18F, both of which are PET isotopes. The PET isotopes show much higher
resolution, and more tumors are visible. Taken from [160].

Using radioisotopes for treatment is a broad space. The concept is similar to
a PET isotope- attach a radioisotope to a tracer which binds to a targeted
region. In this case, the goal of the radioisotope is not to provide an image,
but instead cause localized cell death. Any form in which radiation from a
targeted radioisotope can cause cell death can be used as a form of treatment
to kill of unwanted cells (such as tumors). This can be done in many forms,
however for the sake of this thesis, I will be focusing on alpha emitters. The
advantage of alpha emitters are their highly localized area of effect that
result from the rapid loss of energy of an alpha particle in matter. This is
the ideal property of a radioisotope treatment- first, high amounts of energy
ensure a double stranded break of the cell, causing death rather than
mutation. Second, the energy is deposited over a small area, preventing damage
to any neighboring cells. This has lead to the exciting results of alpha
emitters in recent years that can successfully treat even malignant tumors,
such as those seen in FIG. 7.2

Figure 7.2:  PET images over time of a subject with malignant cancer. After
two treatments with 225Ac the patient has become essentially cancer-free.
Taken from [136].

There is a delicate balancing act when deciding on an isotope for treatment or
therapy. On one hand the half life cannot be so short that the isotope decays
before reaching its target. On the other, the isotope half life can not be so
long as to over expose the patient after the therapy is completed, or not
provide a sufficiently strong signal. The chemical nature of the radiotracer
pair must also be made to ensure that the substance and its products is not
toxic.

One way some of these challenges have been mitigated is by the use of "mother"
and "daughter" isotopes. In some cases, such as with 99Mo, a relatively long
lived isotope is produced at an accelerator facility, then shipped to a
hospital. The long lived isotope is then "milked" to its daughter isotope, or
99mTc, which is short lived, and is responsible for imaging. This allows
isotopes to be transported long distances, while simultaneously allowing a
strong signal with a different isotope. In this regime, it is preferred to
have a long lived mother isotope to eliminate a rapid supply chain, and a
short lived daughter isotope to provide strong signal. This is another
advantage of several PET isotopes over SPECT, as many PET isotopes follow this
model.

A new growing field of interest is using "theranostics," or a combination of
radioisotopes to simultaneously and in the same location both image and cause
treatment. In some cases this is done with a single isotope [130, 184, 209,
139, 82, 192]. This would be a case of an isotope that in its decay chain
emits both a detectable decay element (photons in the case of SPECT, or
positrons in the case of PET). While also having therapeutic ionizing
radiation that can kill malignant cells or biological elements in the area. In
other cases it is done with two separate isotopes with similar chemical
properties which allow them to bind to the same ligand or protein [46]. One
way to do this is to produce two radioisotopes with similar chemical
properties, ensuring a general case that they would be able to bind to the
same tracer, regardless of application. Because the diagnostic and therapeutic
are bound to the same carrier, the tracer will be bound in the same location,
therefore tracking the therapeutic and ensuring healthy tissue is not damaged.

These medical tools are based in the production of unstable isotopes. The
primary ways this can be done is in a nuclear reactor or by using an
accelerator. Accelerators have become more common as they are a more
controlled, reliable, and cleaner way to produce mass amounts of desirable
isotopes. While linacs are used by some groups, cyclotrons are much more
common due to their lower cost, higher compactness, and capability for
redundancy.

Most commercial cyclotrons accelerate $\sim$1 mA of H- ions to between 30 and
70 MeV [172]. This energy range is useful for producing a wide range of
isotopes, including 99Mo at lower energies, and 134Ge, and 225Ac at higher
energies [193].

The limitations on these isotopes are their low production rates. This is due
to bounds in beam current and thermal constraints on production targets.
IsoDAR is capable of mitigating both of these bottlenecks. The high current of
IsoDAR provides more protons on target allowing more isotopes to be produced.
IsoDAR is also different than other cyclotrons in its extraction of
$\mathrm{H}_{2}^{+}$. $\mathrm{H}_{2}^{+}$ has the advantage of easily being
broken off, providing for development of higher power targets, as will be
described later in this chapter.

###  7.2  Introduction to the use of IsoDAR to Address Medical Isotope Demand

See pages - of nature_isotopes.pdf

###  7.3 Further Information at applying IsoDAR to Isotope production

Research and development on improving high power targets has been an ongoing
effort at labs sponsored by DOE, however progress is incremental. To increase
progress in this regard, we propose using the IsoDAR cyclotron as a testbed
for target development. While the total power of the IsoDAR cyclotron
overwhelms the power capabilities of modern production targets, the
$\mathrm{H}_{2}^{+}$ beam extracted from the IsoDAR cyclotron can be split
into multiple lower power beams, each with individually variable power. The
beam can be distributed among several stations, each with different
requirements for isotope production or nuclear experimentation. This use of
stations is expanded on in the work below.

See pages - of EJNMMI.pdf

###  7.4 Potential for Expanding The Design

As mentioned previously, it is possible to use the same IsoDAR cyclotron on
other ions with a mass/charge ratio of 2. We have investigated this process
with alpha particles, in which we have found that by tuning the magnetic field
to compensate for the slight change in mass, with no changes to the magnet
shape, it is possible to accelerate alpha particles along the same path as
$\mathrm{H}_{2}^{+}$ ions. Because alpha ion sources do not supply as high
current as our $\mathrm{H}_{2}^{+}$ ion source, issues from space charge are
further mitigated. One additional feature of using alpha particles over
$\mathrm{H}_{2}^{+}$ is that the acceleration of the cyclotron is 60 MeV per
nucleon, meaning that at extraction the total energy of the alpha beam would
be 240 MeV. This unlocks new reactions at these high energies.

Using GEANT4 we executed a preliminary study of isotope production with these
240 MeV alphas. We found two cases of particular interest.

We investigated the production of 225Ac using these higher energy alphas
compared for our previous estimates of 60 MeV protons. While we found that the
yields per unit current using 240 MeV alpha particles on a radium target were
lower than the yield of 60 MeV protons (and lower per unit current than the
100 MeV protons used by DOE) on a thorium target, we found that there was a
higher ratio of 225Ac as compared to 227Ac when produced with 240 MeV alphas.
227Ac is a common contaminant that is often found in conjunction with 225Ac.
This is concerning due to its long half life, and similar chemistry, leading
to radioactive material existing in the patient even long after treatment,
potentially causing damage. The effects of the contaminant are still under
investigation, however producing higher purity 225Ac is certainly a favorable
outcome [66, 47, 5, 104, 151]. Based on our GEANT4 simulations 100 $\mu$A of
100 MeV protons on a thorium target for 1 hour as done by DOE would produce
$\sim$230 mCi of 225Ac and 0.51 mCi of 227Ac, or a ratio of 451:1.
Alternatively, using 100 $\mu$A of 240 MeV alpha particles on a radium target
for 1 hour would produce $\sim$73 mCi of 225Ac and .047 mCi of 227Ac giving a
ratio of 1550:1. While the yield of 225Ac is lower per unit current in this
case, as described previously in this section this can be overcome by the
higher total current capability of the IsoDAR cyclotron. Therefore, using this
reaction will allow for high production of higher purity 225Ac if the power of
the IsoDAR cyclotron is properly managed.

The second case was the production of 134Ce. 134Ce is a PET isotope that has
similar chemical properties to 225Ac, allowing them to bind to the same tracer
and act as a theranostic pair [46]. Being able to simultaneously produce 225Ac
and 134Ce with the same machine would allow for a "one-stop-shop" radioisotope
cancer treatment, in which the 225Ac would be able to eliminate the tumor with
alpha therapy, and the 134Ce would be able to track the progression of the
treatment and the location of any 225Ac being used in the therapy.

Based on similar GEANT4 simulations, 100$\mu$A of 240 MeV alphas on a 140Ce
target for one hour would produce $\sim$117 mCi of 134Ce, while 100$\mu$A of
100 MeV protons on a natural Lanthanum target as practiced by DOE produces
$\sim$100 mCi [46]. This would indicate that the production of 134Ce could be
made more efficient by the use of high energy alpha particles, which could
then be compounded on by the higher current of the IsoDAR cyclotron.

It should be noted that these studies are preliminary. While comparison of the
GEANT4 estimates to experimental proton reactions are readily available for
benchmarking, the libraries used for the alpha reactions do not have a readily
available experiment to directly compare to. Further investigations of the
libraries used in GEANT4 should be done before making any final conclusions.

While the IsoDAR cyclotron is nominally designed to be used at 60 MeV, the
design can be modified to create a full family of cyclotrons that exist at
various energies. This allows the advantages of higher currents and an
$\mathrm{H}_{2}^{+}$ at any beam energy that may be useful for an experiment
or isotope production facility. For example, an IsoDAR 30 MeV machine could
compete with and IBA C-30, acting as a workhorse of 99Mo production with its
10X higher current. Or the cyclotron could be made larger, increasing the
energy to 70 MeV, or perhaps even 100 MeV, thus out compete the IBA C-70 or
even the DOE linear accelerators. The details of the design of this "family of
cyclotrons" is forthcoming, but we are optimistic of their capabilities.

##  Chapter 8 Conclusions

The IsoDAR cyclotron is a new tool for understanding physics and engineering
applications. In this thesis, I described IsoDAR’s potential impact on
fundamental physics and its design.

The IsoDAR experiment was originally motivated as a sterile neutrino
experiment. I have discussed why sterile neutrinos are a strongly motivated
particle in which to search for. IsoDAR would set high confidence, world
leading limits on sterile neutrinos which definitively cover preferred regions
found in global fits. IsoDAR is also one of the few experiments capable of
evaluating models with several sterile neutrinos, evaluating not only 3+1, but
also 3+2 and 3+1+decay [23].

In addition, the experimental setup of IsoDAR leads to the production of a
large number of photons as a convenient byproduct. These photons are primarily
produced via nuclear de-exitations, and can be used in conjunction with the
Yemilab detector to execute an axion search. This would also set world-leading
limits in several axion models [190].

I outlined the physics of cyclotrons, and the design of the IsoDAR cyclotron.
IsoDAR using three major breakthroughs to achieve its higher currents- the use
of $\mathrm{H}_{2}^{+}$, RFQ direct injection, and the utilization of vortex
motion. Our simulations show that our cyclotron is capable of accelerating and
extracting 5 mA of $\mathrm{H}_{2}^{+}$ with acceptable loses on the
extraction septum [27].

I described the design and commissioning of our $\mathrm{H}_{2}^{+}$ ion
source and LEBT electrode system. Our ion source creates a high current, low
emittance beam with 80% $\mathrm{H}_{2}^{+}$ [203]. Our LEBT is designed to
properly match the ion source into our RFQ, allowing for >90% transmission,
while providing beam diagnostics and machine protection.

I also described our RFQ-DIP system, its importance to the cyclotron
community, and how we used machine learning to optimize its design. The RFQ
bunches the beam so that the frequency of the bunches match the frequency of
the cyclotron, greatly increasing the end-to-end transmission [201]. We also
optimized this design using machine learning, and produced useful real time
tools for RFQ commissioning [134].

I closed with the most direct application of the IsoDAR cyclotron: Its
potential use for medical isotopes. The high currents of the IsoDAR cyclotron
allow it to be used for the production of rare and low cross section isotopes
[191, 26]. Some of these isotopes have exciting applications in treatment as
well as diagnostics in medicine. The use of $\mathrm{H}_{2}^{+}$ in IsoDAR
allows it to be used for research and development for high power targets, as
an $\mathrm{H}_{2}^{+}$ beam can be easily split among many target stations.
The use of other ions which may be accelerated, particularly alpha particles,
may also offer advantages to isotope production, without altering the physical
cyclotron.

Therefore IsoDAR is not solely a tool for neutrino physics, but a more
fundamental paradigm shift that pushes forward several fields simultaneously.
By developing the IsoDAR cyclotron we not only have the ability to change
physics, but to change lives.

##  Appendix A Specific Contributions

These papers within this work were done within a collaboration of
approximately 30 people with a wide range of expertise. Here are my specific
contributions:

  * •

In "High-current $\mathrm{H}_{2}^{+}$ beams from a filament-driven multicusp
ion source" [203] I was a major part of the experimental setup, assembly, and
commissioning. I wrote software and designed interfaces that expedited the
mass spectrometry. I also simulated the beam dynamics during the upgrade
process and executed sensitivity studies.

  * •

In "High intensity cyclotrons for neutrino physics" [201] I completed the beam
dynamics simulations for the LEBT matching to the RFQ, design of the LEBT, and
commissioning of the ion source.

  * •

In "What is the potential impact of the IsoDAR cyclotron on radioisotope
production: a review"[191] and "Medical isotope production with the IsoDAR
cyclotron" [26], I had completed yield estimates and established connections
in the isotope industry in order to understand the needs of the community.

  * •

In "Axion-Like Particle Production at Beam Dump Experiments with Distinct
Nuclear Excitation Lines" [190]I led and organized a group to model the axion
yields in IsoDAR. I used GEANT4 to find the nuclear photon yield, lepton
yield, and nuclear excitations in the IsoDAR experiment. I then completed a
phenomenological analysis and created a template to investigate processes
which used photon coupling of the axion in the Yemilab detector.

  * •

In "Input Beam Matching and Beam Dynamics Design Optimizations of the IsoDAR
RFQ Using Statistical and Machine Learning Techniques" [134] I completed the
machine learning analysis and optimization of the RFQ design.

See pages - of NIM.pdf

##  Appendix B Description of Ion Source

See pages - of ion_source.pdf

## References

  * [1] Martín Abadi, Ashish Agarwal, Paul Barham, Eugene Brevdo, Zhifeng Chen, Craig Citro, Greg S. Corrado, Andy Davis, Jeffrey Dean, Matthieu Devin, Sanjay Ghemawat, Ian Goodfellow, Andrew Harp, Geoffrey Irving, Michael Isard, Yangqing Jia, Rafal Jozefowicz, Lukasz Kaiser, Manjunath Kudlur, Josh Levenberg, Dandelion Mané, Rajat Monga, Sherry Moore, Derek Murray, Chris Olah, Mike Schuster, Jonathon Shlens, Benoit Steiner, Ilya Sutskever, Kunal Talwar, Paul Tucker, Vincent Vanhoucke, Vijay Vasudevan, Fernanda Viégas, Oriol Vinyals, Pete Warden, Martin Wattenberg, Martin Wicke, Yuan Yu, and Xiaoqiang Zheng.  TensorFlow: Large-scale machine learning on heterogeneous systems, 2015\.  Software available from tensorflow.org.
  * [2] L.F. Abbott and P. Sikivie.  A Cosmological Bound on the Invisible Axion.  Phys. Lett. B, 120:133–136, 1983.
  * [3] K Abe, R Akutsu, A Ali, C Alt, C Andreopoulos, L Anthony, M Antonova, S Aoki, A Ariga, Y Asada, et al.  Search for electron antineutrino appearance in a long-baseline muon antineutrino beam.  Physical review letters, 124(16):161802, 2020.
  * [4] Ke Abe, Ke Abe, H Aihara, A Aimi, R Akutsu, C Andreopoulos, I Anghel, LHV Anthony, M Antonova, Y Ashida, et al.  Hyper-kamiokande design report.  arXiv preprint arXiv:1805.04163, 2018.
  * [5] Rebecca Abergel, Dahlia An, Andrew Lakes, Julian Rees, and Stacey Gauny.  Actinium biokinetics and dosimetry: What is the impact of ac-227 in accelerator-produced ac-225?☆☆☆.  Journal of Medical Imaging and Radiation Sciences, 50(4):S93, 2019\.
  * [6] P Abratenko, R An, J Anthony, L Arellano, J Asaadi, A Ashkenazi, S Balasubramanian, B Baller, C Barnes, G Barr, et al.  Search for an excess of electron neutrino interactions in microboone using multiple final-state topologies.  Physical review letters, 128(24):241801, 2022.
  * [7] M. Abs, A. Adelmann, J. R. Alonso, S. Axani, W. A. Barletta, R. Barlow, L. Bartoszek, A. Bungau, L. Calabretta, A. Calanna, D. Campo, G. Castro, L. Celona, G. H. Collin, J. M. Conrad, S. Gammino, R. Johnson, G. Karagiorgi, S. Kayser, W. Kleeven, A. Kolano, F. Labrecque, W. A. Loinaz, J. Minervini, M. H. Moulai, H. Okuno, H. Owen, V. Papavassiliou, M. H. Shaevitz, I. Shimizu, T. M. Shokair, K. F. Sorensen, J. Spitz, M. Toups, M. Vagins, K. Van Bibber, M. O. Wascko, D. Winklehner, L. A. Winslow, and J. J. Yang.  IsoDAR@KamLAND: A Conceptual Design Report for the Technical Facility, November 2015.  arXiv: 1511.05130.
  * [8] Andreas Adelmann.  On Nonintrusive Uncertainty Quantification and Surrogate Model Construction in Particle Accelerator Modeling.  SIAM/ASA Journal on Uncertainty Quantification, 7(2):383–416, 2019\.
  * [9] Andreas Adelmann, Ch Kraus, Y Ineichen, and JJ Yang.  The opal (object oriented parallel accelerator library) framework.  PSI, Zurich, Switzerland, Rep. PSI-PR-08-02, 2017, 2008.
  * [10] G Agnolet, W Baker, D Barker, R Beck, TJ Carroll, J Cesar, P Cushman, JB Dent, S De Rijck, B Dutta, et al.  Background studies for the miner coherent neutrino scattering reactor experiment.  Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment, 853:53–60, 2017\.
  * [11] A Aguilar, LB Auerbach, RL Burman, DO Caldwell, ED Church, AK Cochran, JB Donahue, A Fazely, GT Garvey, RM Gunasingha, et al.  Evidence for neutrino oscillations from the observation of $\nu$ e appearance in a $\nu$ $\mu$ beam.  Physical Review D, 64(11):112007, 2001.
  * [12] A Aguilar-Arevalo, X Bertou, C Bonifazi, M Butner, G Cancelo, A Castañeda Vázquez, B Cervantes Vergara, CR Chavez, H Da Motta, JC D’Olivo, et al.  Results of the engineering run of the coherent neutrino nucleus interaction experiment (connie).  Journal of Instrumentation, 11(07):P07024, 2016.
  * [13] AA Aguilar-Arevalo, DSM Alves, S Biedron, J Boissevain, M Borrego, M Chavez-Estrada, A Chavez, JM Conrad, RL Cooper, A Diaz, et al.  First leptophobic dark matter search from the coherent–captain-mills liquid argon detector.  Physical Review Letters, 129(2):021801, 2022.
  * [14] AA Aguilar-Arevalo, DSM Alves, S Biedron, J Boissevain, M Chavez-Estrada, J Plata-Salas, JM Conrad, RL Cooper, A Diaz, JR Distel, et al.  Axion-like particles at coherent captain-mills, 2021.
  * [15] AA Aguilar-Arevalo, BC Brown, JM Conrad, R Dharmapalan, A Diaz, Z Djurcic, DA Finley, R Ford, GT Garvey, S Gollapinni, et al.  Updated miniboone neutrino oscillation results with increased data and new background studies.  Physical Review D, 103(5):052002, 2021.
  * [16] AA Aguilar-Arevalo, BC Brown, JM Conrad, R Dharmapalan, A Diaz, Z Djurcic, DA Finley, R Ford, GT Garvey, S Gollapinni, et al.  Miniboone and microboone combined fit to a 3+ 1 sterile neutrino scenario.  arXiv preprint arXiv:2201.01724, 2022.
  * [17] AAea Aguilar-Arevalo, BC Brown, L Bugel, G Cheng, ED Church, JM Conrad, R Dharmapalan, Z Djurcic, DA Finley, R Ford, et al.  Improved search for $\nu$ $\mu$→ $\nu$ e oscillations in the miniboone experiment.  Physical review letters, 110(16):161801, 2013.
  * [18] Alexis Aguilar-Arevalo, Xavier Bertou, Carla Bonifazi, Gustavo Cancelo, Alejandro Castañeda, Brenda Cervantes Vergara, Claudio Chavez, Juan C D’Olivo, João C Dos Anjos, Juan Estrada, et al.  Exploring low-energy neutrino physics with the coherent neutrino nucleus interaction experiment.  Physical Review D, 100(9):092005, 2019.
  * [19] M. Ajello et al.  Search for Spectral Irregularities due to Photon–Axionlike-Particle Oscillations with the Fermi Large Area Telescope.  Phys. Rev. Lett., 116(16):161101, 2016.
  * [20] Sergey Alekhin et al.  A facility to Search for Hidden Particles at the CERN SPS: the SHiP physics case.  Rept. Prog. Phys., 79(12):124201, 2016.
  * [21] A Aleksejevs, S Barkanova, Yu G Kolomensky, and B Sheff.  A standard model explanation for the" atomki anomaly".  arXiv preprint arXiv:2102.01127, 2021.
  * [22] Helena Almazan, M Andriamirado, AB Balantekin, HR Band, CD Bass, DE Bergeron, L Bernard, A Blanchet, A Bonhomme, NS Bowden, et al.  Joint measurement of the u 235 antineutrino spectrum by prospect and stereo.  Physical Review Letters, 128(8):081802, 2022.
  * [23] J Alonso, CA Argüelles, A Bungau, JM Conrad, B Dutta, YD Kim, E Marzec, D Mishins, SH Seo, M Shaevitz, et al.  Neutrino physics opportunities with the isodar source at yemilab.  Physical Review D, 105(5):052009, 2022.
  * [24] J Alonso, J Conrad, and L Waites.  Isotope production from the isodar cyclotron.  arxchiv, 11 2018.
  * [25] J. R. Alonso.  Relevance of IsoDAR and DAE$\delta$ALUS to Medical Radioisotope Production.  ArXiv e-prints, 2012.
  * [26] Jose R Alonso, Roger Barlow, Janet M Conrad, and Loyd Hoyt Waites.  Medical isotope production with the isodar cyclotron.  Nature Reviews Physics, 1(9):533–535, 2019.
  * [27] Jose R. Alonso and K. Nakamura.  IsoDAR@KamLAND:A Conceptual Design Report for the Conventional Facilities, 2017.
  * [28] JR Alonso, KM Bang, R Barlow, L Bartoszek, A Bungau, L Calabretta, JM Conrad, S Kayser, YD Kim, KS Park, et al.  Isodar@ yemilab: A conceptual design report for the deployment of the isotope decay-at-rest experiment in korea’s new underground laboratory, yemilab.  arXiv preprint arXiv:2110.10635, 2021.
  * [29] V. Anastassopoulos et al.  New CAST Limit on the Axion-Photon Interaction.  Nature Phys., 13:584–590, 2017.
  * [30] Manoa Andriamirado, AB Balantekin, HR Band, CD Bass, DE Bergeron, D Berish, NS Bowden, JP Brodsky, CD Bryan, T Classen, et al.  Improved short-baseline neutrino oscillation search and energy spectrum measurement with the prospect experiment at hfir.  Physical Review D, 103(3):032001, 2021.
  * [31] E. Aprile et al.  Observation of Excess Electronic Recoil Events in XENON1T, 6 2020.
  * [32] T. Aralis et al.  Constraints on dark photons and axionlike particles from the supercdms soudan experiment.  Phys. Rev. D, 101:052008, Mar 2020.
  * [33] CA Argüelles, I Esteban, M Hostert, Kevin J Kelly, J Kopp, PAN Machado, I Martinez-Soler, and YF Perez-Gonzalez.  Microboone and the $\nu_{e}$ interpretation of the miniboone low-energy excess.  arXiv preprint arXiv:2111.10359, 2021.
  * [34] D. Aristizabal Sierra, V. De Romeri, L. J. Flores, and D. K. Papoulias.  Axionlike particles searches in reactor experiments.  JHEP, 03:294, 2021.
  * [35] E. Armengaud et al.  Axion searches with the EDELWEISS-II experiment.  JCAP, 11:067, 2013.
  * [36] E. Armengaud et al.  Searches for electron interactions induced by new physics in the EDELWEISS-III Germanium bolometers.  Phys. Rev. D, 98(8):082004, 2018.
  * [37] E. Armengaud et al.  Physics potential of the International Axion Observatory (IAXO).  JCAP, 06:047, 2019.
  * [38] Stephen J. Asztalos et al.  Large scale microwave cavity search for dark matter axions.  Phys. Rev. D, 64:092003, 2001.
  * [39] C Athanassopoulos, LB Auerbach, RL Burman, DO Caldwell, ED Church, I Cohen, JB Donahue, A Fazely, FJ Federspiel, GT Garvey, et al.  Evidence for nu_mu-> nu_e neutrino oscillations from lsnd.  arXiv preprint nucl-ex/9709006, 1997.
  * [40] S. Axani, D. Winklehner, J. Alonso, and J. M. Conrad.  A high intensity H${}_{2}^{+}$ multicusp ion source for the isotope decay-at-rest experiment, IsoDAR.  Review of Scientific Instruments, 87(2):02B704, 2016.
  * [41] Spencer Axani, Daniel Winklehner, Janet Conrad, and IsoDAR/DAEdALUS Collaboration.  The front-end of IsoDAR.  In Proceedings of 38th International Conference on High Energy Physics PoS(ICHEP2016), page 484. Sissa Medialab, 2017.
  * [42] Adrian Ayala, Inma Domínguez, Maurizio Giannotti, Alessandro Mirizzi, and Oscar Straniero.  Revisiting the bound on axion-photon coupling from Globular Clusters.  Phys. Rev. Lett., 113(19):191302, 2014.
  * [43] R Baartman.  Intensity limitations in compact h cyclotrons.  In Proc. 14th Int’l Conf. on Cyclotrons and their Applications, pages 440–445, 1995.
  * [44] Rick Baartman.  Space charge limits in the dae$\delta$alus dic compact cyclotron.  arXiv preprint arXiv:1512.09181, 2015.
  * [45] KM Backes, DA Palken, S Al Kenany, BM Brubaker, SB Cahn, A Droster, Gene C Hilton, Sumita Ghosh, H Jackson, SK Lamoreaux, et al.  A quantum enhanced search for dark matter axions.  Nature, 590(7845):238–242, 2021.
  * [46] Tyler A Bailey, Veronika Mocko, Katherine M Shield, Dahlia D An, Andrew C Akin, Eva R Birnbaum, Mark Brugh, Jason C Cooley, Jonathan W Engle, Michael E Fassbender, et al.  Developing the 134 ce and 134 la pair as companion positron emission tomography diagnostic isotopes for 225 ac and 227 th radiotherapeutics.  Nature Chemistry, 13(3):284–289, 2021.
  * [47] Ayagoz Baimukhanova, Gokce Engudar, Genko Marinov, Elena Kurakina, Jakhongir Dadakhanov, Dimitr Karaivanov, Hua Yang, Caterina F Ramogida, Paul Schaffer, EP Magomedbekov, et al.  An alternative radiochemical separation strategy for isolation of ac and ra isotopes from high energy proton irradiated thorium targets for further application in targeted alpha therapy (tat).  Nuclear Medicine and Biology, 112:35–43, 2022.
  * [48] Reuven Balkin, Mieczyslaw W Krasny, Teng Ma, Benjamin R Safdi, and Yotam Soreq.  Probing axion-like-particles at the cern gamma factory.  Annalen der Physik, 534(3):2100222, 2022.
  * [49] D. Banerjee et al.  Search for Axionlike and Scalar Particles with the NA64 Experiment.  Phys. Rev. Lett., 125(8):081801, 2020.
  * [50] VV Barinov, BT Cleveland, SN Danshin, H Ejiri, SR Elliott, D Frekers, VN Gavrin, VV Gorbachev, DS Gorbunov, WC Haxton, et al.  Results from the baksan experiment on sterile transitions (best).  arXiv preprint arXiv:2109.11482, 2021.
  * [51] VV Barinov, SN Danshin, VN Gavrin, VV Gorbachev, DS Gorbunov, TV Ibragimova, Yu P Kozlova, LV Kravchuk, VV Kuzminov, BK Lubsandorzhiev, et al.  Search for electron-neutrino transitions to sterile states in the best experiment.  Physical Review C, 105(6):065502, 2022.
  * [52] Marco Battaglieri et al.  US Cosmic Visions: New Ideas in Dark Matter 2017: Community Report.  In U.S. Cosmic Visions: New Ideas in Dark Matter College Park, MD, USA, March 23-25, 2017, 2017.
  * [53] C. Baumgarten.  Transverse-longitudinal coupling by space charge in cyclotrons.  Phys. Rev. ST Accel. Beams, 14:114201, Nov 2011.
  * [54] Giovanni Benato, Alexey Drobizhev, Surjeet Rajendran, and Harikrishnan Ramani.  Invisible decay modes in nuclear gamma cascades.  Phys. Rev. D, 99(3):035025, 2019.
  * [55] Asher Berlin, Nikita Blinov, Gordan Krnjaic, Philip Schuster, and Natalia Toro.  Dark Matter, Millicharges, Axion and Scalar Particles, Gauge Bosons, and Other New Physics with LDMX.  Phys. Rev. D, 99(7):075001, 2019.
  * [56] Asher Berlin, Stefania Gori, Philip Schuster, and Natalia Toro.  Dark Sectors at the Fermilab SeaQuest Experiment.  Phys. Rev. D, 98(3):035011, 2018.
  * [57] Jeffrey M Berryman, Pilar Coloma, Patrick Huber, Thomas Schwetz, and Albert Zhou.  Statistical significance of the sterile-neutrino hypothesis in the context of reactor and gallium data.  Journal of High Energy Physics, 2022(2):1–39, 2022.
  * [58] Jeffrey M Berryman and Patrick Huber.  Reevaluating reactor antineutrino anomalies with updated flux predictions.  Physical Review D, 101(1):015008, 2020.
  * [59] Jeffrey M Berryman and Patrick Huber.  Sterile neutrinos and the global reactor antineutrino dataset.  Journal of High Energy Physics, 2021(1):1–85, 2021.
  * [60] Walter M. Bonivento, Doojin Kim, and Kuver Sinha.  PASSAT: Particle Accelerator helioScopes for Slim Axion-like-particle deTection.  Eur. Phys. J. C, 80(2):164, 2020.
  * [61] T Braine, R Cervantes, N Crisosto, N Du, S Kimes, LJ Rosenberg, G Rybka, J Yang, D Bowring, AS Chou, et al.  Extended search for the invisible axion with the axion dark matter experiment.  Physical review letters, 124(10):101303, 2020.
  * [62] GC Branco, JT Penedo, Pedro MF Pereira, MN Rebelo, and JI Silva-Marcos.  Type-i seesaw with ev-scale neutrinos.  Journal of High Energy Physics, 2020(7):1–43, 2020.
  * [63] Vedran Brdar, Bhaskar Dutta, Wooyoung Jang, Doojin Kim, Ian M Shoemaker, Zahra Tabrizi, Adrian Thompson, and Jaehoon Yu.  Axionlike particles at future neutrino experiments: closing the cosmological triangle.  Physical Review Letters, 126(20):201801, 2021.
  * [64] B. M. Brubaker et al.  First results from a microwave cavity axion search at 24 $\mu$eV.  Phys. Rev. Lett., 118(6):061302, 2017.
  * [65] L Calabretta, D Rifuggiato, and V Shchepounov.  High intensity proton beams from cyclotrons for h+ 2.  In Proc. 1999 Particle Accel Conf, NY, pages 3288–3290, 1999.
  * [66] JE Campbell, ES Robajdek, and DS Anthony.  The metabolism of ac227 and its daughters th227 and ra223 by rats.  Radiation Research, 4(4):294–302, 1956.
  * [67] Pierluca Carenza, Carmelo Evoli, Maurizio Giannotti, Alessandro Mirizzi, and Daniele Montanino.  Turbulent axion-photon conversions in the Milky Way.  Phys. Rev. D, 104(2):023003, 2021.
  * [68] Kiara Carloni, Nicholas W Kamp, Austin Schneider, and Janet M Conrad.  Convolutional neural networks for shower energy prediction in liquid argon time projection chambers.  Journal of Instrumentation, 17(02):P02022, 2022.
  * [69] H. M. Chang et al.  Search of axions at the Kuo-Sheng nuclear power station with a high-purity germanium detector.  Phys. Rev. D, 75:052004, 2007.
  * [70] Francois Chollet et al.  Keras, 2015.
  * [71] MicroBooNE Collaboration, P Abratenko, R An, J Anthony, L Arellano, J Asaadi, A Ashkenazi, S Balasubramanian, B Baller, C Barnes, et al.  Search for an anomalous excess of inclusive charged-current $\nu$ e interactions in the microboone experiment using wire-cell reconstruction.  Physical Review D, 105(11):112005, 2022.
  * [72] MicroBooNE Collaboration et al.  Search for an anomalous excess of charged-current quasielastic $\nu$e interactions with the microboone experiment using deep-learning-based reconstruction.  Physical Review D, 105(11):112003, 2022.
  * [73] Joseph P. Conlon, Francesca Day, Nicholas Jennings, Sven Krippendorf, and Markus Rummel.  Constraints on Axion-Like Particles from Non-Observation of Spectral Modulations for X-ray Point Sources.  JCAP, 07:005, 2017.
  * [74] Joseph P. Conlon and M. C. David Marsh.  Excess Astrophysical Photons from a 0.1–1 keV Cosmic Axion Background.  Phys. Rev. Lett., 111(15):151301, 2013.
  * [75] Joseph P. Conlon, M. C. David Marsh, and Andrew J. Powell.  Galaxy cluster thermal x-ray spectra constrain axionlike particles.  Phys. Rev. D, 93(12):123526, 2016.
  * [76] KR Crandall, RH Stokes, and TP Wangler.  RF quadrupole beam dynamics design studies.  In Proceedings of LINAC1979, 1979.
  * [77] Richard Creswick, Dawei Li, Frank T. Avignone, and Yuanxu Wang.  Sensitivity of Oriented Single Crystal Germanium Bolometers to $14.4$ keV solar axions emitted by the M1 nuclear transition of 57Fe.  In Proceedings, 13th Patras Workshop on Axions, WIMPs and WISPs, (PATRAS 2017): Thessaloniki, Greece, 15 May 2017 - 19, 2017, pages 11–14, 2018.
  * [78] G. Cybenko.  Approximation by superpositions of a sigmoidal function.  Mathematics of Control, Signals and Systems, 2(4):303–314, Dec 1989\.
  * [79] André De Gouvêa.  Seesaw energy scale and the lsnd anomaly.  Physical Review D, 72(3):033005, 2005.
  * [80] André De Gouvêa, James Jenkins, and Nirmala Vasudevan.  Neutrino phenomenology of very low-energy seesaw scenarios.  Physical Review D, 75(1):013003, 2007.
  * [81] Joao Jose Pedroso de Lima.  Radioisotopes in medicine.  European journal of physics, 19(6):485, 1998.
  * [82] S Del Vecchio, A Zannetti, R Fonti, L Pace, and M Salvatore.  Nuclear imaging in cancer theranostics.  The Quarterly Journal of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, 51(2):152–63, 2007.
  * [83] Luigi Delle Rose, Shaaban Khalil, Simon JD King, Stefano Moretti, and Ahmed M Thabt.  Atomki anomaly in family-dependent u (1)′ extension of the standard model.  Physical Review D, 99(5):055022, 2019.
  * [84] James B. Dent, Bhaskar Dutta, Andrew Jastram, Doojin Kim, Andrew Kubik, Rupak Mahapatra, Surjeet Rajendran, Harikrishnan Ramani, Adrian Thompson, and Shubham Verma.  Pathfinder for a High Statistics Search for Missing Energy In Gamma Cascades, 5 2021.
  * [85] James B. Dent, Bhaskar Dutta, Doojin Kim, Shu Liao, Rupak Mahapatra, Kuver Sinha, and Adrian Thompson.  New Directions for Axion Searches via Scattering at Reactor Neutrino Experiments, 2020.
  * [86] James B Dent, Bhaskar Dutta, Doojin Kim, Shu Liao, Rupak Mahapatra, Kuver Sinha, and Adrian Thompson.  New directions for axion searches via scattering at reactor neutrino experiments.  Physical Review Letters, 124(21):211804, 2020.
  * [87] James B. Dent, Bhaskar Dutta, Jayden L. Newstead, Alejandro Rodriguez, Ian M. Shoemaker, Zahra Tabrizi, and Natalia Tapia Arellano.  Gamma Ray Signals from Cosmic Ray Scattering on Axion-Like Particles, 12 2020.
  * [88] James B. Dent, Bhaskar Dutta, Jayden L. Newstead, and Adrian Thompson.  Inverse Primakoff Scattering as a Probe of Solar Axions at Liquid Xenon Direct Detection Experiments, 6 2020.
  * [89] Peter B Denton.  Sterile neutrino searches with microboone: Electron neutrino disappearance.  arXiv preprint arXiv:2111.05793, 2021.
  * [90] A.V. Derbin, S.V. Bakhlanov, A.I. Egorov, I.A. Mitropolsky, V.N. Muratova, D.A. Semenov, and E.V. Unzhakov.  Search for Solar Axions Produced by Primakoff Conversion Using Resonant Absorption by Tm-169 Nuclei.  Phys. Lett. B, 678:181–185, 2009.
  * [91] A Derevianko, VA Dzuba, VV Flambaum, and M Pospelov.  Axio-electric effect.  Physical Review D, 82(6):065006, 2010.
  * [92] Luca Di Luzio, Javier Galan, Maurizio Giannotti, Igor G Irastorza, Joerg Jaeckel, Axel Lindner, Jaime Ruz, Uwe Schneekloth, Lukas Sohl, Lennert J Thormaehlen, et al.  Probing the axion–nucleon coupling with the next generation of axion helioscopes.  The European Physical Journal C, 82(2):1–15, 2022.
  * [93] A. Diaz, C. A. Argüelles, G. H. Collin, J. M. Conrad, and M. H. Shaevitz.  Where Are We With Light Sterile Neutrinos?  arXiv:1906.00045 [hep-ex, physics:hep-ph], September 2019.  arXiv: 1906.00045.
  * [94] Alejandro Diaz.  Through iron & ice: Searching for sterile neutrinos at the icecube neutrino observatory.  arXiv preprint arXiv:2210.09418, 2022.
  * [95] Michael Dine and Willy Fischler.  The Not So Harmless Axion.  Phys. Lett. B, 120:137–141, 1983.
  * [96] Babette Döbrich.  Axion-like particles from primakov production in beam-dumps.  arXiv preprint arXiv:1708.05776, 2017.
  * [97] Alex Droster and Karl van Bibber.  HAYSTAC Status, Results, and Plans.  In 13th Conference on the Intersections of Particle and Nuclear Physics (CIPANP 2018) Palm Springs, California, USA, May 29-June 3, 2018, 2019\.
  * [98] N. Du et al.  A Search for Invisible Axion Dark Matter with the Axion Dark Matter Experiment.  Phys. Rev. Lett., 120(15):151301, 2018.
  * [99] Leanne D. Duffy and Karl van Bibber.  Axions as Dark Matter Particles.  New J. Phys., 11:105008, 2009.
  * [100] R.R. Dusaev, D.V. Kirpichnikov, and M.M. Kirsanov.  Photoproduction of axionlike particles in the NA64 experiment.  Phys. Rev. D, 102(5):055018, 2020.
  * [101] Auralee Edelen, Nicole Neveu, Matthias Frey, Yannick Huber, Christopher Mayes, and Andreas Adelmann.  Machine learning for orders of magnitude speedup in multiobjective optimization of particle accelerator systems.  Phys. Rev. Accel. Beams, 23:044601, Apr 2020.
  * [102] KW Ehlers and KN Leung.  High-concentration H2+ or D2+ ion source.  Review of Scientific Instruments, 54(6):677–680, 1983.
  * [103] S. W. Ellacott.  Techniques for the mathematical analysis of neural networks.  J. Comput. Appl. Math., 50(1-3):283–297, May 1994.
  * [104] Jonathan W Engle.  The production of ac-225.  Current Radiopharmaceuticals, 11(3):173–179, 2018.
  * [105] Jonathan L. Feng, Iftah Galon, Felix Kling, and Sebastian Trojanowski.  Axionlike particles at FASER: The LHC as a photon beam dump.  Phys. Rev. D, 98(5):055021, 2018.
  * [106] Ilora G Finlay, Malcolm D Mason, and Mike Shelley.  Radioisotopes for the palliation of metastatic bone cancer: a systematic review.  The lancet oncology, 6(6):392–400, 2005.
  * [107] Changbo Fu, Xiaopeng Zhou, Xun Chen, Yunhua Chen, Xiangyi Cui, Deqing Fang, Karl Giboni, Franco Giuliani, Ke Han, Xingtao Huang, and et al.  Limits on axion couplings from the first 80 days of data of the pandax-ii experiment.  Physical Review Letters, 119(18), Nov 2017.
  * [108] S Fukuda, Y Fukuda, T Hayakawa, E Ichihara, M Ishitsuka, Y Itow, T Kajita, J Kameda, K Kaneyuki, S Kasuga, et al.  The super-kamiokande detector.  Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment, 501(2-3):418–462, 2003.
  * [109] Giorgio Galanti and Marco Roncadelli.  Behavior of axionlike particles in smoothed out domainlike magnetic fields.  Phys. Rev. D, 98(4):043018, 2018.
  * [110] Giorgio Galanti, Marco Roncadelli, Alessandro De Angelis, and Giovanni F. Bignami.  Hint at an axion-like particle from the redshift dependence of blazar spectra.  Mon. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc., 493(2):1553–1564, 2020.
  * [111] Norbert Galldiks, Philipp Lohmann, Nathalie L Albert, Jörg C Tonn, and Karl-Josef Langen.  Current status of pet imaging in neuro-oncology.  Neuro-Oncology Advances, 1(1):vdz010, 2019.
  * [112] Christina Gao, Jia Liu, Lian-Tao Wang, Xiao-Ping Wang, Wei Xue, and Yi-Ming Zhong.  Reexamining the solar axion explanation for the xenon1t excess.  Physical Review Letters, 125(13):131806, 2020.
  * [113] Ravendra Garg, Kienna Mills, Kevin JH Allen, Patrick Causey, Randy W Perron, Denise Gendron, Stephen Sanche, Joan W Berman, Miroslaw K Gorny, and Ekaterina Dadachova.  Comparison of various radioactive payloads for a human monoclonal antibody to glycoprotein 41 for elimination of hiv-infected cells.  Nuclear medicine and biology, 82:80–88, 2020.
  * [114] Yu.M. Gavrilyuk et al.  Search for resonant absorption of solar axions emitted in M1-transitions in83Kr nuclei: Second stage of the experiment.  Phys. Part. Nucl., 49(1):94–96, 2018.
  * [115] gitbook.  ai wiki.  https://machine-learning.paperspace.com/wiki/activation-function.  Accessed: 2022-08-09.
  * [116] C Giunti, YF Li, CA Ternes, and Z Xin.  Reactor antineutrino anomaly in light of recent flux model refinements.  Physics Letters B, 829:137054, 2022.
  * [117] Carlo Giunti and Marco Laveder.  Statistical significance of the gallium anomaly.  Physical Review C, 83(6):065504, 2011.
  * [118] Alexander V Gramolin, Deniz Aybas, Dorian Johnson, Janos Adam, and Alexander O Sushkov.  Search for axion-like dark matter with ferromagnets.  Nature Physics, 17(1):79–84, 2021.
  * [119] Joachim Grillenberger, Christian Baumgarten, and Mike Seidel.  The high intensity proton accelerator facility, 2021.
  * [120] Robert-Jan Hagebout.  Beyond the standard model with neutrino physics, 2014.
  * [121] Alexander Himmel, Super-Kamiokande Collaboration, et al.  Recent results from super-kamiokande, 2014.
  * [122] Sebastian Hoof, Joerg Jaeckel, and Lennert J Thormaehlen.  Quantifying uncertainties in the solar axion flux and their impact on determining axion model parameters.  Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics, 2021(09):006, 2021\.
  * [123] Anson Hook, Soubhik Kumar, Zhen Liu, and Raman Sundrum.  High quality qcd axion and the lhc.  Physical review letters, 124(22):221801, 2020.
  * [124] Kurt Hornik, Maxwell Stinchcombe, and Halbert White.  Multilayer feedforward networks are universal approximators.  Neural Networks, 2(5):359 – 366, 1989.
  * [125] Patrick Huber.  Erratum: Determination of antineutrino spectra from nuclear reactors [phys. rev. c 84, 024617 (2011)].  Physical review C, 85(2):029901, 2012.
  * [126] Patrick Huber.  Neos data and the origin of the 5 mev bump in the reactor antineutrino spectrum.  Physical review letters, 118(4):042502, 2017.
  * [127] K Inoue.  Reactor neutrino experiments.  In Lepton And Photon Interactions At High Energies: Lepton-Photon 2003, pages 375–384. World Scientific, 2004.
  * [128] Igor Irastorza et al.  The International Axion Observatory IAXO. Letter of Intent to the CERN SPS committee, 2013.
  * [129] Yonatan Kahn, Benjamin R. Safdi, and Jesse Thaler.  Broadband and Resonant Approaches to Axion Dark Matter Detection.  Phys. Rev. Lett., 117(14):141801, 2016.
  * [130] Sneha S Kelkar and Theresa M Reineke.  Theranostics: combining imaging and therapy.  Bioconjugate chemistry, 22(10):1879–1903, 2011.
  * [131] Jihn E Kim and Gianpaolo Carosi.  Axions and the strong c p problem.  Reviews of Modern Physics, 82(1):557, 2010.
  * [132] Anna Kolano, Andreas Adelmann, Roger Barlow, and Christian Baumgarten.  Intensity limits of the psi injector ii cyclotron.  Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment, 885:54–59, 2018\.
  * [133] Anna Kolano, Roger Barlow, A Adelmann, and Ch Baumgarten.  A precise beam dynamics model of the psi injector 2, 2013.
  * [134] Daniel Koser, Loyd Waites, Daniel Winklehner, Matthias Frey, Andreas Adelmann, and Janet Conrad.  Input beam matching and beam dynamics design optimizations of the isodar rfq using statistical and machine learning techniques.  Frontiers in Physics, page 302, 2022.
  * [135] AJ Krasznahorkay, M Csatlós, L Csige, J Gulyás, M Koszta, B Szihalmi, J Timár, DS Firak, Á Nagy, NJ Sas, et al.  New evidence supporting the existence of the hypothetic x17 particle.  arXiv preprint arXiv:1910.10459, 2019.
  * [136] Clemens Kratochwil, Frank Bruchertseifer, Frederik L Giesel, Mirjam Weis, Frederik A Verburg, Felix Mottaghy, Klaus Kopka, Christos Apostolidis, Uwe Haberkorn, and Alfred Morgenstern.  225ac-psma-617 for psma-targeted $\alpha$-radiation therapy of metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer.  Journal of Nuclear Medicine, 57(12):1941–1944, 2016.
  * [137] M. Krcmar, Z. Krecak, A. Ljubicic, M. Stipcevic, and D.A. Bradley.  Search for solar axions using Li-7.  Phys. Rev. D, 64:115016, 2001.
  * [138] M. Krcmar, Z. Krecak, M. Stipcevic, A. Ljubicic, and D.A. Bradley.  Search for invisible axions using Fe-57.  Phys. Lett. B, 442:38, 1998.
  * [139] Thomas Langbein, Wolfgang A Weber, and Matthias Eiber.  Future of theranostics: an outlook on precision oncology in nuclear medicine.  Journal of Nuclear Medicine, 60(Supplement 2):13S–19S, 2019.
  * [140] Jun Seok Lee.  Revisiting supernova 1987a limits on axion-like-particles.  arXiv preprint arXiv:1808.10136, 2018.
  * [141] Junyi Lee.  New Constraints on the Axion’s Coupling to Nucleons from a Spin Mass Interaction Limiting Experiment (SMILE).  PhD thesis, Princeton University, 2019.
  * [142] Moo Hyun Lee.  Radioassay and purification for experiments at y2l and yemilab in korea, 2020.
  * [143] Dawei Li, Richard J. Creswick, Frank T. Avignone, and Yuanxu Wang.  Sensitivity of the CUORE detector to $14.4$ keV solar axions emitted by the M1 nuclear transition of$~{}^{57}$Fe.  JCAP, 02:031, 2016.
  * [144] Dawei Li, R.J. Creswick, F.T. Avignone, and Yuanxu Wang.  Theoretical Estimate of the Sensitivity of the CUORE Detector to Solar Axions.  JCAP, 10:065, 2015.
  * [145] Teng Li, Xin Xia, Xing-Tao Huang, Jia-Heng Zou, Wei-Dong Li, Tao Lin, Kun Zhang, and Zi-Yan Deng.  Design and development of juno event data model.  Chinese Physics C, 41(6):066201, 2017.
  * [146] Matthieu Licciardi.  Results of stereo and prospect, and status of sterile neutrino searches.  arXiv preprint arXiv:2105.13776, 2021.
  * [147] Manfred Lindner, Werner Rodejohann, and Xun-Jie Xu.  Coherent neutrino-nucleus scattering and new neutrino interactions.  Journal of High Energy Physics, 2017(3):1–29, 2017.
  * [148] Bin Lu.  Search for axion-like particles in the slac beam dump.  PhD thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 1987\.
  * [149] David J. E. Marsh.  Axion Cosmology.  Phys. Rept., 643:1–79, 2016.
  * [150] G Mention, M Fechner, Th Lasserre, Th A Mueller, D Lhuillier, M Cribier, and A Letourneau.  Reactor antineutrino anomaly.  Physical Review D, 83(7):073006, 2011.
  * [151] Matthias Miederer, David A Scheinberg, and Michael R McDevitt.  Realizing the potential of the actinium-225 radionuclide generator in targeted alpha particle therapy applications.  Advanced drug delivery reviews, 60(12):1371–1382, 2008.
  * [152] Diane E Milenic and Martin W Brechbiel.  Targeting of radio-isotopes for cancer therapy.  Cancer biology & therapy, 3(4):361–370, 2004.
  * [153] Shigetaka Moriyama.  A Proposal to search for a monochromatic component of solar axions using Fe-57.  Phys. Rev. Lett., 75:3222–3225, 1995.
  * [154] Marjon H. Moulai.  Light, Unstable Sterile Neutrinos: Phenomenology, a Search in the IceCube Experiment, and a Global Picture.  PhD thesis, MIT, 2021.
  * [155] Th A Mueller, D Lhuillier, Muriel Fallot, A Letourneau, S Cormon, M Fechner, Lydie Giot, Th Lasserre, J Martino, G Mention, et al.  Improved predictions of reactor antineutrino spectra.  Physical Review C, 83(5):054615, 2011.
  * [156] J Pedro Ochoa-Ricoux.  Daya bay: Recent results and status.  In 21st International Workshop on Neutrinos from Accelerators, page 29, 2019.
  * [157] Ciaran O’Hare.  cajohare/axionlimits: Axionlimits.  https://cajohare.github.io/AxionLimits/, July 2020.
  * [158] N. Oka et al.  Search for solar Kaluza–Klein axions by annual modulation with the XMASS-I detector.  PTEP, 2017(10):103C01, 2017.
  * [159] R. D. Peccei and Helen R. Quinn.  CP Conservation in the Presence of Instantons.  Phys. Rev. Lett., 38:1440–1443, 1977.
  * [160] Nina Pfannkuchen, Marian Meckel, Ralf Bergmann, Michael Bachmann, Chandrasekhar Bal, Mike Sathekge, Wolfgang Mohnike, Richard P Baum, and Frank Rösch.  Novel radiolabeled bisphosphonates for pet diagnosis and endoradiotherapy of bone metastases.  Pharmaceuticals, 10(2):45, 2017.
  * [161] Allan Pinkus.  Approximation theory of the mlp model in neural networks.  Acta Numerica, 8:143–195, 1999.
  * [162] John Preskill, Mark B. Wise, and Frank Wilczek.  Cosmology of the Invisible Axion.  Phys. Lett. B, 120:127–132, 1983.
  * [163] Georg Raffelt and Leo Stodolsky.  Mixing of the Photon with Low Mass Particles.  Phys. Rev. D, 37:1237, 1988.
  * [164] Georg G Raffelt.  Astrophysical methods to constrain axions and other novel particle phenomena.  Physics reports, 198(1-2):1–113, 1990.
  * [165] Arman Rahmim, Jinyi Qi, and Vesna Sossi.  Resolution modeling in pet imaging: theory, practice, benefits, and pitfalls.  Medical physics, 40(6Part1):064301, 2013.
  * [166] Jie Ren, Daohan Wang, Lei Wu, Jin Min Yang, and Mengchao Zhang.  Detecting an axion-like particle with machine learning at the lhc.  Journal of High Energy Physics, 2021(11):1–26, 2021.
  * [167] EM Riordan, MW Krasny, K Lang, P De Barbaro, Arie Bodek, S Dasu, N Varelas, X Wang, R Arnold, D Benton, et al.  Search for short-lived axions in an electron-beam-dump experiment.  Physical Review Letters, 59(7):755, 1987.
  * [168] NB Rosenshein.  Radioisotopes in the treatment of ovarian cancer.  Clinics in Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 10(2):279–295, 1983.
  * [169] M Salaris, M Riello, S Cassisi, and G Piotto.  The initial helium abundance of the galactic globular cluster system.  Astronomy & Astrophysics, 420(3):911–919, 2004.
  * [170] Chiara P. Salemi.  First Results from ABRACADABRA-10cm: A Search for Low-Mass Axion Dark Matter.  In 54th Rencontres de Moriond on Electroweak Interactions and Unified Theories (Moriond EW 2019) La Thuile, Italy, March 16-23, 2019, 2019\.
  * [171] Helmut Schlattl, Achim Weiss, and Georg Raffelt.  Helioseismological constraint on solar axion emission.  Astroparticle Physics, 10(4):353–359, 1999.
  * [172] Paul Schmor.  Review of cyclotrons for the production of radioactive isotopes for medical and industrial applications.  Reviews Of Accelerator Science And Technology: Volume 4: Accelerator Applications in Industry and the Environment, pages 103–116, 2011\.
  * [173] Harvey R Schneider, R Baartman, RE Laxdal, BF Milton, AJ Otter, JB Pearson, RL Poirier, and PW Schmor.  A compact h-cyclotron for isotope production.  Technical report, Triumf, 1988.
  * [174] Seon-Hee Seo.  Neutrino telescope at yemilab, korea.  arXiv preprint arXiv:1903.05368, 2019.
  * [175] Maximiliano Silva-Feaver, Saptarshi Chaudhuri, Hsaio-Mei Cho, Carl Dawson, Peter Graham, Kent Irwin, Stephen Kuenstner, Dale Li, Jeremy Mardon, Harvey Moseley, et al.  Design overview of dm radio pathfinder experiment.  IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity, 27(4):1–4, 2016\.
  * [176] I. M. Sobol’.  Global sensitivity indices for nonlinear mathematical models and their monte carlo estimates.  Mathematics and Computers in Simulation, 55(1):271 – 280, 2001\.
  * [177] Aaron Spector.  ALPSII Status Report.  In 14th Patras Workshop on Axions, WIMPs and WISPs (AXION-WIMP 2018) (PATRAS 2018) Hamburg, Germany, June 18-22, 2018, 2019.
  * [178] Th Stammbach, S Adam, T Blumer, D George, A Mezger, PA Schmelzbach, and P Sigg.  The psi 2ma beam and future applications.  In AIP Conference Proceedings, volume 600, pages 423–427. American Institute of Physics, 2001.
  * [179] Th Stammbach, S Adam, T Blumer, D George, A Mezger, PA Schmelzbach, and P Sigg.  The PSI 2mA beam and future applications, 2001.
  * [180] I Stancu.  The miniboone detector technical design report.  Technical report, Fermi National Accelerator Lab.(FNAL), Batavia, IL (United States), 2003.
  * [181] J Stetson, S Adam, M Humbel, W Joho, and T Stammbach.  THE COMMISSIONING OF PSI INJECTOR 2 FOR HIGH INTENSITY, HIGH QUALITY BEAMS.  In Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Cyclotrons and their Applications, 1992.
  * [182] J Stetson, S Adam, M Humbel, W Joho, and Th Stammbach.  The commissioning of psi injector 2 for high intensity, high quality beams.  In Proc. 13th Int. Conf. on Cyclotrons and their Applications, Vancouver, Canada, page 36, 1992.
  * [183] Bruno Sudret.  Global sensitivity analysis using polynomial chaos expansions.  Reliability Engineering & System Safety, 93(7):964 – 979, 2008\.
  * [184] Sonke Svenson.  Theranostics: are we there yet?  Molecular pharmaceutics, 10(3):848–856, 2013.
  * [185] Fabrizio Tavecchio, Marco Roncadelli, Giorgio Galanti, and Giacomo Bonnoli.  Evidence for an axion-like particle from PKS 1222+216?  Phys. Rev. D, 86:085036, 2012.
  * [186] Mark Thomson.  Modern particle physics.  Cambridge University Press, New York, 2013.
  * [187] DW Townsend et al.  Physical principles and technology of clinical pet imaging.  Annals-Academy of Medicine Singapore, 33(2):133–145, 2004.
  * [188] Julia K Vogel, Eric Armengaud, Frank T Avignone, Michael Betz, P Brax, Pierre Brun, Giovanni Cantatore, JM Carmona, GP Carosi, F Caspers, et al.  The next generation of axion helioscopes: The international axion observatory (iaxo).  Physics Procedia, 61:193–200, 2015.
  * [189] Roberta Volpe.  Search for exotic decays at NA62.  In Meeting of the Division of Particles and Fields of the American Physical Society (DPF2019) Boston, Massachusetts, July 29-August 2, 2019, 2019.
  * [190] Loyd Waites, Adrian Thompson, Adriana Bungau, Janet M Conrad, Bhaskar Dutta, Wei-Chih Huang, Doojin Kim, Michael Shaevitz, and Joshua Spitz.  Axion-like particle production at beam dump experiments with distinct nuclear excitation lines.  arXiv preprint arXiv:2207.13659, 2022.
  * [191] Loyd H Waites, Jose R Alonso, Roger Barlow, and Janet M Conrad.  What is the potential impact of the isodar cyclotron on radioisotope production: a review.  EJNMMI radiopharmacy and chemistry, 5(1):1–14, 2020.
  * [192] Wolfgang A Weber, Johannes Czernin, Carolyn J Anderson, Ramsey D Badawi, Henryk Barthel, Frank Bengel, Lisa Bodei, Irène Buvat, Marcelo DiCarli, Michael M Graham, et al.  The future of nuclear medicine, molecular imaging, and theranostics.  Journal of Nuclear Medicine, 61(Supplement 2):263S–272S, 2020.
  * [193] JW Weidner, SG Mashnik, KD John, F Hemez, B Ballard, H Bach, ER Birnbaum, LJ Bitteker, A Couture, D Dry, et al.  Proton-induced cross sections relevant to production of 225ac and 223ra in natural thorium targets below 200 mev.  Applied Radiation and isotopes, 70(11):2602–2607, 2012.
  * [194] Steven Weinberg.  A New Light Boson?  Phys. Rev. Lett., 40:223–226, 1978.
  * [195] Frank Wilczek.  Problem of Strong $P$ and $T$ Invariance in the Presence of Instantons.  Phys. Rev. Lett., 40:279–282, 1978.
  * [196] D Winklehner, S Axani, P Bedard, J Conrad, J Corona, F Hartwell, J Smolsky, A Tripathee, L Waites, P Weigel, T Wester, and M Yampolskaya.  First Commissioning Results of the Multicusp Ion Source at MIT (MIST-1) for $\mathrm{H}_{2}^{+}$.  In Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Ion Sources, 2017.
  * [197] D. Winklehner, R. Hamm, J. Alonso, J. M. Conrad, and S. Axani.  Preliminary design of a RFQ direct injection scheme for the IsoDAR high intensity $\mathrm{H}_{2}^{+}$ cyclotron.  Review of Scientific Instruments, 87(2):02B929, 2016.
  * [198] D Winklehner, R Hamm, J Alonso, and JM Conrad.  An RFQ direct injection scheme for the IsoDAR high intensity $\mathrm{H}_{2}^{+}$ cyclotron.  In 6th International Particle Accelerator Conference (IPAC2015), 2015.
  * [199] Daniel Winklehner, Andreas Adelmann, Janet M Conrad, Sonali Mayani, Sriramkrishnan Muralikrishnan, Devin Schoen, and Maria Yampolskaya.  Order-of-magnitude beam current improvement in compact cyclotrons.  arXiv preprint arXiv:2103.09352, 2021.
  * [200] Daniel Winklehner, Andreas Adelmann, Achim Gsell, Tulin Kaman, and Daniela Campo.  Realistic simulations of a cyclotron spiral inflector within a particle-in-cell framework.  Physical Review Accelerators and Beams, 20(12):124201, 2017.
  * [201] Daniel Winklehner, Jungbae Bahng, Luciano Calabretta, Alessandra Calanna, Alok Chakrabarti, Janet Conrad, Grazia D’Agostino, Siddharta Dechoudhury, Vaishali Naik, Loyd Waites, and Philip Weigel.  High intensity cyclotrons for neutrino physics.  Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment, 907:231–243, November 2018.
  * [202] Daniel Winklehner, Janet M Conrad, Devin Schoen, Maria Yampolskaya, Andreas Adelmann, Sonali Mayani, and Sriramkrishnan Muralikrishnan.  Order-of-magnitude beam current improvement in compact cyclotrons.  New Journal of Physics, 24(2):023038, 2022.
  * [203] Daniel Winklehner, Janet M Conrad, Joseph Smolsky, and LH Waites.  High-current h 2+ beams from a filament-driven multicusp ion source.  Review of Scientific Instruments, 92(12):123301, 2021.
  * [204] Pradyumna Yadav.  The journey of gradient descent — from local to global.  https://medium.com/analytics-vidhya/journey-of-gradient-descent-from-local-to-global-c851eba3d367.  Accessed: 2022-08-09.
  * [205] JJ Yang, A Adelmann, W Barletta, L Calabretta, A Calanna, D Campo, and JM Conrad.  Beam dynamics simulation for the high intensity dae$\delta$alus cyclotrons.  Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment, 704:84–91, 2013\.
  * [206] JJ Yang, A Adelmann, M Humbel, M Seidel, TJ Zhang, et al.  Beam dynamics in high intensity cyclotrons including neighboring bunch effects: Model, implementation, and application.  Physical Review Special Topics-Accelerators and Beams, 13(6):064201, 2010.
  * [207] JJ Yang, A Adelmann, M Humbel, M Seidel, TJ Zhang, et al.  Beam dynamics in high intensity cyclotrons including neighboring bunch effects: Model, implementation, and application.  Physical Review Special Topics-Accelerators and Beams, 13(6):064201, 2010.
  * [208] Masashi Yokoyama.  The hyper-kamiokande experiment.  arXiv preprint arXiv:1705.00306, 2017.
  * [209] Anna Yordanova, Elisabeth Eppard, Stefan Kürpig, Ralph A Bundschuh, Stefan Schönberger, Maria Gonzalez-Carmona, Georg Feldmann, Hojjat Ahmadzadehfar, and Markus Essler.  Theranostics in nuclear medicine practice.  OncoTargets and therapy, 10:4821, 2017.
  * [210] V Zacek, G Zacek, P Vogel, and J-L Vuilleumier.  Evidence for a 5 mev spectral deviation in the goesgen reactor neutrino oscillation experiment.  arXiv preprint arXiv:1807.01810, 2018.
  * [211] Xilin Zhang and Gerald A Miller.  Can a protophobic vector boson explain the atomki anomaly?  Physics Letters B, 813:136061, 2021.
  * [212] K. Zioutas et al.  A Decommissioned LHC model magnet as an axion telescope.  Nucl. Instrum. Meth., A425:480–489, 1999.
  * [213] Torsten Åkesson et al.  Light Dark Matter eXperiment (LDMX), 2018.