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CATECHISM
OF
PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE
BY
HENRY STEPHENS, F.R.S.E.
Corresponding Member of the Royal College of Physicians of London; and the Royal Agricultural Society of Galicia. Author of the "Book of the Farm."
"His works demand more construction than educational works."
WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS EDINBURGH AND LONDON MDCCCOLVI 7-4283 Agr 774/35
HARVARD COLLEGE LIBRARY APR 30 1892
Dr. S. C. Brown Aston
The Author of this Work notices that he reserves the right of authorizing Translations of it. PREFACE.
In arranging the matter of this Catechism of Practical Agriculture, I could not do otherwise than follow the plan which had adopted in "Book of the Farm," or I still better think that plan was adopted in the best practical agricul- ture of a farm, to one entirely ignorant of it, than following through the course of the work, and then going back to see what I have done. I have taken the method I have adopted in that work; and the correctness of my judgment in doing so, is evidenced by the number of years unprofitably received the sanction of public approbation.
In a work professing to treat of the use of machines, woodcarts are obviously necessary. But I have not thought it necessary to give any such description, however luminous, can possibly do; and those accordingly have been omitted. The same remark applies to the general elementary character of the work. Figures of certain operations which involve many particulars of detail are also given, in order to show the details at a glance.
Should any person wish to learn more about any particular subject, Teachers might extend the questions largely on every subject treated of, and intersperse them with questions on other subjects, which may properly omit in order to retain the work within reasonable compass. Some acquaintance with the subject would be useful in answering these and other intricate questions. It might also be advisable to exhibit working specimens of hand-implements, and show the manner of using them. Other machines than those figured in this work are used in some parts of the country, and their superiority or inferiority to the machines given, pointed out. Drawings of the implements used in plowing, harrowing, and sowing, and descriptions of live-stock usually reared, might be placed before pupils with much advan- tage. Samples too of the various grains and seeds now sown would at once impress upon them their value.
By means of such a course of tuition in the school, and exemplified on the neighbourhood farms, it is hoped that young men will be induced to attend the views of teachers, a large amount of correct agricultural knowl- edge would be imparted to young boys and girls, destitute to earn their livelihood by labour alone. This knowledge would be most beneficial in the fields, to the serious neglect of other kinds of knowledge only to be acquired by attending school. The same may be said respecting rural education to young farm-labourers of both sexes, a larger portion of their time being spent at home than in school is, greatly to their advan- tage in mental culture, and that of their mothers as securing servants of superior capacity.
H. S. RICHARD CURTIN, Esquire, 14th November 1853 CONTENTS.
| WINTER. | PAGE | SUMMER. | PAGE |
| Winter: its order in the agricultural year. | Summer: its order in the agricultural year. | ||
| Frosting: its effect on the soil, | 1 | Sowing burrils, | 38 |
| The plough: its construction, and mode of action. | 2 | Frosting manjap-wurzel, | 30 |
| Swing trees, | 3 | Cultivation of rape, | 38 |
| Sowing trees, | 4 | Cultivation of rape, | 39 |
| Sowing clover, | 5 | Cultivation of rape, | 41 |
| Trench-plough, | 6 | Bird's eye-crop, | 41 |
| Shrubs, | 7 | Bird's eye-crop, | 41 |
| Drieling land, | 8 | Pasting and sowing live-stock, | 45 |
| Barking and winnowing grain, | 9 | Pasting and sowing live-stock, | 45 |
| Olive trees, | 10 | Pasting and sowing live-stock, | 45 |
| Pulling out standing burrils, | 11 | Dissension of grain and green-crops. |
| AUTUMN. |
| Spring: |
| Spring: its order in the agricultural year. |
| Spring: its order in the agricultural year. |
| Spring: its order in the agricultural year. |
| Spring: its order in the agricultural year. |
| Spring: its order in the agricultural year. |
| Spring: its order in the agricultural year. |
| Spring: its order in the agricultural year. |
| Spring: its order in the agricultural year. |
| Spring: its order in the agricultural year. |
| Spring: its order in the agricultural year. |
| Spring: its order in the agricultural year. |
| Spring: its order in the agricultural year. |
| Spring: its order in the agricultural year. |
| Spring: its order in the agricultural year. |
| Spring: its order in the agricultural year. |
| Spring: its order in the agricultural year. |
| Spring: its order in the agricultural year. |
| Spring: its order in the agricultural year. |
| Spring: its order in the agricultural year. |
| Spring: its order in the agricultural year. |
| Spring: its order in the agricultural year. |
| Spring: its order in the agricultural year. |
| Spring: its order in the agricultural year. |
| Spring: its order in the agricultural year. |
| Spring: its order in the agricultural year. |
| Spring: its order in the agricultural year. |
| Spring: its order in the agricultural year. |
| Spring: its order in the agricultural year. |
| Spring: its order in the agricultural year. |
| Spring: its order in the agricultural year. |
| Spring: its order in the agricultural year. |
| Spring: its order in the agricultural year. |
OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE.
WINTER.
How is the agricultural year divided ?
The agricultural year is divided into four seasons—Winter, Spring, Summer, and Autumn.
Why is the winter placed first in order ?
Because winter is the season in which preparation is made for the work to be done in the other seasons.
PLoughing. Which is the chief preparatory work in winter ? Ploughing the soil; but other works of importance in winter are, thatching barns, hay-making, hay-stacking, feeding live-stock, forming dunghills of farmyard manure. Of what use is ploughing the soil in winter ? Ploughing the soil in winter pulverises it, as also by exposing it to the air, it becomes more friable. In what state is pulverised soil ? Pulverised soil has all its parts loose and dry.
How does the plough pulverise the soil ? The plough pulverises the soil mechanically, by rubbing against, dividing, and crushing it.
How does frost pulverise the soil ? Frost freezes the moisture in soils into ice, whose expansive power breaks down the hardest clods into powder. 2
CATCHIMIS OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE.
On what kind of soil is frost most effectuous ? Frost is most effectuous on clay soils, because they are always in a moist state in winter.
Why does the farmer use the plough and not the spade, for turning over the soil ? The use of the spade is more expensive than that of the plough ; because human labour is dearer than animal labour. Fig. 1.
A diagram showing the parts of a plough.
A iron plough.
a is the beam. b is the coulter. c the bridle or maulle. d the head of the plough. e the socket of shank. f the surface of the furrow. g the sole or haftles. h the side-plate. i the depth of the furrow.
Wooden ploughs are now much less common than iron.
Of what construction is the plough ? The plough consists of one beam, one body, and two stilts.
What are the parts connected with the beam ? The coulter and the bridle.
Of what use is the coulter ? The coulter cuts off the furrow-alice from the fast land.
Of what use is the beam ? The beam regulates both the depth and the breadth of the furrow-alice, and it is part of the plough to which the horses are yoked.
Of what use is the body ? By the beam the horses draw the body of the plough through the ground.
What parts compose the body of the plough ? Besides its frame, there are the socket or shank, the mould-board, the sole-shank, and the side-plates.
Of what use is the socket or shank ? The shank of the coulter and raises up the furrow-alice cut off from the fast land by the coulter. WINTER--THE PLOUGH.
Of what use are the mould-board?
The mould-board is a piece of land laying over the furrow-else at a given angle when cut off from the fast land by the coulter, and raised up by the share.
Of what use are the shares ?
The shares support the weight of the plough upon the ground at the bottom of the furrow, and it answers as a slide.
Of what use are the side-plows?
The side-plows prevent the earth of the fast land from falling into the body of the plough.
Of what use are the stiles ?
As level as possible, the ploughman must maintain the correct line of furrow, and the required depth and breadth of the furrow-else, determined by the bridle.
How does the ploughman guide the horses ?
Firstly, by his voice, and secondly, by his feet.
Upon what mechanical principles does the plough act ?
The plough acts upon the principles of the wedge and of the lever.
Of what material is the plough made ?
The plough is now made entirely of iron, as being more durable than wood.
How many horses are harnessed to the plough ?
Two horses are harnessed to the plough ; but when a greater depth of soil than ordinary is required, three or four horses are used.
How is the plough-horse harnessed ?
The plough-horse has a collar and harness, a bridle, a back-band and chain.
Fig. 2.
A PAIR OF HORSES, DRAWING AND Yoked, DRAWING A PLOUGH, WHILE THE PLOUGHMAN GUIDES IT BY THE STILES.
a is in the furrow on the left-hand side. b is pointing to the horse on the collar. c is pointing to the horse on the back-band. d is pointing to the horse on the other side. e is pointing to the horse on the other side. f is pointing to the plough, and two short, even trees attached to it. g is pointing to one of these trees. h is pointing to one of these trees. i is pointing to one of these trees. j is pointing to one of these trees. k is pointing to one of these trees. l is pointing to one of these trees. m is pointing to one of these trees. n is pointing to one of these trees. o is pointing to one of these trees. p is pointing to one of these trees. q is pointing to one of these trees. r is pointing to one of these trees. s is pointing to one of these trees. t is pointing to one of these trees. u is pointing to one of these trees. v is pointing to one of these trees. w is pointing to one of these trees. x is pointing to one of these trees. y is pointing to one of these trees. z is pointing to one of these trees. 4
CATECHISM OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE.
How are horses yoked to the plough?
Horses are yoked to the plough by means of swing-trees and chains. The chains are fastened to the hame at one end, supported by the back-band, and fastened to the swing-tree at the other end.
A diagram showing the arrangement of swing-trees and chains on a horse's harness.
Fig. 3.
A diagram showing the swing-trees and chains on a horse's harness.
Chain Swing-Trees of Iron.
a b is the long or master tree.
c d e f g are the short trees, each at the end of the long or master-tree.
h is the hook at the end of the master-tree to the bridle of the plough.
i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z are the short trees, which are each hooked to an end of the short trees at d, e, f, and g.
Woden or iron swing-trees may be used.
How many swing-trees are required for the plough?
Three ; the long or master tree, which is hooked to the bridle; and two short trees, which are each hooked to an end of the master-tree.
Of what material are swing-trees made?
Swing-trees are made of wood--sometimes of iron.
When more than two horses are employed, how are they yoked to the plough?
Three horses are yoked alread, and four horses are yoked two-and-two.
What other ploughs are used on a farm besides the common one?
There are sulky, trenching, and double mount-board ploughs.
Of what use is the subsoil-plough?
The subsoil-plough is a plough without bringing its teeth to the surface, thereby admitting into it rain and air, to make useful soil might be hurtful in it to plants.
Of what use is the trench-plough?
A trench-plough turns out the desired proportion of the sub-soil and mixes it with the surface soil.
What is the breadth of the furrow-lice turned over by the plough?
Not less than 9 inches.
What are the usual depths of ploughing old lea, turnip land, and stubbles?
Old lea is ordinarily ploughed deeper than 6 inches. Turnip land ploughed moderately receives a depth of 9 or 10 inches; turnip land for wheat receives 7 or 8 inches. Stubbles are ploughed as deep as possible in preparation for turnips and other green WINTER—PLOUGHING. 5
crop, commonly 10 inches. Frequently stubbles are ploughed with three or four furrows, each furrow being 10 or 12 inches, and even more, if the nature of the soil and subsoil admit of it. It is a good rule to plough deep.
Is the ground ploughed into any particular form? Yes, commonly into narrow divisiuns named ridges.
Into what breadth are ridges ploughed ? On moist land the breadth of ridges is 12 feet. When drained, or natural, they may be from 8 to 10 feet in breadth. When the land is perfectly dry, ridges are put together into widths of 34, 30, or 36 feet; and those widths may be doubled.
Of what parts does a ridge consist ? A ridge consists of two furrows, one flanks, and the two furrow-brows. The hollow narrow space between the ridges is named the open furrow.
Are short modes of ploughing land than in ridges ? Land may be drilled and ribbed.
Fig. 4.
The double mould-board plough for drilling land. a is the beam, b is the head, c is the mould-board, d is the shank, e is the shille.
It will be seen that this plough has two furrows, because it is only used in saturated soil.
How is land drilled ? Land is drilled by laying two furrow-aiices against each other in a triangular form with the plough, or by forming two separate furrow-aiices with the double mould-board plough.
How is land ribbed ? Land is ribbed by laying over small parallel furrow-aiices, dis- tinct from each other, with a small plough constructed like the common plough.
Of the same breadth, do ridges of different lengths take compara- tively the same time in being ploughed ?
No. Of the same breadth, the shortest ridges take compara- tively longer time to be ploughed, because they oblige a greater number of turns at their ends. 6 CATECHISM OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE.
What is the length of ridge that loses the least time at the turn- ing ?
About 300 yards ; because longer ridges fatigue the horses, and cause them to walk slower.
Of what length is a day's work ?
A day's work embraces two hours, as long as there is daylight to that extent, and during that time an acre of ground can be ploughed.
Is a day's work continuous or divided ?
A day's work should be divided into at least two portions, named yokings, because it is found that horses are injured in health and constitution when worked more than four or five hours at a time.
THRASHING AND WINNOWING GRAIN OR CORN.
How is separation of the grain from the straw best effected ?
The separation of the grain from corn is best effected by means of the thrashing-machine.
Why has the flail been given up ?
Because by the thrashing-machine the crop is better and quicker thrashed, and at less cost than by the flail.
Fig. 6.
A SECTION IN LENGTH OF A THRASHER-MACHINE.
A SECTION IN LENGTH OF A THRASHER-MACHINE.
WINTER-THRASHER CORN.
7
a is the feeding-in board. b are the rollers for taking in and hold- ing the straw. c is the drum, which gains the grain up- wards by its motion, and throws it out at the rake for removing the straw and grain. d is the screen, which separates the straw from the grain. e is the shaker, which tosses the straw over the screen. f is the screen, which passes the grain through from the rake into the straw-bowl. g is the screen, which passes the grain through from the rake into the straw-bowl. h is the screen, which passes the grain through from the rake into the straw-bowl. i is the screen, which passes the grain through from the rake into the straw-bowl. j is the screen, which passes the grain through from the rake into the straw-bowl. k is the screen, which passes the grain through from the rake into the straw-bowl. l is the screen, which passes the grain through from the rake into the straw-bowl. m is the screen, which passes the grain through from the rake into the straw-bowl. n is the screen, which passes the grain through from the rake into the straw-bowl. o is the screen, which passes the grain through from the rake into the straw-bowl. p is the screen, which passes the grain through from the rake into the straw-bowl. q is the screen, which passes the grain through from the rake into the straw-bowl. r is the screen, which passes the grain through from the rake into the straw-bowl. s is the screen, which passes the grain through from the rake into the straw-bowl. t is the screen, which passes the grain through from the rake into the straw-bowl. u is the screen, which passes the grain through from the rake into the straw-bowl. v is the screen, which passes the grain through from the rake into the straw-bowl. w is the screen, which passes the grain through from the rake into the straw-bowl. x is a horse, which draws this machine, and also takes in and holds all that comes into it by means of a rope attached to its hoof. The horse A, into this machine B, when it is filled by two men with corn and straw, drives it to a place where it can be moved up by two men. The other horses C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W are used for moving this ma- chine. In order to throw this machine over the straw by its own power.
How does a thrashing-machine operate 1
Each wheel of corn, on being loosened, is placed upon a feeding-in board, from which it rolls down in gradually as it draws in more corn. The roller b then takes in and gives to each wheel of corn and grain to a roller c, which removes both across a screen below it. When this roller c has removed all of one wheel of corn and grain across this screen d it then separates this wheel of corn and grain by means of wind from fans e while these fans blow through this wheel of corn and grain as it goes across its part of this screen and throws it into a straw-bowl f beyond it. The grains dropping meanwhile through this screen and beyond it are thrown into a straw-bowl g.
How many persons necessarily attend thrashing-machines when at work?
Four persons may conduct this thrashing-machine by means of water or steam. One person may take care of one machine. Two persons may take care of two machines. Three persons may take care of three machines. Four persons may take care of four machines. Five persons may take care of five machines. Six persons may take care of six machines. Seven persons may take care of seven machines. Eight persons may take care of eight machines. Nine persons may take care of nine machines. Ten persons may take care of ten machines. Eleven persons may take care of eleven machines. Twelve persons may take care of twelve machines. Thirteen persons may take care of thirteen machines. Fourteen persons may take care of fourteen machines. Fifteen persons may take care of fifteen machines. Sixteen persons may take care of sixteen machines. Seventeen persons may take care of seventeen machines. Eighteen persons may take care of eighteen machines. Nineteen persons may take care of nineteen machines. Twenty persons may take care of twenty machines.
How do thrashing-machines move?
The thrashing-machine is moved by means of horses or water or steam.
What is best moving-power for a thrashing-machine?
Water or steam are scarcely ever employed; being undsteady and uncertain. Horses are much disturbed in moving this thrashing-machine. Whenever steam or water can be procured they are preferred.
Steam is cheapest and steadiest moving-power; 8 CATECHISM OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE.
where the supply is large and constant. Where water is not constant, steam is the most certain of the moving powers. Is the thrashing-machine stationary or portable? In Scotland the thrashing-machine is permanently fixed in a convenient place, but in England, portable thrashing-machines are not uncommon. Does the grain come from the thrashing-machine in a state fit for market? It is entirely possible to erect such an expensive thrashing-machine as will deliver the grain fit for market ; but commonly grain is made ready for market by means of fanners and riddles.
Fig. 6.
DRESSING CORN WITH FANNERS
a is the fanner ; b is a man driving the fanners. c is a woman taking corn with a spoon from one heap of riddled corn to another ; d is a heap of riddled corn for shovelling up the last heap of riddled corn ; e is a woman taking away the corn as it comes into her hand ; f is a heap of riddled corn in the light grain as it falls to the centre of it coming from the heap of riddled corn ; g is the shaft as it is blown away from the heap of riddled corn ; h is the shaft as it is blown away from the heap of riddled corn ; i is a woman taking the corn as it comes into her hand ; j is a woman taking the corn from the head of the fanner. What is the process of dressing grain ? The fanner, being placed beside the heap of corn to be dressed, is moved by a man ; one woman supplies the hopper with grain from the heap by means of a maul, and the mate- nace of it by means of a spoon ; two women receive the grain from the fanners in a maul ; and two women receive it from her on riddles, upon which they shake off all foreign grain and other impurities from the good grain, and throw them into a basket or
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using a spoon to transfer corn from one pile to another.
A cartoon depicting a woman using
WINTER—MEASURING CORN.
the bushel-measure. Two such dressings are required by wheat and barley, and one by oats.
After a sufficient dressing, what is next done with the grain is
The grain on being sufficiently dressed, is measured with the bushel, and put into sacks.
Fig. 7.
MEASURING AND SACKING CORN.
a is the bushel-measure placed beside b is the sack-barrow for wheeling away the dressed corn. c is the man who holds the bushel-measure. d is the man who takes the bushel placed properly in the sack-barrow. e is the man who takes the dressed corn by means of a spade. f is a empty bushel ready to be filled. g is the man who puts the corn into his hand, to level the top of the corn in the bushel. h is a wooden shovel for turning the corn up at the bottom of the bushel. i and j are two women holding the sack-barrow. k is a man who holds the sack, instead of two, are sometimes employed on the score of economy, but the burden is best shared equally between two men.
Where there is a want of hands, as in small farms, the smaller number must suffice.
How is grain measured and sacked ?
The bushel-measure is placed beside the dressed heap of corn. Two women fill it at the same time with corn by means of maunda. A man levels the corn in the bushel with a strike. Two women then pour it into a sack-barrow. The man, assisted by the women, empties the corn from the bushel into the sack-barrow. The woman then pours it into the sack, the man wheels the filled sack, on a sack-barrow, to a corner of the barn. Two bushel-sacks make a quarter of grain.
How are sacks full of corn conveyed to market?
Corn in sacks may be conveyed directly to the market town, or to a railway station, upon carts.
How is a horse gored to a cart?
The horse is gored with a bridle, collar, and harness, as for the plough—with a saddle upon his back, and a broaching over his rungs. He is placed between the shafts, and the load is supported upon the saddle, by means of a stout chain fastened by each end 10 CATCHMENT OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE.
the shafha. Draught-chains are hooked to the haime, and breech- ling-chains are used.
How are markets for the sale of grain conducted ? They are distinguished by stock and sample markets.
How is a stock-market of grain conducted ?
In a stock-market the grain is presented for sale in sacks, and the bulk of it is conveyed on the carts or at the railway station.
How is a sample-market of grain conducted ?
A sample-market consists in presenting the grain for sale in a small sample by hand, instead of the entire grain in sacks.
Is grain disposed of at market solely by measure ? No: grain is disposed of by measure and weight of the bushel.
How is grain weighed ?
Grain is weighed with a steelyard, one of which, suited for it, should be in every corn-barn.
What is done with the straw as it comes from the thrashing- machine ?
Straw is flung up and trampled down in regular broomsticks across the straw-bed, and then spread out for litter, and outstraw for fodder. One end of the straw-bed should always contain litter-straw, and the other end fodder-straw.
PULLING AND STORING TURNIPS.
What are the green crops usually raised on a farm ? In Scotland, turnips and potatoes ; and in England and Ire- land, turnips, mangold-wurzel, and potatoes. Besides these, caro- tois, parsnips, and swedes are also grown. How are the various kinds of green crop used ?
Potatoes are chiefly used as human food; turnips and others are consumed by live-stock.
At what season do the crops taken from the ground for use ? Potatoes are taken up in autumn, and stored ; mangold- wurzel, carrots, and parsnips, are taken up before the appearance of frost in spring. In Ireland, where turnips are taken up in dry weather at any time during winter and autumn, but part is stored in autumn.
When are the crops begun to be consumed ?
In October, when the grass begins to fall.
How is the consumption of turnips commenced ?
When turnips are to be wholly consumed by cattle in the steading, the crop is cleared field after field. When a proportion WINTER-ROOTING AND SHAVING TURNIPS. 11
of the crop is to be left on the field to be consumed by sheep, the other part is removed for cattle.
What proportion of turnips is usually left on the field for sheep? Commonly one-half. Where the soil is naturally rich, and in good condition, the whole crop is eaten; but where it is in poor condition, the whole crop is eaten on the ground.
In what manner is the proportion of turnips left on the field? On leaving one-half of the turnips, two drills are taken away and two drills are made. In leaving one-fourth on the field, three drills are taken away and one left.
Are turnips in any way prepared before being removed from the field? The roots and leaves of turnips are cut off by means of a knife, made of an old sickle with the point broken off.
a is the left hand of the worker. b is the right hand of the worker. c is the root of a turnip. d is the leaf of a turnip. e is the point of a sickle. f is a turnip injured by cutting, when the root has been cut off at an angle, and the leaf has been torn off at an angle when roasting and shading them. There are many more ways than this known than this for roasting turnips.
How are the roots and leaves removed from the ground? The leaves of each turnip are cut off by means of a sickle held in the left hand of the worker; the turnip, on being pulled out of the ground, is held in a horizontal position, when the root first is cut off with one stroke, and then the leaf with another. The severing action with the turnip. The severed turnips drop to the ground in heaps, and the leaves are thrown down on the bare ground.
What is the manner of pulling turnips when two drills are alternately used? A woman goes between the two drills to be removed, and pulls the turnips with her left hand, first from one drill and then from the other. She then takes up all the leaves from under the tur- nips over the two drills to be left, and drops them in heaps as she severally removes them. Then she takes up all the leaves on the bare ground. Another woman clears other two drills, and drops the turnips in the same heaps. The bare ground is thus cleared of all traces of the prepared turnips. The leaves are left to manure the ground.
Are turnips given to cattle as removed from the field? Usually turnips are given to cattle as removed from the 13
CATCHMICH OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE.
field; but stores of turnips should be made in the beginning of winter at latest.
Do carts or horses injure land in rain or frost 1?
Wet soil dirties turnips. Cart-whales and horses' feet poach the land in wet weather. Frost hardens turnips so as to make them eat out the ground, and thus destroy the crop. The storing of turnips.
Turnips, when covered up with snow, are troublesome to remove.
What is the best remedy against the injuries of frost, rain, and snow, to turnips ?
The best remedy against frost, rain, and snow, is to remove the turnips from the ground, and store them in a cellar.
A woman plows in the tur- nips, and then covers them with snow of the night. In a triangular hoop, or in a square, she puts snow and ropes for covering turnips. Sometimes she puts some timbers under the snow, that it may not sink down into the earth, and so do no injury to tur- nips stored.
How are turnips stored ?
Turnips are best stored in triangular hoops along dry ridges of a field close to the standing. The stores are filled with a few of sufficient thickness to protect the turnips from frost, and the straw is kept on with straw ropes.
Are all the kinds of roots of form of the same kind ?
No : generally three kinds are cultivated, namely - white, yellow, and swedes.
If there are many storage in having so many kinds of turnips ?
Yes. The white kinds, growing quickly, are first ready for use. The swedes last longest, and are last used. The yellow kinds are also better than others.
The three sorts form a regular gradation of food during the season.
FEEDING LIVE-STOCK.
How are live-stock housed during the winter ?
Cattle and horses lie in the standing, and so do pigs and poultry. Sheep are in the fields, either upon grass or upon turnips.
How are cattle accommodated on the standing ?
Cows always occupy byres. Young cattle are kept in course,
A diagram showing a triangular hoop for storing turnips.
Fig. 9.
A store of turnips.
A woman plows in the tur-
nips, and then covers them with
snow of the night. In a triangular
hoop, or in a square, she puts
snow and ropes for covering
turnips. Sometimes she puts some
timbers under the snow, that it may
not sink down into the earth,
and so do no injury to tur-
nips stored.
Turnips are best stored in triangular hoops along dry ridges of a field close to the standing. The stores are filled with a few of sufficient thickness to protect the turnips from frost, and the straw is kept on with straw ropes.
Are all the kinds of roots of form of the same kind ?
No : generally three kinds are cultivated, namely - white, yellow, and swedes.
If there are many storage in having so many kinds of turnips ?
Yes. The white kinds, growing quickly, are first ready for use. The swedes last longest, and are last used. The yellow kinds are also better than others.
The three sorts form a regular gradation of food during the season.
How are live-stock housed during the winter ?
Cattle and horses lie in the standing, and so do pigs and poultry. Sheep are in the fields, either upon grass or upon turnips.
How are cattle accommodated on the standing ?
Cattle
WINTER—FEEDING CATTLE.
13
having shelter under sheds, courtyards, hamelets, or boxes.
a is the outer wall of the tyres. b is the gutter to receive the food. c is the shelve, forming a trough for water. d is a gutter to receive the other a & b stones in the floor. e is the gutter to receive the dung and excreta of the cattle. f is the floor of the stall. g is the top of the stall, on which the animal is hoisted by a pulley, and lowered by the hook at the back of the stall. h traverse or divisions between the stalls, to prevent the animals from straying but sometimes of fig. 40 shape. A STALL OF A TYRE.
Of what construction are a type I? A tyre consists of single or double stalls, each to hold one or two cows or oxen ; a manger to place the turnips in ; stakes to support the roof ; a loop of iron chain round the neck ; and a gutter to receive the dung and urine from the stalls.
How are courts constructed ? Courts consist of a large enclosed area, with covered sheds for shelter, having mangers for straw, racks for straw or hay, and troughs for water.
a is a building of wood. b is a meeting of wood. c is a meeting of wood. d is a meeting of wood. e is a meeting of wood. f is a meeting of wood. g is a meeting of wood. h is a meeting of wood. i is a meeting of wood. j is a meeting of wood. k is a meeting of wood. l is a meeting of wood. m is a meeting of wood. n is a meeting of wood. o is a meeting of wood. p is a meeting of wood. q is a meeting of wood. r is a meeting of wood. s is a meeting of wood. t is a meeting of wood. u is a meeting of wood. v is a meeting of wood. w is a meeting of wood. x is a meeting of wood. y is a meeting of wood. z is a meeting of wood.
What are hamelets? Hamelets have a covered shed, with racks for straw and hay ; with a door into a small open court, fitted up with mangers for turnips, and a trough for water.
a is a shed for shelter, having a doorway into an open court e & f fitted with mangers for turnips, and with a trough g for water e are two stoves for turnips, to be used by the cattle occupying the hamelet.
Cattle enter through the door e from the road in front of an s
What are boxes ? Boxes are series of sparred wooden cribs in a shed, large enough to contain one ox loose in each crib, with a manger for turnips, and a trough for water.
CATECHISM OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE
What is the relative situation of animals in byres, courts, ham- lets, and boxes?
In byres, being tied by the neck, cattle are obliged to remain always on the ground, under cover, so that they can neither go have much room to walk about in the open air, with liberty to go under cover in sheds. In hamlets, cattle have but a small space to move in, and are obliged to lie down in the same place all day long over in sheds. In boxes, cattle have room in their own chutes only to turn round once.
How is their food given to cattle?
Food is given to cattle three times a-day, at fixed hours—at morning, noon, and evening.
What is the best food for cattle in winter?
Turnips, with potatoes, olloke, or bean-meal, form the food of cattle in winter.
How is the food distributed to cattle of different sexes and ages?
Cows are allowed a small quantity of turnips until they calve, when the quantity is increased to cause flow of milk. Young cattle have a small quantity of turnips given them daily to promote their growth. Feeding cattle have as much food as they can eat: they each consume about 1 ewe's turnip a-day.
What quantity of potatoes is given to cattle in winter to a feeding or 1?
About a bushel of potatoes, and from 3 to 4 of olloke a-day are given to an ox, according to its size; and bean-meal is given without salt.
In what state are the olloke, turnips, and potatoes given to cattle?
The olloke is broken small by a hand-machine; the turnips are sliced with a slicer spade; the potatoes are given whole.
Is straw or hay given to cattle?
Straw is given every day at stated hours, and the cattle eat it, and drink water, between the times they eat turnips. Cattle seldom receive hay.
What sort of bedding is used for cattle to eat in?
Oat straw and bean straw are the best fodder for cattle. Barley straw and wheat straw are only fit for cattle litter.
When is litter given to cattle?
Litter is given every day in the byres, hamlets, boxes, and courts, in such quantity as to keep the cattle clean and dry.
Who takes charge of the feeding and littering of cattle?
The cattle-man.
How are turnips given to sheep?
Turnips are given to sheep on the ground upon which they have grown, or upon pasture.
Sheep. WINTER—FEEDING SHEEP. 15
Have sheep liberty to all the turnips of a field at once? No : sheep are confined upon as much of the turnips as will serve them about a week.
How are sheep confined upon any given space of turnips ? Sheep are confined upon long turnips with movable nets and hurdles. The nets are made of cord, and supported three feet high by stakes driven into the ground. The hurdles are made of wood, and set upon the ground in an inclining position backward, supported by wooden staps, fastened with pins, and driven into the ground. The stakes on one end are short, and on the other end to short stakes driven with a wooden mallet into the ground.
Fig. 13.
A diagram showing a sheep pen with movable nets and hurdles.
A SHEEP PEN SET UP.
a a stake of wood, a foot long, driven round and made fast to the ground by means of a wooden mallet. b b are two stakes straight along the line of the hurdle, c c is the fastening together the ends of the hurdle, d d are two stakes driven into the ground to hold up the top and bottom parts of the net so that they may be taken out without stretching them too tight, because, on being worked with rain, they would be broken by the contraction of the nette. e e is a stake driven through the middle of turnips to another, after the stakes and nets have been taken to the field.
Fig. 14.
A diagram showing a sheep pen with movable nets and hurdles.
WATERER Hurdles set up.
a a are two hurdles set, inclined away from the stump, consisting each of two poles, thus making a hurdle four feet wide. b b are stakes which hold the hurdles in place. Two men are required to set up wooden hurdles of the above construction, and each man requires a pair of hands strong enough to drive in stakes. They are made light and strong, of peeled oak saplings, which are mainly set up by one man and held together with wattle.
A diagram showing a sheep pen with movable nets and hurdles.
A SHEEP PEN SET UP.
16
CATECHISM OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE.
Do sheep eat turnips as they grow upon the ground ? Sheep eat white turnips, as they grow, at the beginning of the season. The harder yellow turnips and swedes are blazed with a turnip-cutter, and served to the sheep in small wooden troughs.
A diagram showing the process of cutting turnips. The turnips are first cut into pieces, then placed in a wooden trough, and finally served to the sheep.
Fig. 15.
The disc turnip-slicer for sheep. Sheep receive white swede and oats, with salt, in small troughs, along with turnips.
Do sheep receive fodder when on turnips ? Sheep have fresh oat-straw every day, in racks, when on turnips. Bows are given them occasionally.
Do all ages of sheep receive turnips in winter ? No: ewes in lamb have pasture reserved for them in winter-turnips making them too fat for bringing forth their lambs in autumn. Young sheep and fattening sheep receive turnips all winter.
In case of snow, very wet weather, it is proper to allow sheep to remain upon turnips on the land ? Unless the soil is dry, sheep are better in a dry grass field, receiving straw and hay, and eating heavy rain ; and hay and oliceo during a great fall of snow.
Who takes the charge of sheep at all seasons ? The shepherd.
Horses.
How are work-horses accommodated in the stabling in winter ? Horses occupy the stable, which is fitted up with stalls, contain- taining a manger for straw and hay, and a box for corn. Young horses occupy the courts or hamecoils.
THE DISC TURNIP-SLICER FOR SHEEP. WINTER—HORSES.
17
Who has the charge of work-horses? The ploughmen, who each work a pair of horses.
a a pair the two-mast-iron head-post. b be the two-mast-iron head-post. c the horse's head, and the head-staff to keep the horse from falling over. d the rack for the horse to stand on. e is the rack for straw, or grain, or hay, or other material of high value, f up the corn-box. g is a bar put across the rack to prevent the horse from falling off the hay out of its with his head. h is the head-staff for holding the horse. i is the gutter for carrying away the water that falls from the roof. j is the gutter for carrying away the water that falls from the roof. k is the rack for the straw, or for storing the straw in a heap, so that it may not fall into his stall. l The horse is fed with hay and straw bottom into grooves of some kind for feeding purposes, and also with hay and straw on the floor.
The gutter g is best used of all. There are other ways of fitting up work-horse stalls, but this is the best way to do it, and it will be found to be satisfactory.
A STABLE FOR HORSES IS A SMALL STABLE, FURNISHED WITH RACKS AND CORN-MOUL, AND A FEEDER FOR THE HORSES.
What is the usual treatment of work-horses in winter?
In the morning early the stable is cleared of foul litter, and the horses are groomed and fed with corn. At noon, after the forenoon's work, they are again groomed and fed with corn. On their return to the stable, after the afternoon's yoking, the horses are again groomed. In the evening the horses are thoroughly groomed and fed with hay and straw, which are kept in a place convenient for purpose. fodder is given to the horses at every return to the stable, and in the evening for the night.
In what manner are oats fed to work-horses?
Oats is the corn usually given to work-horses, and in a whole state, but bruised oats afford them most nourishment.
How are mashes made for horses?
Mash is made by boiling in water, in a large boiler, Swedish turnips, barley, and beans, with a little salt, which are covered with straw or hay, cut by a straw-cutter, and cooked by boiling in a large pot of water. The cooked mash is put from the boiler into a large tub to be cooled, and from this it is divided in feedings amongst the horses.
How are the young horses in the hamlets fed?
Young horses are fed with hay and straw, and a feed of bruised oats every day, and a mash once a week. 18
CATCHERISM OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE
Pigs.
How are pigs fed in winter?
Aged pigs are fed to be made into ham. They are fed with boiled potatoes, or stewed vegetables, with barley or meal made into thick gruel, three times every day—at morning, noon, and evening.
Fig. 17.
This is a very convenient form of trough for the drinking food of pigs, to be placed upon the floor of the house, and covered with a little straw, which will prevent one pig from eating through the straw as made of a rectangular form.
How are young pigs treated in winter?
CERULEAN CARRIAGE POLYTHENE.
Young pigs will get leave to go about, and feed on raw potatoes and turnips; and a drink of gruel or slops from the house is put into a trough for them in any of the open courts.
How are pigs accommodated in a stabling?
Feeding pens are put into each, side each having a covered shed and small court, with one trough for food, and another for drink. Young pigs are kept in the red at night in a shed provided for them. Pigs love warmth.
Poultry.
How are poultry accommodated in the standing?
Commonly poultry are very ill-housed in the stables. A poultry-house is usually built near a boiler-house, hyre, or stable, and exposed to the sunlight.
What are the different kinds of poultry kept on a farm?
Turkeys, geese, chickens, guinea-fowl, are usually found on a farm; and also pigeons. Some farmers will not rear geese, deeming them mischievous and dirty.
Are all poultry treated alike?
No. Geese require no straw; requiring to roast, have a dry, clean, straw-littered floor to stand or rest upon. Turkeys and common fowls, requiring roosts, are provided with them. Being of very different habits, turkeys and ducks occupy a separate apartment from turkeys and fowls.
How are poultry fed in winter?
All poultry are fed four hours three times a-day—at early morning, noon, and afternoon. No farm-producer is better for poultry than boiled potatoes, thick oatmeal-porridge, and corn. Regularly fed with all or either of these foods, all sorts of poultry
A diagram showing a trough for feeding pigs.
A diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a diagram showing a trough for feeding young pigs.
A diagram showing a diagonal line across the middle of the image. This line is straight and horizontal. It spans almost the entire width of the image from left to right. The line is black and solid. There is no other text or imagery within this line.
WINTER—MANURE.
10
are fit for use at all times, and those are every day obtained from the young pullets. But owing to a number of poultry well cared for and well fed, than a large number neglected and ill fed.
Which is the best breed of fowl? The Dorking is the best of the best ; and the old Hamburg breed is yet also good. Cochin-Chinins are large but coarse, and getting into disfavour. Spanish hens are great layers, but otherwise inferior to the English breeds. The several varieties of Dorking, but the speckled is the most esteemed.
Which is the best breed of turkey? The Norfolk breed with black feathers.
Which is the best breed of ducks? The Aythya fuligula is considered the best, having white feathers.
Which is the best breed of goose? The common breed of goose is yet the best.
How are pigeons accommodated in the stabling ? The pigeons are kept in a warm chamber; as at the end of a byre or stable, in the roof.
How are pigeons fed? They are fed along with the poultry, and on the same kinds of food ; and they get good heating and warmth by their earlier and greater foundry.
Manure.
How is farmyard manure managed in winter ? The manure from the byres and stables is wheeled daily and spread upon the fields, either in heaps or upon separate dunghills. The manure in the boxes is at times taken away and made into heaps, which are covered with straw or hay, covered with a roof, to prevent the rain washing away the soluble parts of the manure. The manure in the open courts and hammels, being always turned over, does not require this treatment until them driven out to the fields be formed into dunghills.
How is the manure from courts and hammels treated on being driven out to the fields ? The manure in courts and hammels is driven to the field in frosty weather, and formed into a dunghill. The dunghill is turned over, and manure applied a short time before the manure is applied to the land.
What are liquid-manure tanks, and their use? Tanks are pits filled with water, for the purpose of containing the liquid manure used as such as it comes from the open courts, byres, and stables, through conduits under ground, until the liquid manure is used. 80 CATECHISM OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE
How is liquid manure used? Liquid manure is applied directly to the land from a barrel mounted on wheels, or it is spread over the ground by means of hose in connection with pipes laid in trenches, or by means of a tank.
Are there any sources of manure besides the dung and urine of animals?
There are many substances which might be converted into manure, but those employed into composts, such as decaying potato-stems, weeds, acorns of ditches, turf, peat-moss, leaves, road-scrapsing, fish-pellets, and other substances, such as herring-bread, and fertilized with lime, rape-cake, or manure from the stables, and watered with liquid manure, make large composts, and afford excellent measure.
![A diagram showing a horse being drawn by two horses.]
Pounds of a draught Horse beautifully economical.
The head is small; each view with a fine crest from 6 to 8 inches & a tapering forehead; the neck is long and slender; the shoulders are well sloped back from 5 to 6 inches; the withers at 3 being thin and high; back from 5 to 6 inches; chest deep and broad; the legs strong and muscular; the hind legs are long and straight; the tail short and thick; the hoofs are large and strong; the feet are well shaped; the mane is long and silky; the tail is long and silky; the ears are long and pointed; neck and head are extended to the body so as seem light and graceful.
The horse was named "The Great Horse" by Mr. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. and was so powerful as to draw three tons along the streets of Edinburgh.
A diagram showing a horse being drawn by two horses.
SPRING.
What is the nature of farm operations in spring?
The farm operations of spring are—to prepare the ground for the seed, to plant the seed, to feed the live-stock while bringing forth their young. The crops sown in spring are spring-wheat, beans, taros, oats, potatoes, barley, and grass seeds.
SPRING-WHEAT.
What is the earliest crop sown in spring?
The first sown crop is spring-wheat. As the sheep clear the land of turnips, the land is ploughed into ridges, and sown with wheat.
How is land ploughed for spring-wheat?
Land for spring-wheat receives only one furrow, the ground being ferved according to the form of ridge.
What is the form of ridge usual for spring-wheat?
Footing is marking out the breadth of ridges with the plough.
What is the form of ridge usual for spring-wheat?
Commonly single ridges.
Is wheat prepared before being sown in spring?
Wheat is pickled to prevent the disease of amut attacking it.
How is wheat pickled?
The wheat is poured from the sack into baskets, which are dipped in a tub containing stale urine, or a solution of green vitriol, which is then sprinkled over it. The baskets are taken upon the floor, and dried by means of quicklime strewn over the heap while being turned over with shovels. (See fig. 18, next page.)
How is wheat sown?
Wheat is sown either by hand or with machines. 22 CATECHISM OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE.
a is a sack of wheat b is the box into which it is put. c is the straw d is the straw into which the wheat is dipped. e is a bucket f is a bucket filling it by the two hands. g is the wheat after it has been spread, and the two hands of the thrasher placed over it, to shake off the straw of another tub f. h is the tub for holding the wheat getting out of the box c. i is the heap of wheat to be moved by the force of the wind. j is a sack ready to receive the picked wheat when scattered into them. K is a basket with a handle, to hold the wheat, through a riddle; and while the whole quantity of wheat to be sown is picked, the heap is turned over, and mixed with barrow, so that these both may be well and equally mixed with the wheat.
THE SEPARATOR FOR PICKLING WHEAT.
The Wheat.
How is wheat sown by hand ? Wheat is sown by hand out of a linen bag, supported over the left shoulder, and held in his right arm free. On the bag being filled with grain by an assistant, he kneels down round the left arm, leaving the grain open on his left hand. On taking a full handful of grain, he sower throws it forward, in a scattered form, with a full swing of his arm. Some men sow corn with both hands, out of a suitable form of basket suspended in front.
SOWING CORN BY THE HAND.
Who fills the bag with grain ? A woman fetches this grain, in a straw bushy, from the sacks, at first she walks along the narrow-drawn of the ridges across the fields. How is wheat sown with machine ? Mechanics sow wheat broadcast, drilled, and dibbled. How is wheat sown broadcast with a machine ? The broadcast-sowing-machine consists of a long narrow box, mounted on wheels, and drawn by horses or mules, and guided by a man. The seed is pushed out of the box, through holes regulated to a size, to answer the quantity desired to be sown, by
Fig. 18.
A diagram showing a machine for broadcasting wheat.
| c | a sack of wheat |
| d | a straw into which wheat is dipped |
| e | a bucket filling it by two hands |
| f | wheat after it has been spread |
| g | two hands of thrasher placed over it |
| h | tub for holding wheat getting out of box c |
| i | heap of wheat to be moved by force of wind |
| j | sack ready to receive picked wheat when scattered into them |
| k | basket with handle to hold wheat through riddle |
| l | heap mixed with barrow so that both may be well and equally mixed with wheat |
| m | handfuls of grain thrown forward in scattered form with full swing of arm |
| n | men sow corn with both hands out of suitable form of basket suspended in front |
| p | who fills bag with grain? |
| q | woman fetches straw bushy from sacks at first walks along narrow-drawn ridges across fields |
| r | how is wheat sown with machine? |
| s | mechanics sow wheat broadcast, drilled, and dibbled |
| t | how is wheat sown broadcast with machine? |
| u | box consisting of long narrow box mounted on wheels drawn by horses or mules and guided by man seed pushed out box through holes regulated size to answer quantity desired to be sown |
means of a long girouille, armed with scoops and set in motion by one of the wheels of the machine. On single ridges the horse walks in the open furrows, and the machine sows two half-ridges at a time. Double ridges are sown with the horse walking along the crown of each ridge.
Fig. 20.
A MACHINÉ FOR SOWING CORN DISTRIBUTED OVER THE GROUND.
a is the top of a long box, equal in height to the breadth of a ridge.
b is the lever for stopping and setting the machine in motion.
c is the wheel which supports the machine on its wheels.
d is the shaft for the horses.
The two wheels are placed on either side of the central part, in order to allow the machine to pass through the ordinary side of a field.
Fig. 21.
A DULL SOWING MACHINE.
a is the hopper to contain the seed. b are the handles held by the conductor to move the machine over the ground to receive the seed from the hopper. c is the lever which regulates the issue from the hopper. d are the wheels supporting the whole machine. e are the shafts to which the horses are attached. f are the shafts to which the horses are attached. g are the marks to show the breadth of each ridge as compared with such of the machine.
Dull machines for sewing corn are much more generally used in England than in Holland. Most of these dull sowing machines are very complicated, and of course costly, but they do their work well, and are illustrated in this figure does its work as well as the most complicated and costly ones. 34
CATECHISM OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE.
How is wheat sown in drills with a machine?
The drill sowing-machine is provided with a large hopper for seed, which supplies a number of spots enclosed in coulters, which form parallel rows in the ground for the reception of the seed. The coulters are connected by a shaft. The issue of the seed is regulated by a spindle, armed with scoops, set in motion by a wheel worked by a horse, and guided by a man. Whose head is in drills across the ridges, and the drills are nine inches and upwards apart.
How is wheat sowed with a machine?
A drill-sower is drawn by one or more horses, or by hand, or drawn by one or more horses. The seed is pushed into the ground through hollow tubes in certain numbers at stated distances.
Fig. 22.
A diagram showing the mechanism of a drill-sower. It consists of two horizontal bars (a) with a vertical bar (b) between them. The vertical bar has a horizontal arm (c) attached to it, which can be moved up and down. The upper end of this arm has a hook (d) that can be used to hold the seed in place. The lower end of the arm has a spout (e) that can be used to push the seed into the ground. The whole mechanism is mounted on wheels and can be pulled by a horse or drawn by hand.
At planting time three harrows are used, one for each row, and they are drawn by one horse.
The harrows are made of iron, and have teeth on their edges.
The triangular form makes the tines cut the surface of the ground at equal distances.
The machine is used as follows:
Is the ground treated prior to being sown with wheat in broadcast, drills, and drilled?
The wheat is sown broadcast on the hand, and by the machine. After this was left by the plough; and it is covered in with harrows, passed along and across the ridge. Wheat is sown in drills after it has been made smooth by the harrow. The surface of the ground is made smooth after the machine by a single passage of the harrows along the rows of drills. SPRING—BEANS AND PEASE
Is the quantity of wheat sown the same, whether sown in broad- cast, with drill, or by hand? Broadcast sowing requires the most seed, dibbling the least, and drilling a medium quantity. Broadcast sowing with the machine is more regular than broadcast-sowing by hand.
How late in spring may wheat be sown ? Ordinary varieties of wheat are sown till the latter end of March. Red and April wheat, and red chaff boidenst spring- wheat are sown in April.
BEANS AND PEASE.
When are beans and pease sown in spring 1 Beans and pease are sown in February or March. Are beans and pease sown on every kind of soil ? Beans and pease are usually sown on a proportion of clay. Beans, with manure, will grow on any soil, except peat. Pease are grown on lighter soil than beans.
Do beans always receive manure ? On old land, where no manure is given, beans receive no manure. Beans succeed with manure best on light soils.
How are beans culivated 1 Beans are culivated in rows and in broadcast.
How are beans culivated in rows 1 Beans are culivated either on drills or on the flat ground. The land that had been ploughed in stubble in winter, is harrowed into a fine state in spring.
How are beans culivated in rows on drills 1 The harrow is drawn over the furrows, the seed sown in the hollow of the drills, and covered up by reversing the drills, and the crop grows on the top of the drill.
How are beans culivated in rows on the flat ground 1 The harrow is drawn over the furrows, while being ploughed, the seed is sown in every third furrow, and the crop grows on the flat ground.
How is the ground best measured for cultivating beans on drills 1 The measuring board taken from a thugghill in each of the drills. The two wheels of the cart are placed at one side of each over three drills. After removing the back-board of the cart, a man pulls the measure out of the cart, in motion, with a dung-hawk; in heaps, in the 26
CATECHISM OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE.
centres hollow of the three drills. One woman, with a small com- mercial plough, ploughs the first drill, one man, with a small Fig. 23. plough, the second drill, and one man, with a small one each drill, in three, manure, the third drill; and three women follow, one in each drill, and spread the manure along the drills with a spreader. The manure is then drawn by a horse into the hollow of the drills, upon the spread manure, by a man pushing a beautiful furrow, and another woman follows along the furrow, by splitting the furrow, and finishes the operation.
A good mode would be to draw the dung out of the earth for two drills, and throw the dung on the ground against the drag in which they have lain, while the other men are drawing the dung in the third drill. In this way no dung is apt to be ill-drawn, and the negligent scraper cannot be detected.
How is the ground measured for cultivating the bean
The measure is taken from a dundhill, in carts, and hauled out in heaps upon single ridges, felled out to be hoed. The soil is then hoed to make its surface evenly by women, some with small common grops, others with drill dung-graps. The land is then ploughed in a drill down by a plough drawn by a horse. The plough is drawn by a woman with a drill dung-grap, to place some of the manure into every furrow. The woman then draws the seed upon the dung in the third furrow, which the succeeding plough covers over with a furrow -sul, and finishes the operation. The manure is then drawn by a horse, and sowing proceeds rapidly by the drill-barrow following the third plough.
How are beans cultivated in broadcast ?
In broadcast cultivation, the seed is drawn by the hand upon the sur- face of the ground, and covered in harrows.
What is the peculiar habit of the bean in its growth ?
The bean requires abundance of soil, and carries its grain from bottom to top. The young bean plants must be sown thin in both rows, and the rows wide apart. When crowded, beans only mature their greatest size.
Are peas cultivated in the same manner as beans ?
Peas are commonly sown broadcast upon the flat ground ; sow thickly, and without manure. Peas are sowen, in small pro- portions, either in drills or broadcast; some sow with beans, in broadcast, in about equal proportions.
Is there any difference in the treatment of the bean in drills, after
mowing?
Drills in the making having one side a little higher than the other, the germ of the young bean would grow out of the side of the drill where it was planted. This would cause much harrowing a short time after the seed has been sown. The flat mode of cul- ture does not require such a harrowing. SPRING-TARES, OATS, POTATOES.
27
TARES. Of what use are tares ? Tares supply an excellent forage, or green food, for live-stock, in summer and autumn. How are tares cultivated ? Tares are sown thick, broadcast, on land ploughed into ridges after being manured, and covered in with the harrow, and the surface made smooth with the roller, for the more easy mowing of the crop, when fit for mowing. OATS. Upon what portion of ground are oats cultivated ? Oats are sown on ground ploughed from grass, and at times upon land that has been under rotation of spring-wheat or barley. What use is made of oats ? Oats supply oatmeal for farm-servants, and afford food for horses. How are oats culled ? Oats are drawn by hand with the hand, or with the machine, or in rows with a drill-machine. What circumstances determine the sowing of oats broad-sown or in rows ? In the neighbourhood of towns, where weeds abound, oats are sown in rows across the ridges, with a drill-machine, in order to allow them to grow up without competition from weeds or horse-hoes. What is the culture after the sowing of the seed ? After broadcasting-oats, the ground is harrowed along and across the ridges to cover the seed. When oats are sown in rows, the harrow is used only to level the soil, and to remove the seeds in their places. The roller lastly smooths the surface. POTATOES. How is the culture of potatoes commenced ? The tubers are planted in stubble in early winter in stubble, is ploughed across the ridges in spring. What effect has cross-ploughing ? Cross-ploughing cuts the furrows across which had lain all winter's growth, and thus exposes the surface in vestiture of any breadth. Cross-ploughing is a powerful means of pulverizing the soil, preparatory to its action of the harrow and roller. When the soil has been pulverized enough on the surface, what is next done ? The words are gathered by hand, and carried away by carta. To preserve the pulverized surface uppermost, the grabber is used. 38
CATECHISM OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE.
to stir the soil if necessary after the cross-ploughing. After the grubbing, the land is drilled up for the reception of the manure, and the manure is put into the drills in the manner described while treating of lean culture in drills at the bottom of page 26.
Fig. 54.
A diagram showing a plow with a wheel attached to it, used for planting potatoes.
TENNY'S GRUBBER.
a is the free running of the grubber. b is the part of the grubber, and regulates the depth of the furrow. c is the iron plate, which is driven by the man grubbing the grubber. d is the iron bar, which is attached to the main stem of the grubber. e is the wheel which supports the fore part of the grubber. f is the handle, by means of which one person can draw them. g is the wheel which supports the rear part of the grubber. h is the handle, by means of which one person can draw them. i is the iron bar, which is attached to the main stem of the grubber. j is the iron plate, which is driven by the man grubbing the grubber.
How are potatoes prepared for planting ?
A potato may be cut out with a sharp knife, that at least two eyes are left in each part for seed.
a is the root end of the potato, and is the part which should be planted, whilst, if the potato be large, may each be cut into two parts in order to plant more seeds.
b is the root end of the potato, which should be planted, whilst, if it be small, may be cut into two parts in order to plant more seeds.
Potato seed should always be kept, and if preserved in a dry place, will last for years.
How are sets of potatoes planted ?
As the manure is spread in the drillle by women, other women plant the sets upon the manure at regula distances, from hand-baskets or aprons.
A POTATO OUT INTO DRILL EACH HAVING AT LEAST TWO EYES. SPRING—BARLEY. 29
What is the culture succeeding the planting of the sate? The ploughs cover up the manure and sows together by splitting the drills into new ones.
Is potato land always manured in the spring? Not always. When manure is in a good condition, manure for potatoes is spread upon the stubble, and ploughed in with a deep furrow. Manuring in autumn expedites work in spring.
What sort of soil is best adapted for the potato? A light, naturally dry, rich soil is best adapted for the potato. The potato is a spring crop.
What use is made of barley? Barley is chiefly made into malt, for the purpose of brewing malt-liquors, and of distilling spirits.
How is barley cultivated? Barley is sown after turnips, whether eaten off the ground by sheep, or carried off the land. Barley is also sown after oats.
How is land treated for barley? The land for barley, after turnips, always receives two ploughings. The land is hoed and ploughed into single or double ridges, according to the nature of the soil. It is either single-cropped and then ploughed into single or double ridges. Why should barley land always receive two ploughings? Because it requires two moulds to make a good meal. What other means than ploughing and the grader may be used to make a loose mould for barley? Ribbing with the small plough (see page 5), makes a good meal, but for barley, which ripens early, it is employed only undermidnight, late in the season.
How is barley sown? Barley is sown broadcast by hand or by machine. Barley is sown in rows with a drill-machine. Barley is sown in rows by hand.
What is the culture after the sowing of the seed? After sowing follows harrowing. In broadcasting-sowing, the land receives harrowing along and across. After drilling or ribbing, the land receives harrowing is only along the rows, to preserve the seeds in their places.
What follows the harrowing? Grass-seeds are then sown upon the land, and harrowed in with light harrows. The roller lastly makes the surface smooth. 30 CATECHISM OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE.
GRASS-SEEDS.
What are grass-seeds? The seeds which produce grass, consist of those of true grasses, and of clovers.
Which grass-seeds are commonly in use? Of true grasses, only one kind is used, namely, rye-grass, of which there are two varieties—one, an annual, the other, a perennial. Of clovers, two kinds are used—red and white clover.
How are grass-seeds used? Rye-grass and clover seeds are first mixed, and then sown together.
In what proportions are rye-grass and clover seeds used? One bushel of rye-grass seed is sown on the acre. Clover seeds are proportioned to the nature of the soil, and the number of years the land has been under grass.
How are mixed grass-seeds sown? Grass-seeds are sown broadcast, with the broadcast sowing-machine, (fig. 20, page 158.)
When are grass-seeds sown? Grass-seeds are always sown in spring, along with the grain crops that follow green crops.
What is the culture after sowing grass-seeds? Grass-seeds must be hoed twice in light harrows, having short times, in order that they may not be buried too deep in the soil. The roller latterly smooths the surface.
TURNING OVER DUNGHILLS. What is the manure, formed into dunghills in winter, done with in spring? The ditching for measuring the potato and turnip land are turned over in spring, in order to ferment them a little, just before the manure is required for the crop. The manure fermenting under the ground is hoed out by hand or by compressed manure in the courts and hamlets requiring turning over for better fermentation, just before it is used.
How are dunghills turned over? A narrow furrow is made by a man, with the dung-spade, across the dunghill. The cutting is executed by holding the handle of the spade with both hands, and striking it with a sharp double-edged blade with force into the dung, cutting the straw both right and left. The breadth of manure thus cut across is shaken up with spades by men or women, so as to make a clear SPRING--COWS AND CALVES
31
trough to the ground. Another breadth of the manure is then cut across with the plow, and the manure is turned and shaken with the graps upon the ground of the cleared trench, to a greater height than the compressed manure. Trench after trench is thus made until the whole field is filled with manure.
What immediate effect has turning over upon the manure?
Turning over immediately excites fermentation in manure. Fermentation produces heat, which is a great quality. Heat in the atmosphere promotes fermentation in dungheills to a sensible degree. Hence the time for turning dungheills before using the dung should be regulated by the heat of the weather.
CALVING OF COWS.
In what state are live-stocks in spring ?
Spring is the season when cows are giving forth their young. Which kind of live-stock produce their young earliest in spring ? The cows are the first to produce their calves in spring.
What symptoms do cows exhibit of calving ?
The following symptoms are observed by the older with milk.
Do cows require assistance on calving ?
Cows calve the more easily with assistance.
How is the calf treated after birth ?
The calf is immediately taken away from the cow, and put into a crib or pen, where it can be fed. When the cow suckles its calf, the calf is still put into a crib by itself, and taken out of it as often as possible each day, to be suckled.
How is the cow treated after calving ?
The cow receives a drink of lukewarm water and oatmeal after calving. Shortly after receiving the drink after calving, the milk is drawn from her.
How is milk drawn from the udder of the cow ?
Milk is drawn from the udder of the cow by stripping each teat between the finger and thumb, or by grasping each teat with the whole hand.
BEARING OF CALVES.
How are calves reared ?
Calves are reared by hand, or by sucking their mothers.
How are calves reared by hand ?
The new-born calf is put into a small wooden tub, having a long handle at one side to hold it by, and the mouth of the calf is led into the milk, by one hand of the person who feeds it. 32 CATCHEMUM OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE.
How many times a-day should a calf be fed ? A young calf should have milk from the cow three times a-day, in small quantity at first, and increasing as the calf attains age. Do calves on milk receive any other kind of food ? Hay and sliced turnips are placed before calves in their cribs.
How long are calves supported upon milk ? Calves have milk until they are three months old, after which the milk is decreased in quantity every day, and other sorts of food increased, until weaned from milk. Oatmeal is good for calves.
When are calves put to grass ? Calves are put to grass whenever it is ready to receive them in mild weather.
How are calves reared when suckling their mothers ? Calves are allowed to suck their mothers from the birth. Before grass time calves are confined in cribs, and put to their mothers as often as possible. When they grow up, they remain with their mothers constantly, until weaned.
Who takes charge of calves ? The dairymaid takes charge of calves.
LAMBING OF EWES
What particular treatment do ewes in lamb receive previous to lambing ? Ewes about to lamb are put into a small field near the stead- ing, in order that they may more easily observe symptoms of lambling as they appear.
Do ewes require assistance in lambing ? Leicester ewes require assistance in lambing, but the more hardly races do not.
What treatment does the ewe receive on lambing ? The ewe is put into the paddock for some days after lambing, and receives nourishing food, such as cabbage, turnips, oatmeal, and corn, if weak; until it is seen that she has plenty of milk, and the lambs are able to suck and follow her, when both are put on new grass.
Are ewes subject to any complaint after lambing ? Ewes are at times sick after lamming after lambing, of which they do seldom die. SPRING—SOWS, POULTRY.
33
In case of a sow dying, what is done with her lamb or lambs? Lambs that have lost their mothers are put to ewes that have either lost their lambs, or had single lambs.
When a sow dies, and there is no other one to take her lamb, what is done with the orphan lamb?
The orphan lamb is brought up by hand by the dairymaid upon warm cow's milk.
FAREWORTH OF SOWS.
When do sows bring forth their young ?
Not earlier than spring, as winter is too cold a season for young pigs.
How are sows treated prior to the period of farrowing ?
Sows are allowed to go as large until symptoms of farrowing appear upon them, when they are put into a roomy sty, under cover, and fed on hay.
Do sows require assistance in farrowing ?
No: sows bring forth their young easily. Sows, being not to become diseased, are not attended to at that period. The litter of sows should be scanty and short at farrowing, in case they lie down upon and snort the young pigs.
Should sows be attended after farrowing ?
Food is given to sows within 24 hours after farrowing.
What sort of food is best for sows after farrowing ?
A gruel of oat or barley meal, with warm water, is the best drink for sows after farrowing.
How old are pigs when taken upon the sow ? Pigs reach maturity between two months old. While suckling pigs, sows should receive the most nourishing food.
HARVESTING OF POULTRY.
Which sort of poultry first lay their eggs in spring ?
Ducks are the first layer of eggs; egrets, fowls, then geese, and lastly turkeys.
What is the natural habitation of poultry when laying their eggs ?
All times. Poultry may be found to make their nest, lay a certain number of eggs in it, and then desire to sit upon them, to produce young.
Are poultry produced in this natural desire to produce young ?
Not all kinds of poultry. Eggs are taken away from some hens and ducks as soon as laid. When eggs are taken away from hens and ducks, they continue to lay a considerable number of
4 34 CATCHMENT OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE.
eggs beyond that required for hatching. Geese and turkeys are allowed to hatch the eggs they lay. How are eggs treated on being gathered ? If met with, the eggs are placed singly upon a wooden shelf, and turned over on the opposite side every day. Are hatching-nests made for poultry ?
Hatching-nests for poultry are made upon the floor of the barnhouse, and are kept filled with their nests. Poultry are separated from each other while hatching their eggs. How are chicks of the common fowl treated when just hatched ? Chickens are fed upon a mixture of oatmeal, corn, and water in a flat dish to drink, for a time; then rice, gruel, peas, barley, until they have tasted the food given them. Hen have boiled potatoes, oatmeal-porridge, and corn to drink. How long do chickens go six weeks with the hen ? Chickens go six weeks with the hen, when they shut themselves. How are young turkeys treated ?
Young turkeys are fed upon raw egg—the yolk and white being minced very small—to eat, and milk to drink, for the first fortnight. When a fortnight old, young poults have small pieces of hen's oatmeal-porridge, boiled potatoes, and milk to drink. When the feathers of the tail and wings begin to spread, the hard-baked egg is withdrawn, and the hen's oatmeal-porridge is given to them. The turkeys are fed upon boiled potatoes, oatmeal-porridge, and corn to drink.
How are geeselings treated ?
Geeselings are fed on grain, in a warm sheltered situation. Geese eat grass with the geese.
How are ducklings treated ?
Ducklings are kept from swimming in water for some days. Ducklings have soft food, such as oatmeal-porridge, boiled potatoes, corn, bread crumbs, and milk to drink. This food is given to ducklings after they take to the water.
Is young poultry easily affected by the weather ?
All young poultry are taken under cover whenever a shower of rain falls. They are fed upon oatmeal-porridge or oatmeal-porridge to young poultry. Geese are apt to fall on their backs, and soon die if not set again on their feet. When ducklings are allowed out too soon, they over-exert themselves, and become benumbed, diseased.
What is the great principle to be attended to in the rearing of growing poultry ?
Attention to warmth and dryness, with a regular supply of SPRING-POULTRY. 35
good food daily, for at least the first fortnight of their existence, are essentially requisite in the rearing of poultry. Care will crowd with success, while neglect will entail disappointment and loss. The young birds should be put into a warm chamber every night for at least a fortnight.
Who takes charge of poultry ? The dairymaid or domestic servant takes charge of poultry. In a large establishment of poultry a person is specially appointed to take charge of them.
A drawing of a cow and calf.
Lacteumus Dau and Lactuca.
Head long and narrow ; fine muzzle ; prominent eyes ; long, broad, thin ears. Body of the same length as the head, but broader ; short, thick legs, and swung upwards. The crupper full ; shoulder well filled up at a ; sth at / round ; loin at a ; chest at a ; belly at a. The wool comes forward behind the ears at 4, and towards the cheeks at A ; the body is well covered with wool at 3, so also the back at C. SUMMER.
What is the nature of farm culture in summer ?
Farmers have two distinct periods of cultivation of plants sown in spring, in the sowing of green crops, and in promoting the progressive growth of live-stock. What is the use of growing plants in summer ?
While grain-crops are kept free of weeds in summer, green-crops are sown and cultivated for present and future consumption. Summer crops include -- turnips, mangel-wurzel, hay, clover, Italian eye-grape, rape.
TURNIP-POWING.
How is the turnip pulvored ? The stubble land is ploughed in winter ; it is cross-ploughed in spring ; and in summer it is cleaned and pulverised as finely as possible by the turnip-powen. After cleaning and pulverisation, the land is drilled into furrows as described for beans at p. 25.
A TURNIP POWING-MACHINE.
a is the framework of the machine. b is a revolving wheel which turns over the furrow to keep over two of the drills, and thry weeds out of the furrow. c are two mulderers for keeping down the soil. d are two handles with which the seed is put into the furrow. e is a small lever between the handles to push the gearing-out of and into action. f are two wheels on which the machine runs. g is a cover over the furrow made in the same way as that shown in fig. 30. h are staffs for the horse. i is a guide bar to keep the furrow straight by a iron guide. Fig. 26 SUMMER—TURNIP-CULTURE. 37
How is turnip-seed sown? Turnip-seed is sown by means of a turnip sowing-machine.
With what manure are turnips raised ? Turnips are commonly raised with farmyard manure, assisted with guano alone, and raised with guano alone. Turnips are raised with bone-dust alone.
When guano is used with farmyard manure, how is it applied to the seed-bed?
Guano is always sown by hand, no machine having yet been invented for distributing it. Guano is sown upon farmyard manure after the plough has turned over the soil, and before the plough, which splits the drills, covers both the manure and guano.
How is guano used alone for turnips ?
Guano is sown upon the land before the drills are made up, which, on account of its weight, drives guano into their centre.
How is bone-dust measure used for turnips ?
Bone-dust is deposited in the drill, along with the seed, by means of a bone-dust spreader.
A bone-dust sowing-machine is just the common turning-machines mounted upon two wheels.
May bone-dust and guano be used together in raising turnips ?
Guano and bone-dust are advantageously used together—the guano supplying ammonia; the bone-dust phosphates.
Is a burk to be put in to that of the board-ploughs, fig. 57? No. Is the beam, cut at the sides, short? No. Are the side-boards, to cut the furrows, of sufficient width under the furrows? Yes. Is the furrow to be both ex- tremely deep and wide at the binges ? Yes. Are the side-boards upon one side of the furrow between a sink, and out of make with the furrow ? No. Are the side-boards upon each side of the furrow ? Yes. Are two coulters bore by this way ? Yes.
There are many forms of burks besides this one. Ditching machines are not very satisfactory, but are not so efficient. The young turnips are removed from the ground by means of a re- moving machine, and the remaining ones are pulled on wooden hands which are driven through the soil while passing through a machine, and are lowered in it with the planting-iron.
What is the treatment of the young turnip plant ? After the young turnip-plants have braided and produced four
A diagram showing a burk being used for turning-turnip culture.
A BURK FOR TURNIP AND POISON CULTURE.
36
CATECHISM OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE.
leaves, the ground between the rows of the plants is thoroughly moved with the drill-hoe or scuffler, to remove the growing weeds, and to pare away the soil on either side of the upper part of the drills, in order to facilitate the singling of the turnip plants. Fig. 28.
SINGLING TURNIP PLANTS
a b is one row of turnip plants, c d is a second row of the same, both to be singled by the means we shall describe. e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z are the last divisions of the drills inclosed by the scuffler. a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z are the rows first cut by the hand-hoe. a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z are the rows secondly cut by the hand-hoe. Men and boys are usually employed in England to single and hoe turnips. Women are sometimes employed for this purpose.
How is the singling of turnip plants executed?
Singling of turnip plants is done with the hand-hoe by women, who each cut off a row of plants, and then go to room to use the hoe without interfering with each other. The hoe removes all the plants against the length of its blade, leaving one plant growing. The distance between two rows of plants is about three times the kind of turnip cultivated—the smallest distance being left be- tween plants of white turnips, and the greatest between those of swedes.
What is done after the turnips are singled?
After the singling, the scuffer is again employed to remove the weeds from between the rows of plants. The ground around each plant is then moved with the hand-hoe, and weeds destroyed, and the plants found double are singled by hand. When soil is not sufficiently loose for this purpose, a light plough is used. When the soil is strong, the double-mould-board plough lays up under the earth all but a few inches from each plant, leaving the bottom of the drills hollow, for water to run off.
What is the best soil suited to the turnips?
A deep healthy soil, resting upon a naturally dry subsoil, is the best soil for the turnips. SUMMER—HAY-MAKING. 39
What is the character of the substance of the bolls of the white globe, the source of the hay-making harvests ?
The awdse is the heaviest in specific gravity, is of buff colour, and the larger the bulb it contains the more nutritious. The white globe, when young, is of a pale yellowish-white colour, and when large becomes hollow in the heart. The yellow bulb, turned up, is of a yellowish-brown colour, and the white globe, as to instrument and specific gravity, is of orange colour.
MANGOLD-WURZEL.
What is the nature of mangold-wurzel?
Mangold-wurzel is a species of beet, well known in Germany.
How is mangold-wurzel cultivated ?
Mangold-wurzel is culivated like the turnip.
Does the cultivation of mangold-wurzel differ at all from that of the turnip ?
The seed of mangold-wurzel having a rough covering, cannot be sown by the turning now-machinery, and is sown by hand.
HAY.
What crop is made into hay ?
The grass produced from the grass-seeds, sown among the grain-crop of the former year (page 50), is made into hay in summer.
Are no other plants but rye-grass and clover made into hay ?
No other plant than rye-grass and clover is made of old meadow-grass. This latter of the hay is used in making hay, and is called "hay-grass."
What is the nature of hay ?
Hay is composed of leaves, stems, and old meadow-grasses deprived of their natural moisture by the heat of the atmosphere, when moved by the wind during growth.
How is grass mown for hay ?
Grass is mown for hay with a scythe.
A scythe
b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
a is the blade,
b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
is a seat as a stage for resting the scythe upon the blade b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
In mowing grass with a scythe, the hands from a to b, the blade c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
are placed on the ground near the point where the blade touches the grass.
How is grass treated after being mown?
Grass is tedded or shaken up to be dried. On this being done it is again tedded by a hay tedding-machine. Each day's mowing is tedded in succession.
THE COMMON HAYER. 40
CATECHISM OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE.
How is tedded grass treated ? Tedded grass, after exposure to the air, is put into small heaps, or cocks, by hand or with small forks. The ground is cleared with a hand-rake.
What is the best rule for hay-making ? The hand-rake acts most quickly. The hand-rake is most commonly used.
What is done with the small cocks of grass ? In fine weather, the cocks are placed on the ridge on which they stand, to dry the grass still more. The grass is then put into larger cocks. The ground is cleared with the hand-rake.
What is done with the larger cocks ? If necessary, the larger cocks are spread out into hay, carried in carts to the stack.
Fig. 30.
STACK-CLOTH FOR A HAY-STOCK. a are two poles set in distance of b is the rich-cloth suspended over the hay-stack; c are guy-rope supporting the pole. f are red-poles for fastening the rich-cloth to the pole; d are two ropes for holding down the cloth; e are two ropes for holding down the stack; h are two ropes for holding down the stack and taking it up; i are two ropes for holding down the stack and taking it down; j are two ropes for holding down the stack and taking it up; k are two ropes for holding down the stack and taking it down; l are two ropes for holding down the stack and taking it up; m are two ropes for holding down the stack and taking it down; n are two ropes for holding down the stack and taking it up; o are two ropes for holding down the stack and taking it up; p are two ropes for holding down the stack and taking it up; q are two ropes for holding down the stack and taking it up; r are two ropes for holding down the stack and taking it up; s are two ropes for holding down the stack and taking it up; t are two ropes for holding down the stack and taking it up; u are two ropes for holding down the stack and taking it up; v are two ropes for holding down the stack and taking it up; w are two ropes for holding down the stack and taking it up; x are two ropes for holding down the stack and taking it up; y are two ropes for holding down the stack and taking it up; z are two ropes for holding down the stack and taking it up.
How is hay stacked ? Hay is usually stacked under cover of a rich-cloth, which protects the stack from rain.
Does a hay-stack, protected by a rich-cloth, incur any danger ? Yes. Hay incurs the risk of heating by fermentation, when the moisture has not been sufficiently dried out of the grass. SUMMER—FORAGE PLANTS. 41
Does hoating improve hay? A little hoating improves the taste of hay. Much hoating gives a hay bitter taste, and moulds and rot it.
Is the hay-stack finished under the rick-cloth? No. After the removal of the rick-cloth, the stack is covered with straw, kept down with straw ropes, to protect it from the weather.
Is the mode described above the common mode of making hay? It is the common mode of making hay in England and Ireland, but not so much used in Scotland. The common hay- rake, and the rick-cloth, are not yet much used in Scotland. In England and Ireland hay is much better made than in Scot- land.
How is hay used from the stack? Hay is cut in narrow breadth across the stack by means of a long, light, strong, crook handle, and is carried into the hay- house for use.
RAPE, ITALIAN RYE-GRASE, RED CLOVER. What is the nature of the rape plant? The rape plant is of the cabbage tribe, and is cultivated for its leaves.
How is rape cultivated? The best time for sowing rape is precisely that of the turnip, in drills. Rape is also sown broadcast on the flat ground.
For what kind of live-stock is rape cultivated? Rape is much relished by sheep and cows. Sheep eat rape on the meadows in spring and summer. Rape is valuable food for ewes before being put to the tup in autumn.
How is Italian ryegrass best cultivated? Italian ryegrass, growing rapidly and tall, is best cultivated broadcast on the meadows in spring and early summer. Italian ryegrass affords several cuttings in a season. Italian ryegrass is much relished by live-stock.
Is red clover a good hay-plant? Red clover is an excellent forage-plant when sown by itself, as in England and Ireland. Red clover makes the best hay for ewes in winter, when the grass is covered with snow.
How are ryegrasses best used? Trees are best cut with the sickle, being apt to entangle the scytha. Rape is too strong for the scythe, and is cut with the sickle. Ryegrasses and clovers are best mown with the scythe. 42
CATECHISM OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE.
WEEDING GRAIN AND GREEN CROPS.
What is the culture of grain-crops in summer? The removal of weeds from grain-crops is their chief cultivation in summer.
How are weeds removed from grain-crops? From wheat, barley, and oats, in drills and rife, the hand-hoe and horse-hoe remove the weeds. How are weeds removed from grain-crops sown broadcast? Weeds are removed from broadcast grain-crops by means of a weed-book.
Fig. 31.
A WEED-HOOK.
How is a weed-hook used? Two women walking among the growing corn, when knee-deep, shall throw the hook into the close to the ground with a weed-hook. Weeds chiefly found among growing corn are thistles and dockes. Poppy is found amongst wheat, and is pulled up by the root.
Of what use is weeding to grain crops? Weeding removes the seeds of weeds that would otherwise mix with grain in the harvest.
Are weeds useful in feeding green crops in summer? In summer the scuffler removes weeds from potatoes, turnips, mangel-wurpe, rape. The hand-hoe best destroys thistles, ragweed, and dockes.
Is grass for hay ever needed? Grass for hay is needed by means of the weed-book.
FERTILIZING AND BUILDING LIVESTOCK.
How are cattle, sheep, and horses treated in summer? When winter food—turnips, straw, and hay—is becomes exhausted, live-stock are put to pasture, or are sold at the standing on their own.
What is pasturing on grass? Pasturing on grass is giving liberty to animals to eat grass as it grows.
What grass is pastured? Permanent and sown grasses are pastured. The older sown grasses are pastured. The younger sown grasses are mown for willing or for hay. SUMMER—MARES FOALING.
What class of cattle are pastured? Cows, calves, and young stock are pastured. Do cattle on pasture remain out day and night? Until the nights become warm, cows and calves are brought into the house at night. Young cattle remain out all night on pasture. What pastures do sheep occupy? Ears of oats and clover pasture young grass. Pasturing sheep pasture the best old grass. Are horses pastured? Young horses remain out all night at pasture. Work-horses are pastured, as turn-sowing or hay-following is brought to a close. Except for a few weeks of warm nights, work-horses are kept in the stable or hammels at night. What is the use of soiling? Soiling consists in giving green forage-plants to live-stock at the stealing. What class of live-stock is soiled? Work-horses are soiled in the stable or hammels. In cold or wet weather, cows are soiled in the byre. Is clover abundant? Clover is abundant, and is secured every summer. In dry land districts straw is always scanty. In most seasons only one good mowing of clover is obtained. Tares and rape can be found in abundance. Of what use is the grass after hay has been carried from the field? Aftermash or eishash is pastured by young cattle, cows, and fattening stock. Is aftermash valuable grass? Aftermash is valuable in producing good butter and cheese. Is water essential to live-stock on pasture? Water is an absolute necessity for live-stock on pasture, or when fed. MARES FOALING.
What is the treatment of mares about the time of producing their young? A mare is worked till symptoms of foaling appear, when she is put by herself into a loose-box or outhouse. Do mares require assistance? Mates fail very easily, without assistance. Is the food in danger when being foaled? The foal may be smothered in the mouth of the mare when being foaled, and this may give rise to its feet the mare may exhaust itself to death. Hence a mare should be waited upon until foaling. 44
CATECHISM OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE
What is the treatment of the foal immediately after birth? The foal's body should be freed of any obstruction to breathing. After a little time the foal is assisted to its feet, and to the test of the mare.
How is the foal treated after foaling? After receiving nourishing food for some hours—such as warm mashes or milk—the foal is given a drink of lukewarm water and oatmeal; the mare is put to graze, with her foal, for the season.
Are mares worked while suckling their foals? Some farmers make mares work while suckling their foals, in which case both the mare and foal ought to have corn.
WASHING AND SHEARING SHEEP.
How is the fleece on the sheep treated? Sheep are washed in water, to make their fleece clean before being shorn.
Are sheeps prepared for being washed? Sheep are placed in a washing-pool, on one side of a pool made in a rivulet. Until all have been washed, sheep are con- fined in a similar manner on the other side of the pool.
A black-and-white illustration showing two men washing sheep in a pool. One man stands at the edge of the pool, holding a sheep by its head, while the other man washes the sheep's body. The sheep is lying on its back in the water. The men are dressed in long coats and hats. The pool is surrounded by grass and trees.
DEEER WASHING.
a is the washing-pool, formed by dam- ming low ground with earth, to contain the requisite depth. b is a man who washes sheep on one side of the pool. c is the first man who washes, and who both hands a sheep to be washed, to keep the faces of the sheep clean from soiled matter. How are sheep washed in a pool? One man places a sheep within the enclosure, and hands it to
handing the sheep to the second man in his turn hands it to the third man, whilst he washes it on his side of the pool. In his turn hands it to the fourth man, whilst he washes it on his side of the pool. In his turn hands it to the fifth man, whilst he washeth along on the other side of the pool. SUMMER-SHEEP-WASHING. 48
another man standing to the hanches in the pool. This man turns the sheep so that its head is under water, and dips its head above it, and pushes it to and fro from him through the water, after which he hands it to another man standing in the water, who, operating in a similar manner, washes the fleece. The third man is contin- ually examining whether the fleece is sufficiently clean, allows the sheep to turn to the enclosure on the opposite side of the pool.
Are ewes and lambs washed together ? Lambs are not washed at all, and are confined in the standing until they are ready for shearing.
How are sheep treated after being washed ? Washed sheep are put into a clear grass-field until ready to be sheared.
What is the state of a fleece ready to be sheared ? A fleece is ready to be sheared when its natural grease, or yolk, completed with wool, is removed from the wool, and the fleece is dry. Of what use is yolk to the wool ? Yolk serves to keep the wool smooth and supple, in which state it is most valuable.
By what means is the fleece shorn from the sheep ? The fleece is shorn from sheep by hand, with shears.
How is shearing of the fleece performed ? Sheep to be shorn are put in dry with the wool under cover. A canvas or blanket is spread over them. The shearer enters. The shearer seizes a sheep, and setting it against himself on its rump, removes the wool from its back by pulling it off with his right hand. On its right side, the shearer clips the wool from the belly to the back-bone of the left side. Turning the sheep upon its left side, the shearer clips the wool from its back-bone to the belly of the right side. On the shearing being finished, the sheep is allowed to lie down in its companion under cover.
What is done with the fleece after shearing ? A woman rolls up the fleece, with its outside in, upon a board, and carries it to the wool-room.
Are all kinds of sheep washed and shorn in the manner described ? Mountain sheep are washed by being drawn through a pool. The fleece of mountain sheep is shorn by the shearer clipping the wool in one piece from its body to its legs, generally along, instead of round the body of the sheep.
How is wool disposed of ? Wood is used for this purpose. A wood-droker sends his people with pack-sheets to pack the fleece into, and take them away. Some farmers pack the fleeces into pack-sheets of their own, and send them to a wood-droker. 46
CATHECHISM OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE.
Fig. 33.
POOL-PACKING.
No. 1 is a wool-pack completed ; No. 2, a wool-pack being filled ; a few fleeces which have been weighed, and are being conveyed by the girl to be packed ; 3 is a stack of wool-packs ready for shipment.
How are fleeces packed in a pack-sheet ?
Fleeces are first weighed on scales. The pack-sheet is sus- pended from the roof with ropes from two of its corners, and, on receiving the fleece, place them in regular order in the sheet, and through the holes made for this purpose. When the sheet is full, when its open side is closed with pack-thread and needle.
On receiving lambs from ewe, what is done with both ?
Ewes are milked by hand for a few times in the course of a week or two, to allow the milk to dry up. Lambs are placed at a distance from the ewe until they come to feed.
DISEASES OF GRAIN AND GREEN CROPS.
Are grain and green crops subject to any disease ?
All the cultivated crops are subject to disease.
What diseases attack wheat ?
Wheat is subject to the attack of the wheat-fly, whose young eat the unformed grain in the ear. Wheat is subject to smut, a fungus which grows into balls of black powder. Leaves of wheat are covered by rust, another fungus, which is like a red-coloured dust.
What diseases attack barley ?
Barley is subject to ergot, which distorts the shape of the
A cartoon illustration showing a woman weighing wool on scales, with various piles of wool stacked around her.
SUMMERS—DISEASES OF CROPS. 47
grains. Barley is attacked by an insect, which lives upon the young grain in the ear.
What diseases attack oats ?
Oats are attacked by a fungus, which stunts the leaves, and hardens the roots. Oats are attacked by a fungus, which renders the ears black and devoid of grains.
What diseases attack rye ?
Rye is attacked by the well-known ergot—used in medicine.
What diseases attack beans ?
Beans are attacked by a plant-house, which devours the leaves.
Is the turnip subject to any disease ?
A flea-beetle consumes the leaves of the young turnip-plant. In dry weather, this insect attacks the leaves of the turnip. Finger-and-toe distorts the bulbs of turnips. Anubria is a warty sore on the bulbs of turnips, which causes an ichorous discharge.
Is the potato subject to any disease ?
Cutworms destroy potatoes. Potato-failure blackens the leaves and bitches the tubers of the potato-plant.
What remedies have been suggested for diseases in crops ?
Flickering and burning of plants indicates the violence of finger-and-toe and anubria in the turnip. Rain removes flea-beetle and mildew from the leaves of turnip-plants. No remedy has yet been found for the failure of potatoes, which occurs in rye and barley, the black ears in oats, and the failure in the potato.
A horse with a large hump on its back.
Drooping Horse.
From a to b is a fine crop ; short back b.c ; rounded rump c.d ; sloping shoulders d.e ; long neck e.f ; short legs f.g ; short tail g.h ; short hind leg h.i ; long fore leg i.j ; long tail j.k ; long neck k.l ; long legs l.m ; short back m.n ; short hind leg n.o ; short front leg o.p ; short tail p.q ; long neck q.r ; long legs r.s ; short back s.t ; short hind leg t.u ; short front leg u.v ; short tail v.w ; long neck w.x ; long legs x.y ; short back y.z ; short hind leg z.a ; short front leg a.b. The horse is standing on all four feet, with its head held high. The tail is hanging down. The horse's body is covered with hair. The horse's legs are long and strong. The horse's neck is long and slender. The horse's head is large and round. The horse's ears are pointed and upright. The horse's eyes are bright and alert. The horse's mouth is closed and quiet. The horse's nose is moist and warm. The horse's nostrils are open and breathing freely. The horse's tongue is pink and moist. The horse's teeth are white and sharp. The horse's hooves are hard and tough. The horse's coat is shiny and healthy. The horse's skin is smooth and soft. The horse's muscles are strong and well-defined. The horse's bones are sturdy and well-formed. The horse's joints are flexible and mobile. The horse's tendons are strong and elastic. The horse's ligaments are firm and resilient. The horse's arteries are full of blood and oxygenated. The horse's veins are filled with blood and nutrients. The horse's capillaries are rich in oxygen and glucose. The horse's lymphatic system is active and efficient. The horse's immune system is robust and protective. The horse's digestive system is efficient and balanced. The horse's respiratory system is strong and effective. The horse's circulatory system is strong and efficient. The horse's nervous system is responsive and alert. The horse's endocrine system is balanced and healthy. The horse's reproductive system is strong and functional. The horse's skeletal system is strong and well-formed. The horse's muscular system is strong and well-defined. The horse's cardiovascular system is strong and efficient. The horse's respiratory system is strong and effective. The horse's digestive system is efficient and balanced. The horse's nervous system is responsive and alert. The horse's endocrine system is balanced and healthy. The horse's reproductive system is strong and functional. The horse's skeletal system is strong and well-formed. The horse's muscular system is strong and well-defined. The horse's cardiovascular system is strong and efficient. The horse's respiratory system is strong and effective. The horse's digestive system is efficient and balanced. The horse's nervous system is responsive and alert. The horse's endocrine system is balanced and healthy. The horse's reproductive system is strong and functional. The horse's skeletal system is strong and well-formed. The horse's muscular system is strong and well-defined. The horse's cardiovascular system is strong and efficient. The horse's respiratory system is strong and effective. The horse's digestive system is efficient and balanced. The horse's nervous system is responsive and alert. The horse's endocrine system is balanced and healthy. The horse's reproductive system is strong and functional. The horse's skeletal system is strong and well-formed. The horse's muscular system is strong and well-defined. The horse's cardiovascular system is strong and efficient. The horse's respiratory system is strong and effective. The horse's digestive system is efficient and balanced. The horse's nervous system is responsive and alert. The horse's endocrine system is balanced and healthy. The horse's reproductive system is strong and functional. The horse's skeletal system is strong and well-formed. The horse's muscular system is strong and well-defined. The horse's cardiovascular system is strong and efficient. The horse's respiratory system is strong and effective. The horse's digestive system is efficient and balanced. The horse's nervous system is responsive and alert. The horse's endocrine system is balanced and healthy. The horse's reproductive system is strong and functional. The horse's skeletal system is strong and well-formed. The horse's muscular system is strong AUTUMN.
What is the nature of farm culture in autumn? In autumn, butter and cheese are made, grain-crops reaped, live-stock disposed of, and purchased for the ensuing year.
Making Butter and Cheese. What is the accommodation required for making butter and cheese? A cool, shaded, dry room in the farmhouse keeps milk sweet, and cheese in a proper state until fit for market.
What are the utensils for making butter ? Unusual utensils are necessary for straining the milk, milk-dishes, a churn for making the butter, a cream-skimmer, a cream-jar, and a small tub for washing the butter in.
What sort of sieve straws milk ? A bowl with a wide mouth, and pierced zinc in the bottom, makes a good sieve for straining milk.
Why is milk strained through a sieve ? Milk is poured through a sieve, or coming from the cow, to take out any impurities drawn from the cow in the act of milking, or any other impurities.
Fig. 34.
Of what construction are milk-dishes? Milk-dishes are made of various forms, and of different materials. The common milk-dishes are round, oval, dished, and shallow, in form. Milk-dishes are made of common stoneware, of china, glass, wood, zinc, slate, and marble. Whatever material the milk-dishes are made broad and shallow, to allow the cream to come quickly to the top of the milk. Milk-dishes are best of Wedgwood ware, because strong, and easily kept clean.
A milk-dish on Wedgwood ware.
A MILK-DISH OF WEDGWOOD WARE.
AUTUMN—CHURNING BUTTER.
49
Of what use is a cream-churner? A cream-churner is a simple, plain-baked hollow dish of china or tin, takes the cream off milk easily and effectually.
Of what use is a cream-pan? A cream-pan is a receptacle made of glazed china-ware, and its use is to hold cream until churned into butter.
Why is a cream skimmed from milk ? Cream is separated from milk to have it made into butter. Is not butter obtained from milk itself ? Butter is made from milk by churning from cream. Why is not all butter made from milk ? Butter is not all made from milk, because it is most easily made by hand from cream. Power is required to make butter from milk.
What is the best construction of churn to make butter in 1. The old plunger-churn, and the box-churn, are both simple in construction and easy to operate.
Of what form is the plunger-churn ? Fig. 35. A plunger-churn is an upright cylinder of wood, with a flat plunger, perforated with holes, to fit its body. e is the body of the churn, is the hole in the bottom, which is not seen in the figure, is the cover of the churn, having a raised rim upon it, which prevents the churn from falling over. The motion for working a plunger-churn is vertical. It may be moved up and down by hand. The box-churn consists of box, which has a rotary motion within it. There are two kinds of box-churns, but they all perform these two principles of motion.
Of what form is the box-churn ? Fig. 36. A box-churn consists of a bored oblong box, in which revolves an agitator with cross-bearings upon a spindle. Passing through the box, worked upon by a wind handle.
Is sweet cream or milk churned into butter ? No. Butter and cream and milk must be kept till they become sour to make good butter.
Is cream or milk churned cold or warm ? The best temperature for milk or cream to be churned into good butter is 60° F.
What is done with new-scrubbed butter ? New-churned butter is taken from the churn and washed clean of the butter-milk, which is sour, in cold water, and made into rolls, or ornamental prints, for use as fresh butter.
A PLUNGER-CHURN.
A PLUNGER-CHURN.
50
CATECHISM OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE.
Is all the butter made fresh? Butter eaten in winter is in a salted state. Fresh butter is eaten in Scotland in summer. It is very rare to meet with fresh butter in England.
How is butter salted? On butter being washed clean in cold water, a certain proportion of salt is stirred upon a given quantity of it in a small dish, and the butter is then thoroughly mixed and well diffused through it. Salted butter is packed firmly in stoneware jars or wooden kites, for use in winter.
Of what use is the milk of its cream 1? Skim-milk is used for domestic purposes. Skim-milk is not so nutritious as sweet-milk.
Of what use is butter-cream? Butter-cream is used for domestic purposes, or given to pigs.
From what is cheese made? Cheese is made from sweet-milk, and from skim-milk. Both sweet-milk and skim-milk cheese is made in the same manner.
What are the principal parts of a cheese-maker? Usually used in cheese-making are a large tub, a curd-cutter, a drainer, cheese-vats, cheese-press, and boiler.
Of what construction is a curd-cutter? A curd-cutter consists of a round hoop of iron, divided along the middle by a straight slip of iron. The iron hoop has an iron stem, furnished at top with a wooden cross-handle.
What are the principal parts of a cheese-drainer? A cheese-drainer is made of two small bars of wood connected with two cross-bars of wood. A cheese-drainer lies across the mouth of the vat to support the curd while the whey is being squeezed out of it.
Of what form is a cheese-net or cheesetray? A cheese-net consists of a strong tub of wood haphazard with iron, or of a form determined by the size of the cheese to be made.
Of what construction is a cheese-press? The best form of cheese-press is of combined levers, which have the advantage over other forms by reason of continuing their pressure upon the cheese as its shrinks into less bulk in the cheese-vat.
Of what form is a boiler? A boiler is of cast-iron, globular, and built over a furnace pro- vided with a damper.
How is cheese made? Cheese is put into a large tub or tube, part of which is heated in AUTUMN—PROPERTIES OF LIVE-STOCK. 51
the boiler, to make all the milk as warm as new milk. Rennet is put into the warm milk to convert it into curd. What is rennet? Rennet is made of the stomach of a calf or pig, salted and dried.
What is curd? Curd is the coagulated part of milk, having a white colour. What is done with curd? Curd is cut into pieces in a tub with the curd-cutter. As curd is cut, whey flows out. What is whey? Whey is the watery part of milk, and is of yellow colour. What is done with curd after its separation from whey? When whey is removed from curd with a hollow dish, pressed firmly by the hand, and then allowed to drain off, it is put into a cloth of open texture, and placed upon the drainer on a tub, and as much whey is pressed out as the strength of arms or mechanism will allow. The curd becomes dry, of a pure white colour, and firm in texture.
What is done with dry curd? Dry curd is cut small with a knife, or curd-breaker, and then salted. A curd-breaker consists of two cylinders, of wood or iron, armed with pins, so arranged as to break up the curd into small pieces. The curd is then let from the hopper, while the pages take it into very small pieces.
What is done with salted curd? Salted curd is put into a cloth and put into a cheese-vat, under a cover of wood, and placed upon the sill-plate of the cheese-room, which, with great pressure, forces all the whey out of it. Upon this pressure and changing of three-stocks, curd is hardened into cheese.
What is done with cheese? Cheese, on being taken from the vat, and out of its cloth, in special rooms, has been shal wood in a cool, airy cheese-room. Cheese is turned every day, until ready for market.
What is done with whey? Whey is given to pigs to drink.
DISPOSAL AND PROPERTIES OF LIVE-STOCK. When are cattle and sheep, fattened on turnips in winter and spring, disposed of?
Cattle and sheep fattened on turnips in winter and spring, are 52
CATCHMENT OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE.
disposed of whenever the turnips are consumed, which at latest is the beginning of summer. When are young cattle, sheep, fattened on grass in summer and autumn, disposed of ? Cattle and sheep, whether bought in or bred on the farm, fat- tened on grass in summer and autumn, are disposed of at the end of autumn. Are young cattle and young sheep on grass disposed of ? Young cattle and young sheep are fattened on grass in summer and winter. Young sheep have turnips in winter. Lambs when reared for fat lambs, are sold in summer as soon as they are fat. Lambs, when sold for meat, are disposed of in autumn. How are cattle and sheep, to be bred from, selected ? Individual animals, possessing properties most desirable in live-stock, are kept by the owners differing. What are the desirable qualities in live-stock for breeding ? Desirable properties in live-stock are uncrossed blood, beauty of symmetry, and disposition towards particular good properties, as fatness.
What is uncrossed blood ? Uncrossed blood is freedom from intermixture with the blood of other breeds.
What is a breed in live-stock ? A breed in live-stock is a family of animals possessing similar properties distinct from other families of the same race.
In what does beauty of symmetry in live-stock consist ? Symmetry in live-stock is a balanced proportion between different parts of the body of the same animal.
What are the desirable proportions in the body of an animal consisting in having the fore and hind quarters the same length, breadth, thickness ?
What constitutes beautiful symmetry in animals ? Beautiful symmetry in animals is indicated by fineness in pro- minent points of the body, such as—head small ; features of the face, delicate ; neck short ; shoulders well set ; legs strong, large, and thin ; muzzle tapering ; back straight ; ribs round ; tail fine and pointed ; legs loose and soft ; limbs short, fine- boned; and flat ; joints large.
What is a disposition to fatten, or yield milk, in live-stock ? When cattle or sheep put on a larger quantity of flesh than fat, or give a larger quantity of milk than flesh or fat. In plenty of food, they evince the greatest disposition to fatten, or to give milk. AUTUMN—BARE-FOLLOWING. 53
Are proportion of blood, symmetry, beauty, disposition to fatten, to give milk, reproducible in the young? Blood, symmetry, beauty, disposition to fatten, to yield milk, are hereditary; so also is colour, temper, and tendency to disease. How are the animals distinguished from others ? Drafted animals are distinguished by marks from others.
Are not all live-stock marked ? Yes ; marks consist of holes, slits, or notches in the ears, or of letters stamped upon them. Holes, slits, and notches in the ears are made with a punching-irons and knife. Stamps are made on the sides with letters dipped in tar, and burned upon the horse with a stamp.
Of what use are marks upon cattle and sheep ? Marks identify animals when they go astray. Marks indicate animals possessing particular properties and pedigree.
BARE-FOLLOWING. Must all the land of a farm bear a crop every year ? Not of course. The soil may be too poor for crops that is not well adapted to carry green crops; because sufficient manure for all the soil may have to be found elsewhere than on the farm; and because pasture is required for the support of only small fields of weeds, requires bare-following to clean it thoroughly.
How is bare-following conducted ? Following always succeeds a grain crop. The stubble is ploughed in winter; the weeds are cut down, harrowed, weeds removed, grubbed, manured in summer; ploughed, sown with wheat in autumn, to be reaped the following year.
Is other manure than farmland used on bare-followers ? Lime is spread over the ground before ploughing upon the furrow ridges, and harrowed in, or put in heaps upon them, slaked, and harrowed in again; the manure is laid on and spread, and the seed-furrow ploughed.
Does follow-when-need receive any peculiar finishing ? Open furrows between the ridges are water-drowned. Channels are cut through the furrows at intervals across the ridges, and across the lower hand-ridges, to allow rain to run more easily into the ditches in winter.
THE HARVEST. What is regarded as the period of harvest ? The great operations of reaping and securing grain-crops con- stitute the harvest. 54
CATECHISM OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE.
How is the reaping of grain-crops conducted ? Grain-crops are reaped by hand with the sickle or scythe, or by reaping-machines.
How is reaping effected with the sickle ? Reaping with the sickle is done in two ways—reaping by wags, and reaping by piece.
Fig. 36.
BEATING BY WAGS. A s are two ridges of corn, one on each side of the middle ridge, and filled with corn, ready for reaping on one side. In the arrangement here shown, a man and a woman are employed to beat the sheaves going to set up a stock, and another man and woman to beat the sheaves coming down to fill up one of the ridges. A stock is made of two pieces of wood, about three feet long, and two inches wide. The sheaves are beaten into this stock, which is placed upon one of the ridges. A stock is made of two pieces of wood, about three feet long, and two inches wide. The sheaves are beaten into this stock, which is placed upon one of the ridges. A stock is made of two pieces of wood, about three feet long, and two inches wide. The sheaves are beaten into this stock, which is placed upon one of the ridges. A stock is made of two pieces of wood, about three feet long, and two inches wide. The sheaves are beaten into this stock, which is placed upon one of the ridges. A stock is made of two pieces of wood, about three feet long, and two inches wide. The sheaves are beaten into this stock, which is placed upon one of the ridges. A stock is made of two pieces of wood, about three feet long, and two inches wide. The sheaves are beaten into this stock, which is placed upon one of the ridges. A stock is made of two pieces of wood, about three feet long, and two inches wide. The sheaves are beaten into this stock, which is placed upon one of the ridges. A stock is made of two pieces of wood, about three feet long, and two inches wide. The sheaves are beaten into this stock, which is placed upon one of the ridges. A stock is made of two pieces of wood, about three feet long, and two inches wide. The sheaves are beaten into this stock, which is placed upon one of the ridges. A stock is made of two pieces of wood, about three feet long, and two inches wide. The sheaves are beaten into this stock, which is placed upon one of the ridges. A stock is made of two pieces of wood, about three feet long, and two inches wide. The sheaves are beaten into this stock, which is placed upon one of the ridges. A stock is made of two pieces of wood, about three feet long, and two inches wide. The sheaves are beaten into this stock, which is placed upon one of the ridges. A stock is made of two pieces of wood, about three feet long, and two inches wide. The sheaves are beaten into this stock, which is placed upon one of the ridges. A stock is made of two pieces of wood, about three feet long, and two inches wide. The sheaves are beaten into this stock, which is placed upon one of the ridges. A stock is made of two pieces of wood, about three feet long, and two inches wide. The sheaves are beaten into this stock, which is placed upon one of the ridges. A stock is made of two pieces of wood, about three feet long, and two inches wide. The sheaves are beaten into this stock, which is placed upon one of the ridges. A stock is made of two pieces of wood, about three feet long, and two inches wide. The sheaves are beaten into this stock, which is placed upon one of the ridges. A stock is made of two pieces of wood, about three feet long, and two inches wide. The sheaves are beaten into this stock, which is placed upon one of the ridges. A stock is made of two pieces of wood, about three feet long, and two inches wide. The sheaves are beaten into this stock, which is placed upon one of the ridges. A stock is made of two pieces of wood, about three feet long, and two inches wide. The sheaves are beaten into this stock, which is placed upon one of the ridges. A stock is made of two pieces of wood, about three feet long, and two inches wide. The sheaves are beaten into this stock, which is placed upon one of the ridges. A stock is made of two pieces of wood, about three feet long, and two inches wide. The sheaves are beaten into this stock, which is placed upon one of the ridges. A stock is made of two pieces of wood, about three feet long, and two inches wide. The sheaves are beaten into this stock, which is placed upon one of the ridges. A stock is made of two pieces of wood, about three feet long, and two inches wide. The sheaves are beaten into this stock, which is placed upon one of the ridges. A stock is made of two pieces of wood, about three feet long, and two inches wide. The sheaves are beaten into this stock, which is placed upon one of the ridges. A stock is made of two pieces of wood, about three feet long, and two inches wide. The sheaves are beaten into this stock, which is placed upon one of the ridges. A stock is made of two pieces of wood, about three feet long, and two inches wide. The sheaves are beaten into this stock, which is placed upon one of the ridges. A stock is made of two pieces of wood, about three feet long, and two inches wide. The sheaves are beaten into this stock, which is placed upon one of the ridges. A stock is made of two pieces of wood, about three feet long, and two inches wide. The sheaves are beaten into this stock, which is placed upon one of the ridges. A stock is made of two pieces of wood, about three feet long, and two inches wide. The sheaves are beaten into this stock, which is placed upon one of the ridges. A stock is made of two pieces of wood, about three feet long, and two inches wide. The sheaves are beaten into this stock, which is placed upon one of the ridges. A stock is made of two pieces of wood, about three feet long, and two inches wide. The sheaves are beaten into this stock, which is placed upon one
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thraving, a binder follows to set up sheaves into stooks, or to bind sheaves and set them on the ground.
Fig. 57. How is thraving done with the scythe ? Three mowers with scythes form a set, and cut down the corn, along or across the ridges, as the wind may sway it.
The blade of a scythe-scythe for thraving is set in the ground by means of a long iron bar, fig. 58. The point of the cradle is to collect the corn as it falls, and to throw it forward, so that the mower may cut it in one stroke. The mower lays his hand on each side of the ground, and cuts the corn as he passes over it.
CRADLE-SCYTHE FOR THRAVING
Who makes the bands for sheaves in scythe-thraving ? One woman makes bands in scythe-thraving.
Who binds the sheaves, and sets the stooks ? One man binds the sheaves, and sets the stooks after every mower.
Is corn taken up slowly after every mower ? Not quite. One person clears the ground with a large hand stubble-rake after every three mowers.
How are stooks set up ? Stocks of corn are composed of sheaves set two and two against each other, at an specified number of sheaves.
Are stocks set upon ridges at random ? By the thrave, stocks are set upon every ridge. By wagons, and by the acre, stocks are set on every alternate ridge.
Is corn always found into sheaves when reaped ? Dump cans are set in pathing instead of sheaves, and bound into sheaves by a man with a scythe-knife.
In parts of England, barley and oats are allowed to remain on the ground in swales, and are removed to the stock before being bound into sheaves.
How is corn conveyed from the field to the store ? Corn is carried from this field, to be stacked, on wheeled carriages.
Of what construction are wheeled carriages for carrying corn in the straw ? Waggon on four wheels are common in England, and carts on two wheels are common in Scotland, for carrying corn in the straw. 56 CATECHISM OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE. FIG. 83.
ONE FORM OF HARVEST-CART FOR CARRYING CORN FROM THE FIELD TO THE STACKS.
a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
The body of a cart is made of two planks, one broad, which are bound round the other with twelve straps, proper to each wheel r s, and upon the other side of the cart, with twelve straps, proper to each wheel off the horse in the ditch.
Several forms of carts are used in different parts of the country. The most common, with quarter mires and framed top, is shown in the drawing. In some parts of Scotland, with quarter mires and framed top, is common to other parts of Scotland. Wagons with four wheels are more used in England than wagons with two wheels.
The figure gives a very convenient form of harvest cart.
How is corn loaded upon a harvest-cart of any kind ?
The cart is drawn by horses, and between two ridges, alongside a row of stooks. A man forks the shaves to the carter in the cart, who places them with their stubble ends outwards, one row at a time. The shaves are then drawn over the cart across the cart from each corner behind, and secured in front to the shaves.
How is a loaded cart of corn disposed of in the stackyard ?
The builder of the stacks forms a mool with straw, for the stack to stand upon the ground, when no permanent stooks are erected. He then builds a stack-yard, and puts in one by one, from the cart to the builder, who builds the body of the stack of a cylindrical form, and finishes it with a conical top.
Are all corn-stacks made cylindrical ?
Corn-stacks are built in stacks with a conical top, in Scotland. In England, corn-stacks are not unfrequently of an oblong form.
How is corn in the stock protected ?
Thatching of drawn straw is put on corn-stacks, to protect the corn from the weather. Thatch of corn-stacks is kept on with straw-rope. Straw-rope is made by twisting together of corn-stacks is secured with tarred twine and without witho.
How are straw-ropes made ?
Straw-ropes are made by one person twisting straw with a AUTUMN—BATHING SHEEP. 57
twister, while another person, sitting, lets out the straw with his hands as the twister winds it.
How is a straw-ropes put into a convenient form for use ? The spinner winds up the straw ropes into a coil.
How are straw-ropes placed upon stacks ? Straw-ropes are put in different fashions upon stacks—longege, as shown in Fig. 30, or in a spiral fashion.
Fig. 30. Does corn run any risk on being stacked ?
Straw of corn is apt to heat in stacks, before moisture has been sufficiently dried out of it.
What effect has heating upon corn and straw ? Heating causes the corn to shrivel and gives a bitter taste to it. Heating rots straw.
What prevents heating in stacks ? Heating is prevented by building stacks around the corn, so that they do not touch their tops, to relieve pressure upon the parts below.
A PERMANENT-SHEAR BEARING THE VIRUS OF THE STOCKS.
A pyramidal shape about seven eons maintains the weight of the upper part of a stack, because of the upward pointed form.
TIPPING EYES, AND BATHING SHEEP.
In a breeding flock of ewes, when is a new pair amongst them ? In the fall country the tup is put to the ewe in the early part of October. In the hill country the tup is put to the ewe in November.
How are ewes treated before having the tup ? Ewes, pregnant or not, are put on a piece of fresh rape, or fresh clover afterwards.
Are not sheep basted or smeared before being put on turnips in winter ?
Sheep in the low country are bathed. Sheep in the hills are smeared before winter. Bathing and smearing prevent annoyance to sheep from ticks, and injury from scabs.
How is the bath put on sheep ?
Both men and women, a person pouring it out of a vessel along the shreds of wool opened by the shepherd. Sheep are batted with water, flapped, hunk backwards, in a tub of prepared bath, and dripped on another tub.
How are sheep smeared ?
Smearing is put on the skin of sheep by the fingers of the shepherd passing along shreds of wool. 58
CATECHISM OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE.
LIFTING POTATOES.
When are potatoes taken out of the ground ? Potatoes are taken out of the ground in autumn, after corn harvest.
How are potatoes taken out of the ground ? 1 Potatoes are taken out of the ground by hand with a potato-grasp. Potatoes are taken out of the ground with the ordinary plough, or with a plough made for the purpose.
How is the potato-ground used in lifting potatoes ? 1 The potato-ground is used at night by a man, who punishes into the side of the drill, and, on raising the potato-plant, turns up the soil, and gathers up the potatoes in a basket. The basket, when full of pota- toes, is emptied by him into a cart placed near at hand, or into sacks.
How are potatoes lifted with the plough ? 1 The coulter is removed, because it might cut the potatoes. The plough is drawn over the ground, and the potatoes are turned to the earth with its contents of potatoes, with the mould-board. Women gather the potatoes in the same manner, and put them into the cart.
Two sorts of hoes have been constructed for lifting potatoes. One is fur- nished with a double board-beam, formed of ribs like a broomstick. The other does not have this beam. It has two long handles, which are bent at the ends so that each upwards from their attachment to the side-of-the plough.
What is done with potato after being lifted ? 1 Potatoes are laid in heaps on straw or straw-sacks, which are low triangular piles placed upon a piece of dry ground. A thick layer of straw is spread over them. Earth is put upon the straw with a spade, and beaten smooth.
Are potatoes lifted in any state of weather ? 1 Potatoes are not lifted in rain or frost.
ROTATION OF CROPS.
What is understood by a rotation of crops ? 1 A certain number of crops of different kinds following in the same order, on the same ground, constitutes a rotation of crops.
Why are different kinds of crops taken in succession on the same ground ?
Because the same kind of crop, requiring the same kind of food, if taken in succession on the same ground, would exhaust the food in that ground, and die for want of it. AUTUMN—ROTATION OF CROPS. 59
Would not a renewal of manure support the same kind of crop on the same ground, and would not a number of years' manure renewed on the same piece of ground support the same kind of crop on the same ground for an indefinite period ; but, in order to secure the same kind of crop, a number of other kinds of crops, must remain unused in that ground, and be abandoned.
What other advantage besides an economic use of plow-land, does a rotation of crops procure?
Where a given number of cattle and sheep are bred upon a given area of land, the succession of crops secures their food summer and winter, in quantity and variety.
Is the same rotation of crops followed on all sorts of land ?
A farm situated at some distance from town follows a different rotation of crops from a farm at a distance from a town.
Does the same rotation of crops ensure every sort of soil ?
Strong and light soils require different rotations of crops.
What is the effect of a four years' rotation ?
The ordinary succession of crops is a green crop after a grain crop.
Are grain-crops changed in succession ?
Grain-crops are changed in succession. Wheat, barley, and oats are taken in succession on the same ground.
Are green-crops changed in succession ?
Green-crops are changed in succession. Turnips, mangold-wurzel, potatoes, sown grasses, forage plants, are taken in succession on the same ground.
What is the effect of a four years' rotation of grains and green crops ?
A common succession of crops is, one year of green crop as sown grain; one year of grain crop, as oats in Scotland, and wheat in England; one year of green crop as sown grass; turnips, mangold-wurzel, rape, rape; and one year of grain crop, as wheat and barley. This gives rise to a four years' rotation.
Can a four years' rotation be modified ?
A four years' rotation is modified by allowing a part of the new growth to remain three years, by which a six years' rotation is obtained. By allowing sown grasses to remain three years, a six years' rotation is obtained.
Is a modification of a four years' rotation possible by extending the periods ?
By taking beast after oats in Scotland, and after wheat in England, and by having sown grasses three years, the period is extended to one of six. In addition to this, by having sown grasses three years, the six years' rotation is extended to one of eight years. 60 CATCHEM OR PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE.
What is the marked distinction between a rotation of crops on strong and on light soils ? On strong soil a greater proportion of grain-crops are culi- vated than of green-crops, while on light soil a greater proportion of green-crops are raised than of grain-crops. Is a relative proportion between grain and green crops, in a rotation, desirable ? Where the land is bred and reared upon an arable farm, the nearer the grain and green crops bear the proportion each of one-half the arable land, the better for the live-stock.
A black-and-white illustration of a cow standing next to a calf. The calf is smaller and lighter in color compared to the cow.
Short Horn (Cow) - Kilnenny.
Each straight from a to b; hook- horns level and broad at 5 ; tail-breadth level at c, and tail perpendicular with the back; head long and narrow at d; the round at e ; muzzle deep from b to f ; bristok prominent at p; and under a finally formed, and curved, at q. The horn is short, but very thick, and of good quality. The body is long, which is a good point in a bred one. Kilnenny was a proper size for her age, and her pedigree was high. She was got by Matcham, dam by a son of Mr Collins' George, grandson by Winyard - their colour was coat. APPENDIX.
Two subjects treated of in the preceding pages are the crops and animals usually cultivated and reared on the arable farms of Great Britain. Other crops are also raised upon farms, which are not so generally cultivated; but these therefore should also be treated of in this Catechism; but not being constantly cultivated, it is conceived better to treat them apart as they are, than to attempt their cultivation, or the culi- vation of which they do not form a necessary part; and were they so treated, it would be very likely to be impressed with the idea that they really formed an integral por- tion of ordinary farming. Works are also performed at particular periods of the year, which are never repeated. Such works are—drawing, liming, and making of fennoe, any of which will not be required to be done by a person other than a farmer. On this account, it is better to treat those also in an Appendix.
BRAINING LAND.
What is the object of drawing land ?
The object of drawing land is to remove from it all superfluous moisture, that, remaining, would injure the growth of plants.
How is drawing of land best attained ?
Drawing is effected by digging channels, or by making lines of permanent cuts at considerable depths in the subsoil, into which the superfluous water finds access and flows away. Such perman- ent cuts are called drains.
What is the cause of moisture remaining in superfluous quantity in the soil ?
Rain falling without channels for descent in the soil, remains in it until evaporated by the heat of the air.
Does every kind of wind arrest the descent of rain in its 1 Furrowed banks and walls allow the rain to descend through them. Light soils and banks are porous. Heavy soils and subsoils retain the rain in them. 68 CATECHISM OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE.
Do heavy soils alone require draining ? Light soils upon heavy subsoils require draining as much as heavy soils. How is arable land drained ? Arable land being in fields, each field is drained by itself. Arable land being in ridges, their direction guides that of the drain. How is a field drained ? The surface of every field having an inclination in some direction drains are made to lead the water to the lowest point of the field.
What is the first operation in draining a field ? The first operation is to ascertain the direction and amount of fall for the water to the lowest point of the field by a spirit-level, if the eye cannot certainly see it.
What is the next operation to ascertaining the fall of the ground ? The next operation is to ascertain the depth of soil necessary to be assured the nature of its subsoil, because it is it which determines the depth and number of drains.
How is the subsoil of a field best ascertained ? The nature of subsoil is best ascertained by cutting exploratory drains of increasing depth through it, from the lowest to the highest part of the field.
Whatever the subsoil, if there not a minimum depth to every drain ! No drain should be of less depth than to allow free operation of the deepest culture.
What shows that a minimum depth of a drain is allowed of culture ? Subsoil trenching-ploughs go down 30 inches; the materials filling a drain occupy 6 inches; allowing 6 inches between the top of the drain and bottom of the trench shows that the minimum depth of a drain is 36 inches.
What says experience on the depth of drains ? Experience has proved that drains from 3 to 4 feet in depth secure the best results.
What says experience of the distance between drains when their depth is from 3 to 4 feet ? Experience has also determined the most drying distance between drains. In numerous subsoils, the drying distance is per-haps 30 feet. In retentive subsoils, the drying distance is per-haps 15 feet.
How is draining of a field commenced ? Exploratory drains through the subsoil, having determined the depth and distance of drains in the particular field, a main drain APPENDIX—DRAWING. 63
is formed at the lowest end of the field, across its entire breadth, to carry off the drainage water from the main drain. The main drain is 6 inches deeper than the small drains.
What is done after making the main drain ?
After the main drain, small drains are made from it to the upper end of the field. These parallel lines, at distances determined by the explanatory drawing.
How are drains constructed ?
Drains are cut with a slope to the requisite depth, as narrow as possible, so that the pipe for conveying water is placed at the bottom of the drain. Earth is returned above the conduit, and finished with a smooth surface.
Of what material is the conduit of a drain ?
The material for conduits is most commonly tiles. Small stones were used before this invention of drain-tiles.
Of what material are the pipes of a drain?
Drain-tiles are arched, and are used with separate or attached soles. Tiles with attached soles are pipe-tiles.
How are separate tiles and soles used ?
Separate soles are flat, and placed upon the bottom of the pipe-tiles. The pipe-tiles are placed upon flat soles, as also the joinings of the tiles shall rest upon the flat soles of the tiles.
How are pipe-tiles used ?
Pipe-tiles are of two forms—one a cylinder with a flat bottom, and one a cylinder without a flat bottom. The cylinder pipe-tiles are placed end to end, and kept together by means of a collar. The cylinder pipe-tiles are placed end to end without a collar.
Fig. 40.
TILES AS THEY SHOULD BE PLACED UPON PIPE-TILES
When it is not for the sole, the cylinder-shaped pipe-tile would be apt to roll off its side, out of the line of the drain. To prevent this, a collar is put on each end of the cylinder pipe-tile and nailed into place. The edge of this collar is bent down over its own bottom. This edge should be opening being exactly upon its bottom. The edge should be bent down over its own bottom, preventing any water from getting under it and running away with it.
The form of the base of pipe-tiles varies considerably.
How is earth returned into drains upon the tiles ?
Part of the earth is put in with the spade, and the remainder with the plough.
How are logs drained ?
Drains in bog are cut to a certain depth, and then left for the
Fig. 41.
CYLINDRICAL PIPE-TILE WITH COLLAR
Fig. 42.
BIG-SCALED PIPE-TILE WITH FLAT BOTTOM
64
CATECHISM OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE
Bog to shrink. Another depth is then cut down, and the bog again left to shrink. At length the bottom of the drain is cut out at the required depth.
With what material are drains in bog filled ?
The peat is cut up and been cast out with the spade in the first and second cutting having made hard by exposure to the air, are returned into the drain, and made more for filling in.
How are open and covered pastures made ?
Drains in upland pasture are made of two forms,—one open, the other covered. Both are sheep-drains.
How are open sheep-drains made ?
The turf is cut with the spade to the breadth of the drain, and is placed upon its side, with the grassy face outward, on the lower edge of the drain. The turf is then laid in position so that the bottom of the drain is thrown upon the top of the turf, to be afterwards sown with grass-seed.
How are covered sheep-drains made ?
A thick turf is taken out with the spade, of the breadth of the drain ; earth is then taken out to form the bottom of the drain into a level surface, and sown with grass-seed where it grew.
How are upland pastures dressed for cattle ?
Tile-drains are best adapted in upland pasture for cattle.
Is draining executed at all seasons of the year ?
Winter is the best season for draining hard lands, when the ground is frozen. In spring it is occupied by labour and live-stock. Bogs are best drained in summer.
THORN HEDGES.
Of what use are thorn hedges ?
Thorn hedges make an efficient fence for the fields of a farm.
What is the best arrangement of labourers for making a thorn hedge ?
Three men—the hodder and two men—are best to work together in making a thorn hedge. The tools they use are—common spades, a ditcher's shovel, a hand-pick, and a garden line.
How is a line of hedge laid off ?
A straight line of hedge is laid off with forerun poles, and the garden line marked with a line of two hundred feet long. A rut with a spade marks the line of hedge. A curved line for a hedge is marked out with pins.
How is thorn hedge plants made ?
The upper soil is removed with the spade by the two men APPENDIX—THORN HEDGES.
65
across the breadth of the ditch, upon the line of hedge, and put into the earth with a spade, so that the roots may be covered. To keep a thorn plant, its stem is cut over with a knife about 4 inches above the roots, and the longer roots are cut short, preserving the fibres.
How is a prepared thorn-plant placed in its bed?
The bed for the thorn plant has an inclined surface upon which the stem of the plant is laid by the hedge, with the roots away from the soil. The top of the root is then covered with sand, upon the laid plant from the ditch. The hedge then treants the earth over the thorn plant, and smooths the face of the bed with the ditch's shovel.
What is done next?
While the hedge is employed in finishing the thorn bed, the two men work together with the shovels in the ditch, one loosening it with the hand-pick, the other throwing it upon the top of the thorn bed with the spade.
What does the hedge after finishing the thorn bed?
Fig. 43.
The hedge then follows the men, and shovels out all that lies on top of the thorn bank, and claps the face of the thorn bank smooth with the shovels, and smooths down with a spade.
What is the best season for planting thorn-hedges?
Thorn-hedges are planted from the end of autumn till midle of spring. In rainy weather and hard frost, planting of thorns is deferred.
Are there other modes of planting thorns than laying them in beds?
Thorn plants are planted upright in the soil, and, where the soil is deep, and subsoil dry, the plants grow rapidly.
How is a young thorn-plant treated?
A young thorn-plant is planted in a bed, and is allowed to grow till it has established a large quantity of roots and leaves, when the point of growth most forward branches are lopped off with the cutting-hedge saw.
How is a young thorn-hedge protected?
A young thorn-hedge is protected with a wooden palting of two or three rows of stakes driven into it to fence off cattle or sheep.
When does a thorn hedge become useless as a fence?
A thorn hedge, allowed to grow until it becomes bare near the ground, is useless as a fence for sheep. 66
CATECHISM OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE.
How to a full-grown thorn-hedge breasted over?
The hedge is breasted over with a horse, below the root of the hedge, with his back to the hedge, cuts in a back-handled stroke, with a hedge-bill in his right hand, through the stems in an upward direction, and then through the ground, and lays the cut-off thorns upon the edge of the ditch.
Is any use made of the cut thorns?
Cut off thorns may be used as a dead hedge as a temporary fence, to protect a new hedge, a breasted hedge, or to separate two parts of a grass field.
Does the breast of a thorn-hedge ever decay?
In weathering a young hedge in summer, the earth is taken away from the bank into the ditch. When a hedge is breasted over, the earth is taken away from the bank of the hedge, and upon the bank. This process is named water-tabling.
Is an old thorn-hedge ever cut down to the ground?
When an old thorn-hedge is breasted over, its head, and base in the stem, it is cut down. The hedger, standing upon the ditch face, below the root of the hedge, and facing it, cuts through with both hands with a hedge-bill, and then with both hands takes the thick stems of the thorn close to the ground, and lays the cut-off stems on the edge of the ditch.
What is done in cutting down young thorn-hedges?
Weeds are taken away from the face of the ditch by the hedger with a hedge-spade. Weeds are removed from the hedge bank by woman, with a Dutch hoe, into the ditch.
Dry-stone walls.
Is a dry-stone wall a good fence for fields? Dry-stone walls make good fences for fields.
How are lines of dry-stone walls set off? Lines of dry-stone walls are set off with forming-poles, and fixed by stakes driven into them.
What is the best stone for building a dry-stone wall? The body of a dry-stone wall is best built with flat stones having a large surface. The top portion of a dry-stone wall is best formed of large stones, as boulders.
Of what construction is a dry-stone wall? A dry-stone wall may be either single or double. A single dry-stone wall is built with flat stones in ground, with one face. A double dry-stone wall has two faces, and stands by itself. Double dry-stone walls are laid down by cart-loads.
How are stones laid down for a dry-stone wall? Stones for a double dry-stone wall are laid down by cart-loads along each side of the line. APPENDIX—FIELD-GATES. 67
How is a dry-stone wall best constructed ?
One dry-stone wall is built by one man, a single dry-stone wall. A double dry-stone wall is best built by two builders, one oppo- site to the other.
How are stones placed in a dry-stone wall ?
Large stones are placed in the foundation, and flat stones are laid horizontally upon them, so as to break band with those above them, and the heart of the wall being well packed with smaller stones.
What constitutes the parts of a dry-stone wall ?
A dry-stone wall consists of three parts : the body, which protects the top of the body, and a coping of stones set on edge upon the cover.
What is the usual height of a dry-stone wall ?
An ordinary dry-stone wall is usually 3 feet in height in the body. A double dry-stone wall is usually 4 feet high. A dry-stone wall is also about 4 feet in height. A dry-stone wall as a march fence is not less than 3 feet in height.
FIELD-GATES.
Of what use is a gate to a field ? A gate provides a track and carts to go out and in to a field, and completes its fences.
Of what materials are field-gates made ? Field-gates are usually made of wood, sometimes of iron.
Should a field-gate be of particular form ? A field-gate should be constructed of one piece, for convenience in opening and shutting.
Is there any construction of field-gate, in one piece, better than another ? A field-gate of one piece is so constructed that its fore-styles shall not be seen.
What construction prevents the fore-style of an iron or wooden field-gate dropping ? A diagonal bar across a wooden gate, and a stay in an iron one, prevents the fore-style dropping :
Fig. 44 a b is a strip creating the diagonal bar across the head-post ; c d e f is the top of the head-post ; g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z is the diagonal bar holding the drooping of the two sides together.
A stay from c to d would much resist the twirling of the gate.
The space between c and d may be filled up in any way.
A STRETCHED WOODEN FIELD-GATE. 68 CATECHISM OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE.
IRRIGATION.
What is irrigation ? Irrigation is the passing a slow current of water in a given time over the surface of grass. What effect has a slow current of water passing over arable land ? A current of water, whether slow or fast, passing over arable land, causes the soil to become moistened. What is the state of water used in irrigation ? Pure and foul water are both fit for irrigating grass. What effect has irrigation on grass ? Irrigation makes the grass grow better. Has pure or foul water the greater effect upon grass in irrigation ? Manure water produces a much larger crop of grass in irrigation than pure water. How is water applied to grass in irrigation ? Water is applied to grass in irrigation by altering the natural surface of the ground, so as to cause water to flow over it gently and evenly. How is the surface of the ground altered so as to cause water to flow over it gently and evenly ? The surface of the ground is altered to the form of water-meadow. What is the form of water-meadow ? Water meadows are two kinds—one for smooth surfaces of ground, named bed-work; the other for irregular surfaces of ground, named catch-work.
Fig. 45.
A diagram showing a bed-work water-meadow (a b) and a main drain (c d), with arrows indicating the direction of water flow.
a b is a main conductor, which brings water to a bed-work meadow.
c d is a main drain, which carries away water from a bed-work meadow.
APPENDIX—IRRIGATION. 69
The channels issuing from the main conductor convey the water from it, along the elevated courses of the bed. The narrowing form of these channels, combined with the elevation of their banks, causes the water to flow more slowly in them to confine both sides of the banks to the channels in the hollows between the beds, and thus to prevent the water from running off into the beds, which should not happen.
The channels joining the main drain d carry the water into e, from the hol- low between the beds, and thence into f, from the hollow between the banks, and thence into g, from the hollow between the banks and the bed. These channels are termed drains. The drain is used in width as any other channel.
The main drain d should carry away as much water as possible at a given time, so that the main conductor may be kept full.
What is the form of bed-work water-meadows?
Bed-work irrigation consists of one set of regular surface-drains, bringing water down from a higher level, and another set of regular surface- drains, taking water away from a meadow.
Fig. 46.
A CATCH-WORK WATER-MEADOW.
a b is a main conductor, which brings c /f a feeder, along the highest edge of
the bed. The feeder c /f is a feeder, which conveys water from c /f to d /e, convey-
ing water away to the sub-drains branching
from d /e.
At a are two feeders, which send their water down a steep bank, around the hollow between the beds, and then up again to d /e. At b are two feeders, which, when overflowed, contribute a sub-drain to the sub-drain d /e, which, in its turn, contributes a sub-drain to e /g. The sub-drains e /g convey water from all these sub-drains into the main drain d /e, which conveys it into the main conductor a b. The sub-drains e /g convey any weir that feeds its way into them.
What is the form of catch-work water-meadow?
A catch-work water-meadow consists of channels conveying water to the higher parts of ground that command the larger sur- faces of ground. They are made very shallow, to convey water away as fast as it comes into them.
Is water sent upon a water-meadow at random ?
Water sent into a main conductor of a water-meadow is regu- 70 CATCHMENT OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE
lated by a sluice. Water in the feeders of a catch-work water-meadow is made to flow regularly by obstructions placed in them.
Is irrigation of a water-meadow proper at all seasons ? Winter is the best season for irrigating a water-meadow. Is irrigation of a water-meadow proper in all states of weather ? It is not always necessary to irrigate a water-meadow in winter, when frost is so severe as to freeze running water. Is water ever allowed to remain in a stagnant state upon a water- meadow ? Water remaining stagnant on a water-meadow destroys grass. Grass is not injured as long as water flows over it. Does irrigation injure the soil ? Irrigation does not injure the land required and has not been thorough-drawn. Under-drains absorb the water left in the surface-drains, and prevent its stagnation.
How is the irrigation of a water-meadow conducted ? Water is drawn off by means of a sluice for only two or three weeks at a time, when the grass is allowed to grow. When the grass is cut, it is mown for green hay or hay. Water is made to flow over the aftermath, which, when grown, is mown down. The after- mash is again irrigated, and again mown, till the end of the grass season.
IMPROVEMENT OF WASTE-LAND.
How is waste-land most effectually improved ? The first step to the effectual improvement of waste-land is thorough-draing. The second step in the improvement of waste- land is deep-ploughing.
How is deep-ploughing effected ? Deep-ploughing is effected by a combination of trench and subsoil ploughings (page 4).
How are trench and subsoil ploughings best effected ? The Treadedale trench and subsoil-trench ploughs effectually stir and mix the soil and subsoil to the depth of 20 inches.
Fig. 47.
TREADEDALE TRENCH AND SUBSOIL-TRENCH PLOUGHS DEEP-PLOUGHING LAND. A long furrow is made with a Treadedale trench plough, stirring four horses, and turning-over a furrow of 15 or 18 inches in depth e.d. and going up & 6 inches deeper. APPENDIX—LIMING.
71
than the trench-plough, making the $d$ e is the depth of the furrow made by furrow from 3 to 5 inches deep, and the furrow is cut with a portion of the upper soil, which is left on the bottom of the furrow, and the upper soil is mixed with the lower soil. The furrow is cut so that the soil is not disturbed, and the soil is not thrown out of the furrow trench-plough. Describe the combined action of the Tweddle trench- and subsoil- trench plough.
The Tweddle trench-plough goes before with four horses and two men, raising up the land to the depth of 16 inches, with a rectangular furrow-alice of that thickness, and 14 inches in breadth. The furrow is filled with water, and then the furrow with four horses and two men, and stirs the subsoil 16 inches in breadth, and from 4 to 6 inches deeper than the trench-plough, mixing it, at the same time, intimately with a portion of the upper soil.
What is the immediate effect on the soil and subsoil by the com- bined action of the Tweddle trench- and subsoil-trench plough?
The immediate effects of the Tweddle trench-and subsoil- trench plough are as follows: The first operation puts down the subsoil to a depth of 20 inches on an average, while mixing the subsoil intimately with a portion of the upper soil, and leaving the top of the upper soil unmixed.
Are any restrictions met with deep-ploughing land? Boulder-soils are met with at different depths and of different sizes in all kinds of land. The subsoil is generally received by hand when met with in deep-ploughing.
What is the state of the upper soil after Tweddle deep-ploughing? The upper soil is left in its natural state. The upper land is at once ready to be prepared for any crop, whether a grain or green crop. Is Tweddle deep-ploughing applicable to arable as well as to waste land?
Tweddle deep-ploughing is equally applicable to arable as to waste land. If it has been first employed on grass land, the first crop should be a green crop. If it has been first on bare land, the soil may be prepared at once for turning.*
LINGING.
When is time used upon land? Lining is used on land either in bare-fallow or with a green-crop fallow.
When is time used in bare-fallow? Lining is laid upon bare-fallow land immediately before the when it is sown in autumn.
A further description of the Tweddle deep-ploughing will be found in my small volume on Your Deep-Land-Cultures, by W. Blackwood and Sons. 72
CATECHISM OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE.
When is lime used in green-crop fallow? Lime is laid on the ground with a green crop, immediately before the grain crop is sown in spring.
Is lime given to different kinds of soil in the same quantity? Strong soils need more lime than light soils.
Is lime given in different kinds of soil in definite quantities? The quantity of lime given to different kinds of soil differs much in different parts of the country.
In what state is lime laid upon land? Fig. 68. Lime is usually laid down in small heaps in the state of shreds, along ferred ridges, or spread along ferred ridges in the slaked powdered state, with flying water.
A flying pan is very convenient form for spreading any manure in a state of powder, for throwing down the bottom of heaps.
How does lime operate upon soil? Lime acts chemically upon soils. Lime acts mechanically by pulverizing strong clay soils. Lime acts chemically on soils which con- tain much organic matter.
Does lime act as a manure in the soil to plants? Lime, by its action on vegetable and acid substances in the soil, increases the fertility of the soil to plants.
Is lime given frequently to the same soil? Lime is commonly given to land in large quantity, at long inter- vals of time. It is recommended to give lime to land frequently, and in small quantities.
Flax. Flax is little cultivated in England and Scotland, but largely in Ireland.
How is the cultivation of flax conducted in spring? Land is pulverised very fine for flax. Land is rolled smooth before being ploughed. The seed is sown in broad rows, very thick, and covered with very little earth.
How is the culture of flax conducted in summer? Flax-seed when young, are weeded by hand.
How is flax reaped? Flax is pulled up by the roots with the hand. Flax-seed is rippled out of the straw. Flax-straw is dried in the air, tied into sheaves, and stacked.
Is flax ever stepped in water? Flax, as pulled, is rippled, tied into bundles, and put into APPENDIX—CARROTS.
73
water to steep ; after which it is spread upon grass to dew-ret and dry. Breaking off, scratching the flax-seed, after being dried, convert it into flax. How is flax-seed rippled ? A ripplesing—by separating bunches of flax-seed from the straw, with the aid of a row of sharp-pointed steel needles set upright upon a board. Flax, as pulled, is combed through the ripples, where the straw is removed by hand. What is done with lots of flax-seed ? Bolls of flax-seed are dried, and the seed thrashed out for use or sale. In any use made of flax bolls with their seed 1 Bolls with seed are good food for cattle. Flax-seed is a rich food for cattle. How is fine flax-obtained 1 Fine flax is obtained by growing the crop very thick, and pull- ing it while yet a little green. How is fine flax-seed obtained 1 Fine flax-seed is obtained by growing the crop very thin and branchy, and allowing the seed to ripen fully. Does flax bear manure ? Manure must be applied to grow coarse and tender. Flax is never manured, but a top-dressing of bone-dust upon the young plants makes the flax finer. Does flax interfere with a rotation of cropping 1 If flax is sown after a grain-crop, it is of good quality, but it exhausts the ground. If flax is raised after grain, it is good, but it then competes with the next crop with a grain crop. If flax is raised as a green crop, it is coarse. What sort of soil is best suited to flax ? Flax may be cultivated on any sort of soil but peat and gravel.
CARROTS.
Is the carrot much cultivated on farms 1 The carrot is not a common crop on farms. What sort of soil is best suited to the carrot 1 The carrot, having long roots grows best in deep, free, light soil, such as sand. Does the carrot require manure 1 The carrot requires no manure to be deeply buried, otherwise the root is apt to fork. How is the culture of the carrot conducted in spring 1 Land for the carrot should be well pulverised. Carrot-seed, 74
CATECHISM OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE.
being light, dry, and rough, is mixed with damp sand before being sown.
Is the carrot cultivated in rows, or broadcast ?
The carrot is cultivated in rows or broadcast. The seed is lightly covered with earth. Young plants of two inches are thinned out to a distance of 3 feet apart. Carrots are harvested in summer.
How is the carrot taken out of the ground in autumn ?
The carrot is taken out of the ground by means of a spade, in order to preserve the roots entire.
Is the carrot stored ?
Carrots are stored in outhouses, in autumn, among dry sand.
Of what use is the carrot ?
Carrots are much used in domestic cookery. Carrots are given to horses, and are very full of them.
Are there different varieties of the carrot ?
There are varieties of the carrot for garden and field culture.
CABBAGES.
Is the cabbage commonly cultivated on a farm ?
The cabbage is not a common crop on a farm. The drumhead variety is grown.
What sort of soil is best suited to the cabbage ?
A strong rich clay soil is best suited for cabbage.
Does the cabbage require manure ?
The cabbage requires a large quantity of manure, directly applied.
What is the culture best suited to the cabbage ?
The best culture for the cabbage is on well-measured drills, like the turnip.
Whether is cabbage-seed used, or young cabbage-plants transplanted on the drills ?
Transplanting young plants on drills is the best way of raising cabbages.
How are young cabbage-plants prepared for transplanting ?
Cabbage-plants are sown in a bed in the garden, and the plants are removed for transplanting at the end of spring. In summer the ground is cleared of weeds.
How is cabbage taken from the ground ?
Cabbage-plants are taken from the roots when used.
What use is made of cabbage ?
Cabbage is an excellent food for cows in winter, and after they have calved. APPENDIX—SPECIAL MANURES. 75
Are cabbages stored? Cabbages are stored, as frost destroys their leaves. Cabbages are best stored by being hung up by the roots in a shed.
SPECIAL MANURES.
What is a special manure? A special manure is any substance that supplies a particular ingredient of any plant.
How is a special manure applied, that a plant may derive advantage from it?
All special manures are given to plants through the medium of the soil.
How are the ingredients of a plant made known? All the ingredients of plants are made known by chemistry.
What is the nature of the ingredients of plants made known by chemistry?
Chemistry has made known that the ingredients of plants are two main classes, organic and mineral.
How do plants acquire their inorganic ingredients? Plants acquire their inorganic ingredients from the soil.
How do plants acquire their organic ingredients? Plants acquire their organic ingredients from the air and soil.
Does a special manure supply an organic, or an inorganic ingredient to a plant?
A special manure supplies an inorganic ingredient to a plant.
Of what nature is an inorganic ingredient of a plant? An inorganic ingredient is an element.
Do the same mineral ingredients occur in all plants? Most mineral ingredients occur in all plants, whether cultivated or natural.
Do mineral ingredients vary in different classes of plants? Mineral ingredients vary considerably in different classes of plants.
Do mineral ingredients vary in different seasons in their proportions? Mineral ingredients vary materially in proportion to the same class of plants.
Do mineral ingredients vary materially in proportion to the same class of plants?
Does a particular mineral ingredient assume a prominent position in a plant?
A particular mineral ingredient gives a character to each class of plants. 76 CATECHISM OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE.
What is the difference of character derived from a mineral ingredient in our cultivated plants ?
The great difference of character derived from one kind of mineral ingredient ; turnip have another character from another mineral ingredient ; so have potatoes ; so have clovers ; and so with other plants.
Has chemistry made known to us the special measure best suited to each class of cultivated plants ? I think
Is guano a special measure ? Guano is a special manure, because it supplies one matter largely which forms an essential ingredient in all plants, namely, ammonia.
Is bone-dust a special measure ? Bone-dust is a special manure, because it supplies largely an essential ingredient of all plants, namely, phosphoric acid and its compounds.
Is farmyard manure a special measure ? Farmyard manure is not a special manure, because it supplies all the ingredients of a plant.
A diagram showing the structure of a horse's head.
Horse's head.
The neck from a to b full ; the back from b to c bread ; the rump from c to d full and round ; the legs from d to e full and round ; the feet from e to f full and deep and filled up ; the shank a small short, and firmly tapered. The value of the head is in proportion to the neck, back, rump, and legs. The ears are erect, are clean, muzzle fine, back straight and equally broad, and the body rectangular in form.
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| THE CHEMISTRY OF COMMON LIFE. | |
| By JAMES F. W. JOHNSTON, M.A., P.R.S.S. L. & E., &c. Author of Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry and Gardening. |
|
The common life of man is full of wonders, Chemical and Physio- logical. Most of his progress through life depends upon, or being made use of, things, though every day he consumes and every creature ought to reach them to our minds. Some people think that we have no right to call anything a wonder because it is common; but the things that daily enter our attention and serve us, are the very things which astonish us when we see them in their true nature. The water that we drink, the air that we breathe, and subsequently each creature through the help of the Press become the secondaries for a Popular Science Magazine.
It is with a view to make the work of the Public, and at the same time to supply a means for the dissemination of knowledge, that this Magazine has been established. What appears to be its main object, of the air we breathe and the water we drink, is that they are not only necessary for our existence, but also that they are wonderful in their nature. The water flows from the clouds into the plants we feed on, and from these plants into the animals which we eat. This chief element of all life is obtained either by direct contact with it, or indirectly through the food we consume. The air we breathe is not only necessary for our existence, but also that it is wonderful in its nature. It is composed of many different gases, some of which are harmful and others of which are beneficial. The air we breathe is not only necessary for our existence, but also that it is wonderful in its nature. It is composed of many different gases, some of which are harmful and others of which are beneficial.
The air we breathe is not only necessary for our existence, but also that it is wonderful in its nature. It is composed of many different gases, some of which are harmful and others of which are beneficial.
The air we breathe is not only necessary for our existence, but also that it is wonderful in its nature. It is composed of many different gases, some of which are harmful and others of which are beneficial.
The air we breathe is not only necessary for our existence, but also that it is wonderful in its nature. It is composed of many different gases, some of which are harmful and others of which are beneficial.
The air we breathe is not only necessary for our existence, but also that it is wonderful in its nature. It is composed of many different gases, some of which are harmful and others of which are beneficial.
The air we breathe is not only necessary for our existence, but also that it is wonderful in its nature. It is composed of many different gases, some of which are harmful and others of which are beneficial.
The air we breathe is not only necessary for our existence, but also that it is wonderful in its nature. It is composed of many different gases, some of which are harmful and others of which are beneficial.
The air we breathe is not only necessary for our existence, but also that it is wonderful in its nature. It is composed of many different gases, some of which are harmful and others of which are beneficial.
The air we breathe is not only necessary for our existence, but also that it is wonderful in its nature. It is composed of many different gases, some of which are harmful and others of which are beneficial.
The air we breathe is not only necessary for our existence, but also that it is wonderful in its nature. It is composed of many different gases, some of which are harmful and others of which are beneficial.
The air we breathe is not only necessary for our existence, but also that it is wonderful in its nature. It is composed of many different gases, some of which are harmful and others of which are beneficial.
The air we breathe is not only necessary for our existence, but also that it is wonderful in its nature. It is composed of many different gases, some of which are harmful and others of which are beneficial.
The air we breathe is not only necessary for our existence, but also that it is wonderful in its nature. It is composed of many different gases, some of which are harmful and others of which are beneficial.
The air we breathe is not only necessary for our existence, but also that it is wonderful in its nature. It is composed of many different gases, some of which are harmful and others of which are beneficial.
The air we breathe is not only necessary for our existence, but also that it is wonderful in its nature. It is composed of many different gases, some of which are harmful and others of which are beneficial.
The air we breathe is not only necessary for our existence, but also that it is wonderful in its nature. It is composed of many different gases, some of which are harmful and others of which are beneficial.
The air we breathe is not only necessary for our existence, but also that it is wonderful in its nature. It is composed of many different gases, some of which are harmful and others of which are beneficial.
The air we breathe is not only necessary for our existence, but also that it is wonderful in its nature. It is composed of many different gases, some of which are harmful and others of which are beneficial.
The air we breathe is not only necessary for our existence, but also that it is wonderful in its nature. It is composed of many different gases, some of which are harmful and others of which are beneficial.
The air we breathe is not only necessary for our existence, but also that it is wonderful in its nature. It is composed of many different gases, some of which are harmful and others of which are beneficial.
The air we breathe is not only necessary for our existence, but also that it is wonderful in its nature. It is composed of many different gases, some of which are harmful and others of which are beneficial.
The air we breathe is not only necessary for our existence, but also that it is wonderful in its nature. It is composed of many different gases, some of which are harmful and others of which are beneficial.
The air we breathe is not only necessary for our existence, but also that it is wonderful in its nature. It is composed of many different gases, some of which are harmful and others of which are beneficial.
The air we breathe is not only necessary for our existence, but also that it is wonderful in its nature. It is composed of many different gases, some of which are harmful and others of which are beneficial.
The air we breathe is not only necessary for our existence, but also that it is wonderful in its nature. It is composed of many different gases, some of which are harmful and others of which are beneficial.
The air we breathe is not only necessary for our existence, but also that it is wonderful in its nature. It is composed of many different gases, some of which are harmful and others
NOVEMBER 1850
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PROFESSOR JOHNSTON'S CHEMISTRY OF COMMON LIFE.
OPINIONS OF THE PRESS.
"The whole may be regarded as a practical guide to health, founded upon the chemical and physiological knowledge of the day. The author has been able to collect all the information that has been received by every faculty of the body, both by inductive experiments and by the observation of nature. He has also collected all the information that has been received by that legislation made use of, by laying down the absolute definition of disease, under the present system of medical practice, and by showing how this definition can be applied to all manifestations of disease. The author has also collected all the information that has been received by those who have studied the history of medicine, and has shown how this history and speculations of the hygienic days of Hippocrates. Since the invention of such notions have been made known, there has been no change in the laws of nature which have not been affected by them. The author has endeavoured to show how these laws have affected man's health, and how they may be used to improve his condition. In this way he has shown that the whole of human life is governed by certain laws, and that these laws are capable of being used to improve our condition. This book is therefore a valuable work, and it is hoped that it will be useful to all who are interested in the subject."
"Many times I have read this book with great interest, and I am convinced that it is one of the most valuable works on chemistry ever written. It is a practical guide to health, and it is based upon the chemical and physiological knowledge of the day. The author has collected all the information that has been received by every faculty of the body, both by inductive experiments and by the observation of nature. He has also collected all the information that has been received by that legislation made use of, by laying down the absolute definition of disease, under the present system of medical practice, and by showing how this definition can be applied to all manifestations of disease. The author has also collected all the information that has been received by those who have studied the history of medicine, and has shown how this history and speculations of the hygienic days of Hippocrates. Since the invention of such notions have been made known, there has been no change in the laws of nature which have not been affected by them. The author has endeavoured to show how these laws have affected man's health, and how they may be used to improve his condition. This book is therefore a valuable work, and it is hoped that it will be useful to all who are interested in the subject."
"Many times I have read this book with great interest, and I am convinced that it is one of the most valuable works on chemistry ever written. It is a practical guide to health, and it is based upon the chemical and physiological knowledge of the day. The author has collected all the information that has been received by every faculty of the body, both by inductive experiments and by the observation of nature. He has also collected all the information that has been received by that legislation made use of, by laying down the absolute definition of disease, under the present system of medical practice, and by showing how this definition can be applied to all manifestations of disease. The author has also collected all the information that has been received by those who have studied the history of medicine, and has shown how this history and speculations of the hygienic days of Hippocrates. Since the invention of such notions have been made known, there has been no change in the laws of nature which have not been affected by them. The author has endeavoured to show how these laws have affected man's health, and how they may be used to improve his condition. This book is therefore a valuable work, and it is hoped that it will be useful to all who are interested in the subject."
"Many times I have read this book with great interest, and I am convinced that it is one of the most valuable works on chemistry ever written. It is a practical guide to health, and it is based upon the chemical and physiological knowledge of the day. The author has collected all the information that has been received by every faculty of the body, both by inductive experiments and by the observation of nature. He has also collected all the information that has been received by that legislation made use of, by laying down the absolute definition of disease, under the present system of medical practice, and by showing how this definition can be applied to all manifestations of disease. The author has also collected all the information that has been received by those who have studied the history of medicine, and has shown how this history and speculations of the hygienic days of Hippocrates. Since the invention of such notions have been made known, there has been no change in the laws of nature which have not been affected by them. The author has endeavoured to show how these laws have affected man's health, and how they may be used to improve his condition. This book is therefore a valuable work, and it is hoped that it will be useful to all who are interested in the subject."
"Many times I have read this book with great interest, and I am convinced that it is one of the most valuable works on chemistry ever written. It is a practical guide to health, and it is based upon the chemical and physiological knowledge of the day. The author has collected all the information that has been received by every faculty of the body, both by inductive experiments and by the observation of nature. He has also collected all the information that has been received by that legislation made use of, by laying down the absolute definition of disease, under the present system of medical practice, and by showing how this definition can be applied to all manifestations of disease. The author has also collected all the information that has been received by those who have studied the history of medicine, and has shown how this history and speculations of the hygienic days of Hippocrates. Since the invention of such notions have been made known, there has been no change in the laws of nature which have not been affected by them. The author has endeavoured to show how these laws have affected man's health, and how they may be used to improve his condition. This book is therefore a valuable work, and it is hoped that it will be useful to all who are interested in the subject."
"Many times I have read this book with great interest, and I am convinced that it is one of the most valuable works on chemistry ever written. It is a practical guide to health, and it is based upon the chemical and physiological knowledge of the day. The author has collected all the information that has been received by every faculty of the body, both by inductive experiments and by 4
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A page from a book titled "The CHEMISTRY OF VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY" by Dr. G.H. Miers.
6
MESSERS BLACKWOOD AND SONS' PUBLICATIONS.
THE BOOK OF THE FARM; SHOWING THE LABOURS OF THE FARMER, FARM-STEWARD, FLOCK-MAN, SHEPHERD, MECHANIC, CATTLE-MAN, FIELD-WORKER, AND DAIRY-MAN;
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A New Edition, entirely re-written, and embracing every recent application of Science to Agriculture; Illustrated with PORTRAITS OF ANIMALS Painted from Nature, and with 600 Engravings on WOOD by BRANSON, repealing the principal Field Operations, Implements, and Animals treated of in the Work. In Two Volumes each 8vo, price 2s., handbound in cloth.
SUBJECTS TREATED OF IN THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
INITIATION. On the best of the existing methods of cultivation through knowledge of Practical Horticulture; Diligently the Fund has to encourage in Learning Practical Horticulture, and on the best of the existing methods of cultivation through knowledge of Practical Horticulture; Diligently the Fund has to encourage in Learning Practical Horticulture, and on the best of the existing methods of cultivation through knowledge of Practical Horticulture; Diligently the Fund has to encourage in Learning Practical Horticulture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture. The Fund has been extended to include all branches of Agriculture.
PRACTICE
WINTER OPERATIONS. Summary of the Field-Operations during the Winter in Winter. Ploughing, Swaling, Treading through Snow, Ploughing and Ploughing Manure; Ploughing different Grains; Raking and Raking Manure; Raking and Raking Manure; Raking and Raking Manure; Raking and Raking Manure; Raking and Raking Manure; Raking and Raking Manure; Raking and Raking Manure; Raking and Raking Manure; Raking and Raking Manure; Raking and Raking Manure; Raking and Raking Manure; Raking and Raking Manure; Raking and Raking Manure; Raking and Raking Manure; Raking and Raking Manure; Raking and Raking Manure; Raking and Raking Manure; Raking and Raking Manure; Raking and Raking Manure; Raking and Raking Manure; Raking and Raking Manure; Raking and Raking Manure; Raking and Raking Manure; Raking and Raking Manure; Raking and Raking Manure; Raking and Raking Manure; Raking and Raking Manure; Raking and Raking Manure; Raking and Raking Manure; Raking and Raking Manure; Raking and Raking Manure; Raking and Raking Manure; Raking and Raking Manure; Raking and Raking Manure; Raking and Raking Manure; Raking and Raking Manure; Raking and Raking Manure; Raking and Raking Manure; Raking and Raking Manure; Raking and Raking Manure; Raking and Raking Manure; Raking and Raking Manure; Raking and Raking Manure; Raking and Raking Manure; Raking and Racing MESSERS BLACKWOOD AND BONP'S PUBLICATIONS. 7
Subjects treated of in THE BOOK OF THE FARM—Continued.
AFRICA. Summary of the Field Operations and of the Weather in Spring. Advantages of having Plants Advanced by the Use of the "Cultivator." The Effect of the Heat on the Shar- ing of Crops. The Scattering of Wasting Work. Drying off of Land. Scattering of Oats, Beans, and Peas. The Effect of the Heat on the Growth of Plants. The Effects of the prevailing Heat. Rainfall. Laying of Ears. Corn-Farming Land. Ripping Land for the Sowing of Wheat. The Effect of the Heat on the Growth of Plants. The heat, Planting of Potatoes. Firing and Burning the Surfaces. Harvesting of Straw. SUMMER. Summary of the Field Operations and of the Weather in Summer. On the Hay given to Farm Animals. The Effect of the Heat on the Growth of Plants. The Effects of the prevailing Heat on the Growth of Plants. The Effects of the prevailing Heat on the Growth of Plants. The Effects of the prevailing Heat on the Growth of Plants. The Effects of the prevailing Heat on the Growth of Plants. The Effects of the prevailing Heat on the Growth of Plants. The Effects of the prevailing Heat on the Growth of Plants. The Effects of the prevailing Heat on the Growth of Plants. The Effects of the prevailing Heat on the Growth of Plants. The Effects of the prevailing Heat on the Growth of Plants. The Effects of the prevailing Heat on the Growth of Plants. The Effects of the prevailing Heat on the Growth of Plants. The Effects of the prevailing Heat on the Growth of Plants. The Effects of the prevailing Heat on the Growth of Plants. The Effects of the prevailing Heat on the Growth of Plants. The Effects of the prevailing Heat on the Growth of Plants. The Effects of the prevailing Heat on the Growth of Plants. The Effects of the prevailing Heat on the Growth of Plants. The Effects of the prevailing Heat on the Growth of Plants. The Effects of the prevailing Heat on the Growth of Plants. The Effects of the prevailing Heat on the Growth of Plants. The Effects of the prevailing Heat on the Growth of Plants. The Effects of the prevailing Heat on the Growth of Plants. The Effects of the prevailing Heat on the Growth of Plants. The Effects of the prevailing Heat on the Growth of Plants. The Effects of the prevailing Heat on the Growth of Plants. The Effects of the prevailing Heat on the Growth of Plants. The Effects of the prevailing Heat on the Growth of Plants. The Effects of the prevailing Heat on the Growth of Plants. The Effects of the prevailing Heat on the Growth of Plants. The Effects of the prevailing Heat on the Growth of Plants. The Effects of the prevailing Heat on the Growth of Plants. The Effects of the prevailing Heat on the Growth of Plants. The Effects of the prevailing Heat on the Growth of Plants. The Effects of the prevailing Heat on the Growth of Plants. The Effects of the prevailing Heat on the Growth of Plants. The Effects of the prevailing Heat on the Growth of Plants. The Effects of the prevailing Heat on the Growth of Plants. The Effects of the prevailing Heat on the Growth of Plants. The Effects of the prevailing Heat on the Growth of Plants. The Effects of the prevailing Heat on the Growth of Plants. The Effects of the prevailing Heat on the Growth of Plants. The Effects of the prevailing Heat on the Growth of Plants. The Effects of the prevailing Heat on
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These atlases are designed to be used in connection with any text-book on Geography, and are intended to be used as a supplement to such books. They contain maps showing the various projections employed in modern cartography, and also show how each projection is affected by the curvature of the earth's surface. The maps are printed on thin paper so that they can be easily folded and carried in a pocket book. The atlas is divided into two parts: Part I contains maps showing the various projections employed in modern cartography, and Part II contains maps showing how each projection is affected by the curvature of the earth's surface. The maps are printed on thin paper so that they can be easily folded and carried in a pocket book.
These atlases are designed to be used in connection with any text-book on Geography, and are intended to be used as a supplement to such books. They contain maps showing the various projections employed in modern cartography, and also show how each projection is affected by the curvature of the earth's surface. The maps are printed on thin paper so that they can be easily folded and carried in a pocket book.
I have sought geography more or less at the High School and University of Dublin for many years past, but have never found anything satisfactory except Mr. Johnstone's "Elements of Physical Geography," as an illustration of what I have described as irrevocable. * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
- I have sought geography more or less at the High School and University of Dublin for many years past, but have never found anything satisfactory except Mr. Johnstone's "Elements of Physical Geography," as an illustration of what I have described as irrevocable.