Question: Does Amara
believe the canvas is smooth and flawless or ruined with black paint? Choose
one of the following: a) Amara believes the canvas is ruined with black paint.
b) Amara believes the canvas is smooth and flawless. Correct Answer: b)
Unintervened: a) Amara believes the canvas is smooth and flawless (but it is
actually ruined). Intervened: Amara believes the canvas is smooth and
flawless. (At the time of the story, she

Story: Fatima is a talented artist living in a small Moroccan village. Fatima
wants to create a beautiful painting to donate for the local charity auction.
She has a brand-new set of high-quality paintbrushes in her studio. While she
is away, her younger brother accidentally ruins the paintbrushes by using them
for a school project with glue. Fatima does not notice the ruined
paintbrushes. Question: Does Fatima believe she has high-quality paintbrushes
or ruined paintbrushes in her studio? Choose one of the following: a) Fatima
believes the paintbrushes are ruined. b) Fatima believes she has high-quality
paintbrushes in her studio. Correct Answer: b) Unintervened: a) Fatima
believes the paintbrushes are ruined. (The context states that the paintbr
Intervened: b) Fatima believes she has high-quality paintbrushes in her
studio. (At the

Story: Fatima is an archaeologist working at an excavation site in Egypt. She
wants to carefully remove an ancient artifact from the ground to study and
preserve it. The artifact appears to be intact and in good condition.
Suddenly, a sandstorm blows through the area, burying the artifact in sand and
causing some damage to it. Fatima does not witness the sandstorm and its
effect on the artifact. Question: Does Fatima believe the artifact is intact
and in good condition or damaged by the sandstorm? Choose one of the
following: a) Fatima believes the artifact is intact and in good condition. b)
Fatima believes the artifact is damaged by the sandstorm. Correct Answer: a)
Unintervened: b) Fatima believes the artifact is damaged by the sandstorm.
Intervened: a. (Fatima believes the artifact is intact and in good condition.)

Story: Juan is a gardener in a small village in Mexico, tending to a flower
garden near the town plaza. Juan wants to water a specific flower bed to
ensure its health and beauty. Juan sees that the garden hose is neatly coiled
and ready for use. Unexpectedly, a group of children playing nearby
accidentally puncture the hose with a sharp stick while running around. Juan
does not see the children accidentally puncture the hose. Question: Does Juan
believe the garden hose is in good condition and functional or punctured and
non-functional? Choose one of the following: a) Juan believes the garden hose
is in good condition and functional. b) Juan believes the garden hose is
punctured and non-functional. Correct Answer: a) Unintervened: b) Juan
believes the garden hose is punctured and non-functional. (Juan Intervened: a)
Juan believes the garden hose is in good condition and functional. (At the
moment,

Story: Hiro is a bonsai enthusiast in a small village in Japan. He wants to
trim his favorite bonsai tree to maintain its shape and health. Hiro sees that
the tree’s branches are overgrown and need pruning. A gust of wind blows
through Hiro’s garden, snapping off several of the overgrown branches from the
bonsai tree. Hiro does not see the gust of wind snapping off the branches.
Question: Does Hiro believe the bonsai tree has overgrown branches or that
they have been snapped off by the wind? Choose one of the following: a) Hiro
believes the bonsai tree has overgrown branches. b) Hiro believes the branches
have been snapped off by the wind. Correct Answer: a) Unintervened: b) Hiro
believes the branches have been snapped off by the wind. Intervened: a. Hiro
believes the bonsai tree has overgrown branches.

Story: Tumelo is a skilled fisherman in a coastal village in South Africa. He
wants to catch fish using his large, sturdy fishing net. Tumelo inspected the
net before leaving home and saw that it was in perfect condition. As he walks
to the shore, a mischievous seagull pecks at the net, causing a large tear in
it. Tumelo does not see the seagull damaging the net. Question: Does Tumelo
believe the fishing net is in perfect condition or torn? Choose one of the
following: a) Tumelo believes the fishing net is torn. b) Tumelo believes the
fishing net is in perfect condition. Correct Answer: b) Unintervened: a)
Tumelo believes the fishing net is in perfect condition. Intervened: Before
leaving[PAD]=>Tumelo believes the fishing net is in perfect condition. Answer:

Story: Kofi is a fisherman in a small coastal village in Ghana. He wants to
set sail on his boat to catch fish for his family and the village market. Kofi
checks the weather and sees clear skies and calm waters. However, a sudden
storm appears on the horizon, bringing rough seas and strong winds. Kofi does
not notice the approaching storm. Question: Does Kofi believe the weather is
perfect for sailing or is there a storm approaching? Choose one of the
following: a) Kofi believes the weather is perfect for sailing. b) Kofi
believes there is a storm approaching. Correct Answer: a) Unintervened: b)
Kofi believes the weather is perfect for sailing (but he is wrong).
Intervened: a) Kofi believes the weather is perfect for sailing.

Story: Mei is a fisherman in a small coastal village in China. She wants to go
fishing early in the morning when the tide is high. Mei checks the tide chart
and sees that the tide will be high at 5 AM. However, a strong storm far out
at sea has caused the tide to come in much earlier, at 3 AM. Mei does not look
out the window and does not notice the high tide. Question: Does Mei believe
the tide is high at 5 AM or 3 AM? Choose one of the following: a) Mei believes
the tide is high at 5 AM. b) Mei believes the tide is high at 3 AM. Correct
Answer: a) Unintervened: b) Mei believes the tide is high at 3 AM (based on
the actual situation). Intervened: Mei believes the tide is high at 5 AM.
(This is what Mei currently believes

Story: Fatima is an archaeologist working on a dig site in Egypt, searching
for ancient artifacts. She wants to carefully excavate a small, fragile
artifact she has discovered. Fatima observes that the soil around the artifact
is soft and loose. Just as Fatima is about to begin excavating, a strong gust
of wind blows through the site, hardening the soil around the artifact. Fatima
does not notice the gust of wind or the change in the soil’s condition.
Question: Does Fatima believe the soil around the artifact is soft and loose
or hardened? Choose one of the following: a) Fatima believes the soil around
the artifact has hardened. b) Fatima believes the soil around the artifact is
soft and loose. Correct Answer: b) Unintervened: a) Fatima believes the soil
around the artifact has hardened. Intervened: b) Fatima believes the soil
around the artifact is soft and loose.

Story: Rohan is a potter in a small Indian village. Rohan wants to make a
beautiful ceramic vase as a gift for his friend’s housewarming party. Rohan
selects a bag of high-quality clay in his workshop that appears to be soft and
malleable. While Rohan is away for lunch, the hot sun dries the clay, making
it hard and unworkable. Rohan does not notice the dried, hard clay. Question:
Does Rohan believe the bag of clay is soft and malleable or hard and
unworkable? Choose one of the following: a) Rohan believes the bag of clay is
hard and unworkable. b) Rohan believes the bag of clay is soft and malleable.
Correct Answer: b) Unintervened: a) Rohan believes the bag of clay is soft and
malleable (but it’s Intervened: Rohan believes the bag of clay is soft and
malleable (before the incident), but later

Story: Rohit is a renowned painter from India who has been commissioned to
create a mural on a city building. Rohit wants to paint an intricate scene
depicting the vibrant culture and history of India. Rohit selects a set of
high-quality, long-lasting paint colors for the mural. While Rohit is out for
lunch, a leak in the ceiling drips water onto the paint colors, diluting them
and making them less durable. Rohit does not notice the water-damaged paint
colors. Question: Does Rohit believe the paint colors are of high quality and
long-lasting or water-damaged and less durable? Choose one of the following:
a) Rohit believes the paint colors are water-damaged and less durable. b)
Rohit believes the paint colors are of high quality and long-lasting. Correct
Answer: b) Unintervened: a) Rohit does not know the true condition of the
paint colors. However, due to the Intervened: b) Rohit believes the paint
colors are of high quality and long-lasting. (at

Story: Amara is a talented henna artist in a bustling Indian market. Amara
wants to create intricate henna designs for a group of bridesmaids attending a
wedding. Amara checks her supply of henna paste and finds it to be smooth and
consistent. While Amara is busy servicing another client, a sudden rainstorm
causes the henna paste to become diluted and runny. Amara does not realize the
rain has affected the henna paste. Question: Does Amara believe the henna
paste is smooth and consistent or diluted and runny? Choose one of the
following: a) Amara believes the henna paste is smooth and consistent. b)
Amara believes the henna paste is diluted and runny. Correct Answer: a)
Unintervened: b) Amara believes the henna paste is smooth and consistent (but
it is actually dilut Intervened: a) Amara believes the henna paste is smooth
and consistent.

Story: Kalyani is a traditional Indian dancer in a temple in Kerala, India.
Kalyani wants to perform a special dance for the upcoming festival to pay
homage to the temple’s deity. The temple floor is clean and free of any
obstacles, as Kalyani has prepared the space for her dance practice. An
accidental spill of oil from a temple lamp causes a slippery patch on the
floor. Kalyani does not notice the oil spill. Question: Does Kalyani believe
the temple floor is clean and perfect for dancing or slippery due to the oil
spill? Choose one of the following: a) Kalyani believes the temple floor is
clean and perfect for dancing. b) Kalyani believes the floor is slippery due
to the oil spill. Correct Answer: a) Unintervened: b) Kalyani believes the
floor is slippery due to the oil spill. Intervened: a) Kalyani believes the
temple floor is clean and perfect for dancing.

Story: Naledi is a young astronomer in a remote observatory in South Africa.
Naledi wants to observe a distant supernova to gather data for her research.
The telescope is pointed at the coordinates of the supernova, ready for
observation. A minor earthquake occurs, causing the telescope to shift its
position slightly. Naledi does not notice the earthquake and its effect on the
telescope. Question: Does Naledi believe the telescope is aimed at the correct
location or has shifted due to the earthquake? Choose one of the following: a)
Naledi believes the telescope is aimed at the correct location. b) Naledi
believes the telescope has shifted due to the earthquake. Correct Answer: a)
Unintervened: b) Naledi is unaware that the telescope has shifted due to the
earthquake. Intervened: a) Naledi believes the telescope is aimed at the
correct location.

Story: Emilia is a talented baker in a small Italian town. She plans to bake a
large batch of biscotti to sell at the local market. Emilia inspects the
oven’s temperature, which appears to be set at the correct temperature for
baking. A power surge causes the oven’s temperature to spike, making it too
hot for baking biscotti. Emilia does not notice the oven’s temperature
increase. Question: Does Emilia believe the oven is set at the correct
temperature for baking biscotti or too hot? Choose one of the following: a)
Emilia believes the oven is set at the correct temperature for baking
biscotti. b) Emilia believes the oven is too hot for baking biscotti. Correct
Answer: a) Unintervened: b) Emilia believes the oven is too hot for baking
biscotti (even though she doesn Intervened: a) Emilia believes the oven is set
at the correct temperature for baking biscotti. (

Story: Emeka is a skilled fisherman in a small Nigerian village. He wants to
catch fish to feed his family and sell at the market. Emeka prepares his
fishing net, which appears to be strong and without any holes. However, while
Emeka is not looking, a mischievous child cuts a large hole in the net with a
knife. Emeka does not see the child cutting the hole in the fishing net.
Question: Does Emeka believe the fishing net is strong and without holes, or
that it has a large hole in it? Choose one of the following: a) Emeka believes
the fishing net is strong and without holes. b) Emeka believes that the
fishing net has a large hole in it. Correct Answer: a) Unintervened: b) Emeka
believes that the fishing net has a large hole in it (without knowing it
Intervened: a) Emeka believes the fishing net is strong and without holes.

Story: Aria is a talented baker from Italy who has been asked to bake a cake
for a friend’s birthday party. She wants to create a delicious, multi-layered
cake that will impress everyone. Aria has a fresh batch of ingredients ready
to use for the cake. However, a mischievous cat sneaks into her kitchen and
nibbles on some of the ingredients, making them no longer fresh. Aria does not
notice the cat or the nibbled ingredients. Question: Does Aria believe her
ingredients are fresh and suitable or nibbled on and no longer fresh? Choose
one of the following: a) Aria believes the ingredients are nibbled on and no
longer fresh. b) Aria believes her ingredients are fresh and suitable for
baking the cake. Correct Answer: b) Unintervened: a) Aria believes her
ingredients are fresh and suitable for baking the cake (but they are actually
Intervened: b) Aria believes her ingredients are fresh and suitable for baking
the cake.

Story: Ailani is a skilled Hawaiian chef preparing a traditional luau feast
for her community. She wants to make a delicious laulau dish using fresh taro
leaves. Ailani examines the taro leaves, which look fresh and green. However,
a sudden downpour soaks the taro leaves, causing them to become wilted and
less ideal for the dish. Ailani does not notice the downpour and the effect it
has on the taro leaves. Question: Does Ailani believe the taro leaves are
fresh and of high quality or wilted and less ideal? Choose one of the
following: a) Ailani believes the taro leaves are fresh and of high quality.
b) Ailani believes the taro leaves are wilted and less ideal. Correct Answer:
a) Unintervened: b) Ailani believes the taro leaves are wilted and less ideal.
Intervened: Ailani believes the taro leaves are fresh and of high quality.
(Based on the context

Story: Ravi is a fisherman living in a coastal village in India. Ravi wants to
catch a large amount of fish to sell at the market and provide for his family.
The waters near the shore are calm and full of fish, making it an ideal
location for fishing. An underwater earthquake occurs, causing the fish to
frantically swim away from the coast. Ravi does not sense the earthquake.
Question: Does Ravi believe the waters near the shore are calm and full of
fish, or that the fish have frantically swum away? Choose one of the
following: a) Ravi believes the fish have frantically swum away from the
coast. b) Ravi believes the waters near the shore are calm and full of fish.
Correct Answer: b) Unintervened: a) Ravi believes the waters near the shore
are calm and full of fish (but he is Intervened: b) Ravi believes the waters
near the shore are calm and full of fish.

Story: Surya is a fisherman in a coastal village in India. Surya plans to go
fishing early in the morning to catch fish for his family and to sell at the
local market. Surya’s fishing net looks strong and ready for another day of
fishing. Overnight, a group of mischievous monkeys rummage through the fishing
equipment and badly damage Surya’s fishing net. Surya does not realize the
monkeys have damaged his fishing net. Question: Does Surya believe that his
fishing net is strong and ready to be used, or that it has been badly damaged?
Choose one of the following: a) Surya believes his fishing net has been badly
damaged. b) Surya believes his fishing net is strong and ready to be used.
Correct Answer: b) Unintervened: a) Surya believes his fishing net is strong
and ready to be used (but it has Intervened: b) Surya believes his fishing net
is strong and ready to be used.

Story: Takeshi is a fisherman in a small Japanese coastal village. Takeshi’s
goal is to catch enough fish to provide for his family and sell at the market.
The ocean is calm and teeming with fish, making it an ideal day for fishing.
However, a sudden underwater volcanic eruption nearby causes the fish to
scatter, leaving the area devoid of fish. Takeshi does not notice the sudden
disappearance of fish in the area. Question: Does Takeshi believe the ocean is
teeming with fish, or devoid of fish due to the volcanic eruption? Choose one
of the following: a) Takeshi believes the ocean is devoid of fish due to the
volcanic eruption. b) Takeshi believes the ocean is teeming with fish. Correct
Answer: b) Unintervened: a) Takeshi believes the ocean is teeming with fish
(but is unaware of Intervened: Takeshi believes the ocean is teeming with
fish.

Story: Hiroshi is a fisherman in a small coastal village in Japan. Hiroshi
wishes to catch enough fish to feed his family and sell the surplus at the
local market. The fishing nets are in excellent condition, ready to be cast
into the sea. However, a curious pod of dolphins swims by and accidentally
tears the nets with their sharp dorsal fins. Hiroshi does not see the dolphins
or the damage they caused to the nets. Question: Does Hiroshi believe the
fishing nets are in excellent condition or torn by the dolphins? Choose one of
the following: a) Hiroshi believes the fishing nets are in excellent
condition. b) Hiroshi believes the fishing nets are torn by the dolphins.
Correct Answer: a) Unintervened: b) Hiroshi is unaware that the fishing nets
are torn by the dolph Intervened: a) Hiroshi believes the fishing nets are in
excellent condition.

Story: Mei, a talented pastry chef from a small town in China, is preparing to
bake a large cake for a local celebration. Mei wants to use a specific cake
mold to create a unique and intricate design. Mei sees the cake mold hanging
on the wall, clean and ready for use. However, during a brief power outage, a
gust of wind blows through the kitchen, knocking the cake mold off the wall
and denting it severely. Mei does not notice the dented cake mold on the
floor. Question: Does Mei believe the cake mold is clean and ready for use or
severely dented and unsuitable for use? Choose one of the following: a) Mei
believes the cake mold is clean and ready for use. b) Mei believes the cake
mold is severely dented and unsuitable for use. Correct Answer: a)
Unintervened: b) Mei believes the cake mold is severely dented and unsuitable
for use. ( Intervened: a) Mei believes the cake mold is clean and ready for
use. (at the start of

Changed to Incorrect Answer: 0/100

###  E.2 Mistral-7B on Forward Belief, True Belief

Changed to Correct Answer: 0/100

Changed to Incorrect Answer: 10/100

Story: Noor is working as a barista at a busy coffee shop. Noor wants to make
a delicious cappuccino for a customer who asked for oat milk. Noor grabs a
milk pitcher and fills it with oat milk. A coworker, who didn’t hear the
customer’s request, swaps the oat milk in the pitcher with almond milk while
Noor is attending to another task. Noor sees her coworker swapping the milk.
Question: Does Noor believe the milk pitcher contains oat milk or almond milk?
Choose one of the following: a) Noor believes the milk pitcher contains almond
milk. b) Noor believes the milk pitcher contains oat milk. Correct Answer: a)
Unintervened: a) Noor believes the milk pitcher contains almond milk.
Intervened: a (This question is based on the context provided, and the context
states that Noor

Story: Azola is a teacher at a small school in rural China. She wants to
surprise her students with a new book for the school library. Azola got a
notification from Amazon stating that the package containing the book was left
at her doorstep. A gust of wind blows the package off her doorstep, and a
neighbor replaces it with a different package containing a hand-knit scarf.
Azola witnesses the package swap. Question: Does Azola believe the package
contains the book she ordered or a hand-knit scarf? Choose one of the
following: a) Azola believes the package contains a hand-knit scarf. b) Azola
believes the package contains the book she ordered. Correct Answer: a)
Unintervened: a) Azola believes the package contains a hand-knit scarf.
Intervened: a (This question is a part of a multiple-choice quiz. Since there
is

Story: Ravi is a farmer in a small Indian village, tending to his mango
orchard. Ravi wants to harvest ripe mangoes to sell at the local market. He
notices a mango tree with a heavy branch laden with ripe mangoes. A
mischievous monkey comes along and eats all the ripe mangoes on the branch
while Ravi is gathering his harvesting tools. Ravi sees the monkey eating the
ripe mangoes. Question: Does Ravi believe the branch has ripe mangoes or no
ripe mangoes? Choose one of the following: a) Ravi believes the branch has no
ripe mangoes. b) Ravi believes the branch has ripe mangoes. Correct Answer: a)
Unintervened: a) Ravi believes the branch has no ripe mangoes. Intervened:
Ravi believes the branch has ripe mangoes. (At the moment, he still believes

Story: Farhan is a street food vendor in a bustling market in Istanbul. Farhan
wants to prepare a delicious chicken shawarma wrap for a customer who asked
for extra garlic sauce. Farhan takes a bottle of garlic sauce from the shelf
and pours it onto the shawarma wrap. His assistant, who is busy preparing a
different wrap, accidentally swaps the garlic sauce with a bottle of hot
sauce, and Farhan unknowingly pours the hot sauce onto the shawarma wrap.
Farhan notices the sauce swap. Question: Does Farhan believe the sauce he
poured is garlic sauce or hot sauce? Choose one of the following: a) Farhan
believes the sauce he poured is hot sauce. b) Farhan believes the sauce he
poured is garlic sauce. Correct Answer: a) Unintervened: a) Farhan believes
the sauce he poured is hot sauce. Intervened: b) Farhan believes the sauce he
poured is garlic sauce. (At the time of pouring

Story: Chi is a fisherman living on a small island in the South Pacific. Chi
wants to go on a fishing trip to catch some fish for his family’s dinner. The
sea appears calm and inviting. Suddenly, a strong storm rolls in, causing the
sea to become rough and dangerous. Chi notices the storm and the change in the
sea. Question: Does Chi believe the sea is calm and inviting or rough and
dangerous? Choose one of the following: a) Chi believes the sea is rough and
dangerous. b) Chi believes the sea is calm and inviting. Correct Answer: a)
Unintervened: a) Chi believes the sea is rough and dangerous. Intervened: a —
Story: Chi is a fisherman living on a small island in

Story: Hiro is a bonsai enthusiast in a small village in Japan. He wants to
trim his favorite bonsai tree to maintain its shape and health. Hiro sees that
the tree’s branches are overgrown and need pruning. A gust of wind blows
through Hiro’s garden, snapping off several of the overgrown branches from the
bonsai tree. Hiro witnesses the gust of wind snapping off the branches.
Question: Does Hiro believe the bonsai tree has overgrown branches or that
they have been snapped off by the wind? Choose one of the following: a) Hiro
believes the branches have been snapped off by the wind. b) Hiro believes the
bonsai tree has overgrown branches. Correct Answer: a) Unintervened: a) Hiro
believes the branches have been snapped off by the wind. Intervened: Hiro
believes the bonsai tree has overgrown branches. (initially)

Story: Olumide, a skilled woodcarver in a Nigerian village, is preparing to
carve a beautiful sculpture for the village chief. Olumide wants to use a
sharp chisel to create intricate details on the sculpture. Olumide observes
his set of chisels and sees one that appears to be sharp and in perfect
condition. However, while Olumide is talking to a fellow artisan, a child from
the village accidentally drops the chisel, causing it to become blunt and
damaged. Olumide notices the damaged chisel on the ground. Question: Does
Olumide believe the chisel is sharp and in perfect condition or blunt and
damaged? Choose one of the following: a) Olumide believes the chisel is sharp
and in perfect condition. b) Olumide believes the chisel is blunt and damaged.
Correct Answer: b) Unintervened: b) Olumide believes the chisel is blunt and
damaged. Intervened: a — Story: Olumide, a skilled woodcarver in a

Story: Odion is an archaeologist conducting research at an ancient Egyptian
site. He wants to discover a hidden chamber within the pyramid he is
exploring. Odion observes a wall with an unusual pattern that appears to be a
concealed entrance. While Odion is away, a sandstorm fills the entrance,
making it impossible to access the hidden chamber. Odion sees the sand-filled
entrance after the storm. Question: Does Odion believe the wall with the
unusual pattern is hiding the entrance or that the entrance is blocked by
sand? Choose one of the following: a) Odion believes the entrance is blocked
by sand. b) Odion believes the wall with the unusual pattern is hiding the
entrance. Correct Answer: a) Unintervened: a) Odion believes the entrance is
blocked by sand. Intervened: b) Odion believes the wall with the unusual
pattern is hiding the entrance.

Story: Kunal is a talented potter in a small Indian village. Kunal wants to
create a set of earthenware bowls as a gift for his friend’s housewarming.
Kunal inspects a large lump of clay, finding it to be moist and malleable.
However, while Kunal is away for a short break, the sun beats down on the
clay, drying it out and making it hard and brittle. Kunal notices the sun-
dried, brittle clay. Question: Does Kunal believe the clay is moist and
malleable or hard and brittle? Choose one of the following: a) Kunal believes
the clay is moist and malleable. b) Kunal believes the clay is hard and
brittle. Correct Answer: b) Unintervened: b) Kunal believes the clay is hard
and brittle. Intervened: a. (Kunal believes the clay is moist and malleable.)

Story: Naledi is a talented South African chef preparing a traditional braai
for her friends and family. Naledi wants to make a delicious marinade for the
meats and vegetables to be grilled. She takes a bottle of vinegar from the
cupboard to mix with other ingredients for the marinade. Her cousin, who was
helping in the kitchen earlier, accidentally placed a bottle of water in the
vinegar’s spot, and Naledi unknowingly grabs the bottle of water instead.
Naledi notices the water and puts it back. Question: Does Naledi believe the
bottle she took from the cupboard contains vinegar or water? Choose one of the
following: a) Naledi believes the bottle she took from the cupboard contains
water. b) Naledi believes the bottle she took from the cupboard contains
vinegar. Correct Answer: a) Unintervened: a) Naledi believes the bottle she
took from the cupboard contains water. Intervened: b) Naledi believes the
bottle she took from the cupboard contains vinegar. (At

###  E.3 DeepSeek-7B on Forward Belief, False Belief

Changed to Correct Answer: 32/100

Story: Zara is attending an art exhibition at a local gallery in her town.
Zara wants to learn more about a particular abstract painting she admires. The
label next to the artwork states that the painting is the work of a famous
artist, and Zara reads the label carefully. A gallery staff member, realizing
there was a mix-up, changes the label with the correct information attributing
the painting to an emerging artist instead. Zara does not read the updated
label. Question: Does Zara believe the painting is the work of a famous artist
or an emerging artist? Choose one of the following: a) Zara believes the
painting is the work of a famous artist. b) Zara believes the painting is the
work of an emerging artist. Correct Answer: a) Unintervened: b) Zara believes
the painting is the work of an emerging artist. Intervened: a) Zara believes
the painting is the work of a famous artist.

Story: Azola is a teacher at a small school in rural China. She wants to
surprise her students with a new book for the school library. Azola got a
notification from Amazon stating that the package containing the book was left
at her doorstep. A gust of wind blows the package off her doorstep, and a
neighbor replaces it with a different package containing a hand-knit scarf.
Azola does not witness the package swap. Question: Does Azola believe the
package contains the book she ordered or a hand-knit scarf? Choose one of the
following: a) Azola believes the package contains the book she ordered. b)
Azola believes the package contains a hand-knit scarf. Correct Answer: a)
Unintervened: b) Azola believes the package contains a hand-knit scarf.
Intervened: a) Azola believes the package contains the book she ordered.

Story: Ravi is a farmer in a small Indian village, tending to his mango
orchard. Ravi wants to harvest ripe mangoes to sell at the local market. He
notices a mango tree with a heavy branch laden with ripe mangoes. A
mischievous monkey comes along and eats all the ripe mangoes on the branch
while Ravi is gathering his harvesting tools. Ravi does not see the monkey
eating the ripe mangoes. Question: Does Ravi believe the branch has ripe
mangoes or no ripe mangoes? Choose one of the following: a) Ravi believes the
branch has ripe mangoes. b) Ravi believes the branch has no ripe mangoes.
Correct Answer: a) Unintervened: b) Ravi believes the branch has no ripe
mangoes. Intervened: a) Ravi believes the branch has ripe mangoes.

Story: Kael is a farmer in a remote village in the Andes. Kael wants to plant
a new crop of high-altitude potatoes in one of his terraced fields. The soil
in the field appears rich and well-fertilized. Overnight, heavy rainfall
washes away much of the fertile soil, leaving mostly rocky dirt behind. Kael
does not notice the change in the soil after the rainfall. Question: Does Kael
believe the soil is rich and well-fertilized or mostly rocky dirt? Choose one
of the following: a) Kael believes the soil is rich and well-fertilized. b)
Kael believes the soil is mostly rocky dirt. Correct Answer: a) Unintervened:
b) Kael believes the soil is mostly rocky dirt. Intervened: a) Kael believes
the soil is rich and well-fertilized.

Story: Farhan is a street food vendor in a bustling market in Istanbul. Farhan
wants to prepare a delicious chicken shawarma wrap for a customer who asked
for extra garlic sauce. Farhan takes a bottle of garlic sauce from the shelf
and pours it onto the shawarma wrap. His assistant, who is busy preparing a
different wrap, accidentally swaps the garlic sauce with a bottle of hot
sauce, and Farhan unknowingly pours the hot sauce onto the shawarma wrap.
Farhan does not notice the sauce swap. Question: Does Farhan believe the sauce
he poured is garlic sauce or hot sauce? Choose one of the following: a) Farhan
believes the sauce he poured is garlic sauce. b) Farhan believes the sauce he
poured is hot sauce. Correct Answer: a) Unintervened: b) Farhan believes the
sauce he poured is hot sauce. Intervened: a) Farhan believes the sauce he
poured is garlic sauce.

Story: Lila is a beekeeper in a small village in Eastern Europe. She wants to
harvest honey from one of her beehives. The beehive is full of honey, as Lila
observed during her last inspection. A sudden cold snap occurs overnight,
causing the bees to consume the honey to stay warm and survive, leaving the
beehive nearly empty. Lila does not notice the cold snap and the decreased
honey in her beehive. Question: Does Lila believe the beehive is full of honey
or nearly empty? Choose one of the following: a) Lila believes the beehive is
full of honey. b) Lila believes the beehive is nearly empty. Correct Answer:
a) Unintervened: b) Lila believes the beehive is nearly empty. Intervened: a)
Lila believes the beehive is full of honey.

Story: Kavi is a chef at a popular Indian restaurant in a bustling city. Kavi
wants to make his signature dish, a spicy curry, for the customers tonight.
Kavi checks the pantry and sees a full bottle of his favorite hot sauce. When
Kavi is away, a new chef accidentally knocks over the hot sauce, spilling its
contents all over the floor. Kavi does not see the spilled hot sauce on the
floor. Question: Does Kavi believe there is a full bottle of hot sauce
available or that the hot sauce has been spilled? Choose one of the following:
a) Kavi believes the hot sauce has been spilled. b) Kavi believes there is a
full bottle of hot sauce available. Correct Answer: b) Unintervened: a) Kavi
believes the hot sauce has been spilled. Intervened: b) Kavi believes there is
a full bottle of hot sauce available.

Story: Juan is a young chef in a small Mexican town. He wants to make a
delicious salsa for the upcoming town festival. Juan buys fresh tomatoes from
the market, which he believes are ripe and perfect for the salsa. While Juan
is away from his kitchen, a mischievous cat knocks over the bag of tomatoes,
crushing them and making them unsuitable for the salsa. Juan does not notice
the crushed tomatoes on the floor. Question: Does Juan believe the tomatoes
are ripe and perfect or crushed and unsuitable? Choose one of the following:
a) Juan believes the tomatoes are ripe and perfect. b) Juan believes the
tomatoes are crushed and unsuitable. Correct Answer: a) Unintervened: b) Juan
believes the tomatoes are crushed and unsuitable. Intervened: a) Juan believes
the tomatoes are ripe and perfect.

Story: Isabela is a baker in a small Argentinian town known for its delicious
pastries. Isabela wants to make a batch of alfajores, a traditional
Argentinian dessert, for her bakery’s customers. Isabela gets a bag of
powdered sugar from her pantry to dust the alfajores. Her assistant, who was
organizing the pantry earlier, accidentally placed a bag of flour in the
powdered sugar’s spot, and Isabela unknowingly grabs the bag of flour instead.
Isabela does not notice the flour. Question: Does Isabela believe the bag she
took from the pantry contains powdered sugar or flour? Choose one of the
following: a) Isabela believes the bag she took from the pantry contains
powdered sugar. b) Isabela believes the bag she took from the pantry contains
flour. Correct Answer: a) Unintervened: b) Isabela believes the bag she took
from the pantry contains flour. Intervened: a) Isabela believes the bag she
took from the pantry contains powdered sugar.

Story: Chi is a fisherman living on a small island in the South Pacific. Chi
wants to go on a fishing trip to catch some fish for his family’s dinner. The
sea appears calm and inviting. Suddenly, a strong storm rolls in, causing the
sea to become rough and dangerous. Chi does not notice the storm and the
change in the sea. Question: Does Chi believe the sea is calm and inviting or
rough and dangerous? Choose one of the following: a) Chi believes the sea is
calm and inviting. b) Chi believes the sea is rough and dangerous. Correct
Answer: a) Unintervened: b) Chi believes the sea is rough and dangerous.
Intervened: a)

Story: Mei is a pearl diver in a small coastal town in Japan. Mei wants to
dive deep into the sea to find a rare and valuable black pearl for her
grandmother’s birthday gift. The water in the cove is calm with barely any
waves. Suddenly, a storm rolls in, and the once calm water becomes rough and
choppy. Mei does not notice the change in the water as the storm approaches.
Question: Does Mei believe the water is calm and perfect for diving or rough
and choppy due to the storm? Choose one of the following: a) Mei believes the
water is calm and perfect for diving. b) Mei believes the water is rough and
choppy due to the storm. Correct Answer: a) Unintervened: b) Mei believes the
water is rough and choppy due to the storm. Intervened: a) Mei believes the
water is calm and perfect for diving.

Story: Amina is an archaeologist working on an excavation site in Egypt. Amina
wants to carefully remove a valuable artifact from the ground using her brush
and trowel. The artifact appears to be intact and undamaged. Suddenly, the
ground shifts slightly, causing a small crack to form on the artifact. Amina
does not notice the ground shift and the crack on the artifact. Question: Does
Amina believe the artifact is in perfect condition or cracked? Choose one of
the following: a) Amina believes the artifact is in perfect condition. b)
Amina believes the artifact is cracked. Correct Answer: a) Unintervened: b)
Amina believes the artifact is cracked. Intervened: a) Amina believes the
artifact is in perfect condition.

Story: Aiko is a florist in a small Japanese town. Aiko wants to create an
exquisite flower arrangement for a customer’s wedding. Aiko sees a vase filled
with fresh, colorful flowers in her shop. Overnight, a sudden drop in
temperature causes the flowers in the vase to wilt. Aiko does not notice the
wilted flowers in the vase. Question: Does Aiko believe the vase contains
fresh, colorful flowers or wilted flowers? Choose one of the following: a)
Aiko believes the vase contains fresh, colorful flowers. b) Aiko believes the
vase contains wilted flowers. Correct Answer: a) Unintervened: b) Aiko
believes the vase contains wilted flowers. Intervened: a) Aiko believes the
vase contains fresh, colorful flowers.

Story: Fatima is an archaeologist working at an excavation site in Egypt. She
wants to carefully remove an ancient artifact from the ground to study and
preserve it. The artifact appears to be intact and in good condition.
Suddenly, a sandstorm blows through the area, burying the artifact in sand and
causing some damage to it. Fatima does not witness the sandstorm and its
effect on the artifact. Question: Does Fatima believe the artifact is intact
and in good condition or damaged by the sandstorm? Choose one of the
following: a) Fatima believes the artifact is intact and in good condition. b)
Fatima believes the artifact is damaged by the sandstorm. Correct Answer: a)
Unintervened: b) Fatima believes the artifact is damaged by the sandstorm.
Intervened: a) Fatima believes the artifact is intact and in good condition.

Story: Juan is a gardener in a small village in Mexico, tending to a flower
garden near the town plaza. Juan wants to water a specific flower bed to
ensure its health and beauty. Juan sees that the garden hose is neatly coiled
and ready for use. Unexpectedly, a group of children playing nearby
accidentally puncture the hose with a sharp stick while running around. Juan
does not see the children accidentally puncture the hose. Question: Does Juan
believe the garden hose is in good condition and functional or punctured and
non-functional? Choose one of the following: a) Juan believes the garden hose
is in good condition and functional. b) Juan believes the garden hose is
punctured and non-functional. Correct Answer: a) Unintervened: b) Juan
believes the garden hose is punctured and non-functional. Intervened: a) Juan
believes the garden hose is in good condition and functional.

Story: Hiroshi is a Japanese gardener tending to a zen garden in Kyoto.
Hiroshi desires to create perfect harmony in the garden by carefully raking
the sand into beautiful patterns. Hiroshi notices that the sand in the garden
is smooth and untouched. A sudden gust of wind blows fallen leaves onto the
sand, disrupting the smooth surface. Hiroshi does not see the gust of wind or
the leaves falling onto the sand. Question: Does Hiroshi believe the sand is
smooth and untouched or disrupted by fallen leaves? Choose one of the
following: a) Hiroshi believes the sand is smooth and untouched. b) Hiroshi
believes the sand is disrupted by fallen leaves. Correct Answer: a)
Unintervened: b) Hiroshi believes the sand is disrupted by fallen leaves.
Intervened: a) Hiroshi believes the sand is smooth and untouched.

Story: Hiro is a bonsai enthusiast in a small village in Japan. He wants to
trim his favorite bonsai tree to maintain its shape and health. Hiro sees that
the tree’s branches are overgrown and need pruning. A gust of wind blows
through Hiro’s garden, snapping off several of the overgrown branches from the
bonsai tree. Hiro does not see the gust of wind snapping off the branches.
Question: Does Hiro believe the bonsai tree has overgrown branches or that
they have been snapped off by the wind? Choose one of the following: a) Hiro
believes the bonsai tree has overgrown branches. b) Hiro believes the branches
have been snapped off by the wind. Correct Answer: a) Unintervened: b) Hiro
believes the branches have been snapped off by the wind. Intervened: a) Hiro
believes the bonsai tree has overgrown branches.

Story: Kofi is a fisherman in a small coastal village in Ghana. He wants to
set sail on his boat to catch fish for his family and the village market. Kofi
checks the weather and sees clear skies and calm waters. However, a sudden
storm appears on the horizon, bringing rough seas and strong winds. Kofi does
not notice the approaching storm. Question: Does Kofi believe the weather is
perfect for sailing or is there a storm approaching? Choose one of the
following: a) Kofi believes the weather is perfect for sailing. b) Kofi
believes there is a storm approaching. Correct Answer: a) Unintervened: b)
Kofi believes there is a storm approaching. Intervened: a) Kofi believes the
weather is perfect for sailing.

Story: Mei is a fisherman in a small coastal village in China. She wants to go
fishing early in the morning when the tide is high. Mei checks the tide chart
and sees that the tide will be high at 5 AM. However, a strong storm far out
at sea has caused the tide to come in much earlier, at 3 AM. Mei does not look
out the window and does not notice the high tide. Question: Does Mei believe
the tide is high at 5 AM or 3 AM? Choose one of the following: a) Mei believes
the tide is high at 5 AM. b) Mei believes the tide is high at 3 AM. Correct
Answer: a) Unintervened: b) Mei believes the tide is high at 3 AM. Intervened:
a) Mei believes the tide is high at 5 AM.

Story: Kwame is a skilled woodcarver in a small African village known for its
exceptional craftsmanship. Kwame wants to create a beautiful wooden sculpture
for the upcoming village festival. Kwame examines a large piece of wood and
notices it is strong and free of imperfections. While Kwame is away, termites
infest the wood, weakening its structure and leaving it unsuitable for
carving. Kwame does not notice the termite-infested wood. Question: Does Kwame
believe the piece of wood is strong and free of imperfections or weakened and
infested with termites? Choose one of the following: a) Kwame believes the
piece of wood is strong and free of imperfections. b) Kwame believes the piece
of wood is weakened and infested with termites. Correct Answer: a)
Unintervened: b) Kwame believes the piece of wood is weakened and infested
with termites. Intervened: a) Kwame believes the piece of wood is strong and
free of imperfections.

Story: Luka is a skilled woodworker in a small Croatian village known for its
traditional crafts. Luka intends to carve an intricate wooden sculpture as a
gift for his friend’s wedding. Luka spots a large piece of high-quality wood
in his workshop. Just when Luka steps away for a moment, his dog chews on the
wood, leaving teeth marks and damage to the surface. Luka does not see the
damaged wood. Question: Does Luka believe the wood is perfect for carving or
damaged with teeth marks? Choose one of the following: a) Luka believes the
wood is perfect for carving. b) Luka believes the wood is damaged with teeth
marks. Correct Answer: a) Unintervened: b) Luka believes the wood is damaged
with teeth marks. Intervened: a) Luka believes the wood is perfect for
carving.

Story: Amara is a talented henna artist in a bustling Indian market. Amara
wants to create intricate henna designs for a group of bridesmaids attending a
wedding. Amara checks her supply of henna paste and finds it to be smooth and
consistent. While Amara is busy servicing another client, a sudden rainstorm
causes the henna paste to become diluted and runny. Amara does not realize the
rain has affected the henna paste. Question: Does Amara believe the henna
paste is smooth and consistent or diluted and runny? Choose one of the
following: a) Amara believes the henna paste is smooth and consistent. b)
Amara believes the henna paste is diluted and runny. Correct Answer: a)
Unintervened: b) Amara believes the henna paste is diluted and runny.
Intervened: a) Amara believes the henna paste is smooth and consistent.

Story: Leilani is a skilled hula dancer from Hawaii who has been asked to
perform at a cultural event. Leilani wants to wear her favorite traditional
hula skirt made of ti leaves for the performance. Leilani sees her ti leaf
skirt hanging in her closet, appearing to be in good condition. While Leilani
is away from her room, her younger brother accidentally spills a glass of
water near the closet, causing her ti leaf skirt to become wet and wilted.
Leilani does not notice the wet and wilted ti leaf skirt. Question: Does
Leilani believe the ti leaf skirt is in good condition or wet and wilted?
Choose one of the following: a) Leilani believes the ti leaf skirt is in good
condition. b) Leilani believes the ti leaf skirt is wet and wilted. Correct
Answer: a) Unintervened: b) Leilani believes the ti leaf skirt is wet and
wilted. Intervened: a) Leilani believes the ti leaf skirt is in good
condition.

Story: Isabella is a skilled baker in a small Italian town. She wants to bake
a fresh batch of her famous ciabatta bread for the local market. Isabella has
prepared the dough earlier and left it to rise in a warm spot in her kitchen.
A curious cat enters the kitchen and jumps onto the counter, accidentally
flattening the dough. Isabella does not see the cat and the flattened dough.
Question: Does Isabella believe the dough has risen enough or has it been
flattened? Choose one of the following: a) Isabella believes the dough has
risen enough. b) Isabella believes the dough has been flattened. Correct
Answer: a) Unintervened: b) Isabella believes the dough has been flattened.
Intervened: a) Isabella believes the dough has risen enough.

Story: Kalyani is a traditional Indian dancer in a temple in Kerala, India.
Kalyani wants to perform a special dance for the upcoming festival to pay
homage to the temple’s deity. The temple floor is clean and free of any
obstacles, as Kalyani has prepared the space for her dance practice. An
accidental spill of oil from a temple lamp causes a slippery patch on the
floor. Kalyani does not notice the oil spill. Question: Does Kalyani believe
the temple floor is clean and perfect for dancing or slippery due to the oil
spill? Choose one of the following: a) Kalyani believes the temple floor is
clean and perfect for dancing. b) Kalyani believes the floor is slippery due
to the oil spill. Correct Answer: a) Unintervened: b) Kalyani believes the
floor is slippery due to the oil spill. Intervened: a) Kalyani believes the
temple floor is clean and perfect for dancing.

Story: Amara is a skilled potter in a small Nigerian village. Amara wants to
create a beautiful, large clay pot to be used in the village’s upcoming
festival. The kiln, used for firing pottery, has been heated to the
appropriate temperature for the clay. Unbeknownst to her, a sudden gust of
wind blows open the kiln door, causing the temperature to drop significantly.
Amara does not notice the kiln door has been blown open. Question: Does Amara
believe the kiln is at the right temperature for firing the large pot or that
the temperature has dropped significantly? Choose one of the following: a)
Amara believes the kiln is at the right temperature for firing the large pot.
b) Amara believes the temperature in the kiln has dropped significantly.
Correct Answer: a) Unintervened: b) Amara believes the temperature in the kiln
has dropped significantly. Intervened: a) Amara believes the kiln is at the
right temperature for firing the large pot

Story: Naledi is a young astronomer in a remote observatory in South Africa.
Naledi wants to observe a distant supernova to gather data for her research.
The telescope is pointed at the coordinates of the supernova, ready for
observation. A minor earthquake occurs, causing the telescope to shift its
position slightly. Naledi does not notice the earthquake and its effect on the
telescope. Question: Does Naledi believe the telescope is aimed at the correct
location or has shifted due to the earthquake? Choose one of the following: a)
Naledi believes the telescope is aimed at the correct location. b) Naledi
believes the telescope has shifted due to the earthquake. Correct Answer: a)
Unintervened: b) Naledi believes the telescope has shifted due to the
earthquake. Intervened: a) Naledi believes the telescope is aimed at the
correct location.

Story: Emeka is a skilled fisherman in a small Nigerian village. He wants to
catch fish to feed his family and sell at the market. Emeka prepares his
fishing net, which appears to be strong and without any holes. However, while
Emeka is not looking, a mischievous child cuts a large hole in the net with a
knife. Emeka does not see the child cutting the hole in the fishing net.
Question: Does Emeka believe the fishing net is strong and without holes, or
that it has a large hole in it? Choose one of the following: a) Emeka believes
the fishing net is strong and without holes. b) Emeka believes that the
fishing net has a large hole in it. Correct Answer: a) Unintervened: b) Emeka
believes that the fishing net has a large hole in it. Intervened: a) Emeka
believes the fishing net is strong and without holes.

Story: Hiroshi is a fisherman in a small coastal village in Japan. Hiroshi
wishes to catch enough fish to feed his family and sell the surplus at the
local market. The fishing nets are in excellent condition, ready to be cast
into the sea. However, a curious pod of dolphins swims by and accidentally
tears the nets with their sharp dorsal fins. Hiroshi does not see the dolphins
or the damage they caused to the nets. Question: Does Hiroshi believe the
fishing nets are in excellent condition or torn by the dolphins? Choose one of
the following: a) Hiroshi believes the fishing nets are in excellent
condition. b) Hiroshi believes the fishing nets are torn by the dolphins.
Correct Answer: a) Unintervened: b) Hiroshi believes the fishing nets are torn
by the dolphins. Intervened: a) Hiroshi believes the fishing nets are in
excellent condition.

Story: Kwame is a skilled woodcarver in a small village in Ghana. Kwame wants
to create a beautiful wooden sculpture of an elephant for his friend’s
birthday. He selects a block of wood from his workshop that appears to be
solid and strong. However, as he begins to carve, he discovers a hidden pocket
of termites inside the wood, rendering it unsuitable for his project. Kwame
does not notice the termites inside the block of wood. Question: Does Kwame
believe the block of wood is sturdy and suitable for carving or that it
contains termites? Choose one of the following: a) Kwame believes the block of
wood contains termites. b) Kwame believes the block of wood is sturdy and
suitable for carving. Correct Answer: b) Unintervened: a) Kwame believes the
block of wood contains termites. Intervened: b)

Story: Naledi is a talented South African chef preparing a traditional braai
for her friends and family. Naledi wants to make a delicious marinade for the
meats and vegetables to be grilled. She takes a bottle of vinegar from the
cupboard to mix with other ingredients for the marinade. Her cousin, who was
helping in the kitchen earlier, accidentally placed a bottle of water in the
vinegar’s spot, and Naledi unknowingly grabs the bottle of water instead.
Naledi does not notice the water. Question: Does Naledi believe the bottle she
took from the cupboard contains vinegar or water? Choose one of the following:
a) Naledi believes the bottle she took from the cupboard contains vinegar. b)
Naledi believes the bottle she took from the cupboard contains water. Correct
Answer: a) Unintervened: b) Naledi believes the bottle she took from the
cupboard contains water. Intervened: a) Naledi believes the bottle she took
from the cupboard contains vinegar.

Story: Mei, a talented pastry chef from a small town in China, is preparing to
bake a large cake for a local celebration. Mei wants to use a specific cake
mold to create a unique and intricate design. Mei sees the cake mold hanging
on the wall, clean and ready for use. However, during a brief power outage, a
gust of wind blows through the kitchen, knocking the cake mold off the wall
and denting it severely. Mei does not notice the dented cake mold on the
floor. Question: Does Mei believe the cake mold is clean and ready for use or
severely dented and unsuitable for use? Choose one of the following: a) Mei
believes the cake mold is clean and ready for use. b) Mei believes the cake
mold is severely dented and unsuitable for use. Correct Answer: a)
Unintervened: b) Mei believes the cake mold is severely dented and unsuitable
for use. Intervened: a) Mei believes the cake mold is clean and ready for use.

Changed to Incorrect Answer: 5/100

Story: Aniket is a marine biologist studying coral reefs off the coast of
India. Aniket needs to collect samples of coral to analyze the effects of
climate change on the reef. Aniket spots a healthy-looking coral formation in
a specific area of the reef. A sudden wave surge stirs up sediment, covering
the once healthy coral formation and causing it to become damaged. Aniket does
not notice the wave surge or the sediment covering the coral. Question: Does
Aniket believe the coral formation is healthy or damaged? Choose one of the
following: a) Aniket believes the coral formation is damaged. b) Aniket
believes the coral formation is healthy. Correct Answer: b) Unintervened: b)
Aniket believes the coral formation is healthy. Intervened: a) Aniket believes
the coral formation is damaged.

Story: Fatima is an archaeologist working on a dig site in Egypt. Fatima hopes
to find an ancient artifact that could shed light on an important historical
event. During her excavation, Fatima discovers a clay tablet with faded
inscriptions that she believes might be valuable. As a sandstorm approaches,
the strong winds blow sand onto the tablet, erasing the remaining inscriptions
and making the tablet indistinguishable from any other piece of clay. Fatima
does not notice the sandstorm or the damage to the clay tablet. Question: Does
Fatima believe the clay tablet has important historical inscriptions or has
become indistinguishable from any other piece of clay? Choose one of the
following: a) Fatima believes the clay tablet has become indistinguishable
from any other piece of clay. b) Fatima believes the clay tablet has important
historical inscriptions. Correct Answer: b) Unintervened: b) Fatima believes
the clay tablet has important historical inscriptions. Intervened: a) Fatima
believes the clay tablet has become indistinguishable from any other piece of
clay.

Story: Mei is a dedicated librarian in a small town in China. She wants to
organize a reading corner for children using a large, colorful rug. Mei sees
the rug rolled up in a storage room, appearing to be in good condition.
However, when Mei is not looking, a leak in the storage room ceiling drips
water onto the rug, causing it to become soaked and damp. Mei does not notice
the dampness of the rug and the leak in the ceiling. Question: Does Mei
believe the rug is in good condition or damp and soaked? Choose one of the
following: a) Mei believes the rug is damp and soaked. b) Mei believes the rug
is in good condition. Correct Answer: b) Unintervened: b) Mei believes the rug
is in good condition. Intervened: a) Mei believes the rug is damp and soaked.

Story: Olabisi is a beekeeper in a small town in Nigeria. Olabisi wants to
collect honey from the beehives to sell at the local market. The bees appear
to be calm and undisturbed as they go about their daily activities. Out of
nowhere, a group of children playing nearby accidentally throw a ball into the
beehives, agitating the bees and making them aggressive. Olabisi does not
notice the children’s ball hitting the beehives. Question: Does Olabisi
believe the bees are calm or agitated and aggressive? Choose one of the
following: a) Olabisi believes the bees are agitated and aggressive. b)
Olabisi believes the bees are calm. Correct Answer: b) Unintervened: b)
Olabisi believes the bees are calm. Intervened: a) Olabisi believes the bees
are agitated and aggressive.

Story: Lila is a talented violinist who lives in a bustling city in India.
Today, she has an important audition for a renowned symphony orchestra. Lila
picks up her violin case, which she assumes contains her valuable violin.
However, her younger brother, who was playing around earlier, accidentally
swapped her violin case with his identical-looking case containing a
beginner’s violin. Lila does not notice the swapped violin cases. Question:
Does Lila believe the violin case contains her valuable violin or a beginner’s
violin? Choose one of the following: a) Lila believes the violin case contains
a beginner’s violin. b) Lila believes the violin case contains her valuable
violin. Correct Answer: b) Unintervened: b) Lila believes the violin case
contains her valuable violin. Intervened: a) Lila believes the violin case
contains a beginner’s violin.

###  E.4 DeepSeek-7B on Forward Belief, True Belief

Changed to Correct Answer: 6/100

Story: Noor is working as a barista at a busy coffee shop. Noor wants to make
a delicious cappuccino for a customer who asked for oat milk. Noor grabs a
milk pitcher and fills it with oat milk. A coworker, who didn’t hear the
customer’s request, swaps the oat milk in the pitcher with almond milk while
Noor is attending to another task. Noor sees her coworker swapping the milk.
Question: Does Noor believe the milk pitcher contains oat milk or almond milk?
Choose one of the following: a) Noor believes the milk pitcher contains almond
milk. b) Noor believes the milk pitcher contains oat milk. Correct Answer: a)
Unintervened: b) Noor believes the milk pitcher contains oat milk. Intervened:
a) Noor believes the milk pitcher contains almond milk.

Story: Zara is attending an art exhibition at a local gallery in her town.
Zara wants to learn more about a particular abstract painting she admires. The
label next to the artwork states that the painting is the work of a famous
artist, and Zara reads the label carefully. A gallery staff member, realizing
there was a mix-up, changes the label with the correct information attributing
the painting to an emerging artist instead. Zara reads the updated label
carefully. Question: Does Zara believe the painting is the work of a famous
artist or an emerging artist? Choose one of the following: a) Zara believes
the painting is the work of an emerging artist. b) Zara believes the painting
is the work of a famous artist. Correct Answer: a) Unintervened: b) Zara
believes the painting is the work of a famous artist. Intervened: a) Zara
believes the painting is the work of an emerging artist.

Story: Farhan is a street food vendor in a bustling market in Istanbul. Farhan
wants to prepare a delicious chicken shawarma wrap for a customer who asked
for extra garlic sauce. Farhan takes a bottle of garlic sauce from the shelf
and pours it onto the shawarma wrap. His assistant, who is busy preparing a
different wrap, accidentally swaps the garlic sauce with a bottle of hot
sauce, and Farhan unknowingly pours the hot sauce onto the shawarma wrap.
Farhan notices the sauce swap. Question: Does Farhan believe the sauce he
poured is garlic sauce or hot sauce? Choose one of the following: a) Farhan
believes the sauce he poured is hot sauce. b) Farhan believes the sauce he
poured is garlic sauce. Correct Answer: a) Unintervened: b) Farhan believes
the sauce he poured is garlic sauce. Intervened: a) Farhan believes the sauce
he poured is hot sauce.

Story: Isabela is a baker in a small Argentinian town known for its delicious
pastries. Isabela wants to make a batch of alfajores, a traditional
Argentinian dessert, for her bakery’s customers. Isabela gets a bag of
powdered sugar from her pantry to dust the alfajores. Her assistant, who was
organizing the pantry earlier, accidentally placed a bag of flour in the
powdered sugar’s spot, and Isabela unknowingly grabs the bag of flour instead.
Isabela notices the flour and puts it back. Question: Does Isabela believe the
bag she took from the pantry contains powdered sugar or flour? Choose one of
the following: a) Isabela believes the bag she took from the pantry contains
flour. b) Isabela believes the bag she took from the pantry contains powdered
sugar. Correct Answer: a) Unintervened: b) Isabela believes the bag she took
from the pantry contains powdered sugar. Intervened: a) Isabela believes the
bag she took from the pantry contains flour.

Story: Amaury is a baker in a small village in France. Amaury wants to make
pain aux raisins, a pastry filled with raisins and custard, for the customers
visiting his bakery. Amaury takes a jar of raisins from the pantry to add to
the pastry dough. His assistant, while tidying the pantry, accidentally
replaces the raisin jar with a jar containing sultanas without realizing the
difference. Amaury notices the jar swap. Question: Does Amaury believe the jar
contains raisins or sultanas? Choose one of the following: a) Amaury believes
the jar contains sultanas. b) Amaury believes the jar contains raisins.
Correct Answer: a) Unintervened: b) Amaury believes the jar contains raisins.
Intervened: a) Amaury believes the jar contains sultanas.

Story: Amara is a sculptor in a small town in Greece. She wants to carve a
statue of Aphrodite using a large piece of marble. Amara selects a slab of
marble from her workshop, which she thinks is free from cracks and
imperfections. However, a hairline crack is present in the marble slab, which
goes unnoticed by her. Amara discovers the hairline crack in the marble slab.
Question: Does Amara believe the marble slab is free from cracks or has a
hairline crack? Choose one of the following: a) Amara believes the marble slab
has a hairline crack. b) Amara believes the marble slab is free from cracks.
Correct Answer: a) Unintervened: b) Amara believes the marble slab is free
from cracks. Intervened: a) Amara believes the marble slab has a hairline
crack.

Changed to Incorrect Answer: 16/100

Story: Abhay is a young farmer in a small Indian village. He wants to water
his crops with the water stored in a large clay pot. Abhay checks the water
level and sees that the pot is full. Unbeknownst to him, a hole in the bottom
of the pot has caused the water to leak out, leaving the pot empty. Abhay
notices the hole and the water leaking out. Question: Does Abhay believe the
pot is full of water or empty? Choose one of the following: a) Abhay believes
the pot is full of water. b) Abhay believes the pot is empty. Correct Answer:
b) Unintervened: b) Abhay believes the pot is empty. Intervened: a) Abhay
believes the pot is full of water.

Story: Hiroshi is a fisherman in a small coastal village in Japan. Hiroshi
wants to catch some fish to provide dinner for his family. Hiroshi checks the
weather forecast and sees that it will be sunny throughout the day. Suddenly,
a heavy rainstorm moves in, darkening the sky and causing strong waves.
Hiroshi notices the rainstorm approaching. Question: Does Hiroshi believe the
weather will be sunny or does he expect a rainstorm? Choose one of the
following: a) Hiroshi believes the weather will be sunny all day. b) Hiroshi
believes there will be a rainstorm. Correct Answer: b) Unintervened: b)
Hiroshi believes there will be a rainstorm. Intervened: a) Hiroshi believes
the weather will be sunny all day.

Story: Cheng is a teacher in a rural Chinese village. Cheng wants to use a
projector to show a documentary about Chinese history to his students. The
projector is plugged in and turned on, as Cheng has prepared it beforehand. As
the wind blows outside, the power goes out, causing the projector to turn off.
Cheng notices the power outage. Question: Does Cheng believe the projector is
ready to use or turned off? Choose one of the following: a) Cheng believes the
projector is ready to use. b) Cheng believes the projector is turned off.
Correct Answer: b) Unintervened: b) Cheng believes the projector is turned
off. Intervened: a) Cheng believes the projector is ready to use.

Story: Fatima is a potter in a small Moroccan village known for its vibrant
ceramics. Fatima wants to create a beautiful vase as a wedding gift for her
cousin. Fatima has left her kiln turned off overnight to cool down. A power
surge during the night causes the kiln to turn on unexpectedly, making it
dangerously hot. Fatima feels the heat emanating from the kiln. Question: Does
Fatima believe her kiln is off and cool or unexpectedly hot? Choose one of the
following: a) Fatima believes her kiln is off and cool. b) Fatima believes her
kiln is unexpectedly hot. Correct Answer: b) Unintervened: b) Fatima believes
her kiln is unexpectedly hot. Intervened: a) Fatima believes her kiln is off
and cool.

Story: Aiko is a florist in a small Japanese town. Aiko wants to create an
exquisite flower arrangement for a customer’s wedding. Aiko sees a vase filled
with fresh, colorful flowers in her shop. Overnight, a sudden drop in
temperature causes the flowers in the vase to wilt. Aiko notices the wilted
flowers in the vase. Question: Does Aiko believe the vase contains fresh,
colorful flowers or wilted flowers? Choose one of the following: a) Aiko
believes the vase contains wilted flowers. b) Aiko believes the vase contains
fresh, colorful flowers. Correct Answer: a) Unintervened: a) Aiko believes the
vase contains wilted flowers. Intervened: b) Aiko believes the vase contains
fresh, colorful flowers.

Story: Carlos is a farmer in a small village in Mexico. Carlos wants to
harvest his corn crop before the rainy season begins. The corn plants are
tall, strong, and ready for harvest in his field. A sudden and unexpected
hailstorm strikes, severely damaging the corn plants. Carlos sees the damaged
corn plants after the hailstorm. Question: Does Carlos believe the corn plants
are tall, strong, and ready for harvest, or does he believe they are severely
damaged? Choose one of the following: a) Carlos believes the corn plants are
tall, strong, and ready for harvest. b) Carlos believes the corn plants are
severely damaged. Correct Answer: b) Unintervened: b) Carlos believes the corn
plants are severely damaged. Intervened: a) Carlos believes the corn plants
are tall, strong, and ready for harvest.

Story: Miguel is a chef at a popular restaurant in Mexico City. Miguel wants
to prepare a delicious and authentic mole sauce for the evening’s special
dish. Miguel notices that the chocolate he has in the pantry is of high
quality and perfect for the sauce. A sudden power outage causes the
temperature in the pantry to rise, melting the chocolate. Miguel discovers the
melted chocolate in the pantry. Question: Does Miguel believe the chocolate is
perfect for making the mole sauce or that the chocolate has melted? Choose one
of the following: a) Miguel believes the chocolate is perfect for making the
mole sauce. b) Miguel believes the chocolate has melted. Correct Answer: b)
Unintervened: b) Miguel believes the chocolate has melted. Intervened: a)
Miguel believes the chocolate is perfect for making the mole sauce.

Story: Fatima is a talented artist living in a small Moroccan village. Fatima
wants to create a beautiful painting to donate for the local charity auction.
She has a brand-new set of high-quality paintbrushes in her studio. While she
is away, her younger brother accidentally ruins the paintbrushes by using them
for a school project with glue. Fatima discovers the ruined paintbrushes upon
her return to the studio. Question: Does Fatima believe she has high-quality
paintbrushes or ruined paintbrushes in her studio? Choose one of the
following: a) Fatima believes she has high-quality paintbrushes in her studio.
b) Fatima believes the paintbrushes are ruined. Correct Answer: b)
Unintervened: b) Fatima believes the paintbrushes are ruined. Intervened: a)
Fatima believes she has high-quality paintbrushes in her studio.

Story: Tumelo is a skilled fisherman in a coastal village in South Africa. He
wants to catch fish using his large, sturdy fishing net. Tumelo inspected the
net before leaving home and saw that it was in perfect condition. As he walks
to the shore, a mischievous seagull pecks at the net, causing a large tear in
it. Tumelo sees the seagull damaging the net. Question: Does Tumelo believe
the fishing net is in perfect condition or torn? Choose one of the following:
a) Tumelo believes the fishing net is in perfect condition. b) Tumelo believes
the fishing net is torn. Correct Answer: b) Unintervened: b) Tumelo believes
the fishing net is torn. Intervened: a) Tumelo believes the fishing net is in
perfect condition.

Story: Fatima is an archaeologist working on a dig site in Egypt, searching
for ancient artifacts. She wants to carefully excavate a small, fragile
artifact she has discovered. Fatima observes that the soil around the artifact
is soft and loose. Just as Fatima is about to begin excavating, a strong gust
of wind blows through the site, hardening the soil around the artifact. Fatima