other compact systems can benefit from the larger resistively heated NEG
tubes, where activation is simpler and a larger pumping rate can be attained.

Recent work on passive pumping in a compact vacuum cell has demonstrated that
the MOT can survive timescales exceeding 200 days in an isolated vacuum cell
with only the resistively heated NEG for pumping Little  _et al._ (2021). In
this scenario, the initial UHV pressures within the cell were achieved with a
standard vacuum and ion pump combination prior to cell closure. Following cell
isolation, a total vacuum pressure, measured from the MOT loading time, of
$\sim 10^{-7}$ mbar was sustained by the NEG pill over 200 days. Unlike the
micro ion pump, the NEG has no direct readout to the end-user of the inner
vacuum pressure. However, as has been highlighted in literature, the MOT rise
timeLittle  _et al._ (2021); Burrow  _et al._ (2021); Weatherill  _et al._
(2009); Boudot  _et al._ (2020) or magnetic trap lifetime Monroe  _et al._
(1990); McGilligan  _et al._ (2017) of the cold atoms can be used to back out
the total background pressure from the vacuum system, circumventing the
necessity for further component inclusion.

###  VII.4 Vacuum isolation

While the discussion thus far has focuses on the maintenance of UHV pressures,
the method for achieving an initial pressure that is suitable for laser
cooling has yet to be discussed. Here, we will review the previously used
methods to achieve UHV pressures in compact cold atom systems, outlining the
applicability to chip-scale integration. The three main experimental
techniques are highlighted in Fig. 15 and discussed below.

Figure 15:  Illustrated methods for vacuum closure and isolation. (a): Cell
bonding within a UHV environment, such as a bonding station or Bell chamber
with UHV capabilities. (b): Internal cell plug to isolate the cell from an
external pumping station. The example given is that highlighted in Ref.
[Maurice (2016)] for the laser heating of a glass membrane to provide a
hermetic seal between the glass and silicon substrates. (c): Mechanical cold
weld sealing of a copper pinch off tube, adhered to the cell with a fluid
connection, to isolate the cell from an external pumping station once the
required UHV pressures have been achieved within the cell.

####  VII.4.1 In-vacuum encapsulation

A well established technique for vacuum encapsulation in micro-fabricated
vapor cells is the fabrication of the cell within a controlled vacuum
environment, such as a bell chamber or commercially available bonding station
Bopp  _et al._ (2020); Stern  _et al._ (2019); Hummon  _et al._ (2018); Newman
_et al._ (2019); Karlen  _et al._ (2020). The wide-spread implementation of
this method for vapor cell fabrication is due to the total pressure and
partial buffer gas pressure that can be well controlled within the inner
chamber environment Noor  _et al._ (2020); Knapkiewicz (2019a); Kitching
(2018). With an in-situ pressure gauge, the chamber pressure can be well
tracked at the onset of the cell sealing process. After cell closure, the
bonding chamber can be vented to atmosphere, with the previous vacuum pressure
theoretically retained within the now hermetically sealed cell.

While this method can be adapted for cold-atom systems, a number of issues
have thus far limited its suitability to the application. Firstly, if anodic
bonding were to be used to close the cell, the inner pressure of the cell
would be degraded from the measured control pressure by the O2 released into
the inner cell environment as a by-product of the bonding process Rushton  _et
al._ (2014). Additionally, the issue of released O2, combined with the
difficulty in clean atomic deposition with anodically bonded cells Bopp  _et
al._ (2020) as outlined in Sect. IV, makes control of the alkali vapor density
within the cell post-bonding difficult to pre-establish as being suitable for
the formation of a MOT.

However, if instead of anodic bonding, a more suitable technique, such as
thermo-compression bonding, were used for this encapsulation stage, then the
cell inner vacuum parameters are more likely to be that of the bonding chamber
initial conditions, with the increased likelihood of compatibility with laser
cooling.

####  VII.4.2 Vacuum seal

A second method outlined in Fig. 15 (b) is the routine of sealing a cell post
pumping. This method involves the cell initially having a direct connection to
a vacuum pump, where the inner vacuum dynamics can be well characterized and
optimized to the end-user application. Once the vacuum characteristics meet
the user requirements, a seal is applied to isolate the cell from the larger
pump apparatus. A key advantage to this approach is the ability to implement
laser cooling prior to cell isolation and separation, such that the temporal
vacuum pressure can be tracked to optimise the process, ensuring critical
information can be extracted for feedback to the isolation process.

A well known process that utilizes this approach is the ‘hot-torch’ sealing of
glass-blown atomic vapor cells. For this process, a number of macro-scale
glass vapor cells would be glass blown in borosilicate stems, connected
internally to a ampoule reservoir of the selected alkali. The localized
heating of the ampoule and glass is used to dictate the vapor pressure in each
connected glass-blown cell by carefully directing the alkali source down the
stems and into the designated cell volumes. Once the required pressure and
density was sufficient within the cell, a hot torch would be used to bring the
borosilicate stem above the glass working temperature ($\sim$1270∘C bor
(2020)), where it can be mechanically pinched, to close and separate the
individual cells from the larger system Singh  _et al._ (1972); Knapkiewicz
(2019b). While this technique has had widespread success in the manufacturing
of glass-blown atomic reference cells tho (2022); PGB (2022); Sac (2022), its
methodology has not been directly applied to the fabrication of MEMS vapor
cells.

A notable micro-fabricated routine that has been inspired by this classical
approach is the glass membrane closure, outlined by V. Maurice Maurice (2016);
Maurice  _et al._ (2022). Here, the author locally heats a thin glass membrane
of the MEMS cell upper window with a CO2 laser to soften and deflect the
glass. The pressure differential between the cell inner pressure and outer
atmospheric pressure encourages the glass to sag and close a 40 $\mu$m
diameter channel etched into the silicon frame. This procedure has been
demonstrated to isolate the micro-fabricated cell from the rest of the
substrate, which can then be diced without evidence of a substantial vacuum
leak. The transfer of this technology to a larger vacuum conductance channel
for cold atom systems would enable laser cooling demonstrations in the cell
prior to isolation, which has been shown to have success in UHV
characterization for passive pumping McGilligan  _et al._ (2020b).

####  VII.4.3 Cold weld

A widely used method for the hermetic isolation of UHV vacuum components,
shown in Fig. 15 (c), is the cold weld sealing of copper tubes Du  _et al._
(2004); Schwindt  _et al._ (2016); Grosse  _et al._ (2016). The technique of
copper pinch-off involves the compression of a hollow copper stem under
vacuum, where the inner surfaces are clean from oxide build up, such that when
pressure is applied between the surfaces, the individual atoms can diffuse
into the opposing wall, forming a hermetic seal that can sustain the inner
vacuum at UHV pressures Komareneni  _et al._ (1979).

In recent years this method has been used in the manufacturing of compact cold
atom systems, initially pumped down by a larger vacuum apparatus prior to
pinch off and device isolation Burrow  _et al._ (2021); Little  _et al._
(2021); Bregazzi  _et al._ (2021b). The advantages provided by the isolation
of the system after pre-establishing laser cooling within the cells have
enabled these systems to extract critical information to the longevity of the
instruments and optimise the performance of passive vacuum pumping.

Unlike the methods for vacuum sealing previously discussed, such as the glass
melt technique, the ability to close the vacuum via copper pinch off requires
a larger footprint for the inclusion of the copper stem stem. Additionally,
the inclusion of a copper stem is not easily adapted to micro-fabricated
components. While previous chip-scale vacuum cells have included a copper stem
adhered to the cell surface using vacuum compatible epoxy Bregazzi  _et al._
(2021b), the longevity of the cell may ultimately be limited by the outgassing
of the epoxy over time. Instead, if the cell surface is coated with an
evaporated layer of suitably smooth copper, the copper stem could be adhered
with Cu-Cu thermo-compression bonding. This would provide the ability to later
pinch off the cell without the potentially degrading the inner vacuum from
out-gassing.

##  VIII Magnetic field generation

###  VIII.1 Planar coil solutions

A remaining component that is essential for the realization of an
unambiguously chip-scale cold-atom sensor is a micro-fabricated solution to
the generation of a quadrupole magnetic field. The need for a low-power and
compact solution to trapping geometries for magnetic fields has been explored
with additive manufacturing of novel coil structures for portable quantum
technology Saint  _et al._ (2018). While this process of fabrication has
demonstrated the ability to generate a suitable gradient magnetic field for
laser cooling in a MOT, the device requires in-vacuum implementation that
greatly restricts the available optical access for cooling and interrogation
of the atomic ensemble. Importantly, the demonstrated generation of the device
does not meet the requirements of chip-scale components and would not have a
direct compatibility with existing technology.

An alternative approach that has been used for the implementation of current
carrying wires in chip-scale devices are lithographically structured coil
arrays. Surface deposited wires have been implemented in atomic sensors for
applications ranging from static RF magnetic fields Schwindt  _et al._ (2007);
Kitching (2018), magnetic guides for atomic traps Garrido Alzar (2019); Huang
_et al._ (2019), cell heaters Noor and Shkel (2018), and atomic chip-trap
geometries Baumgärtner  _et al._ (2010); Sewell  _et al._ (2010); Reichel  _et
al._ (1999); Folman  _et al._ (2000).

Figure 16:  (a): Illustration of the planar coil design for a quadrupole
magnetic field used for laser cooling in Ref. [Chen  _et al._ (2022)]. (b):
Magnetic field simulation for the coil design shown in (a), where the outer
coil has 13 turns and a mean radius of 12.2 mm. The inner coil, with opposite
current polarity has 13 turns and a mean radius of 5.2 mm. A current of 0.9 A
is used for this simulation. (c): Planar coil design for a standard anti-
Helmholtz pair, formed on to separate chips and separated by $d$ the diameter
of the coil. (d): Magnetic field simulation for the coil design shown in (b),
where each upper and lower coil in the anti-Helmholtz pair have 13 turns and a
current of 0.9 A.

Recent work has used printed circuit board (PCB) with surface deposited copper
wires, using a thickness, width and period of 70 $\mu$m, 200 $\mu$m and 200
$\mu$m to achieve a $\sim$10 G/cm gradient trapping field with an applied
current of 0.9 A Chen  _et al._ (2022). The compatibility of this technology
with other chip-scale quantum devices was emphasized by the integration with a
GMOT chip, demonstrating a planar stacked cooling and magnetic field
generating chip capable of confining 2$\times 10^{4}$ 87Rb atoms in a MOT.
While this is an advantageous study to address the miniaturization of the coil
configuration for chip-scale cold atom instruments, the authors elected to use
a single planar coil chip, with a small and large coil of opposite current
polarity to generate the gradient magnetic field, shown in Fig. 16 (a) and
(b). Ultimately the reduced saddle potential from the gradient field will
reduce the achievable number of atoms that can be trapped in the reduced
trapping region.

Alternatively, this technology could be used in a standard anti-Helmholtz
configuration if used in conjunction with a GMOT-MEMS cell, where the vertical
separation between the planar coil stacks can be reduced to the millimeter
scale, enabling low power consumption and a reduced footprint for device
amalgamation. An illustration of the coil and generated field lines are shown
in Fig. 16.

##  IX Outlook

Laser cooled atoms have revolutionized our capabilities in precision
measurement, redefined the second, paved the way to the creation of new states
of matter, and driven research in fundamental physics. At the core of this
review article we have examined the potential for cold-atom systems to reach
out beyond the laboratory environment where the precision and stability of
ultra-cold ensembles can have the largest social and economic impact by
facilitating a step-change in our technological capabilities.

###### Acknowledgements.

The authors would like to thank A. Bregazzi, S. Dyer, R. Boudot and D. Burt
for useful comments on the manuscript. The authors acknowledge funding from
Defence Security and Technology Laboratory, Engineering and Physical Sciences
Research Council (EP/T001046/1), and Defence and Security Accelerator. J. P.
M. gratefully acknowledges funding from a Royal Academy of Engineering
Research Fellowship. This collaborative work was carried out within the
International Network for Micro-fabricated Atomic Quantum Sensors (INMAQS)
network.

###  IX.1 Conflict of interest

This article has been submitted to Review of Scientific Instruments. The
authors declare they have no competing interest. Approved for Public Release,
Distribution Unlimited.

## Data Availability Statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the
corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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